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physis

. find out about the frontiers of

. explore the subject in depth

.l."#"J,.""o and apply ore prinip|es physis

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physis
jim breithaupt

For over 60 years, more than 4o mil|ion peopl have Iearnt over 750 subjets the teafi youel{
wa7, with impressive results.

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about physics the go|de rule of sine strange ides

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1

4 7 g 10 16
21

o o -+ o r+ a

tl

ft a, ]l .. 6 |16

stailing phis
physis in pratie
density tests

siene in mollon
mesuring motion ace|erated motion a|ong a straight |ine

22 29

fores i ation
Nwton lws of motion stability

35
36 43

mahines at wo*
work, energy d power effiieny ad power

4'l 48
55

themalphis
het nd tempratur

59 60
66

thrma| properties of materils

engines nd themodynamics
heat engines

74
75 79

the laws of thermodynmis

cleGlricity
the nature of e|etriity

86
87

e|etri ciruits e|etriity at work

94 98 105

eletriity in the home 08 the alure 0l light proprties ot Iight thories of |ight 09

'

110
't

11

116
't31

mtedals and moleuIes

atoms and moleu|es more bout bonds

132
137 141 146

solids and structure

moleuIes in fluids pressure 10 the age ot new quantum theory rlativity
11

149

phis

155 156

162 166
167 171 177

the stlGtu]e 0t mttr inside the atom radioativity qurks and leptons

12

eergy trom th nucles

nu|ar fission nu|er reators

182
183 187
191

This ook is rvriffen for th ginner with a gnral interst in sien who is urious to find out about physis, on of the fundamntal branhs of sin. Physis is a subjt with an immense sop ovring ideas, disvris and appliations that strth from natur on th smallst sale dp insid atoms to struturs at the dg of the observal Univrs. Physis as the study of matter and energy underpins very other ranh of sine as rrll as thnolgy and ngineering. For xampl, nurosientists using magnti rsonan sanners dvlopd y physiists an now imag the healthy grat auray th age of anient materials using radioativ dting thniqus dvloped by physiists. nginrs an use nw matrials suh as liquid rystals to make onsumr goods and to provid mor effiint and onomi buildings and

o {r q) o o
-

brain and its ativitis. Arhaologists an dtrmin with

nrgy options for the future 13 journey into spa about gavity
the expanding Univrse

195
196

vhils.

204 209 210

14

ha!leging tutre
the frontiers of physis

an unpreditble future

213
215 219 220 221

tklng lt turthr
further reading websites

answe l0 meliGal questions

glossary appendlx lndex

Physis affts us all as vry few aras of human ativity ar unaffted y physis and its dvelopmnts. For ampl, moil phons and th Intent would not b possibl without ltroni mirohips whih wer invntd by physiists in th 1960s. Almost verything w do maks us of past or prsent work by physiists. The skills dvlopd through th study of physis influen th way pople and' otganizations work far byond th laboratoris usd y physiists. For xample, the Vorld Wide \ was dvlopd by physiists who ndd to

225 228
229

ommuniat sintifi information

diffrnt loations.

to ah other

from

This book aims to take th radr through th main branhs of physis, inluding th ky stages in th dvlopment of th subjt from th earlist knorn disovries to the most reent

thrfor advisd to work through th ook in squn. athmatial rquirmnts ar kept to a minimum and

thoris and th prsnt frontirs of th sujt. Knowldg and undrstanding ar dvlopd squntially and th radr is xplaind whr nssary. Important xprimnts ar dsribd

knowledg and undrstanding. examples with solutions ar providd and ah topi nds with a summary and a st of qustions. Answrs to numrial qustions ar providd at th nd of th ook. A glossary of ky physis words is also providd at th nd of th book togthr with a omprhnsiv indx.

and ativitis ar providd at.s7orkd to rinfor ssntial intrvals

Physis is an xiting subjt, full of fasinting idas and appliatins and with a dp histoy. I hop this ook provids a sussful introdution to th subjt and generates nthusiasm to dlve further into the sujt.

Aknowledgements I would lik to thank my family for thir support in

to p|lsis, t|le subjet lu ll rel on for eury step e tke nd ury brth e brethe. This book is itended to introduce ou to the essentiI ides d rules of phsics, presnted to mke the subiect ls ls s possible. we ill be lookig t ids nd eperiments tht stretched the mids of pioneers nd e r not so e do not ed to plore Il the dd eds i th route to the frotiers of the subjet. At times, e ill need to puse to tke in importt ides and fts needed to build up oueruieul of the subject nd to progrss .W ill lso need to look t the further tords the frantiers. methods d skills used i sientifi inuestigtios nd ho ideas ere deueloped from inuestigtions d then tested d sd. So tht's a f lus abot ho e ill b mkig the iourne tht lies hed. No let us see ht th rote ill
our.

.Welcote

prparation of th ook, partiularly my wif, Mari, for sertarial support and herful enouragement. I am also grteful to th publishing tam at Hodder and Stoughton, in prtiular Hln Hart who initiatd th projt, and athrin o who ditd and oordinatd th prodution of th book.

th

sintists nd philosophers

in the pst but th

ere th

o rr+ o

o.

rr+

About physis
Physiists tnd to be a it unonvntional baus physis is a very varid subjet nd physiists lik to be abl to turn thir Feynman (1918-1988) was on f th most rative physiists of th twntieth entury, making his nam through dveloping a nw undrstanding of th for btwn hargd objets aftr rartim duties on th anhattn Projt whih rated

knowldge and skills

to almost any situatin.

Rihard

th atom bm. Aftr th 1986 Challnger spae shuttl disastr, Fynman give a simpl yt histoli dmonstration t rash invstigators in rhih h showd larly that th
disastr was ausd whn an o-shaped sling ring on the ful

lin rakd whn it was ooled to th very low tmprtur assoiatd with th ryp of ful used. So physiists gt to grips with hor and why objts and matrials behav as they do and why ojets intrat and mov as they do. In short, physis is aout mattr, whih is wht matrial ojts ar mad from, and it is about nrgy' whih is to do with how objets intrat

and mov as they do. Howvr, to rdu physis to th study of mattr and nrgy is to undrvalu th sujt as physiists an b found applying their skills and knowldg in a vast rang of

situations byond th physis laboratory, for xampl in arhaeology, ommuniations, hospitals, the stok markts' sprt and lisur, in fat just about evrywhr. So-alld .rokt sintists' ar paid large salaris to use thi skills of theoretial physis to modl and prdit th movemnt of
drivativs on th stok markts. Th latst genration of body sannrs rer dveloped from disovris y physiists working on a phenomnon known as magnti fesonan. Ths sanners hav rvolutionizd the study of th brain, making it possile for sintists to s how diffrnt parts of th rain rspond to diffrnt eprins and situations.

The impat of physis W liv in th Sintifi Age whih hs brught

bnfits to us all. ompar your lifstyl with that of somon fwo nturis ago and yu will rca|ize that the vast majority of pople thn livd in ajt Povffy, dpndnt for thir vry livs on th vagaris of the rather whih ould ruin harvsts nd hit transportation of food and othr ssential ommoditis. Th Sintifi Ag has brought Power on dmand s w nd not rly on wood or oal for ooking and hating our homs. Travl is muh quikr, hapr and far mor onvnient now than two nturies ago whn sa jurnys took weeks and ovrland journeys days. Peopl ar muh halthir, fittr and liv longr now than thn, thanks to improvemnts suh as lan watr, btter nutrition and mdial drugs. All thse improvmnts hav

immns

invitd audine at the Royal Institution, h was asked the question ..!?'hat us is ltrii Mr Faraday?' H rplid with anothr qustion' ..!hat us is a new by?' No on an tll what an grow from a nr disovry. James Clerk axwll (1831-L879| was a mthmatial physiist who used Faraday idas to devis a thory that light is an ltromagneti wave. H showd an ltri wave and a magnti wve an travl togthr through spae at a sped of 300 000 kilometres per sond, the same as th sped of light. H thrfor ddued that light must e an ltromagnti wav. He alrady knw that th sptrum of light ovrs a
ontinuous rang of olurs; namely rd, orang, yellow, grn' blu and violt. His thory shored that all the olours of light ar ltromagneti wavs of different wavlngths. Vhen h put forward this thery in 1865, h knew that infrared radiation lies just byond the rd part of th visibl sptrum and that

ltriity ra.

and larnd aout eltriity from thm. H wrot to Sir Humphry Davy at th Royal institution in London and gaind a position as an assistant as a rsult. His rsarh into eletromagntism ld to his famous disovry of how to genrat ltriity using magnts. H dvloped grat insight into th link twen eltriity and magntism and disovrd th fundamntal priniples that led to th invntion of th altrnating ufrent gnerator' th transformer, th ltri motor and th eltri tlgraph. Th ltriity supply industry devlopd in the lttr half of th nintnth ntury from Faraday's disovris. By th first deads of th twntith ntury' most homs in Britain and othr industrial nations had ben wird up to a loal ltriity supplir and nationwid grid systms for ltriity distribution wr establishd. Noradays, w take our ltriity supplis for granted unlss a powr ut ours and w.!hen ar thn thrown temporarily bak into the preFarada dmonstratd his disovries to an

apprnti. As wll as binding th books, h rad them avidly

om aout bause of disovris mad y sintists. To apprite th impat of physis, onsidr just two disoveris mid in physis in th ninetenth ntury whih litrally rvolutionizd lif in th twntieth ntury. Mihal Fanda 0'791_7867) disoverd how to gnrrat letriity and thry laid th foundations fr the letrial supply industry and for ltrial ommuniations. Faraday gained an apptit for sin in his first jo as a ookbindr's

wavs and h was al to show b measuremnt that they travl at te sam spd as light, thus.providing lar vidn that radio waves ar ltrmagneti wavs. Hrtz's disovris were takn up by othr sintists inluding Maroni who ld th way

ultraviolt radiation lis just byond th violt part of th spetrum. His thory of ltromagnti wavs thus auntd for infrard and ultraviolt radiation as wll as light. However, he prdited th xistn of letromagnti radiation outside th known spetfum of infrard radiation, light and ultraviolt radiation. Two deads latr, Hinrih Hertz disoverd radio

forvr,ard into the us of radio wavs in wirlss ommuniations.

Th normous rang of th radio sptrum is now usd for many purposs inluding adio and TV roadasting, moil phone ommuniations, radar systems, satllit ommuni. ations and navigation. axwll theory of ltomagneti wavs provides th thortial asis for all ths forms f
ommuluaflons.

of th link is not th sam as disproving th link. Als, the disovery of a diffrnt aus of CJD would not disprov that BS and CJD are linked baus thr might mor than on ause of CJD. This trribl traged might hav n avrtd if
the golden rul of sin had not been forgen.

any mor exampls an b found of th w.ay !n

wtri9h disovris in physis hav dramatially altred th fundamntal rlvay w liv. The disovry of the atomi nulus by rnst Ruihrford and th invention of th transistor ar two exampls f exprimntal disovris in physis that hav led to the growth

Th sintifi mthod uss xprimnts and obsrvations to tst th laws and theoris of physis. A sintifi thory or law starts out as a hypothsis, whih is no mr than a propsal basd n th availabl sientifi evidn. Thus a hypthsis abut how

of nw industris. Th theoris of rlativity y Alrt instin and the devlopment of quantum mhanis by Nils Bohr and othrs ar twoxampls of thris that vrfurnd stablishd idas of physis and provided radial nw approahs in th
sujt. rv lr,i mt these and thr sharing nrr disovris and idas latr on in this ook. Howve do not imagine suh

dramati hanges ar all history now. Physiists ontinu to produ astonishing nw disovries and amazing nw idas. Antimatter, blak holes, suprstrings ar ut a fw of th latst hot topis in physis. Th plosiv growth of th World !id lib is anothr rsult of physiists at work barly a dad ago, in this s dvloping an ltroni mthod of kping in touh with ah othr and thn takn up at an astunding pa by popl and businsss in all walks of lif.

Antartia that is thought to hav om from Mars. Th hypothsis has n tstd by robot vhils landed on ars whih have searhd for signs of lif in th martian sil and atmosphr. N positiv findings hav yet bn eportd so th hypothsis rmains just that. Howver, th disovry of mirobs, past or Presnt' on Mars would boost th status of th hypothsis suffiintly to mak it into a thory. Furthr spa missions to ]vlrs ar ing plannd and vidn for lif on ars, past or prsnt' may well found. Th thory that lif on arth arrivd from Mars would e strengthnd if mirob fossils rvee found on Mars similar to th ones found in Antartia. Th sintifi evidn in favour of the theorv would
arrival f th miro fossil frm ars arrivd. No amount of xprimentation ould ver prov the thory but sussiv tests ould rinfor it and ost its status.
The theory of ontinentl drift devloped from a hypothesis put .W.egener
thn vry strong but it lould not be possil to say th theory is true eause life on arth'might hav dvelopd bfore th

miroorganisms was brought to arth by sm mans from Mars. This partiular hypthsis was put forward as a rsult of th disovry of mirob fssils in a mtorit found in

lif startd on arth might b that lif in th form f

The golden rule of siene

Th mthods usd by physiists follow a gnral pattrn whih is known as the sien mthod. Th ky featur of th
sintifi mthod is that sintifi theoris and laws an nevr b ptrvd, nly disprovd. No amount of xprimntal vidn an rov a sintifi theory o law yt iust on rlial primnt is suffiint to disprv any sintifi thory or law. l;tgr this goldn rul of siene and disastr is inevitabl. In th l99()s, ()nerns aros that thr ould b a link betwen llSli ln ottl in Britin and human deaths du to CJD. othr U rtttlrir bannd imports of British f. Top mdial and fod '|lllllilti wr unbl at th tim to prov BS and CJD daths wr ltlrkd. l lllwvr, th absn of proof dos not mean that llr |rlrlr t|rs trtlt xist. Thy forgot th goldn rule that sin wrlrk disprrlvrng thois and prditions. Absn of proof

many similaritis in fossils, plants and animals on oth ontinnts so h put forward th hypothesis that the ontinents .W.egenr wr on all joind as a single land mass. ws unal to find a onvining soure of power to make th ontinnts drift apart but his idas wr takn up by Arthur Holms in 1931 who showd that heat rleased insid th arth due to radioativ deay ould provid th nssary powr. Furthr observations and masuremrnts over sveral dads showd

similaritis btwn th eastern oastlin of South Ameria nd the westrn oastlin of Afria ould mean thy wre one joined togther and hav driftd apart sine. H disovrd

forward y Alfrd

in

1915. He ralized that th

that th outr layr of th arth is mad up of separat pis whih fit togthr to mak a sphr. Thes pis, known as ttni plats, arry th ontinnts whih are known to drift aross th surfa as th plats gradually mov. arthquaks .!egenr's and volanos our whr th plates ar in ollision. hypothsis thus dvlopd into the theory of plate ttonis as idas. Mor and mor sintifi vidn in support of th thry would rinfor its status vn mor. Howvr, the thory would nd to b disardd r drastially altred if rliabl sintifi vidn against it was evr found. N thory an vr b provd as a singl rlial xpriment in futur ould disprov it.
mor and mor sintifi vidn aumulatd in support of the

Sientifi blunders
Th histry of sin has many ul-de-sas where disarded thoris li aandond and forgotten. Som of thes thris Werr one held aloft as part of th litany of sintifi wisdom. Fr xampl, over tw enturies ago' sintists livd that hat is a fluid that flows from hot objts to old objts, lik .alori'and it rater flowing along a rivr. Th fluid was alled

teking plae in th spas btween th surfa atoms of a rtain mtal when light atoms wr in ontat with th mtal undr rtain onditions. Th pross was rfrrd to as old fusion bause it seemingly did not rquir th normous tmpraturrs nssary for fusion in stars. Othr sintists disputd that th rleas of nergy was du to fusion and attmptd without suss to reprodu the proess of old fusion. T}rey onludd that th nrgy rlasd was not du to fusion and th laim was rjtd. A sussful fusion rator' ht or old, would a major stp forward in providing nrgy without pollution and without produing grnhus gases suh as arbon dioxid. Cold fusion proved to e a laim too far.

whih would produ nrgy n a large sal at a steady lat. Th partiles to fusd nd'to ollid at nofmorrs sped to fus togther but at suh spds thy are vry diffiult to ontrol. Tro deads ago, a brakthrough was laimed y sintists working on an ntirly diffrnt approah to th fusion problm. Thy rekond thy had disovrd fusion

Strange ideas
1905, Alert instin produd two sintifi paprs that rvolutionized physis and hangd our undrstanding of natur dramatially. one of thes two Paprs was about th natur of light whih instein showd to b in the form of pakts of
Do not b too hrsh on sintists whos laims ar rjted. In

gav rise to th alori as th unit of hat. Th supportrs of the alori theory wr undauntd whn they wer asked to xplain whr th hat omes from whn you ru your hands togthr. Thy imagind that tiny partils ratd by th rubbing tion relasd alori in th pross. Th alori theory was opposed by sintists who rkond that hat is a form of energy. The alori thory was disprovedin7799 by Sir Humphry Davy. H showd that when two bloks of i below freezing pint wre rubed togthr, watr was produd as a rsult of the ie mlting. He dmonstratd that th melting of ie ours beaus of frition btwn the two surfas in ontat. nergy must be supplid to th bloks to make thm slid over ah othr and this enrgy auss th i to mlt. No mntion was needd of alori nor of Partiles rubbd off th i.

enrgy he alled photons. His othr papr' his theory of rlativit5 provd that absolut spa and asolut tim do not .! xist and that mass and nrgy ar linked. will mt thes idas latr. Both paprs wr rvolutionary yt instin Was to wait ovr 15 years bfor h was awardd th Nol prirze {ot .!hy physis. suh a long tim? Th prize is awardd for disoveris that bnfit th human ra. or than a dad passd fr suffiient vidn was availabl to support exprimental evidn has bn disovrd for th amazing thoris about lk hols dvlopd by thortiians suh as Stphen awking. Ths strang objets ar osmi rushrs from whih nothing, not vn light, an esap. A blak hl would b likly to dstroy human lif as wll as our plant. ayb there has en no Nobl prize far Hawking yet as so far knowldg of lak hols sms to hav brought fw bnfits. Howevr, yu ould argu that knowledg that hlps us to avoid .W. a blk hol would dfinitly b a bnefit to th human ra!

Einstein thoris

f rlativity and light. In rnt

yars,

Cold fusion is .![hn rnt xampl of a sintifi theory that a mor th nuli of two light atoms are fused togethr' nrgy is rlasd baus th two nulei bind togthr to form a single nulus. This proess taks pla in th or of a star and is rsponsibl for th nergy radiated from th star. Th immns Prssur at th ntr of a star fores light nuli togthf and maks thm fuse. ovr th past four deads, sintists have trid rithout suss to mak a fusion feator

bit th dust.

rill rturn to th sujt of blak holes latr in this book. understnding nattrre from th smallst sal dp inside th atom to th largest sale strthing to th edge of the Univers. The genral mthod usd in sien is to look for pafferns in osrvations and eprimntal data tlrn formulat hypothesis about the pattrns or data. Th hypthsis is thn usd to mak a prdition whih an b tstd by appropriat xpriments. If hypothesis is thn used to form a thory whih is tstd by mr experiments. If th rsults do not onfirm th predition, the hypothsis must b mdifid or abandond. The mor xpimnts that support th thory, the strongr the theory omes. Th Prinipl of Consrvation of nrgy is a thory that has withstood many tests. Th Prinipl stats that energy is always onserved in any hang. Th total rnrgy aftet a hang is the sam as th total nrgy bfor th hange. This key priniple did not sem to work in a radioativ pross known as ta mission. nrgy smd to disappar witlrout a in this

Sien

in

genral and physis

in

partiular

is

about

th rsults of th xprimnt onfirm th prdition'

th

proess.

Twenty yars aftr the prolem was raised, nutrinos wer at last dttd and the Priniple of nsrvtion of nrgy was savd.

Consrvation of nrgy dos not work in this pross or a partil that ould not dtetd arris away th missing nrgy. This lusive partil was givn a nam' th nutrino.

It was

onludd that ither the Priniple f

o 1+
t
] fr

Physis is aout proing th laws of natur and hallnging the status quo. This ook is intndd to xplain th ky idas of physis at th prsnt time but b in no doubt that nw and strang ideas lie ahead. ore sine has ben disovrd in the last half ntury than ever for. Physis is an xiting sujet for anyone who thrives on hangs and hallngs.

GI
'

tr

o tr o o

!n this chapter you will learn:

why physics has always been a very important subject, from thousands of yers ago right to the present time why Arhimedes became a legend when he canied out the first recorded example of non-destructive testing how to measure the density of an objet.

Phsis hs las bee t the leding dge of hurnn thought, ot iust in recnt tites bt lso befor the Sientifi g t,uhih
u,,ere

begn bout four eturis go. The thories of sciee tht held to be true long go rnight sm uer odd hen e corpre them ith our presnt knoulledge. we must ot forget

(382-322 ), was to influn th ondut of sien for many nturies right though to th bginning of th Sintifi Ag.
Aristotl was trained by th philosph Plato who foundd th Aadmy in Athns. Aristtle aeptd Plato theory of idas as .trnal patterns' that li beyond th natural world. Howv h rognizd th importan of obsrvations in formulating idas out nature. Vhre observations ould not b usd to deid btwn ompting thoris, Aristotl rjetd any thory that did not support th aptd idals and ovrall philosophy dvloped y Plato. For xampl, Aristotle rejetd Aristarhus'
ws rushing tfuough spae round th Sun and no vidn ithr

th anint lvIeditrranan ivilizatins is undisputd. Indd th impat of on partiular natural philosophr, Aristotle

philosophers s the ere thn lled, me p ith ides nd thories tht er stoishigl sophistictd i orpriso ith other spects of I i those times. In this hpter lue ill long look t some of the phsis ids fror ,We go to see just houl

though tht th sietists of iet times, or nturl

ill then moue o to these idas ere deuloped nd sd. |ook t some importnt skills neded in phsis before mouing on to us these skills to rry ot desit tests.

thory that the Sun not th arth was at the entr of th Univrs. Thr was no observational vidne that th arth

Physis in pratie
Before the Sientific Age
Many theoris of sin efor th Sintifi Ag wr basd on
th assumption that th arth is at th ntr of th Univers and that living bings wre ratd by on of mor superior beings who dsignated a spial role for humans. Th ida that humans volvd from aps vr thousands of nturis found littl favour as it omittd th rol of a rator. Theoris about th ntural urorld wr usually hosn on grounds w would

etoms. H rjtd th ida of atoms in favour of th thory that is mad of th four lmnts; arth, wat air and fir. This oldr theory fittd th ida that the arth is at th entr of th Univrs' Watr in th sas lis abov the arth, air lis rbov th sas and fire is in the havns.

to support th assoiatd ida that the arth is spinning. Nor would Aistotl apt th ida that mattr is omposed of

rll matt

onsidr unsintifi and sltd fats wre usd to support the thries. Othr fats that did not math th theoris wr disarded as unrliabl or imprft. Not surprisingl5 alhemy and astrology Were two majr strands of sintifi endavour bfr the Sintifi Ag. Fr xampl, attmpts to turn lad into gold or to prdit vnts oupied th working lives of many individuals, undoubtdly'finand y rih and powerful patrons who imagind that thy would mass furthr walth as a rsult of suh ativitis.

atoms was a thory put forward by Demoritus (470-400 ). Two nturies latr, Aristarhus put forward th thory that th Sun was at th ntr of the Univers. In th nxt ntury

Sien as a rorded ativity flourishd in th ultur f Anint Gre and th ditrranan ivi|izations whih developed from Gr. Th idea that mtter is omposd of

Arhimedes (287-272 ) mad important disovries in mhanis nd mathematis. Th importan of th sintifi hritag quathd by ths and othr natural philosophrs of

modl of th Univrse dvelped by Ptolmy a entury aftr fuistotle. Ptolmy hld that the arth was at th entr of th Universe with th Sun and oon moving round the arth in diffrnt irular orbits. ah plant movd round on a irl whos ntr movd rund on its own irular rbit. This model xplind th movment of th Sun, Moon and plants and fittd in with th onpt of th .gentri' univrs. \V will

fit in mant that intrsting idas wr not followd up and investigated furthr. Aristotl stamped his mthod on sien so firmly that it rrras to last for over 15 nturies. His apprah of piking fats to support aepted thories dominatd the way in was ndutd long aftr his dath, from Anint Gr, through tlr Roman mpir, th Dark Ages and int th iddl Ags. Perhaps Aristotl,s authority nabld sine to urvive ovr this lng period, espeially thrugh th Dark Ags. The Churh promotd Aistotl's sintifi mthod, in partiular
However, Aistotl rjtion of thoris that did not

Aristotle shapd sin into a ohernt st of idas that wr onsistnt witlr th prevailing world viw, namly that th arth i th ntre of th Univrse and threfor a spial pla has ben aordd to th human ra by th ator of the Univs.

look later in this haptr at th bittr struggle betwen Galilo and th Churh whih vntually ld to th ovrthrow of
Ptolemy's modl.

Th applid for on th lvr is rferrd to as th ffort. Th lvr pivots about a fixed point or .fulrum' as shown low. h for of th lvr on th ap is muh greatef than th nplid for baus it ats muh narr to the fulrum than
th applid for dos.

Celestial

he

(a)

force due to ap on bottle opener

rltrl

rt-l tl

r_ol

-#

-----.>
(b)

ligre

1.1

Pto|emy's mode| of the So|r Systm

l|el'

1'2

() using a |ver (b) ba|ancing a beam

Arhimedes' the first great scientist

Arhimds was born in Siilv whr h workd undr the patronag of King Hir, th isiand rulr. Arhimds kept in touh with th sholars of Alxandria in ygpt whre on of his invntions, th watr sr was put to pratial us to raise Water from the river Nil. This dvi onsists of a tight-fitting srw in a ylinder. With the ylinder in watr at its lowr nd, turning th srew raiss watr up th ylindr from th lowr nd. Arhimds' srw allowd farmrs to irrigate the land

Arhimds invstigated the equilirium onditions for a bm beland at its ntr of gravity with a wight supprtd on ah rid of th bam. He found that th distane f ah wight to th fulrum was in invers proportion to th amount of wight.

o For two

wights. In othr words,

objts of qual wight, th distans from th fulrum must be qual for th beam to be in quilibrium. For two ojts of wights W,, and \V'o, th distans d1 and do of the wights from the fulrum ar in invrs ratio to th

do

Arhimdes also disovred e prinipl of th lvr and workd out how a for uld b inrasd using a lvr. No doubt you hav usd th lvr prinipl to mov an objet that is diffiult to shift. For example, whn you us a ole opener as a levr to rmove th ap from a bottl, th for you apply
to th bottl opnr auss a muh largr fr to at on th ap.

bordring th rivr Nil.

If on of the ojts is of known wight, by masuring th distans d1 ad do, te othr weight an b alulatd using th
standard wight at a distan of 0.50 m from th fulrum; if th eam is alaned y an ojet of unknown wight at a distan

dr

=V'
Wo

quation abov. For xampl' supos on of th ojts is a

of 0.25 m from th fulrum, th unknown wight must

xatly twi as havy as th standard wight.

Balaning tests
Plae a penil on a f|at surfae and ba|ane a ruler on the peni| at right ang|es to the penil.

Quantlty Aa
of retang|e
\tb|ume of a

Definition
lenh x breadth
|ength x bradth x height

Unit
square metres, m' ubi metrs, m3 ki|ram per ubi
metre, kg/m3 metre per seond,

box

penil when the ru|er is balaned again. Place a third identia| oin on top of one of the oins a|ready on the ruler' Reposition this .double oin'to ba|ane the ruler again. You shouId find that the distane from the single oin to the penil is twice the distane from the doub|e oin to the penil.

Plae oin on the ru|er near one end. Rebalane the ru|er by positioning an idential coin on the ruler near the other end. You shou|d find the two oins are at the same distane from the

Dcnstty

mass per unit volume distane movd r unit of time

Spoed

m/s

Weights and measures

Th sintifi systm of units is known as th S.I. system. This was agrd intrnationally svral dads ago. Bfor this agrmnt was rahed, different systms of units wre used in diffrnt

ounffies. In arlier tims, bfo ntional systms wer stablishd, loal systems dvloped by aders varid aording to ustom and prati.

Th fiv as units of th S.I. systm ar:

the sod whih is dfind as th tim takn for a spifid numer of vibrations of a ertain typ of atom in an atomi

2 3

lok.

that 10'1 is quotd as .ten to th power eleven'. Th abov valu for the diamtr of an atom would b writtn as 3.0 10{0 m whr 10-10 = 1 + 1010 = 0.000 000 000 1. Not tht a ngativ Powrr of tn is a od for xprssing powrs of tn less than 1. Ths 10,o is 1 dividd by .tn to thr powr tn', usually quotd t6.ten to th Powr minus tn'.

Powors of ten $intifi masurmnts and alulations involv valus whih Gln rang from trmly small to normously larg. For mpl, th diametr of an atom is about 0.000 00.0.000 3 mtrs and the distan from the arth to th Sun is out 150000000000 mtrs. Suh valus ar usuallv written in lndard form as a numbr betwen 1 and 10 multiplied by an rppropriat power of tn. For exampl, th distane from th rrth to th Sun writtn in this way is 1.5 x 10'' m, whre m is th abreviation for mtrs and 1011 = 100 000 000 000. Note

Intrnational \ights and easurs (BIPM) in Paris. Standard masses kept in other sintifi lboratories ar masurd y omparison with the standard one kilogram mass in Paris. The wight of an objt is the for of gravity on th objt. Baus th weight of an objt is in proportion to its mass, a bm balan as dsribd arlir may b usd to ompar th masss of any two objts. 4 th kluin is th sintifi unit of tmpratur. S p. 61. 5 the rnpre is th sintifi unit of eltri urrnt. Se p. 90. All other sintifi units a drivd frm thse fiv bas units. Som ampls of drivd units ar givn in th tabl elow.

the mtre whih is defind as the distan travlld y light in a vauum in a spifid tim. the kilogrr whih is th unit of mass. This is dfined as th quantify of mattr in a blok of platinum kpt in th Burau

Scintifi prefies are used to repfsent rtain powers of tn. For ampl, the prefix kilo- rpresents a thousand (= 10).

othr standard sintifi prfixs ar listd low.

of

Ptf|x

ki|o mi||i miro nano Prfixsymbo| G M k m p n Power of ten 101, 10, 106 03 .10* .|0 0{
era Giga ega
1 .t

pio p

1o',

Nofes: 7 The prefi smbol for miro, p' is pronouned ,m'. 2 7 entimetre (t) = 70., m d 1000 gr?ns = 1 kilogrm.

Questions Ql. Writ the fllowing

(a) 15 000

(d) 0.000 000 003 5 kg.

m'

(b) 0.000 045

valus in sintifi form in sam unit () 650 000 000 kg,

m,

Q2.
unit

.!rit

th following values in sintifi form in th rquired

(a) 75 mm in mtrs, (b) 159 m in mtrs, () 56 000 km in metres, (d) 65 grams in kilograms, (e| 0.027 g in kilograms.

Dnlty measurements l. LQulds

Q3. (a) How many millimtrs ar ther in a length of 1 mtr? (b) How many milligrams are thr in 1 kilgram?

'l.h volum of a liquid is masurd by puring the liquid int an mty masuring ylinder and masuring the levl of th lir1uid in th ylindr against its graduated sale. The sal is uually markd in ui ntimtrs (m,). To onvrt th rading into ubi mtrs (m), divide th masurmnt in m3 by l million (= 106) baus ]. m = 106 m.

Density tests
!hih is heavir, a kilogram of lad or a kilogram of fthrs? This is a trik qustion eaus the wight of a kilogram of an substan on th arth is th sam, regardlss of th sustan. Anyon who answers that th lead is heavir than th feathrs has made the mistake of thinking in terms of qual volums of th two substans rather than qual masss. The point is that
lad is muh mor dns than a sak of feathrs.
pan taro button (to set reading at zero)

Th dnsity of a sustane is its mass pr unit vlum. Th sintifi unit of density is th kilogram pr ubi metr (kg/m,). For xample, the dnsity f lead is about 11000 kg/m,. In omparison, th density of watr is 1000 kdm,. Thus lad is ].1 tims mor dns than water. Th mass of a rtain volum of lad is 11 tims gratr than th mass of th sam volume of
waer.

l 1.3

using a measuig y|inder

m'tter the sbstne ontins. Volt is tb mont of spe sbstnce takes p.

Not: the

r,ss

of subste is mesre of th amount of

Density alulations
Dnsity

volum

mass

mass of a masurd volume f liquid an b masurd by using a top pan baln. This is used to masur th mass of en empty ak thn th liquid is pourd into th bakr and th total mass of th bakr and th liquid is remeasurd. Th mass of the liquid is the diffrn btwn th total mass of the bakr and liquid and the mss of th empty eakr. A top pan balane usually givs a reading in grams (g). Not tht

Th unit of dnsiry is th kilogram Pr ui mtr (kc/m,).

Th abov formula an be rearrangd as
mass = volum

. . density is alulated th volume in m.

1000g=1k9.

by dividing th mass in kilograms by

dnsity

or

volume = Pas

nsry

$rmpl masurements Volume of liquid in masuring ylinder

90 m = 90

X 10{

Worked example Calulate th mass of a volum o{ 20 m of watr. Th dnsity of watr = 1000 kg/m
Solution lvIass = volurne

ass of mpty bakr = 115 g ass of baker and liquid from masuring ylinder = 220 g ... ass of liquid = 220 - 115 = 105 g = 0.105 kg Density of liquid

0.105

kg

density

20

1000

20 000 kg

90

= 71"70 kml

10{

m3

2.

Solids

Us a top pan balan to masur th mass of a pi of th solid. Pour som watr into a suital masuring ylindr. Nte th volum of th watr from th rading of th watr lvl. Ti th pie of solid to thrad and lowr it into the watr until it isompltly submrgd. Th lvl of watr in the ylind will ris is a rsult. Not th nw rading of th water lvl. Th volum of th pie of solid is th differn fween the

two radings.

rownmakr,

kl hrw did Arhimds us this disovery to find out if th (I('wn was a fake? Arhimds rognized that th wight of the r()wn in air divided by its vlum should b th sam as for any rhr gld objt if the rown ws 100% gold. So he wighd lh rttwn and then he masurd its volum y measuring the vtltum of watr displad when it was immersed ompletly in wrtr. He then alulatd th vright of th rown in air dividd h its volume. Thn h rpeatd th tst and alulation on an rrbjt known to mad of gold. Fortunatly for th royal th rsult Was th same.
Arhimds'

Th dnsity is alulatd y dividing th mass in kilograms by th volum in m.

No/es: 1 Th solid must b insolubl i ter. 2 Tb uolume of rgulr solid such s ube cn be llted frorn its dimensions. For emple, the uolum of rectgtlr bo q,nl iB length Xi heigbt Xi idth.

mcturments showd that th rown's dnsity was th same as th dnsity f a solid gold objet. Gold is 18 tims more dns lhln watr. In ffet, Arhimds disovrd that th rown and l kn<lwn gold objet wr both 18 tims s dnse as watr. He Arhimds' tst is th first rordd ampl of non-dstrutive ttrting.

thrfor onludd that th rown yas mad of gold.

ass of objt = 35.4 g = 0.0354 kg Volum of watr only in measuring ylindr = 50 m Volume of ratr and objt in masuring ylinder = 63 m
... Volum of objet = 63 _ 50 = 13 gm = 13

Sampl masrements

lummary
Th ba|ane ruIe Por a bam balaned at its ntr of gravity with a wight
rupportd on ah sid f th beam, th distan f ah wight t th fulrum is in invrs proportion to th amunt of wigt. Dnsity =
IaSS

Density of ojt

mass / volume

0.0354

kg

10* m,
=

2720 kglm

Dnrlty
volum

13

10-.

"tJ

Eureka!
Prhaps th most famous story in sine is about Arhimds whn h was askd by his King to find out if his nw fown

h unit of dnsity is th kilogram pf ubi mtr (km,).

rally was mad of gold. Th King thought the royal

th nw rown up so h asked Arhimedes to solv th prolm

Oucstions

rownmakr might hav hatd and mad avitis in th gold whih ould hv n filled with lad. H did not Want to ut

.
(l)

without utting th rorn. Th solution am to Arhimeds whn he ntrd a bath of watr and obsrvd that th watr levl ros as h lowrd himslf into th watr. H ralized that whn an objet is lowrd ompltly into watr, th displaemnt of th watr is a masrrr of th volum of the o|t. Aording to lgend, h gretd this disover .urka!' whih running nakd throu the strts shuting .I means hav found it'.

{b) th vlum of a mass of 40 kg of stl of dnsity 8000 kg/m, () the dnsity of a brik of mass 6.0 kg and volum 0.002 m.

th mass f a volum of 5.0 m of sand of dnsity 2500 kg mJ,

Calulat

Qs. A wodn ub of mass 0.80 kg masurs 0.10 m x m 0.10 m. Calulat (a) its volum, (b) its dnsity.
Q6. A glass pan has
rnd a thiknss of 0.006 m.
() Show that its volume is 0.0012 m3.

0.10

a height of 0.50 m, a width of 0.40 m

(b) The density of th glass is 2600 k8/..,.. Calulate th mass of this glass pane.

Q7. Air at.atmosphri prssur and at ()om tmprtur has a dnsity of 1.2kglm'. Calulat th mss f air in a room of dimnsions 5.0 m long 4.0 m wid .3.() rn high. Q8. Vatr has a dnsity of 100() ky'lll.. (]lulat th mass of watr in a watr tank of v<llum 6.() rrl .wlrrr th tank is full t>f watr.
lnrasurmnts.

Q9. Calulat

th dnsity

<lf

ir liqtril l.rrtttt tlr f<lll<lwing

Volum of liquid

.1'' 147.6
.
F,

of mpty ak =

= .56 trr.

9.5..}

g, Mss rlt l.itkr lrrttl lit1uid

Q10. (ialuIat
lnsurlnnts: irss tlf s<llid

tlr dnsity tl[;r stllitl lllttt tltt. lrlllllwirtg

=

4tl.li g

wtr in trl;lsttrilt1i r..ylirrtlr willtrlttt srllitl .. 4().0 m VrlltlIn <lf wtr in lnstrriIt1; ylirrtlr tvltll \t)ll(l tttttttrsd in wtr = 46..5 rn'

Vllurn

()f

a o oo r.+ oo o

tl
fl

.
. .

ln this hapter you will lern:

siene how to measure the motion of a falling objet how to work out how fst objets move and how fast they aeIerate or decelerate when they speed up or slow
down.

how Galileo took on the Churh and establ.shed the foundations of modern

nl th llnk |ltlcn. is d llhservlis ll'.tttt tinI d3 ||CW disttl,ries er tnde, ,I' nlsd nd testd, nulr phikvoph tt| sien is tii lws rut tbeltts htid t lh as ,,i i,t,i, hvinc beiis ,l,his.phthtl,h disp,d', s frnli,l h Sir arroppir thtl rlizd tht llhsrt,d|ion' oni n'fdsurcn|s cn neuer pr|,v( tltulry try I l ll t dn t'm, agl aperiment is suffiicnt I dtsprl'c thtlry ,,r w,
s-ien s d'ualt,1tri

T.h S:inti|i Ag1 t u,htlll u,e h, hgan unesil severI cnturis agt' I,crh1ts th itsl.ttt,ry f t Neul wirld tnde glm' stntists I hthtthrs thmh || ntur diffrentl ttl thtls'whtl .t'1ll.d sttill's |fu'.h's' ()lilo u gn,,o sidrrd t fu th' fi,tlnltr | mll.r sinc buse ie dcmtlnstrtcl thl r stl/I,r wa of ding siene tlls fu.ndamentall flu,i lrys tt tgtutrd th.ruial role of lbsentis, ()vtr sut,t'tltng (ntiri?'. (ililo's ooroh i

more wiing to listn and has organizd sintifi nferns on urrnt dvlopmnts in osmology.

nrll {rtlly .r...'"t..| hy rh (i[rur"uniit te nrly nintnth ntury. ltt llltlrirrl. th tltrx|rtt (]hurh is far

Shr lltrlt|l tlttlir. T th ' (]lstial w (ilrninn mtl

hallng rathr thn n nw '..ltllt[. lhtlry lrd ir fsild to hav an imrndint ilnpnt. llllwvr, rn |6{X). (iitlrdnrl Brun<r was hurnd t th stak y th rtrrhlirhtl ( ]hurh filr prrlmfing the (klrninn mx|lnd his tlwlt vtw tht lh llnrvirr i nt init

llf llnntri irlr rPrinr|]r th rrbi of th p.lgyt1. (ilrltius frd tht hir ivrllutillr idrr would b ridiuld y his (.()n]mP()rflrig irlr| hrr millr wrk De Ruolutkihus rbium ()*lestrunt w*t tl(}l putirhd until shrlrtly fllr h dit| in l54 i' lt wnt rrnttl ,n.th.m"ii."i
thn a sr

was ncliliilry t(, hnv tn('r lhn .l() rphrr l(D (}unt for all the <lbsrvtilrns rlf th lntltitltt rlf th rtnrr .rnd th plants. He rlizd suh tlntlxlly w.r$ tl(Dl n(a.rrty if th Sun not th }hrth was at th nlr, ;tltr| h rr|tlrl th.rrtl trl lirtl mor

ilrrrni dvotd manv yars rlf his lif trl studirrg .ltllrll wlirkr t find out why lbjtilns l Ptlmy..t lnlll rlf th ltnivrr hld hn rjeted. H ()nstrutl his trwn vrritrn rlf |Dtll|ln.r rn|l rnd found it
(

tlntrlnis, trlathlolili nr| mthltr.

ttl llnltrd tht th lntr mtrv round the Sun, ntlt rlunl th l.]nrth. .l.hrr hlllnrri modl was rdirlvrd a ttlry hflrr ( j|llrl hy (ilrniu, a Poshbrlrn rnedivl nhtllnr whrrr itrrrtr in]turtrl r't'onoy,

tllrvatitrs ltl hir

(iali|etl hnllngd th (]hurh .,ur hrt sronomial

Measurlng motlon

Th hange from the authoritarian and rigid theoris of th mdivl ag to th exprimntal philsphy1hat undrpins our Sintifi Ag may not hav originatd with Galilo buithr is little doubt that Galil showd through his disovries th powr of sin to hang stliihd viws. qually important, h showed through his mthods th signifia.,.. of rliable and aurate obsrvations. Howvr, perh-aps his most important ntributin Was to stalish that in has limits whih should not b xtndd without valid evidn. In showing that xprimntal sine should b usd to xolain what w 9se1v, he ut th link betwen physial sien and rligion that had xisted for nturis. Th iink ontinud in biologial sien well into the ninetnth ntury through the ontrovrsis surrounding. Charles Darwin thoiy oI volution' vn in this fild, th modern sien of gntis whih !''pPos volution has bn dvlopd through sJintifi mthods devlopd from Galilo approaih to sin.

reprted to hav dmonstfated that tw falling objets dsnd at th sam rate, rgardlss of their wight. Thii ould hav ben don y.rleasing tw ojts simultously from the top of th Leaning Towr and obsrving that thy hii th ground ai th sam tim, thus proving thy fall at th sam rat. unable to masur th tim of dsent aurately but h rea|ized that th motion of an ojt rleasd at the top of n inlined plan was likly- to b similar but slow eno to tim. He devisd a water lok to masure th tim takny th ojet to reah rtain distans down th plan. Pndul loks and other mhanial timing dvis were invntions of th futur. Galilo masurd th amount of watr running at a onstant rate out of a tank from th moment th oit as rlasd at top of the inlind plan to whn it passd a rtain markr. Th amount of watr ollted thus srvd as a measur of th time of dsnt. You an rpeat Galilo's xprimnt y using a stoJwath rathr than a water lok to dm.a ball roig do;vn a flat inlind board.

In a lgndry dmonstration at Pisa in Italy, Galilo was

Galileo experiments on motion

ha.'g

Galilo wanted to find out hor the tim f dsnt would if th distan falln was hanged. Hwver, he was

Srrrpriingly, th

2 Adjust

should show th tim th ball taks to pass from on markr to th nxt derass as th all movs down th slop. This is baus the all spd inrass as it moves down th slop. Th is an xampl of alratd motion.

reah equal distans down inlin. Th masmnts

Inres e inlin so th ball rolls down th inlin without bing givn an initial push. Reord th tim takn y th all to

onstant spd.

Th masurmnts should show th ball travls qual distans in qual tims. This is an ampl of motion at

the inlin just nough so th all rolls along it at stady.spd aftr it is givn a push. Rord th tim takn y th ball to rah markrs at qal distans down th inlin.

stops rolling aftr it has n givn a push. Th rason is that frition btwen th all and t inlind plane maks the ball stop.

Start with zro inlin and you

will disovr that th all

mrhnts and brokrs of Vni.

Ga|ileo GliIei Galilo rras born in 1564 in Pisa, Ital5 th sam yar of birth as T.illiam-Shakespar. As th son of'a nolman, Glileo was duatd in a monastery and in 1595 bam.Professor of athmatis at th Univrsit). of Padua, on of urop lading universitis at that tim, in what was thn th Rpubli oT Vni. His Vnetian paymstrrs allowd him to foilo his own intrsts and his disovris on motion would hav ben suffiint to wjn long-lasting rognition. From tim to tim' h mad sintifi instrumnts for ommerial purposs suh as measuring th density of preious mtals and stons. In 1609. reports reahd him about the invntion of an optial devi, th E!999op.' for making distant objts apPar larger and losr. Tithin a short tim, h had dsignd ad onsttd his orn telesop,- apabl of making distant ojts aPpar tn tims largr and losr. H dmonstratd th powr of his tlsop to th Snat t th top of th Campanil in Vni by osiving inoming ships 50 mils away, two or mor days' sailing awa} from th port. Suh informtion Was vry vlabl "to th

puliity that Galilo trial attratd prhaps hlpd to p'o*ot. th Coprnian systm. Galilo's immnse. ontiiutio; to th
devlopmnt of siene annot b understatd.

urope whr th hurh had muh lss authority. Th

lrial. In 7613, h was rprimandd by th Churh for his ws and.three.yars latr was bannd'from supporting th Coprnial mdl. His attmpts ovr th nt.dad to prsuad th Churh to support his viws mt with failur so h deided to st out his viws and his support for th Cprnian 94.l in printin ltalian, fr all to rad. H ompltd hiis work, Dialogue.on-th Ttao Chif 'World Ssters, b- 1,630 and after som diffiulties with th nsor authoritis, it was published in Flrn in 1'632. Galilo's bok was an instant bit-sllr and th Churh ratd rapidly by anning it and stopping furthr rprints. Galileo, now in his svntieth yar, was jr,mned to 1Ppear befre th Holy offi of th Inquisition in Rom on April 12, 1633. Galileo duly appared in front of the 1'2 judges of thrnquisition. No onsidraiion was givn to the disovr]s P"i9 by Galil. Instad, th judgs so.,gt t show that Galil had rahd th agrment of 1616 whn h was instrutd not to hold or dfend th Cprnian vierr. His dfn was that th ban imposd in]'616 did not prvnt tahing th Coprnian viw. H argud that his dialogue prsentd th viws to the radr. Th judgs didd that Gililo had brokn t|le 1,616 ban and had ated deeitfully. H was threatned with tortur, ford to rant and mad to spend th rest of his lif undi hous arrst at his hm in Florn whre h did in 1642. Sin as a high-profile ativity am to a standstill in Catholi urop for many yars. Howve Galil dialogu and his disovries wer takn up vigrously by sintists in Nrthn

the protetion f th Vnetian authoritii who wr anti-

Galilo's astronomial disovris wr widly i', urop. His Coprnian vivrs bame known io '.poit..d t Churh who-opned a file on him. Galilo hopd his obsrvations and onlusins in support of the Copeinian model would apted by th Churh so h would no longr nd to rly on

a telsop. H found that th surfae of th Moon is havilv raterd nd h disovrd th four innrmost moons of Jupiti.

Cprnian modl and h dvisd a m()r p.,wiful tlsope, apal of magnifying ojts 30 tims. i.{. *"' ''tou''d.j whn h first used this tlsop t() study th night sky. He obsrvd tn tims as many stars as an sn diritly without

Galilo rea|ized h ould us th tls<lp to study heavnly bodis. H wantd t gathr vidn in support of th

Sped is defined as distan travelld p unit of tim. Th sintifi unit of spd is th mtr pr iond (abreviatd as rn/s or m s-t).

Motion in a straight line at onstant speed

th spd by th tim takn.

For an objt moving at onstant spd, th distan travelld by th ojet in a rtain tim an alulatd by multiplying

travel distn of 4.2 kilomtrs 3600 seonds pr hour).

Distan = sped X tim takn For xampl' suppos a ar is travlling t a Onstant spd of t2 m/s. Th ar therfor travls a distan: <lf 12 mtrs eah sond and a distance of 72 mtrs ah lrrinttt (= 12 m/s X 60 seonds pr minut). In 1 hour at this spll' th ar would
(= 43

onstant spd in a straight lin, th distan of th objet from a fid point hangs y qual amounts in qual tims. Hen th graph f distan v. tim for suh an ojt is a straight lin as in Figure 2.1. Figur 2.1', th stPnss of th lin is onstant whih mans that th spd of th ojt is onstant. Th gratr th spd of th objt, th gratr th distan th ojt movs ah sond so th stpr th lin is. Th stpness of th lin is alled its gradient and is dfind as th hang of th quantity plotted on

Th stepness of th line dpnds on th spd of th objt. In

2()0 Ints = 12 m/s

X
a

rtain distan or tim is dfinl lts llt tlisl;tlt trvlld / th time takn. Avrg s1rtl .. tlisl.tttt, tr.;rvllrl ilt(.t,lk(.ll

For an objt with varying spd, its ilvrg s1ld ovr

th y-ais dividd by th orrsponding hange of th quantity plottd on th x-ais.

Thus th gradint of th lin

=

th speed of th objet.

= hang

of distan / tim takn

Worked examplo lvs lt stlttitltt .lt l l.{)(} ,l.ttt' .ttttl itrrivs t th nxt sttion 15 killlrlrt.tt.s.l\1.,l!,,rt ll .).l .r.rrr, (';tltllirt (a) thtim taknin s<llrtts, (ll) rllr. .l\,('l,l}:(.l!r.l,tl rll ttl titiIt in mtrspr sond on this l)ilt ()t ll\ |ttllttl(.l' Solutin (a) im taktl = 22, tttttttttr.. .'.' .,{} . l l.l{) s (b) Avrag spl , l\t){)t} 111 l l l.'l) l . ll'.l rr/s

A train

20

i15
5
10 (D
()

Speed

limits
;lr

23
ligur 2.1 a distane
v. time graph

time / s

The speed |imit on UK lltlrtr'tw.r1 llt /()

'rl}lon 1 mi|e=1.6ki|ometr()l;,.ltt /(lttti|t. /() r l ll- t |2kllometres. hus a speed of 70 tttllrr:. Il.r{ |r'ti. - 1t;r tlk}'r'lrrr;ror hour.

tlttr'

i
I

l
I

Abbreviations: mph lll();llt1 .ltrt|l;.r means .ki|ometres per ltlttt, .' .'r Conversions: 5 mph = u kr lr

1 kilometre = 1000 llllltllr.r lrtrrl l lt.l - t{l{l ir:ltds' so a speed of 1 kilometre ylr ltr*r * l|ll}t'r.t.'E /:tl.xl ioonds = o.278ls' hus a spotltt tll l t,' lrkrtl|lt ;l ixl? * 3'l .1 m/s.

I | I

Worked example (a) Detrmin th spd

(b)

ll.

t1rll rlr km

h.

l
I

ow far would this ojt travel at this

minut, (ii) 30 minutes?

rprsntd by th lin in Figur 2.1.

of th objet whos

motion is

spd

in

(i)

Distane v. time grahs

Th motion f an oj..l t.ltl }.. trtlr.l. lltl .t l,l .r gr.l;rh of distan on th vrtial st.;l|.. t. lll..l t}'. l .lili! r.lt|lit llltl( ()n th horizontal sal (allrl lll. . ,... I t.r rlr .l|l}lr t |llrlVl]ll{ it

Solution (a) Th gradint of th lin = 20 mtrs / 4 sonds (b) (i) Distan moved in 1 minut = spd tim

m'/s.

=5m./sX60s=300m.

=5m./sx3060s=9000m.

(ii) Distan movd in 30 minuts = sPed

X tim

symbol stands for a ertain physial qantity in aordan with an agreed sintifi onvention.

quations and symbols Baus w.rd equations suh as .distan = sped dm' bome tedious and tim-onsuming, ltters -ar usd as .shrthand' symols for physial quantiiis so the abo,. worJ quation is usually writtn as s = D,' wher s rprrsnts distan mov.d, D rprsents sped and , rPrsnts tim takn. ah

Questions
Q1. alulat
(a) in 1 minut a car travlling at a onstant speed of 12 m/s, (b) in 30 minuts y a pn travll at a onstnt slred of 250 /s,

th distan movd

() in 10 minuts a cat travlling at a onstant

sd of 30 m/s.
m/s

equauon,

An equation. may nd t b rarrangd y moving th symbols tom one sid to th othr. The asi rul to rmbr i to d th same to both sids of th quation. For xample,. i! the quation s = D'' th symbol s is said to th sujt of th equation aus it appiars first as you rad th equation from lft to right. To mak u th sujit of th

()a ar travelling at a onstant spd of. 20 mts to travl a distane of 500 m. () a plan travelling at a onstant spd of 150 m/s to ttave| a distan of 250 km.

distan of 1 kilometr,

Q2. Calulat th tim takn fr (a) a train moving at a onstant spd of 15

to travl

Q3.

divide both sids of s

= u, y r to giv s =

tt

u'

(a) a train that taks 20 minuts to travel a distan of 15 km, (b)an athlte who takes 10 s to run a distan of 100 m' () a plan that takes 1 hour 40 minutes to travl a distan of

Calulate th average sped f

anel , from th top and ottom of th right-hand sid of the quation to giv s = u
swaP th two sids of th quation ovr sO u is rad first: u

800 km.

'1

Veloity and speed

Vloity is dfind as spd in a speifid <lirtion. Th unit of vloity is th mtr per sond (*/'1, th. sam as th unit of
speed.

(a) Calulat the distan travlled by the first ar from th juntion rhr it joind th motorway to th srvi station.
(b) Show that th avrag spd of the othr ar Was 20 m/s.

time, travlling in th sam dirtion. On of th ars travls at 30 m/s for 40 minutes then stops at a srvi station fiot 20 minutes bfo rejoining the motorway just as th othr ar is passing the srvi station.

th following speeds into rnls: ()30 mph, (b) 700 mph, () 100 km h', (d) 12 km min1. Q5. Two ars join a motorwy at the sam juntion at the sam

Q4. Convrt

Two objts travelling at 60 mplr-in opposit diretions along a motorway have th sam spd but not th sm vloity. in objt moving. along a irular path at onstant sped as a ontinually hanging dirtion of motion s<l iis veloity ontinually hanges rven though its spd is ()nstant.

Acelerated motion along a straight line

Alration is defined as hang of vloity pr unit of tim. Th unit of alration is the mtre prr snd pr sond, usually written as m/s'.

Summary
a o
O

Vloity is sped in a given dirtion For an ojt moving at onstant sd, th tittn moved
ln c rtain tim = sped tim 5 mph = 8 km h-1 = 2.2 mls

Speed is distan travlld pr unit tim

time

|igul 2,2 speed v' time graph for onstant ce|ertion

For an objet moving in.on diretion along a straight lin, its aelration is nstant if its spd hangs y equal imoun; in equI tims. Suppos th spd of sh n oj..i hangs from u to D ifl tim f. This hang is shown y th siraight hn on the spd-time graph shown in Figur 2.2. Th hange of sped in tim t = D - l,l' ... th alration, = an1r of spd |) |l = hnu =#Clt
tim takn Rarranging this quation givs t = (tl

A train on a stright lin

Worked example

alrats from rst to a spd of 20 m/s in a tim of 100 s thn travls at onstant speed for 250 s. It thn delrats at a onstant rat for 50 s and stops.

u)

(a) Draw a spd v. tim graph to rprsnt th motion of the train. () Calulat th aeleration and th distan travlld in (i) th first 100 s, (ii) th nt 250 s, (iii) the final 50 s. () Calulat th avrag spd of th train ovr the journy. Solution (a) S Figur 2.3
25

Not': negt.iue uIue of clertion is rcferred deelertion. This is th term used for slouting don.

to

\lVorked example alrats without hang of dirtion from rest to a spd of 30 m/s in 60 s. Caluli its alration.

A ar

20

Solution Initial sped

...
tr

0, fina|sped u

= |)

t60

|,|

= 30

0 = 0.5

30 r/s, time takn f = 60 s

i15

m./s,

8. 10

More about speed time graphs

1 Th
alration f an objet = th gradint of th lin. Th.gradint of the lin. is hang of th quantity plottd on thy-axis.(i.e. sped) dividd by hang of th,quantity plotled on th x-ais (i.. tim takn). In Figur 2.z, tI' gradient = (v - u) l twhi is th alration o*f th obfet.
= figre 2.3

100 200 300

time / s

400

() (i) 1st stag (0 to 100 s)iu

.,. l = D

= 0, u = 20 m/s, / = 100 s

area btwen the line and th .axis. In Figur 2.2, te aY-eta1e sped of th objt ov tim t ='lz (u + u) beause the spd inrass steadily frm z to u. 3 Th distan travelld in tim f, s = the vrag sped X the
Th distane avelld hn s =,|z ( + v) t The area betwn th lin and the x-axis in Figur 2.2 is a trapezium ylth base rprsenting and with siJs of hights

= 20 m/s

t00t

0 = 0.2 m/s'

s =|/z(u + u) f =,|z( + 20 m/s) 100 s = 1000 m (ii) 2nd stag (100 to 350 s}iu =u = 20 m/s, / = 250 s

tim takn

s=20mlsX250s=5000m
(iii) 3rd stag (250 to 300 s|; u
l = |)

= 0 baus thr is

no hang of its spd,

=

20 mls,

thc ara orrsponds to the distan travlld

rprsntd. " and u. This shap has th sam a'." i. , ' u rtangle of hight orrspondingto ||z. ( + u) nd bs /, thus
||z

( + v| t.

|,' =

50s

20 m/s

_ 0.4 m/s, =

D = 0,

50 s

s=

1|z

(+ u) / ='lz (20 + 0)

50

500 m

() Total distn travlld = 1000 + 5000 + 500 6500 m = Total time takn = 100 + 250 + 50 s = 400 s averag spd = total distane = 6500 m = 16(.25) mts tim takn 400 s

objt. Aurate masufmnt of g shows that g varis slightly with latitud. Its valu is 9.81 mls2 at tt arth's pols and 9.78
mls, at th quator.

rfrrd to as 8' th alration du to gravity of a frly falling

Galileo and gravaty

Galilo usd an inlind plan to shw that an objet olling down an inlind plane githrd spd at a onstant rat as it dsnded. H showd that th ailration was onstant and ould b mad larger by inreasing th stpnss of th inlin.
H thught that th aleration of an objet falling frly ought to b onstant and ought to b th sam for- any'ojJt. Howveq h was unable t tim the vrtial dsnt of an objt us his lok was not aurat nough.

On mthod f timing th desnt of a falling objt is to photograph a small stl ball as it flls in froni of a vrtial sal. If the apparatus is in a darkned room that is illuminatd y a flashing strobspe, an imag of th bll is apturd n th.photograph eah tim th light flashs. Providd. the light flashs at a onstant tate, the potograph thrfor shows ih position of th ball at qual intrvls. A vido amra ould usd instead of a film amra ut th strobosop would still b ndd. If th flash tate of th strobosop is known, th tim intrval twn sussiv flshes an workd out. Figur 2.4 shows th idea. easuremnts from suh an invstigion ar shown blow.
ime from start / s Distane fa||en / m
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.1

ligurc 2.4 investigating free fall

Summary

r .

Alration is hang of veloity pr unit tim. Th alrtion du to gravi 8 = 9.8 m/s2 at th arth
surfa.

o For an

0.2 0.20 1.00

0.3

0.4 0.80 2.0

0.5
1.25

0.05 0.50 1.00

0.45
1.50

objet whih undrgos onstant aelration in a straight lin frm initial spd to sped u in tim / ovring a distane s,
s ='|z ( + oI t.

Averagespeed/ms'
Speed / m

D=u+lt

s'

2.5 5.00

3.00

4.00

Questions
A ar alrates from rest at an alration of 0.5 m/s, f,or 20 sonds. Calulat (a) its sped aftet 20 sonds from rst' (b) the distan it moves in this tim.

Th avrag spd rwn th strt nd h f|ash has been workd <lut in th lirst.rllutnlt y dividing th distan fallen by rh tim takn frllnl th stnrt. lllrrs th initial sped is zero, th spd .t ah thsh is twi th ilvrog spd. Th rsulti sh<lw that th lr| iltrls y l.{) /r vry 0.l s whih sals uP l() iltl iltrits llf |{} lrr/s vry sllnrl..hus th alation rlf 1r frrll lrrrs il (rtllttillll vl|tt lll l() n/t,..his vlu is usuallv

Q6.

Q7. In an expriment' a ball was rlased from rst at th top of a slop and rolld a distane of 2.0 mtres down th slop in 8.0 sonds. Calulat (a) its avrag spd in this tim, () th sped fter 8.0 sonds from rst, () th alration of th ball.

Q8. Al airtaft alrats from rest to a sped oI 720 m/s in 40 s when it taks ff. Calulat
(a) its avrage speed during tak off, (b) th distan it travls in this tim. () its alrtion during this time.

Q9. A small jt is rlasd from th top f a wll and hits th watr surf of th well 1.5 s latr. Calulat () its spd ju.st-bfor it hits th watr surfae, (b) th distan fim th tol of th wll to th Water surfa. Assum 8 = 9.8 m/s,.
out whn its spd had rahd 200 m/s. (a) Calulat the alrtion of th rokt during this tim. (b) Calulat th hight of th rkt whn its l ran out. turthr 20 s (t th narest sond) aftr its ful ran out. (d) Calulat th maimum hight attaind y the rokt.

for 50 s from th momnt it was.launhd to urhn its ful ran

Q10. A rokt launhd vertially lratd at a onstant rat

!)

xin why

th rokt ontinued to gain height for a

Assum8=9.8m./s,.

o o a

{r

rl

o + o
-t

.
.

ln this chapter you will learn: how Newton in the late

seventeenth century formed the principIes of physis for the next two enturies the differene between mass and weight how to lose weight without much effort how to use Newton ideas in everyday situations suh as making sure objets do not fall over.

phsis. The ls of mehnis hd ben estblished b Sir Is Neton in the lte seueteeth cetur nd bid proud ormousl sussfl in plinig the motion of objecis from the thro of bll to the motion of tbe plnts i orbit road tbe Sn. ichel Frd hd disouered ho to genrtr ltri in the 7B20s nd, b the end of the entury, is ides led to the estblishmet of th eletrii suppl induitry. Th foundtios of phsis tht seemed so sere nd certin t th end of he nieteenth entury fell prt in the first ao dedes of th tulentieth ntur. V ill look t houl.d ulh this.hppned lter in this booi.' ,istin,s thories of reltiui d. th quntl.nt|1 theor rshped tb priipls of ih subjeit nd n disoueries bout the pperties of mttr |lue resuited in mior neul indotries suh s electrois, nler pouler nd crspe, Hoeuer, pre-,uetieth entury phsis hich is usuall referred tl s lssicl phsis rgbl hd euen reter impt buse the prinipls of lssil phsis undrpinned the gret deuelopmts i ngieering ad

hd bee disouered d little else remined pt to mk mor urt mesurements of th propertis of mtter. A fe niggli isses remined tht ould not b proprl xplid' ostl i-onnetio ith light, but it s gnerll thought tht th.e problms. ulould be salued usig the kouln prliiples of

I the to enturies fter GIileo's deth, sciene deueloped t n euer-incresig rte. B the nd of the ineteenth tury, m scientists belieued tht Il the fundamentl priniples of phsiis

to ah othr and to othr physial quantitis aheady dfind. 1 Th quantify of mattr in an objt or its mass was dfind by Nwton as its volum th dnsity of th substan from whih th objt is omposed. For xample, iron is about

eight times as dns as Watr so th mass of 2 ui mtrs of stl is sitn tims th mass of 1 ui mtr of watr. Th mass of an jt is now dtrmind by omparing its wight with th weight of standard mass. S p. 14.

The quantity of motion of a mving ojt or its momentum was dfind y Nwtn as its mass X its vloity. For xample, th momentum of an objet of a 2 kg mass moving at 3 m/s is six tims th momntum of an ojt of mass 1 kg moving at
1 m/s.

A for is an ation on an objt that hangs its motion. Two r mor fors ating on an ojt alan ah othr
out if th objt stays at rst of movs at onstant sped along a straight lin.

Newton lst Law of motion

ted on b fore. Hr ar som vryday situations that reveal th link btwen for and motion as stalishd by Nwton in his 1st Law:

objet otius t rest or i oiforr motion

unless

luls re sed in some euerd situti<ls.

lnstrution tbt retd the industril ruolution f the nintenth er'try. In t|lis hpt e ill nsider i dtil the ls of motion estblished b Neton d htlw these clssil

1 An

ojt sliding aross i movs at onstant spd without hang of dirtion bause thr is no for on th ojt du to th i. If th ojt rosss a surfa whr thr is no

2A

Nevyton Iaws of motion

Galilo idas on motion and th (irl;rrrriitn systm wr rought togthr by Sir Isaa Nwton irr his litws llf motion and gravitation. For ovr two nturis, ths lltws wr thought to universal, appliable in any situti<lrr wltr rnltril odis ltltrt. Nwton thr laws of nrrltillrt trlrdt.rpin muh of .I.h lnrldrn thnology and enginring. ttllltilln tlf plants, (l)tuts nd satllits an xplainl ltltttrlst lllpltly using Nwt()n's thory of gravitation and his l;tws tll ltltlti<ln' lllllr Nwton wrote his lws <lf lll()ll()tll h dfind kv ;'hyrl quantitis whih h thn lilrkrl rlr hts litws tlf motion

twn th ojt and th surfa. ylist in motion on a lvl road gradually oms to a halt if h or she stops yling and .frewhels'. Th rason is that frition in the whel barings and air rsistan on th ylist at against th motion and gradually stop th yl moving. An ojt eing whirld round on th end of a lngth of string is pulld y th string so its dirtion repatdly hangs. If th string suddnly snaps' th objt flis off at a tangnt aus th pull for of th string on th ojt has suddnly stoppd ating on the objt.

i, it is rought to a standstill y th for of frition

In fft, Nwton 1st Law tlls us what a for is, namly anything that an hang th motion of an objt. Diffrnt typs of fors inlud:

th for of gravity on an objet, usually rfrrd to as the weight of the ojt, th for of frition ating on two surfas whn thy slid ovr ah othr, th tnsion in an bjet suh as a string when it is taut and ing pulld at ah nd,

Newton 2nd Law of motion

The fore on n objet is proportiol to the rte of hng of momentum of tbe objct.

|n

opposite fores. he fores ba|ane oh other out.

a tug-of.war .stalemate', the toams pu|| with equa| nd

Ft=Fz

during th tim th fore ats on it. Considr th xampl of an objt of mass m eing alratd along a straight line y a onstant for F for a tim t acting in the sam diretion as the ojet is moving. Suppos the objet sped inrass from to u in this tim rithout hang of dirtion.

An objt initially at rst atd on by a singl for gains sped and thrfor gains momntum. For a givn amount of fr, th ojt gains a rtain amount of momntum vry snd

initia| speed =
&
he weight of an obiet hanging on the end of a Vrtial rope is equal and opposite to the tension in the rope.

sDeed = D at time

}
LW

tnsion

I
Fore and motion

T=W
tigure

wrioht t{
ligur 3.2 Newton 2nd Law of motio

3'1

ba|nd fores

. .

the fre on.n ojet whn another ojet pushs or pulls it

or supprts it,

. .

th for btwn fwo letrially harged objets or twen two magntized objts.

rop hanging vrtially supports a ukt. Th for of gravity on th ukt ats downwards and is qual and oppositJto th tnsion in th rope whih ats upwards, as shownin Figure 3.1.

Blaned fores An ojet atd on by two or mor fres an b at st or in uniform motion i{ th fors on it balan ah other ut. Th simplst xample of this situation is a tug-of-war rhn a stalmat exists bause -the two tams pull n th rop with qual fore in opposit dirtions. Anothr xampl is hn a

t Aording to Nrvton's sond lw, the for F on th ojt is proportional to th rat of hang of momntum, hn F = km (v - u) rhr is a onstant of proportionaliry. t Beaus th alration of th objt a = (v - u), then F = km' t
tim

momentt = final momentum momentUm =mtJ-mU hene th rate of hang of momntum = hn8e of momntum = r|l|J _ rn|,' = r (v _ u).

so th hang of

Th initial momntum of the oject = mu Th final momntum of th objt = zeu

_ initial

taken

By dfining th unit f for, th nwton, as th amount of for that would giv an objt of mass 1 kg an alration of 1' m/s,, th valu of A is thrfor st at 1. Nwton's 2nd Law an thn writtn as th quation

F=

md

eals of th Grat Plagu whih ravagd th untry during ths yars. Nwton rturnd to his home in th Linolnshir ountrysid and in just rwo yars produed mathmatial thoms and physial thoris that rvolu-

,!'666

whr F = for in nwtons, m = mass in kilograms, and

l = ace|etation

in

m./s,

Worked example A ar of mass 600 kg alerats from rst to a spd of 12 mls in 30 s. Calulate (a) its alration, (b) th fo ndd to
produe this aeleration.

tionizd mathmatis and physis. H rturned to Cambridg in 1667 and was appointd two yars latr at 26 earc of ag to th Chair of Mathmatis at Trinity Collg. H publishd his thoris of mathmatis and physis in 1687.tn his gratst wrk, the Principi, in whih h showd that his thr laws of motion and his law of gravitation ar suf{iint to xplain the motion of any systm of odis. H provd onld

Solution (a) Initial sd,

foi all that

0, final

... aelrtio a = (v

t30

u) = Iz _ 0

spd u = 12 rnls, tim takn,

0.4 rnls,,

'

30 s,

(b) F

ma = 600 kg

0.4

m/s, = 240 N.

Ativity
Here are some simple experiments to demonstrate Newton first two laws of motion.

th plants and th arth orit th Sun and h xplaind Kpli's laws of plantary motion and Galilo obrvations on th motion of falling ojts. Using his law of gravitation whih w will mt in Chaptr 13, h was al to prdit omts' lipss and tids. H saw th Univrs as a giganti mehanial systm, govrned by the sam laws that go1'', th motion of objts on th arth. His idas providd ih guiding priniples for sien for th nxt two nturis until instin wd tht spa and tim ar not indpndnt quantitis. W will mt instin's idas in dtail in Chaptr 10. Nwton,s intrsts in sin wr wid-ranging, and inludd astronomy' hmistry and optis as wll as mathmatis and physis. lft th Univrsit in 1'696 to bom astr f th Mi.'t whr h dvotd his talents to montary rform, nly dlving ak to th hallngs f sine oasinally. His prminn as a sintist was rognized in 1703 whn h was lted as Prsidnt of the Royal Soiry and h was knightd in 1705. In ontrast with Galileo who was shunned by th Cathli hurh' Newtn am part of th stablishmnt in nglnd, vn attrating th attntion of satirists, larly o''iwa' that th fredom f thought on whih thy dpndd would not hav mrgd without Galilo and Nwton.

ln the absene of frition' the oin ontinues to move without being pushed beause no fore ats on it. Newton's 2nd Law of motlon: Re|ease a oin at the top of a flat slope (e.9. a tea tray propped up at one end) so that it slides down the slope. Observe it gather speed as it moves down the s|ope. lts momentum inreases beause its weight provides a steady fore that pu|Is it down the s|ope.

Newton's Ist Law of motion: FIik a oin aross a very smooth |evel surfae (e.g. a tea try) and it wi|l slide aross the surfae.

Sir lsaa Newton 12.1727 Th idas about mahin powr wr first dvlopd y Sir
Isaa Nwton whn h applid his idas aout for and motion

Mss and Weight Th alration of

Grantham in th unty of Linolnshir in astrn ngland. His fathr did befor h was born and h was rought up y a grandparnt aftr his mothr remarrid. H was snt to th loal grammar shol as a boardr and entrd amridg University in 1.661,. ngland at this tim was a rpubli undr Olivr Cromwll. Th Univrsity was losd at tims during 1665 and

to mahins. Nwton

rras

brn in th markt town of

a ftee| falling objt, g, is onstant, providd th distan falln is muh smallr than th radius of ih arth. This alration is ausd by th wight of the bjt whih is th for of gravity pulling it towards th arth. Using Newton 2nd Law in th form p = md thrfo givs zg as the
for of gtavit on an ojt of mass m. Hnce th wight an ojt of mass rn = r8.
W.

of

/ight W (in nwtons) = m8,wIlere m = mass in kilograms and g = th alration of a free| falling objt (= 9.8 m./s, near th

arth's surfa).

Th weight of a 1 kg mass nar th rth's surfa is thrfor 9.8 N. Th wight of a prson of mass 60 kg at th arth's surfae is 588 N.

(i) Calulat th mass of rater in th bukt. Th dnsity f water is 1000 kg mr. (ii) Calulat th total weight of th bukt and th Watr. (b) The bukt is attahd to a lop whih is usd to rais th ukt. Calulat the tnsion in th rop whn it supports th
bukt at rst ontaining 0.008 m of watr.

Q3.

(a)

A bukt of mass 2.5 kg ontains 0.008

m3 of Watr.

for of gravit pr unit mass on an ojt at that position. Hn gravitational fild strngth = m8 | m = g. Thus g an b rfrrd to as ithr th alration of a free| falling objt (in m/s2) or gravitational fild strngth (in nwtns per kilogram).

The gruittionl field strength at an position is dfind as th

Q4. Calulat (a) the for ndd to give an objet of mass 4 kg

an alration of (i) 2 m/s,, (ii) 6 m/s,. (b) th alration of an objt of mass 2kg acted on by a for of (i) 10 N, (ii) 8 N.

Newton 3rd Law

wben hao bodies iterct, th ert ql d opposit fores on eah other. For eampl, if you lap your hands togthr' th for f your lft hand on your right hand is qul and oppsit to th for of your right hand on your lft hand.
If you lan on a wa||, th wall xrts a for on you qual and opposit to th for you xert on th wall. T7hn you stand still, th floor xrts an upward fore on you qual and opposit to th for you xrt on th floor.

Q5. A ar of mass 800 kg is rought to rst from a spd of 30 m/s in a tim of 15 s. Calulat (a) th dlration of the ar, (b) th for ndd to produ this dlration.

Stability
Force as a vetor A physial quantity that has a dirtion as wll as a siz is a vtor quantity. xampls of vtors inlud for, vloit5 alration and momentum. A physial quantity that is not
dirtional is rfrrd to as a salar quantiry. xampls inlud
distan, spd, mass and enrgy.

Summary
Momntum
=

mass

veloity

Nlvton's larvs of motion

An objt ontinus at rst or in uniform motion unlss atd on y a for. Nwton's 2ndLaw: For = mass x lration.
Nr,ton's 1st Law:

Nwton,s 3d Law: Whn two odies intrat, they xrt qual and opposit fors on ah other.

A vtor quantity may rprsented by an arrow of lngth in proportion to th quantity and whih pints in th appropiat dirtion. For xampl, a fore of 10 N ating hrizontally du North on an ojt may e reprsentd on a diagram as an arrow f lng 10 m pointing in a dirtion dfind on th diagram as du North. Caution is ndd to us Nwton's 3rd Law orrtly whn fore diagrams ar drawn. For vry fore
ating on a bdy, thr is an qual and opposite for rtd by the bidy. To nsur fr diagrams do not beom ompliatd, a for diagram for an ojt should show only th fors ating on th body not th fors xrtd by th body.

Weight-massg

Questions

g=9.8m/s'
a ar is

Q1. xplain why

likely to skid at a bnd on an iy rad.

Q2. () Calulat th wight f an ojet of mass (i) 2 kg, (ii) a kg. (b) xplain vrhy a 2 kg objet and a 4 kg objt rlasd aov th ground at th sam tim fall t th same ra.

.!hn

Centre of gravity

an ojt is atd upon by two of mor fors inluding th for of gravit5 th effet on th objt dpnds on th dirtion and siz of th fors. ah for ating on an ojt

may.b reprsentd as a vtor on a for diagram. To rprsnt th for of gravity on an ojet (i.e. its wight) rhih its o', all parts f an objt, we dfine th ntr of gravity of an objet as th point wher its entir wight may -onsidrd ta a,t. The wight of an ojt an thn shown on a for diagrm as a vtor arrow ating dornwards at th ntr of graviry.

am twn th pivot and th nd of the bam narst th pivot. Figur 3.4 shows th arrangment.

Th ntr of gravity of a uniform am is at its entr. Using the priniple of th lvr (s p.12)

Th xamples below ar hosen to illustrate th idai 1 A tall fre-standing bookas is lial to toppl ovr whn it is movd unlss it is supportd. If it tilts too muh, its entr of gravity movs outside its bas and it toppls ovr unlss somone supports it to prvnt it falling over. Push a tall objet 999h as an mpty real paket sidways at its top and yu will find it tilts thn toppls ovr if it is pushed tooar. If you hld it at th point whre it only just toppls, you should find th ntre ofth ox is dirtly aov th dg in ontat

Th ida of ntr of gravity nables us to undrstand staility and th onditions nessary to kp an objet in quilibrium.

wher fi is the wight of th hanging ojt, Wo is th wight of th bam, d' is th distane from lV' to the pivot

W1d1 = Vloio

and do is th distn from th pivot to th ntre of gravity of th bam.

with th tabl.

|igur

3.4

b|aning a beam off.entre

Not that is th distan from the pivot to th ntr of

gravity of the bam. Hn th wight of th am,'Wo, can b alulated |f w do and d, ar known. Locate the centre of gravity of a flat objet
rod through hole in a]d

sntro o' gvity dirot|y

bolow rod "plumb line"

figure 3.3 toppling

vertia| |ine marked on card lrom plumbline Note: repat |t with the rd suspandad at Y and Z in tum. ha ntre of gnvlty o| the rd is whffi the lires intedt

2A

beam supportd on a pivot whih is not at th ntre of th am an b baland y hanging a singl wight from th
tigre

3.5 finding the ntre of grvlty of

t|t objet

Cut a pi of ard to mak alatge t'ia',.Pier a small hol nar on orner of th trian and hang it fre from a pin. Hang a .plumJine'onsisting of a otton tfuad supporting a small wi from the pin against the triangle. Draw a pnil lin on tlr trian along the lin of th thrad. Whn th triangl is at rs! i enff of gravity dirdy low th pin along th line. Rpat the tst by

hang the ian from a pinhol at ah of the othr two orners

thru
in tum. Th nffe of graty of th rd
th pinhols intrst.

t'i"''

is whr th lines

Summary A vto quantity has

salar quantiy has magnitud nly.

magnitud (i.. siz) and dirtin.

Th entr of graty of an objt is th point wher its entir wight may onsiderd to at.

Questions
Q6.
(a) a bukt at rest hanging on th nd of a vrtial rop, () a tightrop walkr aland on a tightrop.

Skth a fre bdy for diagram for

fre-standing ookas toppls ovr easily if only th top shlf is filld with oks. () plain why a prson arrying a heavy ak pak is liabl to toppl bakwards whn siing on a wall unlss th akpak is rmovd.
spannr is a dvi dsignd to tightn or untightn a nut on a lt. xplain why lss ffort is ndd to untightn a nut using a long spannr than is ndd using a short spannr.

Q7. (a) plain why a

o
-

Q8. A

o x
l

s)
J l

Q9. A hild's ssaw onsists of a uniform bam of lngth

girl sits at one end and a boy of wight 200 N sits on the sesaw 1.0 m from th other nd. (a) Skth the for diagram fr th ssa\^/. () Calulat th wight of th girl.
angles to th edge of a rivr ank so that a 2.0 m stion of th beam projts from th bank. (a) xplain why th am dos not fall into th rivr in this positin. () \Vh'y would th bam toppl int th river if somon attmptd to walk on it byond a rtain dn from the ank?

4.0 mtrs pivoted at its ntr. Th ssaw is baland whn a

o
U'
g)

Q10. A uniform bam of length 5.0 m is positiond at right

ln this hapter you will Iearn:

. . .

about energy and how you an transfer it and use it what is meant by the Principle of Conservation of Energy what is meant by the effiieny of a machine and how it an be worked out.

nginers contiu to seek more ffiiet d ost.fftiue solutios to toder problems. l this hpter look.it hota th ids estblished b Neto re ied to eplai hota
different tpes of mchis cuorh.

Th Idustril Reuolutio in the eighteeth nd ieteth turis deulope-d blus engieers re ble to mk biggr d' more potuerful m|lies d engis th the ld1lls d u1t-ermilk of th pre-industril eri, Th sientifi principles est.blished b Neto enbled engieers to desig d build suh rchies nd egies. With Nluto's guidig prinip|es,

ffrt ndd to shift a givn load is smallr than th load baus of th way th dvi is dsignd. For xample, a havy

wight supportd y a rop attahd to th drum of winh an raisd by turning th handl of th winh. Whn th handl is turned, th op winds round th drum thus raising th wight attahd to th rop. Th ffort applid to th handl ats at a muh largr distan than th distan frm th rop n th drum to th ntr f th drum. Th pull of the rop on th drum is th load that has to shiftd by th ffort. Figure 4.2 shows an nd-viw of th drum. Th law of lvrs (s p. 72) can b applied hr to giv th quation

Work, energy and power

lrgr fft via th levr than if it was applied dirtly. Th grratr th distan from th pivot to th point whre th for is-pplid,-th grater th fft. A lvr is i for multiplir. Th fft:t-<lf th applid for is multiplid so a muh largr for ilts. An<lthr xampl of a lver at work is a manual ph usd lrl 1rttnh hol in shts of papr. Whn a downwird for is .r;llid y nd to th lvr, th mtal utter is pushed through
;rx,p1.

F'd,

4,,

!hn a lvr is usd to shift an objet, for exampl to pris open a lid, a for applid by hand at th nd of th lvr hls a muh

wher F5 is th effort, d' is the distan from th lin of ation of th ffort to th axis f th drum, lV.is th wight to raisd and d, is th radius of the drum. Sin d1 is muh greatr than d,, ten Fu is muh smallr than W.

tlt|rlll lrt.us this for ats tn times furthr from th pivot th.llr lh llltl utter.
Alt lrr'trlr rntlst dvis sd to mov ojets ar more ((lrllltlt(.lld than a simpl lvr, th sam gnral prinipl .r;l1lltr. 'l.h dvi xerts a for to mov an objt 1hih w wrll rtr lrl its th load) as a rsult of a for (whih w shall rll.t llr.l5 lh fftlrt) applid to th mahin or dvi. Th
to Weight l,Y

llr

Th for of th hand on th lvr is multiplid

being rised

|igure

4'2 using

a winh

sheet o[ poper

Suppos in th abov xampl, distan d, is tn tims greatr than distane d,, 500 N weight uld thrfor b raisd y an effort of 50 N' provided no othr fors ar prsnt. ah turn f th handl would rais th wight by a hight qual to th irumfern of the drum whih is 2d,. The ffort is applid at a muh gratr distan d1 from th axis, so th ffort gos round a irl of irumfrene 2d1whih is muh furthr than th height gain of th wight for a single turn. Thus th rdution of {frt is at th pns of an inrase of distane over whih th ffort must b applid.
In a mahin whr thr is no fritin, th ratio { th distan

->il'i<llgrtll l lu*ll
tttth

movd by th effort to th distan mvd y th load is qual to th ratio of th load to th ffort. In othr words. if th load

a givn load,

xampl, suppo.s th hndle is turnd so it gos"r"""J,t-" steady spd of 1' m./s, th wight would thfor r stady spd of 0.1 mls for a load l effort ratio of 10. Thus"t " for
the load

mahin is oprting at a stady spd, th ffort rn,'# th...fo.. mov round at ten times th-spd t whih th wight rises. For

is 10 times th ffort, th ffort must mov a distan of 10 mtrs for vry mtr the load is moyd through. rf t

th load sped = th ffort th ffort spd. Th power-of a mahin dpnds on th load it movs and the sped at whih it movs ttr load. A mahi that shifts four tims as muh load as anothr mahin but dos th job rwie as fast s th othr mahine must b eight tims *o.. po-..f,,i than the othr mahin.

don y th rik on th sho ould not b rovrd, howv unlss th sho ap was lasti. A raisd ojet has th apaity to do work bus of its position. Anothr xampl is a lokrork .Whn spring rhih has work don on it whn it is wound up. th spring unwinds, it dos work by making th whls and gears inside th lok mov. If th spring is prvntd from unwinding, it kps th apaityto do work until it is allowd to unwind. This paity to do work is dfind as th energy of an ojt. Th trm .stored work'might sm mor appropriat ut work is nly don whn a for movs so th trm .nrgy' is usd for th capacit of body to do work. The erg of object is its capit to do ulork. nrgy is masured in jouls, th sam unit as th unit of work. For xampl, if a brik of wight 5 N is raisd 2 m from th ground, th work don to raise it is qual to 10 J (= 5 N 2 m). Th raisd brik thrfor ontains an tra 10 J of enrgy du to bing lifted. If th brik is droppd onto somone's sho, it auses a dnt in th sho and loss th xtra 10 J of nrgy in th pross. Thus 10 J of work must hve n done to ieat th dnt. You an work out th for of th impat from th depth of the dnt y ralling that work don = foi X distan. Fo ampl, a dent of 0.5 m (= 0.005 m)rould orrspond to a for of 2000 N (= 10 J / 0.005 m) and a rally ig ouiht

ffiint, this is.qua-l to th powr output of th -".i''. baus th load th lod spd = thJ ffort X th ffort spd. In othr words, provided no powr is wastd th poluer output of mhine the poer supplied to it
=

Whlh th ttort movs. For mahin whih

Th powr of a mahine in pration , in tutts, is th load (in nwtons) . th spd of the load (in m/s). A mahin that shltts a lod of 100 N at a spd of 10 metrs pr sond has a powr orrtut of 1000 watts whih is 1000 tis mor than --_. a mahin that shifts a load of 1 N at a spd of 1 m/s. l9 powr supplid to a mahin is th ifort th spd at
is_ 1'00%

Work and energy

Th wok don by a for on an ojt is dfind as th for th distarr movd y th objt along th lin of ation of th tor. h unit of work is the joule (;; wih is qual to th

th tor. (i

work don whn a for of on nton movs its point of appliation through a distan of on mtr in th dirtion of
\V,9rk d99 = fore

Forms of energy objets an possss nrgy in various wys, rferrd to as .forms' of nrgy. For xampl: kineti nrgy is the nrgy of a moving ojt du to its motion. Th fstr an ojt movs' the mor kineti enrgy it has. An unbaland for is needd to mak an ojt move faster so th work don y the for is qual to th gain of kinti nrgy of th ojt.
potntial nrgy is the nergy of an ojt du to its position. For xampl, an ojet raisd from th ground gains potntial nergy- baus a lift for opposit to th wight of t objet is nedd to rais th ojt. lasti nrgy is th nrgy stord in an ojt whn it is strthd or squezd. Vhen th obiet returns to its undistortd shp, th elasti nergy is rlasd. ltrial nrgy is th enrgy of partils suh as ltrons that arry letri harg. A apaitor is a dvi usd to stor ltri harg. nergy is stord in this pross eaus work

iouls) (i

netons)

X distn

roued in th dirtio of th forc

(i mtrs)

work don on a brik of wight 2.0 N liftd th rr lr'rgh a hight of 1 m is equal to 2 ,i.k hd n !. If the ;tisl thou only 0.5 m, th work don on'"* it would hav n 'I.h l |. w<lrk don on an ojt y raising it nabls th ojet to tttl v,'1;1t1 ..,'.',something ls whn it dopi. A rik 'opp stllllt.tlllt.'s sh<l would do work in dnng the sho. T work ""i"
l;<lr xampl, th

must b don to for eltrons into a capacitor baus idntial hargd partiles rpl eah othr. thrmal nergy is th nrgy of an bjt du to its tmprature. Fr xample, in a ar ngin, th pol-air mitur' in a ylinder is ignitd by mans of a spark whih auss th air to bom vry hot very quikly. Th prssure of the hot air shots up and fos th piston out so it tuns the driv shaft. S p. 76. . nulear negy is nrgy that an rlasd from an atom whih has an unstabl nulus. S p. 183. . hmial nrgy is th nrgy that an b rlasd whn hmials rat. For example, whn a attry is used to light a torhulb, hmial enrgy is rleasd insid th bary to
for ltriity through th torhbulb.

.!hn

th flr without rounding, it an ojt rashs to .!hat happns to this nrgy? A loses all its kinti nrgy. test using a mass of lad pllets droppd down a long tub shows that th tempratur of th pellets inrass. Th kinti rnrgy of th pllts beoms thrmal nrgy. .!hn a small wight is used to raise a|arge wight at a stady spd using pullys, the large wight gains potntial enrgy and th small wight loss potntial nrgy. If frition is negligibl, th gain f potntial nrgy of th larg wight is equal to th loss of ptntial nrgy of the small weight. If {rition is not negligibl, th large wight gains lss potntial nrgy than th small wight loss. In other wrds, thr is a disrpany etwn th loss of potntial enrgy of the small wight and the gain f potential nrgy of th large wight.

Hat transfr is nrgy transfer du to tmpratur diffrnie. !hn a hot objt is in ontat with a old objt, hat transfr fr9ry tle hot-ojt to th old ojt redus th thrmal nrgy of th hot objet and inrass th thermal nergy of th o]d objt. Se p. 62. The Principle of Gonsen ation of Energy .W-hn enrgy is transfrrd twn jts in an isolatd systm' th total nrgy of all th ojts aftr th hang is th
total enrgy of all th ojts is unhanged (i.. nsrvd1. his is known as the Priniple of Consrvation of nrgy. nrgy is th apaity to do work. Th prinipl of onsrvati.on of r,rsy mans that the total apaity of an isolatd system f ojts unhangd y-intrations betwn th objts. Th prinipl
sam as th total nrgy of all th objts for th hang. The

Othr forms of nrgy inlude sound nrgy and light nrgy.

thrmal nrgy. Th unit of nrgy and work is namd after Joul baus his invstigations and thrs that follord ld to th onlusion that nrgy is nservd in th hangs
invstigatd. All th availale evidn indiatd that nrgy is always onsrvd. The Prinipl of Consrvation of nrgy was thus stalishd and rmains so to this day although futur disovris might disprov th prinipl"

This disrpany was invstigatd by Jams Joul in th nintnth ntury. H made arful masurmnts and showd that th disrpany is atly aountd for by

has n tsted many tims and th measurments alwiys om up with th-result that th ttal nergy is unhangd. \Vhn .nrgy transfr within th systm taks pla, individul ojts do work n ah other so gaining r losing nrgy. Howev th total apaity to do work is unhangd. In othr words, th total nrgy is unhangd.

Some thoughtful experiments A pendulum bob on a string swings from sid to sid rpatdly. Th pendulum bob lss potntial nergy and
gains kinti nrrgy whn it movs towards the ntr. it movs away from th ntre, it loss kinti nrgy and gains potntial enrgy. Its total energy stays th same as its kinti nrgy plus its potential nrrgy at a point always add up to th sam.

.Whn

W saw that th powr otput f a mahin is given y th load X th sped at whih th mahine movs th load. This link an b applid to any ojt or mahin eing drivn at onstant spd. If th for is in newtons and th spd in mtrs pr seond, the powr is in waffs. Fr xampl, suppos th ngin of a vhil moving at onstant speed of 25 m/s xrts a driving for of 400 N. The pwr output of th ngin is therfor 400 N 25 m/s = 10 000 wafts. In nergy trms' th vehil moves a distn f 25 mtrs vry sond so th work don by th ngin eah seond is threfor 10 000 jouls (= 400 N x 25 m). Th powr output in watts is thrfor th wrk don by th ngin pr sond. In othr words, on watt of powr is an nrgy transfr rat of on joul pr send. This gnral statment applis to rn nrgy transfr pross.

on p. 50,

Power nd energy

Poer is rt of trnsfer of energ. Th unit of powr is th watt, (.!), qual to a ratr of transfr of nergy of 1 joule pr snd. A 3000 watt ltri hatr mits
hat at a rat of 3000 jouls very seond.

A 100 watt lit ul

uss ltrial nrgy at a rate of 100 jouls per sond. very minut, a 100 ! light ul would us 6000 jouls of ltrial enrgy. A wightliftr who raiss a 800 N wight through a hight of 1 mtr in 2 snds has a powr output of 400 watts baus th weight is supplid with 800 J of potntial nrgy (= wight X hight gain) in 2 sonds. (in

nrgy is th apaity to do work. Porvr (in watts )

=

ner8y transfrrd (in jouls) tim takn (in seonds)

Questionsg=9.8m/s'
Q1. Dsri
(a) a pndulum o swings from one sid to th othr side, (b) a a[ is rlasd abov a hard floor, hits th floor and rounds to a lssr height. Q2. (a) Calulat th gain of ptntial nrgy whn a 500 N wight is raised y a hight of 4.0 m. () ow muh light nrgy is rlasd y a 100 wa light bulb in 20 sonds? Q3. (a) alulat the ltrial nrgy used by a 3000 watt ltri kttle in xatly 5 minuts. () How long would a 100 watt light ulb nd to b swithd on to rlas th amount of nrgy alulatd in (a)?
th enrgy hanges that tak pla whn

Poer =

tts)

erg trnsfrred (i ioules) time tken (i sods)

Th abov quation may rarrangd to grv nerg trsferred (i joules) = poer (in tts )
(i seconds).

time tken

How powerful are you?

ime how long it takes you to walk up a flight of stairs that you norma|ly use. |f you annot use stairs, time a friend wa|king who an use the stai. Then measure the height from the bottom to the top stair. lf necessry measure the height of a single step and multiply by the number of steps. To alulate your power output, mu|tiply your weight in newtons

Q4. A hild

divide the potential energy gain by the time taken to give your 9 = 10 m/s'.
power output in watts. Note that your weight in newtons is your mass in kilograms x g. For the purpose of this ativity, use

by the total height gain to give your gain of potential energy. hen

sonds. Calulat (a) the wight of the hild, () th gain of potntial nrgy of the hild, () th Powr output of th hild's arm musles.

of mass 40 kg lims 3.0 m up a vrtial rope in 25

Q5. At a swimming pool, a prson of mass 55 kg jumps off

Worked example A prson of mass 54 kg walks up flight of 20 stairs in 6

sonds. Th hight of ah stair is 0.15 m. Calulat th powr output of this Prson.
=

high diving oard into th pool4.5 m low th ard. (a) alulate th loss of potntial nrgy of th prson du t this vrtial dsnt of 4.5 m. (b) Dsri th nrgy hanges of th prson aftr laving th diving oard.

Solution Totl hight gain

20 X 0.15 m

Wight = 54 kg X 10 m/s, = 540 N Gain of potntial nrgy = 540 N X 3.0 m = 1620I Powr output = |620l = 270\I

= 3.0 m

Effiieny and power

.
Th power output of a mahin is th nrgy it supplis ah sond t th ojt it drivs. Th polvr input to a mahin is th nrgy supplid ah
sond to th mahin.

5s

ah sond, a rtain amount of nergy is supplid to th

Summary
Work don (in joules) = For (in nwtons) distan movd in th dirtion of th for (in metrs)

mahin and th mahin dlivers a rtain amount of nrgy to whatvr it is driving. Th nrgy dlivrd pr sond by th mahin annot xeed the nrgy supplid to th mahin ah sond aus nrgy annot ratd in th mahin. If all

q9rgy supplid t it ah sond' th mahin is prftly ffiint. In prati, frition is usually pfesent btwn th moving parts of a mahin so most mahines ar not prfetly
ffiint.

th nrgy dlivrd by th mahine ah sond is qual to th

a a

Th sped of th objt aftr tim /, u = alration X 1i11g = t |lzut Hn th distan moved, S = aYfxge spd X time = sin th avetage spd = '/zu Thrfor th work done on th objt = for X distan

Th ffiinc of a mahin is dfind as

the rg per seond deliuered b the mhine the erg supplid to the mhin per seod

movd

(mass

Baus th nrgy dlivrd pr sond by th mahin is its powr output and th nrgy supplid t it pr sond is its powr input, the effiienc = Polur outPut por Th maximum valu of th ffiinv of a mahin is 1 as this is whn th powr output is qual to t powr input s no PoWr is wastd in th mahin.
'npt

Baus all th work don gos to kinti enrgy, it follows that th kinti nrgy of th ojt at spd u is qual to
'lzmD',

= t|trs =

alration) distan movd m (l I t) X llzot ='|zmD,

Kinti nrgy

1lzmDz

Worked example

Calulate th kinti nrgy of a vhil of mass 800 kg moving at a sped of 30 m/s.

Not tht the prcetge fficin of mhine is its effiin

100%.

Solution Kinti nrgy ='|zrt|D' ='|z

800

30, = 360 000 J

Worked example .V/ A 500 ltri winh raiss a weight of 200 N at a sped of
0.4 m/s. Calulat
(a) th ltrial nrgy supplid to th winh eah sond, () th gain of potntial nrgy of th wight in 1 sond, () th prntag ffiieny of th winh.

More about potential energy

Th wight of an objt of mass r = m8. To rais th bjt an qual and opposit fore must applid to it. Thrfor if th ojt is raisd through a hight H, its potntial nrgy inrass y.an amount equal to its wight X th gain of hight whih is qual to mgH. Th sam formula is usd for loss of potntial nrgy with H as th loss f hight. hnge of potentil ener* = mgH Worked example 8 = 9.8 m./s2 A ball of mass 0.5 kg is rlasd from rst at a hight of 3.0 m abov a floor. Calulat (a) th loss of potntial nrgy of th all just bfore it hits th floor (b) its spd just bfor it hits th floor, assuming its kinti nrgy is qual to th loss of potntial nrgy.

= 9.8 m/s'

Solution (a) Th power input to th winh = 500 watts. Thefor, in 1 seond, th winh is supplid with 500 J of ltrial nrgy. (b) Th wight gains a hight of 0.4 m in 1 sond. Hn th gain of potential nrgy in 1 seond = weight X height gain in 1 seond = 200 N 0.4 m = 80 J. () Bffiq = m'rs dlid ,in se,},d = 80J 0.16 = enrg suwlird to e mcbi eh seod 500l
Prntag effiiny = 0.1.6

100% = 16".

More about kineti energy

rst at onstant alration for a rtain tim /.

Solution (a) Loss of potntial nrgy = mgH = 0.5 9.8 x 3.0 = |4.7 I () Its kinti nrgy just bfor hitting th floor = L4.7 J
'.. llzmlJ,
= L4.7 whr u is its spd just for impat.

Kinti nergy is the nrgy possssd by a moving objt du to its motion. Considr an obit of mass mwhicalrats from

Hn '/z

0.5 X v, = 14.7 ,=2X14,7=59

0.5

= 7.7

mls

Summary
Th ffiienc of a mahin
th nrgy pr sond delivrd y th mahin = powr outPut the nrgy supplid to th mahin pr powr input |lzrnD' Kinti nrgy
=

sond

Change of potntial enfgy

ttlgll

Questionsg=9.8m/s'
potntial enrgy f the wight, (b) th ltrial nrgy supplid to th winh, () th prrntag ffiiny of th winh.

Q6. A 500 wa eltri winh raiss a wight of 400 N through a hight of 2.5 m in 10 sonds. alulat (a) th gain of

Q7. A lift and its passngrs hav a total mass of 2800 kg. The lift taks 40 sonds to asnd a vertial distan o{ 20 m.
effiiny of th motor whn it is used to mak th lift and its
(a) alulat th gain of potntial nrgy pr snd of th lift. (b) A 25 k.W ltri motor is usd to rais th lift. alulat tlr

passngfs asnd.

+.+

through a hight of 5.0 m. Whn th lvator is oprating at normal sped, it transports thr os vry minut from th ttm to th top of the lvator. Calulat (a) th gain of potential nrgy of a singl box on th lvator, () th powr output of th lvator motol

Q8. An lvator in a fatory raises boxs of wight 200 N

passngrs dsnd through a hight of 3.0 m on th hut. The boat rahs a spd of 5 m/s at th end of th hut. The total mass of th boat and its passngrs is 300 kg. Clulate (a) th lss of potential nrgy of th boat and its passengrs' (b) th kineti nefgy of th oat at th nd of th hut.

of (1| a 60 kg athlt running at a spd of 10 m/s, (ii) a 2000 kg truk moving at a speed of 30 m/s, (iii) a ball of mass 0.2 kg moving at spd of 20 m/s. (b) Calulat th hang of potntial nrgy of (i) a 50 kg person who jumps off a wall of hight 0.80 m, (ii) a ball of mass 0.2 kg thrown 12 m vrtially into th air, (iii) a 500 N wight raisd through a hight of 2.5 m. .watr hut', a small oat and its Q10. At a fairground
(a) Calulate th kinti energy

Q9.

s)
'
l

J J

a o a
ll

ln this chapter you will learn:

what is meant by absolute zero and Wherc the oldest place in the Universe is how to work out the energy neded to heat an object or to melt a solid or boil a liquid how to redue your home heting bills and save energD| and money.

hies t ork nd t home do mn jobs tht ould otherise be tirig or time-osumig. The- prodution of iroi ad stel d th inuentio of the stm ngine started the industril reuolutio of t|le ineteenth cetur.1n the tentith er,tury the'internl ombstio engie nd ihe jet egine toak our from the stem engine, mkig truel to .plce"on Eih possible' In tl'lts hpt e ulill1ooh t th esuremet of
tmprture, ht trnsfer d some of the therml properties o,f mterils.i,prprtion for depr iook in the nt ihopt,' ot th priciples behid erg trsformtios b het engines.

Th mrury thermomtr works baus th mrury in th ulb xpands when it boms Warmr and so it movs along th air olumn in the glass tue. rury is a vry suital liquid for use in a thermomtr baus it xpands vnly with inrasing tmprature. Colourd alhol is usd as th liquid in thrmomtrs for low temperatur masurmnts aus mrury frezs below _39 .. All thrmomtrs giv th sam rading at i point and at stam point beaus they are alibratd to rad 0 "C and 100 . rsptivly, at ths two fixed points. Baus th xpansion of a liquid with inrasing tmpratur varis from on liquid to anothr, the gs thermometer is hosn as th standard for radings bfwn the fixed points. This typ of thrmomtr onsists f a gas-filld sald ulb onntd to a Prssur gaug. Th prssure of a gas in a sald ulb inrass if the gas tmpratur is raised and drass if th temperatur is lowerd. Th ratio of th prssur at stam point to the pressure at i point is alwys th sam, rgardlss of the amount or type of gas used. This is why th gas thrmomter is usd as th standard thrmomtr. All othr thermometers ar thus aliratd against a gas thrmomtr low i point, btwn ie point and stam point and abov stam point.

Heat and temperature

In wintr in Siria, th tmprature outdoors an fall blow .. In summr in th Sahara desrt, th tmpratur an ris -40 abov 40 oC. Ths tmpratrs are xprs'.d o,, th elsius sal, denoted y th symol .C (dgr j. is sal is dfinJ in trms of two .fixd points, whih ar ie point, the melting point of pur i at atmospheri

A fixd point is a

prssur, 0 oC, stam poin1, th oiling point of pur Watr at atmosphri prssur' 100..

thn rding the sale aftr allowing suffiint tim for th rading to stop hanging.

th ulb at th loation whr th tmpratur is to "

whn in stam at atmosphri '.s'o'. Figur 5.1 shows a mrury-in.glass thrmomtr. Th tmpratur of th mrurv in th ul is masurd by ring whr th nd of th 9lm1 is aginst th sl. Th trmomtr is usd by-.,.,,,y plaing

rad 0 whn in pur mlting ie at atmospheri prssur and 100

standard .dgre of hotness' whih an rprodued s rquird. A thrmmetr aliratd in "C would

"'.,'.i

rfrigrator is mad oldr by th rfrigrator baus th rfrigrator rmoves nrgy from th objt. How old an an ojt ? The lowst tmperature possibl is alld asolut zro. No nrgy an otaind from an ojt at this tmpratur. The prssure of a gas would zeto at absolut zero, providd th gas did not liqufy as it was oold. By masuring th prssur of a fixed amount of gas at steam pint thn at i point, th tmpratur for zro prssrrr (i.. abslute zero) an stimatd. This tmpratur is -27". No mattr whih gas or how muh gas is usd, th sam valu is always obtaind for asolut zro. Hr is an exampl of how this valu is otaind from th prssrrfe radings at i point and at stam point. Th radings ar in kilopasals (kPa) whih ar xplaind on p. 1'49.
Steam point prssur rading = 250 kPa, I point prssure rading = 183 kPa,

Absolute zero An objt plad in a

-rU U .lo 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
sa|e rnges from _10"C to 11o.

100

110.

'til

l't

r morcury-in-g|ass thermometer

... a Prssure hang of 67 ka (= 250 _183 kPa) is ausd y a tmPrature hng of 100 "C (from i point to stam point),

thus a prssur hang f 1 kPa rquirs a tmpratur hang of 1.49 " (= 100 | 67|.

an mov aout arrying nrgy from on part of th mtal

27. (= 183 7.49) from i point. Hn absolut zero = -27 ". Pris
rquir the tmperatur to e lowrd
masurmnts give _273.1'5 " for asolute zro.

To rdu th pressur from 183 kPa to zro would thrfor

to anothr part whn thr is a vltag or a tmpratur diffrn aross th mtal. I will mt th ltron many
tims in this book.

Th idas about asolut zo wr dvlopd by Lord Klvin in th nintnth ntury. The asolut sal of tmperatur in klvins (K) is defind from two fixd points whih ar:

aslut zeto at zro klvins (= -27") th tmpratur at whih i, watr and watr vapour oxist
(=

0.).

Iilee bsolt tempertur i hluins = tempertur in "

273

The oldest place in the Universe Low tmperatur rsarh laoratoris ar th ldst plas in th Univrs. Sintists masur ultra-low tmpraturs in miroklvins (millionths of a klvin). thods to ahiv sh low tmpraturs invlv making a suitably old ojt work to rdu its nergy. Low tmpratur rsarh has produd some astonishing disovris, inluding superondutors and
suprfluids.

Insulating matrials suh as polystyrn shts ar mad of sustans in whih all th ltrons ar trappd insid the atoms of th substan and annot mov about insid the substan. Th prsn of air pokts in an insulating matrial improves its insulation proprtis. Therml onution is th pross of irulation that taks pla in liquids and gases when thr is a tmpratut diffrn btwn diffrnt parts of th liquid or gas. Th dnsity of a liquid or gas varis with tmpratur so tmpratrrr diffrnes in a liquid or gas auss dnsity variations. Gravity maks mor dns rgions sink and less dns rgions ris thus ausing irulation urrents. A hot air balloon rises ause th air in th alloon is hatd by a burnr so boms lss dns and is thrfor ford upwards. Vhil ooling systms transfer hat from th gin to radiator as a rsult of irulation of watr hatd by the ngin and oold in th radiator. Th radiator is
dsignd to los heat to th surroundings y onvtion of air' assistd a fan if nssary.

Heat trnsfer
Hat is nrgy transfrrd du to a tmpratur diffrn. If rwo bjts in ontat with ah othr ar at th sam tmpratur, n hat transfer btwn th two objts taks pla. The two objts ar said to in thrmal quilirium

Thrml rdition is mittd from evry surfa. Th hottr the surfa is, th greater th thrmal radiation from it. No substan is ndd to arry the radiation as it an travl through a vauum.

baus thr is no heat transfr btwn m. .Th aby in th bth' rul is based on th ida of thrmal quilirium; th prent holds th ay and dips his or hr lbow (not the ay's lbow!) in th athwatr to tst th watr tmpratur. If th watr tmpIatur is th sam as th lbow tempratur, th aby an thn b dippd in th watr aus h or sh is in thrmal quilirium with th parnt.

. A

thrmal radiation than a shiny silvrd surfa is. You an noti this if you hold a pi of blak papr and a shet of tinfoil at th sam distan from a hot objt. Th blak papr Warms up muh fastr than th tinfoil baus it asorbs radiation from th hot obiet muh mor
ffetivly.

lak surfa is a muh more fftiv absorbr of

. A

Heat transfr an our in thr diffrnt ways: 1 Therml odutio taks pla in solids, liquids and gases whn thr is a tmperatur differn bfwn diffrnt parts of th sustan. tals af th st ondutors of hat

for th same rason that thy ar good

ondutors. of eltriity; thy ontain tiny partils alld ltrons whih

I
I

thrmal radiation t|tan a shiny silvrd surfa. If you want to kp an objt Warm, wrap it in tinfoil so it does not los nrgy du t thrmal radiation. If it is wrappd in lak papr, it Will ool down vry quikly. A vhil radiator is usually paintd lak to nal it to los hat y radiation as wll as by onvtion.

blak surfa is a muh mor fftiv radiator f

I
I

How to redue your fuel bills

Hat flow is masurd in watts wher 1 watt is equal to a rate of. nergy-transfr of 1 joul pr sond. A 1000 wa (= ] \']y"). hatr supplis hat io its surroundings at a :rlie oI 1000 jouls.pr snd. Ful usag n ful ills isually prid in kilowatt hous (kW h) rgardlss of what th fl r"i (.g. hating, lighting, running a omutI). On kilowatt hour "' is the nergy usd by a 1 kilowatt ltri hatr in 1 hour. For xampl, a gas ill that shows th ful usd as 11 500 k! h tlls you that th amount f ga usd gav th sam nrgy as a 1 kilowatt hatr fot 11500 hours. A ful ill usually ii"te' th. Pli p1 kilowatt hur of th ful. Fr xampl, ihe ost of 11500 kWh of ful at a pri of 1,. p p' W.h would {'149.5. Look at a rnt ful ill and wr out how muh ful you us in your hom ah day and what the ost is.
hting ills an rdud y fitting loft insulation and doul g|azing to rdu hat loss irom iidoors to outdoors. Th pitur of th hous low shows ths and othr masurs that an b takn to rdu ful ills.

diffrn of 10 " would aus 1000 watts of ht loss. Fitting loft insulation would rdu th hat loss y 750 was or 0.75 kilowatts so in 90 days, th saving would amount to ovr 1600 k\N/h (= 0.75 x 24 hours l da X 90 days). At 1.3 p pr k!rh, th householdr with loft insulation would thrfor save about f,21. |ear|, th alulation assms an avrag tmpratur diffrn of 10"C. Double glazing rdus hat loss du t ondution bause a

is 0.5 watts for a tmpratur ". Th hat flow through 50 squar mtres of this loft insulatin would 250 watts for a tmprtrrr diffrn of 10 .C. Th U-valu of a 50 m, roof without loft insulatin is about four tims gfatr thus a tmpratur
mtr of loft insulation
diffrn of
1

Loft insulation has a U-valu of aout 0.5 watts pf squar mtr pr ". This mans that th hat flow through 1 squar

"T:

"."'"*.,@

gleing

double

aluminium foil brtween .adiator

and wall

draughtproofing

figure

5.2 reduig home heating

avity wall insulation onsists o{ plasti foam whih is pumpd into th avity and whih then sts insid th avity. Th foam provids a vry fftiv insulating layr in th avity etwn th two brik walls. A typial aviry wall without insulation in th avity loss hat at a tate of about 15 watts pr squar mtr fr a 10 " tmpratur diffrn; avity wall insulation an rdu this y a factot of thr to aut 5 Watts pr sqrrar metf. other lss xpnsiv masurs t rdue hating bills inlud:

at. a tate of about 50 watts pr squar mtr whras a doubl g|azed window loss hat at a muh smallr rate of' aout 30 Watts pr squar mtr.

window uts hat loss y a fator that dpnds on the thiknss of th layr of trappd air. For a tmprature diffren of 10 .C, a typial singl pan windor loss hat

layr of air is trappd btwn two glass pans. Air is a muh bttr insulator than glass and thrfor a duble g|azed

bi|ls

2
3

draught-proofing of doors to ut down n hat loss due to onvtion' plaing aluminium foil bhind an radiatot attahd to an losing th urtains (at night!) to ut down on hat loss du to radiation through th window.

To wrk out if an instllation suh as doubl glazing is ost ffetiv, th ost of th installation nds to mpaid with an stimat of th amount tht would b svd on ful ills. Suh an estimat an mad if th U-valu of th installation is known. This is th hat flow (i.. hat transfr pr sond) pr squar mtr for a tmpratur diffrn of 1 "e.

outsid wall to ut down on thrmal radiation from th radiator t th wall,

Summary
Absolut tmpratur in klvins = tmpratur in oC + 273' Heat is nrgy transfrrd du to a tmpratrrr differn. Thrmal ondution is du to nergy transfr btwn partils in a sustan. Thrmal onvtion ours in liquids a.'d ga'.' and is du to irulation. Thrmal radiation is rahiation em"ittd
by a surfae du to its tmpratur.

mperature differene

/WmCl
2.r)

U-value

Area

Number loss / W

Number 3's rate of heat

lm2
50
5('

rate of heat

loss / W

Uninsu|ted root

lnsulated root Single pane window Double glazed window External wall with no cavity insulation
External w|| With avity

0.5 5.0 3.0

1.5

10 10

Th U-valu of an insulator is th hat flow (i.e. hat transfr pr-seond) Per squar mtr for a tmpratur differn of

120 120

1"C.

insulation
ota| rate of ht |oss
ota|

absolut zero on (i) th lsius sal, (ii) th asolut sal.

Questions Ql. 'State th tmpratur

at1.3plkWh

ost per day

of (a) i point, () stam point,

()

of th tank, (iii) a hot ptato in tinfoil stays hot muh longJr than an unwrappd hot potato.

Q],.. plain wlry (i) a saupan has plasti or woodn handl, (ii) th outlet pip from a hot watr tank is onntd to the toj

strong onds. In liquids, th bonds ar not strong nough t kp th moluls in a rigid strutur. In a gas or a vapour, th moluls mov aout frly at larg distans from ah othr. S p. 152 for mor information..Whn nrgy is supplied to a sustan to inras its thrmal nrgy' th partils of th
substan

Q3. (a) A smi-dtahd hous (Numer 1) has an uninsulatd roof of area 6 m,, singl pan windows of total ara 10 m2 and xtrnal ralls without avity insulation of total area 1,20 m,. Copy and fill in th following tabl to estimat th hat loss 9"gh th roof, windows and walls for a 1'0oC tmpratur
() Th adjoining smi-dtahd house (Numer 3) has loft insultion, doul g|azing and aviry wall insulation. Complt th following tal to stimat th heat loss from this hous for a ]'0. tempratur differn. () Both houss ar hatd by gas-fird ntral hating at a ost of 1. p per k!h. stimat the differne btwn t ost of gas in on da for ths two houss.
diffren.

gain kinti nrgy

to rak th onds twn th moluls, if th substan hangs stat from a solid to a liquid or to a gas or from a liquid to a gas.
us th nrgy supplid
a pur solid is hatd and hatd, its tmpratur inrass

inrss,

if

th tmpratur of th

sustan

.!?-hn

Melting poants and boiling points

herma| properties of materils

tals hat up muh more asily than most non-metals whih is why th intrior of a parkd vehil an bom very hot in summr. Th nrgy possssd y a sustan du to its tmprature is rfrrd to as therrl enrg. All substanes ar omposd of molules whih ar th sallst partils of a sustan. In solids, th moluls ar held togtr rigidly y
t

until it rahs te melting poit o| th solid. Th solid hangs to a liquid at this tmpratur, providd it ontinus to hatd. Continud hating raiss th tmpratur f th liquid to boiling poit, te tmprtufe at whih the liquid boils. Th mlting pint f a solid is haratristi of th solid and th oiling point of a liquid is haratristi of th liquid and thrfor an usd to idntify th substan. Frzing is th rvrs pross to mlting and it ours whn th liquid has bn oold to its frzing point whih is th sam tmpratur as th mlting pint. For ampl, th frzing point of watr and th
mlting point of pur i is 0.. Th rvrs pross to oiling is ondnsatin. If a gs in a ontainr is ooled suffiintly, liquid forms on th surfa of th ontainr d t ndnsatin.

diffiult to ontro| on ie due to |ak of grip on the rod surfae. Salt dissolves in water nd salty water has a |ower freezing point than pure water. lf the freeze is severe, grit partiles in the ie he|p to provide some grip. Neverthe|ess, vehi|e speeds must be great|y redued in freezing Weather conditions to redue the risk of traffic aidents.

Winter journeys Roads in winter are usua|ly overed in grit and salt if freezing weather is due. lcy roads are dangerous beause vehiles are

Substnce
Water

Speific heat capacity

in J

kg'"9-'
80
900

4 200

Copper
Aluminium |e

2 100

You will nd a thrmomt a 72 V powr supply, a joulmter, a 1'2 ltri hatr, an insulatd mtal lok with slots for th heatr and th thermomtr and a blan.

How to measure the speific heat apity of a metal

Specific heat capaity

The spifi hat paity of a matrial is the nrgy nedd to kilogram pr oC. This mans that
xampl, th spifi hat apaity of watr is 4200 jouls pr
rais th tmpratur of unit mass f matrial by on dgree. For

of 1 kilgram of watr y 10., 84 000 J of nrgy must supplid t rais th tmperatur of 2 kilograms of watr y 10 "C. re gnrally, to ris th tmperatur of mass m of a substan from T, to T2, the enrg eded tE = m(T,_ T,),

4200 J of enrgy must b supplid to rais th tmpratur of 1 kilogram of water by 1 "C, 42000 J of nergy must e supplid to rais th tempratur

whr is th spifi eat capacity of th material. Th unit of

is J

figre

5.3 masuring

the speifi heat pacity 0f metaI

kg' .C,.

Notes

To lult usig the formul = m(Tz- T1), rrrge the formula to mke th subjet s follos:

m (T,- Tt)
..'

c=

Us th alane to masur th mass t of te metl objet to be testd and writ your masurmnt down. Connt th hatr to th joulemtr and onnt th joulemtr to th 12 V power supply but do not swith th powr supply on yt. Plae th hater and the thrmometr in

^' m (Tr-

T)

th slots in the blok. asur and not th initial tmpratur , f th blok and th initial rading of th
joulmtr.

Speifi ht pities of some othr substncs re listed i the tble opposit.

joulmtr rading at th nd of this tim and th tmpratur , of th blok.

Swith th powr supply on for fiv minuts. Not th

4 Calulat th nrgy supplid, A, in jouls from diffrn of th joulmtr radings and alulat
5
tmpratur diffrne (Tz- T').

the the

Us th formula F, = m(Tzhat apairy , of th blok.

) to alulat

th spifi

(a) alulate th nrgy ndd to hat the tank and th watr to 45 oC. (b) Calulat how lng a 3.0 klr ltri immrsion hatr in th tank would tak to supply th nrgy alulatd in (a).

Emple of mesurements for Iuminium blok: ss of blok, m = 1.0 kg

Initil terpertLr, Tt = 15 " Highest temprtre, Tz = 42 " Initil reding of the joulmter = 22 500 I Finl reding of the ioulemeter = 46 80a I Sho tht the reslts giue the specifi het pit of luminiur = 900I k8:, .C'

nrgy must supplid to a solid to mlt it. Thr is no tmperatur ris at th mlting pint baus th nrgy supplid is usd by th moluls in th solid stat to rak th bonds berwn thm. nergy must b supplid to a liquid at its iling point to boil th liquid away. Th nrgy supplid is usd by th moluls in th liquid stat to brak the onds betwn thm. Baus thr is no tmpratur ris at th mlting point or th oiling point, th nrgy supplid is alld latnt heat. The word .latnt'mans .hiddn'.

Specific latent heat

Summry
b rais the tmpratur of mass m of a sustane from T, to T,, th enrgyndd A = m(Tz- T,), whr is th spifi hit apaity of th matrial. Th unit of is J kg1 .C.'.

Questions
Us. th speifi hat apaity valus givn

in th qustions

in th tabl on p. 69

Th spifi latnt hat of a solid or a liquid substan for a givn hang of stat is th nrgy ndd to hang th stat of unit mass of mtrial, without hang of tmperatur. For ampl, th spifi latnt hat of fusion of i is 336 000 joules pr kilogram. This mans that . 36 000 jouls of nrgy is ndd to mlt 1' kilogram of i, . 672 000 juls of nrgy is ndd to mlt 2 kilograms of ie, . 1,.68 million jouls of nrgy is nedd to mlt 5 kilograms of
i.

belorr.

from 10 .C to 100.. (b) Calulat th enrgy ndd to hat an alumirrium kl of mass 0.4 kg from 10.C to 100". () Calulat th nrgy ndd to hat 1.5 kg of water in an aluminium kttl f mass 0.4 kg from 10.C to 100.C.
temprature of 12". (bl " insulatd.s7 aluminium lok of mass 2.0 kg is hatd y a low voltag 36 ltri hatr for 10 minuts. Calulate (i) th nrgy supplid by the hatr, (ii) th tmpratur ris of th aluminum blok. and ontains 25 kg of rater at 15 ".

Qa.

(a) Calulat th nrgy ndd to heat 1.5 kg of watr

Mor gnrally, to hang th stat of mass m of a sustan at

onstant tmpratur)

[p' = rl, whr / is the spifi latnt hat of fusion (for mlting or solidifying) or vaprization (for vaporizing, biling or
tbe eerg eeded

Q5. (a) alulat th final tmpratur whn 2500 J of thrmal nrgy is supplid to a oppr lok f mass 0.51 kg at an initial

Note: to lult l usig the formul lE = m l, rerrng the formul to mke l tbe subiect s follouls:
rnl = E,
...

ndnsing) or sublimation (fr a slid whih vporizs dirtly or a vapour whih forms a solid without liqufying first) for that substan. Th unit of / is J kg'.

l=E
r'

Q6. An insulatd oppr hot

rratr

tank has a mass f 20 kg

Us an ltri kttle with a known powr rating in was. Fill an eltri kttle with a masurd volum of watr. Swith the kttl on and oil th watr in it for 2 minuts. You will nd to opn som windows whn you do this to prvnt ondnsation in th room. After 2 minuts, swith th kttl off and lt th .!hen watr ool. it is suffiintly ool, masur the volum of th watr still in th kttl. Th differn twen th volume of watr at the start and th volum at th nd is th volume of watr oild away. Hn alulat th mass of watr oild awa5 givn th density of watr is 1.0 kilogram pr litr. rating in Watts

How to measure the speific latent heat of steam

Th spifi hat apaity of watr is 4200 jouls per kilogram pr "C. Q7. (a) Calulate the nrgy nedd to bil away 0.5 kg of watr. () alulat th mass of i that ould b mltd, givn th amount of nrgy alulatd in (a).

Q8. on o
0

Clulat th nrgy supplid to th kettl from the powr

120 seonds.

Hn dtrmine th latnt hat of stam from th energy supplid and th mass of watr oild away.

Sample measurements

Initial volum of watr = 1.50 litrs Final volume of water = 1.35 litres Power of kl
360 000 joules
= 3000 watts

Q9. A plasti bakr ontaining 0.20 kg of watr at 15 " plad in a freezer ools down and frzs within 20 minuts. Calulat (a) th nrgy rmovd frm th watr to (i) ool it down to 0'C, (ii) freeze it. (b) th tate at whih nrgy is rmovd from th Watr.
Q10. A 3000 watt ltri kttl
is usd to oil watr. Calulat (a) th ltrial nrgy supplied to th kttl in 1 minut, () the mass of watr oild away in 1 minut. Assume all th enrgy supplid is usd to boil th Watr.

a old sunny day, a ukt ontaining 2.5 kg of ie at mlts and warms to a tmpratur of 5 ". o, (a) Calulat th enrgy ndd to mlt (i) 2.5 kg of i at 0 (ii) hat th mltd i to 5 "C. (b) Th bukt of i taks 3.5 hours to mlt and warm to 5 oC. Calulat th nergy pr sond gaind by th bukt.

nrgy supplied in 2 minutes = 3000 watts

120 seonds

Volum of watr boild .Wlf = 0.15 litrs ass of watr oild awa! = dnsiry of watr volume boild away = 1.0 kg / litr 0.15 litrs = 0.15 kilograms,
= 2400 000 juls pr kilogram.
... spifi latnt hat f stam = 360 000 jouls / 0.15

kilograms

To hang th state of mass of a substan at onstant tmpratur, the nrgy nded E, = rl, whr / is th spifi latnt hat of fusion (for mlting or solidifying) or vaporizatian (for vaporizing, boiling or ondnsing) or sublimation (for a solid whih vaporizs dirtly or a vapour whih forms a solid without liquefying first) for that substan. Th unit of / is J kg '.

Summary

Questions
Th speifi latnt hat of i is 336000 jouls pr kilogrm. Th spifi latnt ht of stam is 2.3 million jouls pr kilgram.

i
d

The sience of therrodmics is bout temperture, heat nd orh nd it prouides ruls and limits on th.e us of nerg. At th strt of th ineteenth entury, mn scientists thought of het ,clori'. Tiao decdes lter, s n inuisible fluid, rrred to s the cIori theary hd bee consignd to obliuion, repld b th eul theory tht het is form of energ. B the riddl of the nineteenth etury, scientists hd orked out the ls of therrnodnmics inluding the ll-importt seond l hih tells us tht nerg teds to sprd ot nd bote less useful s result. In this Ilter, ul ulill look t ths ides nd houl the gouern the ienc limits of egines. ln dditio, t,ue ill rnke suruy of present nd futur energ suppl nd demnd, ihuding fuel supplies nd reneble energ rsoures.

o GT
l

rr+ r

a.

o oa

s)

.
.
. .

ln this hapter you will learn:

s) L

o a

ft

how heat egines work, inIuding the steam engine, the ar engine and the jet engine about the laws of thermodynamics, the rules that govern energy transfers why energy needs to be used more effiiently than at present what energy resoures wiI| be available in the future.

Bfor th invntion of the steam engin, powr to driv mahinry was providd by windmills or watrmills and Powr for transport was providd y horss on land and wind and .Watt reognizd the potential of oen urrents at sa. Jams steam powr, as a rsult of obsrving jets of stam from a boiling kele. Th invntion and dvlopment of the stam ngin ratd industris that wr al to produ and distribut goods and food on a muh largr sal than was ver possible prviously. Nowadays, th stam engin has fadd into osurity, rplaed y engins suh as th intrnal ombustion engin, the disl engin, th ltri motor and the jet engin. Stam or gas turins driv ltriify generators in power stations to supply letriity to homs, industry and rail transport. Although an eletri motor is not an ngine as it does not have its orn sour of nrgy, th ltriity for it is supplid by an ltriity gnerator drivn by a turine in a powr station. Thus r rly on ngins of one form or another for transport and for our nergy neds at hom and at rork. Most types of engines ar hat ngines as thy obtain nrgy by urning ful. An xption is a turbin in a hydroeletri powr station rryhr watr flow from an upland rsrvoir drives th turbin as it florrs downhill. Th arogenerato(, a rind-drivn
eletriity gnrato is anothr xeption.
engines and rokt engins ar dsrid as heat nes beaus ah typ of ngin uss enrgy from a high tmpratur sour to do work. In other words, heat engin uss hat to do work.

Heat engines

Stam ngins and turbins, intrnal ombustion engins, jet

.!:1

!.

{ t

b driv a stam engin, burning ful is usd to boil watr in a boilr so produing stam at high prssur. The stam is fd via pipes and valvs to ylinders, ah ontaining a piston oupld to a drive shaft. Th valvs ar pnd and lsd automatially by rods onntd to the driv shaft. Thus th prssu of th stam drivs th pistn bak and forth along the ylindr, rotating th driv shaft in th pross.
In a four-strok intrnal ombustion ngin, an ltri spark is used to xplod a mixtur of gaslin and air, foring th piston to move along th ylindr and turn th driv shaft. An inlt and

an outlet valv ar opnd and losd automatially in

squn of four piston strokes:

2 Pwr 3

fturns and frs the ombustion produts out of th ylindr via th outlt valv. 4 Draw strok: inlet valv open; outlt valv losd; the piston movs ut of th ylinder (drivn by th powr strok of n of the othr ylinders) and draws mor ful and air into th ylindr for th nxt .squez' strk.

strok: inlt valv losd; outlt valv lsd; th piston is ford out by th high pssur in th ylindr. Th prssur in ylindr drops as th piston moves out. Swp strok: inlt valv losd; outlt valve opns; th piston

pressur of th air in th ylinder to shoot up.

Squez strok: inlt valv losd; outlt valv losd; th piston movs int th ylindr and omprsses th ful mitur in th ylinder. A spark plods th mixtur at maximum omprssin, ausing th tmprature and

In a steam turin, steam its ar dirtd at th blads of a turbine whl, ausing th whl to rotat. Th whl is usually on of svral whls on th sam shaft insid an nlosd turin blok. Th as of th blok is kpt ool y mans of Watr pumpd through pips in th blok. ln a iet ngine, air is drawn into the ngin and ful frm th fd pips ntrs th air stram. Th ful mixtur is urnd downstram ontinuously in th bunr hamer, thus raising the air prssur and temprture normously. Th hot air emrgs at high sped through th outlt dut into th atmospher, thus foring th engin forward. .sink' as wll as a high Heat transfr rquires a low temprature tmpratrrr sour. In the xampls abov, th atmospher provids th lw tempratur sink, ither dirtly or indiretly via a ooling systm. Not all th hat frm th high tmprature sour an b usd y th ngine t do work. This restrition is baus th low tmprature sink must apt som of th enrgy transfrrd frm th high tmpratur sour, othrwis th ngine wuld ovrhat and stop working. For xampl, in a stam turin' stam jts at high prssur ar usd t driv the turine whel; th turbin is kpt ool y means of watr pumpd through pips that pass through the engin lok. If this oling systm was swithd off, th ngin tmperatur would ris. Th pressur insid th ngin would thrfor ris and this would lssn and vntually anl th for of th
stam jts that driv th turbin whels.

turbine
iet pushes engrne forward

omDressor driven by the turbine

exhaust

<r]i

burns here

motion of engine

f,E.

f.gure 6.1 the intern| ombustion engine

tigure 6.2 the iet on0ine

using hat from the ombustion of ful. Som of th hat from th ful is not usd to do work and is supplid to th low tmpratur .sink'. The energy usd to do wk is rfrrd to as usful nrgy. Th nrgy supplid to th low tmpratur .sink' is wastd y the ngine s it is not usd to do work. Th ffiiny of a heat ngin is th fration of th nrgy supplied t it from th ful whih is used to d wrk. For xample, an ngin with n
ffiiny of

he efficiency of a heat engine A hat ngin dos work as a rsult of

soure at tmpraturc

Carnot proved that for any hat engin operating btwn a T and a sink at lower tmprature T2, tb mirum ffiie of suh engine = (T1_ T2)
T1

Thus an intrnal omustin ngine in whih th air is heatd to 700 K (whn th ful mixtur is ignitd) and oold to 300 K has a maximum effiin of 0.57 (= (700 - 300) | 7a0I. If omustion of ful in this ngine rlass nrgy at a rate of 50 kilowatts (= 50 000 jouls pr seond), th maximum powr output of th engin would 28.5 kl0{z 1= 50 kW 0.57) and th nrgy pr sond wastd would e 2|.S klr (= 50 klr _

0.5 onvrts half the nergy from its ful into usful enrgy and th othr half is wastd. 0.8 onvrts 807o of th enrgy from its fuel into usful nrgy and wasts 2a% of th nrgy from th ful.

nrgy and wasts 80% of the nrgy from th fuel.

0.2 onverts 20" of th nrgy from its ful into usful

28.s kv').

The laws of thermodynamics

of thrmodynamis whih ar th prinipls hind
transformations involving hat. Carnot,s ides about hat engines wr developd into th laws
nrgy

tmprature sink,

The prinipls of hat ngines wr stalishd in th arly nintenth ntury y Sadi Carnot, a Frnh sintist. Carnot rea|ized that th lwr th tempratlrr of th .sink', th mor ffiint th engin would b. This ida is lik a hydroeltri shm whr wtr from an upland lk flows through pips into a gnerator nd thn into a rservir. Th lorr th rsrvoir, th more work th watr dos as it passs through th gnrator. Th ovrall ffiiny dpends on th height drop from th upland lak to th gnrator. Howevr, just as thre is a limit to th drop between th upland lak and th gnrator, thr is a limit to how old th hat sink ould b, namly th lorrst possibl tmpratur rhih is absolut zro. Crnot workd out tht for any ht ngin operating at maximum ffiiny btwen a high tmpratur sour and a low

I The First L of Thrmodrics stats that whn an objt or a systm of ojts does work or gains heat, th hang of intrnal nrgy ofth objet(s) is equal to th diffrne btwn th hat gained and th work don by th objet(s). o .Worh is enrgy transfrrd by mans of a for whn th for moves its point of appliation in the dirtion of th for.
o Het is nergy transfrrd du to a differen of tmpratur. The rlationship etwen hat and tmperatur diffrn is a bit lik th .hikn and gg qustion,; whih on ms first? A diffrn of tmpratur is said to xist whnver enrgy is
transfrrd y means othr than work. Hat is nrgy transfrrd b an mans othr than work. S p. 62. o The iternl enr{ of objer is th nrgy it posssss, rgardlss of its sped or position. For xampl, if th tmprature of a solid ojt is inrasd y hating it, th
S p. 50.

the hat supplid to the sink = asolut tmpratur of the sink th heat supplied y th soure asolut tmpfatufe ofth sour

For xampl, if the ngin was operating twen 1000 K and 300 K, th heat supPlied to th sink = 300 = 0.30
th hat supplid by th

sour

1000

In this xampl, for evry 100 joules supplid from th sour' 30 jouls would takn y th sink. Th work don by th ngin in this situation rould therefore 70 jouls from vry 100 jouls supplied by th soure. In othr words, the ffiiny of this heat ngin is 0.7.

intrnal nrgy of th solid inrss s its atoms vibrat mor. Th First Law of Thrmodynamis follows frm th Prinipl of Consrvation of nrgy s hat and work are th mns by whih an ojt gains or loses nrgy. Th work don per sond by a hat ngin is qual to th diffrn betwn th
hat transfr pr seond from te high tempratur sour nd

th hat transfr per sond to te low tmpratur sink. An ngin doing work W.dos so as rsult of apting hat Q1 from a high tmprature sour and rjting heat Q2 to a low tmpratuf sink. Thus Qz = Qt _ w.

or about 1500 jouls pr seond pr prson. Gloal enrgy us will probably doubl y 2050 as thr will e mor popl -on the plant and ah person will us mor nrgy as living
standards ris.
Fossil fuels suh as oal, oil and gas provide most of th nrgy we us at prsnt. Ths fossil fuls ar substans whih rlas nrgy wn burnd in air. Fossil fuls ar etratd from the

The Secand Lul of Thermodmis stats that nergy tnds to spread out and bom lss usful whnvr it is transferd btwn ojts in an isolatd systm.

hat transfr to th surroundings. Th nrgy from th letrial supply gaind y the weight is an xampl of usful nrgy. Th

For example, whn an ltri winh is usd to rais a weight' rnrgy is tansfrrd from th ltrial supply to the wight. Hwevr, som of the nrgy supplied is wastd du to frition befwen th moving parts and du t th heating efft of th letri urrent in th iruit. This wastd enrgy annot be rovrd and usd to do work as it is dissipated by mans of

nrgy from th eltrial supply not gaind by th wight is wastd as het transfr to th surroundings.

For a hat ngin operating at its maximum effiieny, the work high tmpratur sour. As w saw on p.77, this is beause hat transfr from the high tmpratur sour would stop if hat transfr to th low temperatur sink was prvntd. Som hat transfr to the low tmpratur sink must thrfr tak pla and threfor some nrgy from th sour is wastd and not usd to do work.
don y th ngin must b lss than th hat supplid from th

art, having taken millions of yars to form as a rsult of gologial ha',ges whih have urid and omprssd dad vgetation to form oal and dad marin lif to form oil and gas. T nrgy rlasd whn fossil ful is burnd was stord millions o yars ago y a living ojt from sunlight. Ful is nt -burnd, the nrgy is rlased and the renwable;- on sustan is hangd into othr ompounds suh as arbon dioxid and arbon monoxid. ah kilogram of fossil ful rlass about 30 million jouls whn urned. Approximatly 10 million million kilograms of fossil ful is burnd ah y1r t9 met worldwid enrgy dmands. The rorld rsrvs of fossil fuls ar rkoned to about 1500 million million kilograms, suffiint to last for abut 150 years. Howvr, oil and gas whih onstitut ao'at \Yo of prsnt fossil ful reserves arr bing usd at a fastr rat than oal and will probably b used op ithin th nxt 50 years. Industrial ountris will ned to .low dvlop othr nergy rsours soon or ut bak to a
enrgy, future.

Energy for the future

Th prlm with enrgy is that it tnds to sprad out. vn
whn nrgy is stord, as happns whn a ar attery is harged or rhn a weit is raisd, sm of th negy usd in th storag proess is rastd du to frition or rsistane and annot be reoverd. Although nrgy annot b ratd or destryed, it tnds to sprad out whn it is usd. Baus our nrgy rsours ar finit, suh resours will vntually run ut. ah person in urope and North Amria uss nrgy t an avrag rat of about 8000 jouls per sond whih amounts to 250000 million joules pr prson ah yar. For a world population of about 6000 million popl (likly to xd 8000 million y 2050), ah using nrgy at a tate of 8000 joules per sond, th rat of energy usag would thrfor about 1500

Nuler rectors rlas nrgy from uranium ontaind in ful rods in th rator. Th energy rlasd is rmovd by a oolant whih is pumpd through sald pipes passing through th rator oie. Th. hot oolant flows through a hat xhangr whr it is usd to rais steam bfor eing pumped bak ooler

into th rator or. Th stam from th hat xhangr is used to driv turbins t produ eltriity. A larg nular rator produs about ].500 mgawaffs of eletrial powr..S p. I87 ior more dtails. Not that 1. mgawatt (w) = ]' million watts. At prsnt, aout 8% of worldwid enrgy dmand is mt by powr stations as thy provide twn a quartr nd. a

''ol"a' third oth ltriity supplies in industrial ountris. World rservs of uranium will probably last about 50 yars at th

million million million jouls eah yar. At prsnt' world

nrgy us is aout 300 million million million jouls pr yar

prsnt rate of us. Howvr, nulear rators at prsnt us iorm of uranium known as uranium 235 whih is no more than ao 2" of natural uranium. Th othr 98% oI natural uranium is uranium 238 whih is not usd in th presnt typ of nular rators. Th liftim of th world's resrvs of uranium

would be xtndd many tims if rators alld fast bredr rators rr usd as th ful for thes rtors is plutonium whih is mad in the prsnt gnration f nulr rators from uranium 238. Th usd ful rods frm nular rators ar highly radioativ and remain so for thousands of yars. Radioativify is harmful to human halth as it is knwn to aus anr. For

oi| Coa| NturaI gas Nulear power Hydroeletriity 8% 40% 27o/o 22% indefinitely 60 yea50 years 300 yea 70 years
3o/o

[-for therma| (a) world fuel use

rcators (3000 years for fast breder reators)

whn thy rah th nd of thir dsignatd working lif. Eltriity ut aks will probably happen unlss altrnativ

this rason, nular rators urrntly in us may not b rplad

mans of generating ltriity on a larg sal ar dvlopd. In Britain, ltrial powr dmand varis from aout 20 000 mgawatts in summer to about 50 000 mgawatts in wintr.

10u I per er. This is World fuel use is bout 400 presentl met from energ soures s shootln. The list lso shos houl man ers prest ful rserues ill lst t the
7995 rte of use.

Reeuble enrg resours suh as hydroeltri powr stations and rindfarms of arognrators will nd to b dvlpd on a mssiv sal to mt our letriity dmands whn oil and gas resrvs ar usd up if mor nular rators ar not onstrutd. A rnwabl nrgy rsoure is a sur of
usful nrgy that dos not rquir ful. Most renwabl nrgy rsots us solar enrrgy' ithr dirtly as in solar panIs or indirtly via the arth atmosphr whih is hatd y th Sun.

oi| 59%
<50ye

oal Ndura| gs 13o/o 21% 1300}ers* 40ye

if

Nu|ear

7% imrted

vrler

l.ldroe|etilty
<0'5o/o

indefini

fised on 1983 estimates

(b) UK fu| usr nd reserves

oalfie|ds

losd sine

1983 arc

ren

Wind turbins ar drivn y winds ratd in th atmosphrfr' wave gnrators ar drivil y wavs ratd by winds, hydroltri genrators ar drivn y rainwatr running downhill. other rnwal rsoures inlud gothrmal nrgy whih is otaind y pumping wat into hot undrgrund rok basins and thn using the stam gneratd to driv turbins. Tidal powr is anothr non-slar nrgy rsour. Th tids ris and fall twi ah day baus th oon pulls on th arth's oeans as th arth spins. A tidal powr station is a arrier whih traps seawatr at high tid and rlass it though hannls in th barrir to driv turbines and produ letriity. Could solar energy be usd, dirtly or indiretly, to mt our nrgy neds? On a la da5 ah squar mtr of th arth's
Sun is dirtly ovrhad. Thking aount of loud onditions and latitude' a solar panl fid to a hous roof in th northrn hmisphr rivs on avrag aout 100 jouls pr sond per squar metr in th daytim. ah person wuld nd about 80 squar metrs f solar panls to mt his or her enrgy nds. Solar panels ould mak a ntribution to our enrgy nds but would nd to ovr an normous ara to hav a signifiant efft. A solr hating panl fittd to a hous roof uss sunlight to heat water that flows at a stady rat through the panel. The
sufa reives 1400 joules vry sond from th Sun whn th

. ['JK fuI reserues re slloul. The totI eerg used b ll soures in the ILnited Kingdom is bout 3.SY" of the orld fael use. The list lso shau,,s the ltime of present UK fuel rservs t the 199S rte of s.
figur

6.3

energy resources

hot Wtr ollts in an insulatd tank onntd to the hot watr tPs in th hous. Solar ll panls onsist of solar lls that genrat eltriity dir frm sunlight. Fuel for vhils

might in furur b produd n a large sal by using solar lls to produ hydrogen gas from watr' a pross that involvs n mor than passing ltriity tfuough watr. Vast arrays of solar lls ovring larg aras would still b nssary though.

Wind turbines are eletriity gnrators on top of tall towrs, ah gnrator turnd by propllors drivn by th wind. A larg wind turbin is apal of produing about a mgawa (= 1 million was) of ltrial powr. A rindfarm would ned to hav thousands of wind turbins to produe th sam amunt f powr as a 5000 megawatt nular power station. Hydrolti powr stations in hilly aras whr thr is plnty of rinfall ontribut to th eltriity supplis in som

a small sal at prsnt. A singl hydroltri powr station is not likely to produ mrrh more than about 100 mgawatts ut a|arge numr of suh stations ould mak a signifiant ontriution to ouf nrgy nds.
ountris' mostly on
provid as muh ltriity as a large powr station ut it would nd to ovr a |arge arca. A tidal area of 400 squar kilomtrs ould trap 4000 million ubi mtrs of watr ah high tid for a hight diffren of 10 mtrs twn high tid and low tid. Th dnsity of ratr is 1000 kilograms pr ubi mtre so th

Questions
Q1. For ah typ of hat engin listd blow, what is (i)
(b) ()

A tidal

power station in a suitl oastal loation ould

sour of th high tmpratur, (ii) the low tmpratur sink? (a) An intrnal omustion ngin.

th

A jt ngin. A stam ngin.

mtr drop of hight. Ovr th 12 hours twn sussiv high tids, th avetage rrte of relas of nrgy would threfor b aout 2000 million jouls pr seond, suffiint to genrate 1000 mgawatts of ltrial powr from ltriity generators oprating at 50" ffiiny.

mass f suh a larg volum of watr is 4 million million kilograms. As xplaind on p. 57, this amount of watr would rlas 80 million million jouls of potntial nergy for a 2

whih air is heatd to 650 K whn th surrounding tempratur is (a) 300 K, (b) 320 K. Q3. Britain's ltriity dmand in wintr is aout 50 000 mgawatts. About on-third of Britain's ltriity is providd by il and gas.fird powr stations, about a third is provided by oal-fired powr stations and aout a third is produed y
nulear powr stations. (a)"How many mgawatts of ltriity is providd y thes nular powr stations? (b) How many mgawatts of eltriity is providd by fossil ful

Q2. Calulate

th ffiiny of an intrnal ombustion ngine

in

Wave genators floating offshor ould also mak a signifiant ontriution to our nrgy nds. A wave gnrator is in two setions hinged togther so they an move relative to eah other, thus turning a gIlrator in on of the setions. The inoming

waves mak the two setions rok rlative to eah other. Sintists rkon that about 1 kilomtre of ostlin ould
produ about 50 mgawatts of ltril powr.

powr stations? () Stat one advantage and on disadvantag of (i) a nular power station, (ii) a oal-fird powr station, (iii) a gas-fird Powr station. Q4. Britain's oil and gas rsrvs will proaly run out by 2050. Suggst possil stfatgirs that ould dvlopd to make up th.nergy gap, after thes rservs hav ben usd up.

Summary
For a hat ngine oprating btwen a sour at tempratur T1, and a sink at lowr tmpratur T2, the mximum ffiiny of
suh an ngin =

Q5. (a) A supplir of solar hating panls stimats that a panel .W of solar nrgy on a of arca 1 squar mtr asors 500
sunny day. Calulat how many of ths panels would ndd to supply 3000 !r of solar nergy on suh a day. () A wind turbin is apabl of supplying 2 \N/ of ltrial power. How many suh wind turins would b ndd to supply th same amount of ltrial powr as a 5000 .W nular powr station? .!av () gnrators ould provid 50 M]0 of letrial powr for vry kilomtr lngth of oastlin. What length of oastlin would nd to b usd to gnrat th sam amount of ltrial powr as a 5000 M.W nular powr station?

(T|-T2).
T1

Th First Law of Thermodynamis states that whn an objet or a system of objets dos work or gains heat, the hang of intrnal nrrgy of th ojt(s) is qual to th diffrn tvyn th hat gained and th work don y th objt(s).

The Seond Lalv of Thrmodynamis stats that nergy tends to sprad out and bom lss usful whnver it is transferrd btwn objts in an isolatd systm.

letriit prouids most of tbe poer u) use t hom d in the orkplace. Before th electriit distributio|I sstm lasestblished, people used gs or solid fuls for htig nd cookig. Lightig s prouided b gs or oil lmps or dles. Eletril pplices re idispnsble s lone ho hs sffred electril poer filolre knouls. In mn undrdeueloped countries, eletriit dos ot rab remote uillgs d onsequetl most peopl liue i pouert. Tb principls tht ur|din letriit geertion d distributio oure discouered i th nieteenth ntur nd lectricit distributio sstrs u)ere st up i the lt ietntb entur nd the erl ddes of the tulentitb cntur. I the future,

o o o F+

ill probbl prouid eletricit tllithout using pollution problerns i urbn regions s t,uell s prouiding lectriit i rmot rgios. l this bpte e cuill looh i depth t the priniples of electriit and ho eltriit is gerted d
distributed.

reneble energ sourcs sucb s solr panels d ind turbines

The nture of eletriity

Any material that allows ltriity to pass through it is known as an eletricl condutor. || mtals and rtain non-metals suh as graphit ondut ltriity. aterials that do not allow eltriity t pass through r knorn as eletril insltors. xamples of letrial insulators inlud plhn, nylon, baklit, air and oil. An letri torh onsists of a attery onntd to a torh bul, usually with on trminl of th battery onnetd dirtly to th torh bulb and the othr terminal onntd to th torh bulb via a swith. Whn th swith is losd, the torh bulb lights beaus th two mtal .Whn th swith is opned, parts of th swith mak ontat. th two mtal parts mov apart and th ul goes off. A omplte iruit of eltrial ondutors is ndd for eletriity to pass through th torh bul. If thr is a gp in th iruit, no ltriity an Pass round th iruit.

o
f -l

1+
. .
.
ln this chapter you will learn;

TI

. .

how urrent eletricity was first investigated by Ampere about the nature and basic priniples of eletriity how e|etri iruits transfer enorgy how olotriity is used at
homo.

disovered

how eIetricity was

Stati eletriity

Stati ltriity is produd in a thundrstorm whn louds om harged with ltriity. !7hn hargd louds an hold no mor ltriity, thy disharg to arth in massiv lightning stroks. A lss dramati dmonstration of stati ltriity an ahivd by rubbing an inflatd alloon with a dry loth. You

an fl th stati ltriity disharging to your hand if you thn touh th hargd balloon. Th hargd alloon will attrat bits of paper and will stik to a iling. rtain insulating matrials suh as glass, polhne' perspx, nylon and rubr also bom hargd whn rubbd with a dry loth.

fixed atoms |ose e|etrons

ffi

A harged bjt xrts a for on any other hargd objt. For xampl, two hargd polhn rods rpl ah othr whn thy ar hld los togthr. This may dmonstratd by harging th nd of on f th rods and then suspending it horizontally on a thrad. Th thr rod is thn harged at on nd and rpls th nd of th suspndd od whn plad ls to it. Th same fft is obsrvd if two hargd prsp rulrs ar hld los togthr. Howvr, if a hargd pefspx rulr is hld nar a hargd polhn rod, th two ojts attrat ah
othr. Thse tsts show that

mobiIe e|etrons transfer from rod onto the loth

Perspex rod positively harged

becomes

1 thr ar two typs of ltri harg, 2 two ojts that arry lik harg (i.. the

sam typ f
ligure

3 two

harg) repl eah thr,

ojets tat arr unlik harge (i.e. diffrnt typs of harg) attrat ah othr.

7.l

harging by frition

Th two typs of harg ar rfrrd to as positiue and negtiue harg aus they anel ah othr out if one typ is brought

into ontat with othr typ. A harged polhen rd

arris a ngative harg. Thrfore, any hargd objt that is rplld by a harged polythn rod arries a negativ harg. A hargd prspx rulr arris a positive harg and thrfor it attIats a hargd polhn rod.

Current and charge An eltri urrent is a flow of

Th ation of rubing suh a matrial harges it with letriity baus tiny negativly harged partiles transfr btwn th loth and the matrial whn thy ar rubd. Ths hargd partils are alld eleffons and they are in evry atom of evry sustan. very atom ontains a positivly hargd nulus whih is surroundd by ltrons. An unhargd atom has the
sam amount of ngativ harg as positiv harg.

harg, usully arrid y letrons. Th ltrons in an insulator ar trappd insid the atoms but in a ondutor som of th eltrons ar not trappd and an mov aout frly inside th ondutor. A torh lamp iruit onsists of a atter onntd to th torh ul via two wirs and a swith. Then th swith is losed, ltrons pass round the iruit baus all th parts of th iruit an ondut ltriity. Th bary fors th fre eltrons in th ondutors on Way round th iruit through th wirs, th torh ul, the swith nd th baery.
elI

. If eletrns .

ar addd to an unhargd atom' thr atom oms negatively hargd bause it now ontains more negativ harg than positiv hag. If eltrons ar rmovd from an unhargd atom, th atom oms positivly hargd beaus it now ontains mor positiv harge than negativ harg.
A steady urrnt
figle

ol
I

ammeter

eIetrons travel round the ciruit

7.2

e|etrons t work

.Whn

ngativ trminal of the battry' mov round the iruit and r-nter th baery at its psitiv trminal. Th one.way flow.of harg

a iruit is swithd on' letrons leav th

tb hrge pssing in rtin interul of tirtl = urrnt in mpres X time interul in seonds

Frnh 'oo'd Andr Amper. Bfore Amper disovry, it was sintist, thought that positivJharg flowd from th psitive trminal of th atteryand rras anlled out by ngative harge flowing from the negative trminal. Amper knw that an ltri urrnt along a wir ausd a magnti ompass nar th wir to dflet a',i h knw that this was baus a magnti fild is ratd around th wir yhn an letri urent was passd along the wir. H also notid that th ompass dfltd in ! in th iruit. H opposit dirtion if th attry was rvrsd ri|ized that this osrvation ould only eplaind if only on typ of harge flows round a iruit. Rvrsal of th battry ausd th flow of harg in th iruit to rvrs whih rvrsd th dirtion of th magnti fild round th wire. Howevr, h was not abl to say if_the harg is positiv harg from th positiv trminal or ngativ harge from th negativ. trminal f th" baery. To prvnt onfusion, sientists agrd that-the in diretion of urre .We a iruit should b the dirtion of flow knol now that an ltri urnt in a of positiv harg. iruit is a flow f eltrons round th iruit from th negative trminal to the positiv terminal of th battery. Nvrthelss, th.

an elitri iruit was first ddud by th

For xampl, the harg passing along a wire . for aurrnt of 2 amperes in 5 sonds is 10 oulombs, . f,ot a urrnt of 2 amperes in 20 seonds is 40 oulombs, o for a urrnt of 20 ampets in 5 sonds is 100 oulombs.

ah ltron arris a ngativ harge so small tat 6.25 million million million ar neded to mk up 1 oulm of harg. 6250 million million letrons Pass through a 1 mA
torh ulb vry seond whn it lights normally.

Batteries and ells

[n any iruit, eltrons transfr enrgy from th battery to th omponents in the iruit. ah ltron in an letri iruit gains nergy as it passs through th bttery, laves th att:y via the ngativ trminal, loss this nrgy as it passs round th iruit an r-qnters th attry via its positiv trminal. ah

rule that th diretion of urrent is th dirtion of flow of positiv harg is still used today. Th unit of ltri urrnt is the atnpere (A), defind in terms of its magneti fft. A urrnt of 1 A passing along a wire.is due to 6.25 million million million eletons passing along the wir vry seond. ah letron arris th sam amount of ngativ arg.. The biggr th urrnt in a wir, th grater the of dletrons pssing along wir ah snd. ',b.' th harge passing along a wir in a rtainlength of Therefore, tim is proportional to th urrnt and th duration of th tim
intrval.

ltron leavs the ngativ trminal of th attry with eltrial potntil nrgy whih is used up and onvrtd to othr forms of enrgy as th letron psss round the iruit. For ample, whn an letron passs through a torh bulb, nergy is transferrd from th ltron to th torh bulb. Th effei of all th ltrons passing through th torh bul filamnt is to mak it so hot that it emits light. Th onneting wirs ar good ondutors so no enrgy is givn up in ths
wirs, provided th urrent is not xssiv.

baery onsists of two or mor idntial lls, eah ll onsisting of two letrods in a onduting past or liquid, th eltrolyte, whih rats rith the ltrods. Th two ltrods
hosen beaus thy rat differently with th eltrolyt. one ltrod loss letrons to the eltrole nd th other onr gains ltrons from th ltrol. Thus on ltrod oms positivly hargd and th othr on oms ngativly

are mde from diffrnt matrials suh as graphit and lad,

Note: srnll currents r rneds''rd in rillinlperes (mA) or micromperes (pA), ulhere 7 m = 0.001 A nd 1 A = 0.001 tA.

Th unit of harge, t|le coulomb (C), is dfind as th harge that passs along a wir in 1 seond whn th urrnt is 1 ampr. Threfore, for a wir whih arris a onstant urrnt'

-hargd. In us, a ll gradually detrirates bause th hemial rations efwn th ltrods and th ltrolyt onvrt th ltrole and th ltrodes into othr sustans whih do not rat. In a rhargeable ll, this hmial pross an b rvrsd by onneting th ell to a battry hargr whih

fors ltrons into th ll at th ngativ ltrod and out at th positiv ltrod. Dispsl battris and ells annot b rhargd and ar disardd whn xhusted.

The voltag of a baery or a ll is th power in watts th ll an dlivr to the rst of th iruit for vy amper of urrnt pssing through it. Thus a 72 vo|t baery onnetd in a iruit dlivrs 12 watts of powr for vry ampr of urrnt passing through it. If it is onntd to a suitabl 3 A light bulb, th
battry supplies 36 watts of power to th urrnt is 3 ampers.
Yoltge (in uolts)
=

masurd by th pump pressur. In the same way' th battry voltag is a masure of th power supplid by th battery whih is qual to the Powr dlivred to all parts of th iruit. Hn th baery voltag is qual to the sum of th voltags round th

lit

ulb baus the

iruit.

poer dliuerd (in tts) pef arnptre of currnt

Th uolge beteen n lo points i n eletri ciruit is the poulr deliuered pr |pre of currnt to tht prt of the ircuit beten the to points, Fo exampl, if th voltage firen two points in a iruit was 20 volts, then evry ampre of urrnt passing from on point to th othr would dlivr 20 watts of power. Thus a urrnt of 5 ampers passing from on point to th othr would aus 100

The apaity of a battry or ll is usually expressd in amper hours. This is th numbr of hours for whih it would b abl to supply 1 ampre of urrent befor it is hausted. Thus a ar bary with a capacit of 60 ampr hous rould b abl to supply a urrnt of 1 amper for 60 hours. Suh a battry uld supply a rrrrnt of 2 amprs for 30 hours or a urrent of 5
ampfes for L2 hours.

iruit.

watts

(=

20 volts 5 ampers) to b dlivered to that part of th

Gold sta on rason why ars sometims fail to start in urintr is baus a bigg urrnt than normal is nedd to start a very old ngin. Th oil in the engin boms mor sluggish as its trmPfatur falls and so the moving parts ar mor diffiult to mov the oldr th ngin is. If the battry is not fully hargd, it fails to start th ngin beause it annot supply nough rrrrnt. Swithing on th ar lights and the hater bfor stafting th ar rvould mak starting vn more diffiult.

Summary
Charge (in oulombs)
=

urrnt (in ampers) X tim (in seonds)

= porlf

Voltage or potntial diffrene (in volts)

dlivered in watts

urrnt rn amperes

Questions
Q1. Selt the orrt words from the list blow to omplt the passag aftr th list.

More about voltage

In an ltri iruit rhih ntains a battry, rrrrent passs round th iruit and through e battery, transferring nrgy at a steady rat from th bary to th rst f th iruit. Th enrgy supplied vry sond by th atter is dlivred to th rest f th iruit. Th battry fors eltrons round th iruit, dlivering nefgy from th attery to th rst of the iruit. A battery in an ltri iruit ats lik a pump in ntral hating systm; the pressure of th pump fors watr through on radiator after anothr round th systm. Thr is a pressur drop aross ah radiator baus th prssur at th inlt t eah radiator is highr than at th outlt. The sum of th prssur drops round the system is threfor qual to th pump prssur. Th prssur drop aross ah radiator is a masure of th work don y th pump to for the Watr through th radiator. Thus th sum of th prssur drops round th systm is a masue of th total work don by th pump whih is

negtiu positive gis

loses

A polythn rod oms ngatively harged whn it is rud 'ith a dry loth. This is baus eltrons carry a
harg and th rod eltrons and the loth letrons when they ar rubbd togethr.
(a) State the unit of ltri harg. How muh letri harg Passs through a torh bulb when th urrnt is 0.030 A fo (i) 10 seonds, (ii)5 minuts?

Q2.
(b)

Q3. A 12vo|t ar battry is onntd ta a |2 v 3 A lt bulb. Th ar baery has a apait of 36 ampr hours. Calulat (a) hov long the baery an ontinu to supply this amount of urrnt bfore it beomes flat, (b) how muh pover the battry supplies to the light bulb.

letric ciruits
Giruit rules
A sries iruit is on in whih th sam urrnt passs through all th omponts in the iruit. In othr rords, all th ltrons moving round suh a iruit pss through evry

Resistane
A potntial diffrn or voltag xists btwn two points in an ltri iruit if an ltron has to do work to move from on point to th other. ondutors in a iruit rsist the flow of

omponnt in th iruit. The urrnt may b masurd using an tNrnter rrhih is a mter dsigned to measrrre urrnt. Th ammtr must onntd in sris with th othr omponnts in th iruit so tht th sam urrnt Passs through all th omponnts in th iruit.
mpoents in prllel with ah othr is on in rhih p of the urrnt from the battery passs through ah of th parallel omponnts. Componnts in prllel in a iruit hav th same voltage btwn th two points whr they ar onntd to th iruit. ah ltron moving round th iruit passs throu one omponnt or the othr omponent rhn it movs from on pint to th othr. Th voltage twen two points in a iruit may e masurd using a uolttnter whih is a metr dsignd to masur vltag. b measur th voltag aross a omponnt, th voltmtr must nnted in paralll with th omponnt.

A iruit with

ltrons baus th ltrons repatdly ollid rith th atoms of th ondutor nd los nrgy in thes ollisions. The atoms of th ondutr vibrat and th virations inras rhn th atoms gain nrgy from th ltrons rhih ollid with them. As a rsult, th ondutor gains enrgy whih it loss to th surroundings through ht trnsfr. In fft, th ondutor rsists th flow of ltrons through it and th eletrons must us som of thir nrgy to pass through th ondutor. Thus if a voltage exists twn two points in any iruit, the ltrons must us som or all of thir nrgy to overom th rsistan of that part of the iruit to their passag from one point to the
othr.

Th rsistane of a iruit omponnt is dfind as

the voltage aross th omponent

For For

omponnts in sris, th urrnt is th sam. omponnts in paralll, the voltage is th sam.

"".".h" The unii of resistane is th ohm (smol Q) whih is th amount of rsistane twn two points in a iruit whn th voltag btwn the two points is 1 volt and th urrent is 1
ampr.

th.

""**t

".-p.**

Resistn

= (in ohms)

voltage (in volts) urrnt (in ampres)

() omp0ents in series

mmeters reod lhe some

Note: the rsiste fonul bou be rerrngd as uoltge = urrent X resistnc, or current = uoltge rest4e

Worked example Calulat th rsistane of a rir whn th urrnt through it is 2.0 A and the voltage aross its nds is 3.0 volts. Solution Rsistan = voltag = 3.0 volts = 1.5 Q

urrent

2.0 amperes

(b) 0mponents tigur 7.3

Ciruit diagrams

_-&

EIotrial symboIs

-]

--{:::]----l-_

*-->[\

--O- --O-

rsistor an b mad y hanging th length of rsistan rire in a iruit. If th length is inrasd, th rsistan of th wir is inreasd and so th urrnt boms smallr. . diode allows urrent through in one dirtion only. A diode onduts whn it is onntd into th iruit in its forward dirtion as its resistan in th forwrd dirtion is verv low. If th diode is then rvrsd, it does not ondut aus its rsistan in th rvrs dirtion is vry high. ,light emitting diode (LBD| emits light whn urrnt passs through it. LDs are usd as indiators in ltroni iruits.

The electrical power equation

Bause th voltag between any two points in a iruit is th powr delivrd pr ampr' it follows that th powr delivrd for a ertain urrent an alulatd by multiplying the voltag by the urrnt. In othr words,
H voltmeter
I vriab|e resistor

A B

light bulb
e||

Poer dliuered
(in tts)

= uoltge x
(i

urrnt

uolts)

(in arper

resistor

|ight depedent rosistor

D fuse
swith

K thrmistor

F diod

G
figure

Fo eampl, an eletri kettl that oprats at a vo|tage of 20 volts and a urrnt of 10 amprs urould tke 2300 watts of Powr (= 230 volts 10 amprs) from the letriity supply whn it is swithd on. A ar's ltril hater dsigned to oPrat at 12 volts and 5 ampers would tak 60 watts of powr (= 12 volts 5 amprs) from the ar battry if th ngin was not srithd on.

mmeter

7.4

e|etrial symbo|s

Summary
Rsistane (in

Standard symbols ar usd to rpresnt omponnts in iruit diagrams. Th funtion of ah omponent rpresnted in ligure 7.4 is desribed blow if it has not bn prviously desribd.

ohms) .*'.'t

voltag (in volts) (t"

=

Powr delivrd
(in

o ' resistor is a omponnt dsigned to hav a known resistan. For xampl, to make a 5.0 o wire-wound rsistor from wir of rsistan 2.5 ohms pr metre' lngth of xatly 2.0 mtrs would nd to e usd. The urnt
rsistor. Th biggr th rsistan of th rsisto th smallr th urrnt is. A, urible resistor is a mponent dsignd to hang th ufrnt without nessarily hanging th voltg. A variabl

watts)

voltag
(in

volts)

"-P.' x urrnt
(in amprs)

throu a rsistor is onstant for a fixed voltage aross th

Questions Q4. A urrnt of 2.5 A is

th rsistor.

passd tfuough a 6.0 Q rsistor. Calulat (a) th p.d. aross th resisto (b) the power supplid to (") Drarv a iruit diagram to show a diod onneted in V ll and a lit torh bul.

Q5.

sris with a 1.5

(b) If th 1.5 V ll was olrnted in th iruit in th rvrs diretin, th torh bul rould not light. Why? Q6. A st f Christmas tr lights ontains 20 light bulbs in sris, eah ratd at 12 volts nd 6 watts. (a) Calulat (i) th urrnt through th light ulbs, (ii) th rsistan of a singl light bul. (b) xplain why non of the lights will light up if any n of th light bulbs fails.

objts held nar its nds. whn th urnt is srithd off, th iron bar loses its magntism. ltromagnts hv many uss' from porerful letromagnts usd to pik up and mov ars in srapyards to very snsitiv eletromagnts usd to writ data onto omputr diss. Two furthr uss f eletromagnts ar desribd blorv.

Th rlay: when urrnt is passd thrugh th oil oI' a re|a, th ltromagnt attrats an iron armatur. The movmnt of this armatur opns or loss a swith whih is part of a armature springs bak to its normal position and th swith revrts ak to its original state.
rron

letriity at Work
A magnti ompass near a wir is dfltd whn the urrnt in th rire is swithd on. This fft is baus th urrent rates
nedl of th magnti ompass points north beaus of th arth's magnti fild. If th ompass is movd in th dirtion its nedl points, it would follow a straight lin lading northwards. Suh a lin is rfrrd to as a magneti fild line, somtimes also alled a magneti lin of fore. Its diretion is dfined as th diretion rhih a ompass ndle points. Tith th urrnt on, th ompass would nd to mov rund the wir baus the magnti fild lins are irls ntrd on the wir as shown in Figure 7.5.If' th urrnt is rvrsd in th wire, th dirtion of magneti fild lines round the wir rvrss.
a magnti fild round the wir. T7ith no urrnt in th wire, th

diffrnt iruit. Whn th urrnt

is

svithd off, th

rmature
iron

ore
9|etromgnoi

b"il-_

urrsnt out
(a) the re|y t|gur 7.6
(b) the e|etri bel|

--*|okwise onentri magneti field Iines

""9*-'
anti|okwise onentric magneti fie|d Iines

|igre

7.5 the magneti fie|d round urrent arrying wire

letromagnets
rond an iron ar. a urrnt is passd through th oil, th iron bar is magnetized th magneti fild du to th urrnt. As a rsult, th iron bar is abl to affrat irn and steel

An ltromagnt onsists of a oil of insulatd wir wound .!hn

Th ltri bell: th ltromagnt oil is part of a .mak and rak' swith. \Vhn urrnt passes throu th oil, th letromagnt attrats th iron armature whih maks the hammer hit th bll. Th movmnt of th armature opens th .make and brak' swith whih swithes th ltromagnt off, allowing th armature to spring bak and los the swith. Currnt thn passes through th ltromagnet nd th squn is rpatd.

A wir

Electri motors
nar a magnt xprienes a for u,hn a urrnt is

passed along th wir. This fft is known as the motor effect.

Th rason for th fft is that th letrons passing along th rir ar pushd sideways by th magnt' xrting a sidways for on th wi as a rsult. Th fft dpnds on th angl

befwn th wir and th lines of th magnti field. For mximum efft, th wir nds to at right angls to th lins of the magneti fild.
urrent passes along ech side of the coil in opposite directions, ach side is therefore acted on by magnetic field. he force on ono side is in the opposite dire;tion to the force on the othet sido. (a) the motor effet
a for due to the

so the oil is ford to spin in th sam dirtion vry half turn. !ithout this rvrsal of th urrnt dirtion vry half turn, th oil would rvrse its dirtion rpatdly.

If th bary is rvrsd in the iruit, the motr spins in th rotation of the oil. In a mains ltri moto

oppsit dirtion. Th gratr the urrent, th fastr the rat of

oiltums through the position at 90" to the field. the s|it.ring commuttor ret/ersos its onnetions to the battery, rG\rersing the Urrent direction round tho oi|.

When th oil is Daralle|to the fio|d. the fores on the sid@s rotate the oi|. As the

an ltromagnt is used instad of a prmnent magnet' a numbr of oils at qual ngls r wound on an iron or, thus providing smother rotation. ah il is onnted to opposit stins of multi-sgmnt ommutator.

Generators
ltriity an be genertd in a oil by mving th oil in a magneti fild. Providd th oil wirs ut th iins of th magnti fild, a vltag is indud in th oil. If th oil is part of a omplte iruit, th indud voltag maks a urrnt pass round the iruit. A yle dmo onsists f magnt whih is ford to rotate nar th nd of a oil, ausing a voltag to b

(b) the |tri motor

split-ring commutator Rottion by more than 90. has swappod the positions of the two sides and reversed th urrnt diretion in the oi|. herefor, the fiorces ating on eah side ontinue to tum the oi| i tho same direction as biore' so tho coil rotlss ontinuous|y in one diretion.

indued in the oil. Th faster the magnt rotates' th gratr th voltag.

figur 7.7

An ltri motor onsists of oil of inslatd wire whih spins

.Whn

wirs along on edg of th oil ar ford up and th wires along th opposite dge ar fored down. Aftr half a turn, th urrnt round th oil must revrsed othrwis th oil is turned bak y th magnti fild. This rvrsal is ahivd automatilly y th ation of th split-ring ommutator whih rotates wi th oil. Conduting rushs md of graphite onntd to the bttry press against th ommutator. Graphit is usd as it is a ondutor and provids ontat with little frition. Th split-ring ommutator has two funtions: 1 [t povids ontinuous ontat betwen th battry and th il as th oil turns. 2 It rverss th urrnt dirtion round the oil vry half turn

btwn opposite poles of a U-shapd magnt or eltromagt. urret is passd round th il, th oil turns ause th

A vltag is indud in any wir in a magnti field providd the wir and magnt are moving rltiv to eah othr and the lins of th mgnti fild ut aross th wir. This efft was disovrd y ihal Faraday in 1831. Th aus of th ffet is that th ltrons in th wir ar made to mov afoss th magnti fild as th wire and magnt mov rlative to eah othr. As a rsult, the magnti fild pushs th eltrons along th rir. This push is somtims rferrd to as an letromotiv for and it nly xists as long as th wir and magnt mv
rlativ to ah othr. Te lteratig urrent gnertor onsists of a reangular oil of insulted wir that is fred to rotat twn the poles of a U.shapd magnt. Th wirs along pposit dgs of th oil ut voltag to b indud in th oil. Th oil wirs ar onnetd to two slip rings on th axle of th oil. A graphit .brush' prssd against eah slip ring provids a ontinuous ontat to an xtrnal iruit.

aross th magnti fild lins as th oil rotats' ausing a

Th voltage revrses in polarity as ah dg of the oil rosss the middl from on magnti pl to th othr pol vry half turn. Th voltag paks whn th il edges ar narst the

(a) e|etromagneti

indution

magneti fild indus an alternating voltag in th sondary oil just as a rotating magnt in a dynamo indus a vltag in th oil of th dynamo.
primary

transformer symbol

(b) th .. generator

llgure 7.9 the transformer

ll|fl

tigr 7.8

vry half turn. This typ of voltag is refrrd to as an altrnting uoltge. If th gnrator is onnted to a suitable rsistor' n altrnating urrent is fored round the iruit, revesing its dirtion rpatdly. For ah omplt tun of the oil, th urrent rvrses and rvrss ak aga in a full yle. . Th.frquny of an altrnating urrnt or voltage is the numbr of yls that take plae ah sond. Th unit of frqunyis th hertz (Hz), whr 1ertz is qual to 1 yle

pols. Tht's th voltage varies as shown, ating in ah dirtion

Th ratio of the seondary voltag to th primary voltag is .turns' on th sondary oil equal to th numr of windings or to the numbr on th primary oil. Seondary voltag = numbr of sondary turns Primary voltag numbr of primary turns

The pak

pr sond. voltag of an altrnating urnt or voltag is the maimum voltag or urrnt in ither dirtion.

steP-uP transformer has more windings on th seondary oil than on th primary oil. For ampl, if thr arc 20 tims as many seondary turns as primary turns, the sondary voltag is 20 tims th primay voltag. A step-down transformf has frr windings on th seondary oil than on th primary oil. For ampl, if thr arc 20 times fwr sondary turns as primary turns, the seondary voltage is a twntith of th primary voltag.

ransformers
down. It onsists of two oils of insulated wir, refdio ai th primary and seondary oils, wound round th sam iron or. \Vhn an alternating voltage is applid to th Primary oil, an

The e|etriity grid This onsists of a nfwork of

A transformr is designed to stp an altrnating voltage up or

ables and transformrs that onnt powr station gnrators to mains eltriity users. Polrr is wastd in a abl if the urrent is too lg ause of

altrnating voltage is indud in th sondary oil. Th rason is that an altrnating urrent passs through th primary oil and reats an alternating magneti fild in th ore. This eltnating

voltag, thn th sam amount of letri power an be dlivrd using low urrent nd high voltag as using high

th rsistan of th abl. Baus letrial powr

Currt

urrnt and low voltag. Powr station 8nrators ar onntd to th grid systm by mans of step-up transformrs. Th high voltag on th abls mans that th urrnt through th abls

is too low to ht th bls so littl power is wastd. Stp-down transformrs at loal sub-stations ar used to rdu th voltag to a suitabl lvl to math th nds of the usr. ltriiiy supplid to homs and offis is at 230 volts.

EIetriity in the home

ains letriity is supplied from a loal sub-station via a main abl, usually undrground. Th abl onsists of two lowrsistan insulatd ondutors. Whn a mains appliane is swithed on' th applian boms part of a omplet iruit onsisting of th two ondutors and th sondary oil of the sub-station transformr. one of th two ondutors in th main .arthd') al, th eutrlwite' is onnetd to th ground (i..
at th sub-station so its voltage is zro. Th othr onduto th

Summary
The motor effet: a wir near a magnt xprins a for whn a urrnt is passd along th wir.
Th trarformrnrl Sondary volge
numtrr of seondary rns of primryms

Primryvolg numr

-340 volts.

liue wfte, altrnats in voltag bfwn about +340 volts and

Questions
Q7.
ltri bell.

Th voltag of th mains is usually measurd and statd in terms

(b) \x/ith th aid of

(a) Stat fwo uss of an letromagnt.

diagtam, xplain th opration of n

Clulate th urrnt (1) through th gnrator iruit, (2) through th sondary oil of th transformr. (iii) xplain ,hy lss power is wastd in th grid systm y transmitting eltriity t high voltage rathr than low voltage.

regardlss of the diretion of the urrent through th oil. Q9. (") V/ith the id of diagram, dsri th opration of an altrnating urrent gnfator. (b)A powr station generatof supplis letriity at 11000 volts via a step-up transformr to the grid system at 132000 volts. (i) Calulat the turns ratio of the transformr. (ii).Th gnrator supplies 400 kilowatts of powr to th grid.

xplai1 why this typ of motor spins in on diriio'' only

altrnating voltag supply. () A mins ltri motor has an letromagnt instad of a permanent magnt. Th ltromagnet and th armatur il ar oth onntd to th mains whih supplis alternating voltage.

simpl ltri motor

Q8. (a) Drw a lablld diagram of a simpl ltri motor and us your diagram to xplain how th ltri motor works. () Stat and explain what happns if th battry onnted to a

dlivr th sme power on averag to any mains appliane. This .equivalnt' stady voltag rorks out at 230 volts. Thus a 230 volt 1000 watt mains eltri hatr would provid th sam hating fft if onntd to a 230 volt dirt voltag supply as it would if onnted to 20 volt mains.

of th valu of th stady (i.. dirt) voltag whih would

is (i)

rversd,

(ii) rplad by

an

Safety first
he |ive wires and any termina|s onnected to it are dangerous. Anyone who touhes a ljve wire wouId suffer a fata| e|etric shok beause the human body onducts e|etriity. No more than about 0.02 amperes through the body wou|d ause a severe e|etri shok. he resistance of the body is about 1000 ohms. Voltages in exess of about 20 vo|ts (= 0.02 amperes 1000 ohms) are therefore dangerous. he live wire reahes about 340 volts every ha|f y|e.

Domesti iruits
Th main abl is onntd to the iruits in a hous via the distribution board. A main swith an b usd to ut thr eltriity supply off at th distribution board. A fus in ah iruit at the distribution board uts off th urrnt to any iruit in th vnt of a fault. ah iruit in a hous onsists of
insulatd liv and nutral rirs onntd to th liv and nutral trminals of th distribution board.

Lighting iruits in th hous usually onsist of low rsistan als. Individual skts nntd to th sam al ar onnted in paralll with on anothr.

.i

a - >.g

o.fi
E=

; gEa=
x .

ETE
g
o7
.-o

;fi D
O.=

g do
E

A E: :<

8 :..

i gF= ;gF;
ff. i*E

*Etg ; j - s i 5.g: ; P.e6. i .q

E; F

.;EE ..E* gE

9tEEE

> -

gE

ilfr

EE
.= *i

* fiEg

Th ring main iruit in a hous supplis ltriity to th wall sokts of th hous via insulted liv and nutral rires. Th ring main abl also inluds a third insulatd wir, th arth wir, whih onnts th mtal hassis of any ltrial applian onntd to th ring main to arth at th hous. This is to prevnt th mtal hassis from oming live if a live wir boms loos in the appliane. Th sokts of th ring main ar onnted in paralll with ah othr. ah plug used to onnt an appliane to th ring main is fid with its own fuse. Th swith in ah sokt is always onnted on th .live side' of th sokt. Mor urrnt an b supplied via th ring main than vi lighting iruits aus th wires are thikr and thrfor ondut ttr. Also, th ring main provids two routs for urrnt from th distribution board for any applian.

Fuses
A fuse is a thin wire desd to mlt if th urrnt through it
in th iruit. Thus a fus is an ssntial safty featur of an lri iruit, intndd to ut th urrnt off if th urrnt bomes too larg. For example, an letri kttl fid with a 13 A fus oprats normally whn swithd on providd the urrnt dos not xed 13 A. If a fault in th kttl or th onting abl auses th urrnt to xd 13 A, th fus
mlts and uts the urrent off ompltly.
xeds a rtain valu refrrd to s the fus rtig. If a fus mlts, no urrnt an Pass through it bause ther is thn a gap

(! >

* '

o .6 .

.6.

trrt .s " E lI

.o

Safety first gain!

1ii
.
^".

ll . 6 ** pE s sqE . 8.e 5P E; B t 9 98 .9
+g

.=

.o _ ,l .E AE

g g,

o z

o eg It =

1,= E

.r

EE i P-fi : 5= o c

Gr

.=

A|ways use a fuse of the reommended rating for a given appliane. For example, if a 5 A fuse is reommended for a hairdryer, a 13 A fuse wou|d be unsafe s it would not me|t if urrent ould exceed the mximum safe va|ue of 5 A and a 3 A fuse wou|d me|t every time the hairdryer was swithed on to fu|| power.

Ietricity osts
letrici teters masure letriity in units of kilowatt hours, wher 1 kilowatt hour is dfind as th nrgy usd by a 1 kilolatt (= 1000 was) applian in 1 hour. A 3 kilowatt eltri hatr would therfor us 3 units (i.. 3 kilowa hours) of ltri in on hour. A 100 watt light bulb would ase 2.4 units of ltriity if swithed on for 24 hours.

An ltriity bill whih shows that 2500 units of ltriity

sam as a 1 kilowa applian would us in 2j00 hours. An eletiity ill also stats th unit ost of letriity whih is the ost per kilowatt hour. Thus the ost of 2500 unit of letriitv at 5 p pr unit rould e f,1,25 (= 2500 x 5 p).

were usd in a rtain piod mans that the nrgy usd was th

iruit.

Q11. (a) State the PurPos of th earth wife in a ring main

tim (i.e. 2 hours total). An 800 wtt mirowav ooker was usd 6 tims for 10 minuts

Worked example The ltriiry usag in a houshold was monitord for one week. During that tim, th ltriity usagr was as follows: A 3 kilowatt ltri kl was used 20 tims for 6 minuts eah

() Thy ar th wirs usd for ring main iruits thikr than the wirs usd in lighting iruits? () A short iruit ours if a fault dvlops and a liv wir or trminal maks ontat rith an arthd or nutral wir. xplain why (i) thr is a risk of fir in a short iruit, and (ii) why a orre fittd fus prvnts suh a fir risk.

Q12. An li mter reading was 28 501 units on a rtain

A 500 watt tlevision was usd for a total of 10 hours. Four 100 ratt eletri lits were usd for a totl of 40 hours. A 2 kilowatt leti heatr ,as usd for total of 20 hours. (a) Calulat th number of units of letriity used by eah
(b) Calulat th total ost of th letriity supplied aove for a unit ost of 5 p pr unit. (a) Kettl = 3 k\tr 2 hours = 6 units; irowav ooker = 0.800 kTr X 1 hour = 0.8 units; Telvision = 0.500 kw x 10 hours = 5.0 units; lting = 4 0.100 klr 40 hours = 16 units; Heatr = 2 kw X 20 hours = 40 units.
(b)

h tim.

da and 28 642 units on rrek latr. (a) Calulat th ost of the ltriity usd in this riod, givn eah unit ost 5.5 p. () In th riod abov, a 6 kilowa ltri watr hater was usd for atota| of 16 hours. Calulat how many units wer du to hatr and th prntage of th total ost du to th hatr.

applian above.

Solution

tal numbr

of uni used = 6 + 5 + 0.8 + 16

40 units

Cost= 67.8X 5p=339p.

67.8

uni

Summary
A fus is dsd to mlt and ut th eletri urrnt off if the urnt xds th fus Iating.
letiity etrs masrrr letriity in units of kilowatt hours, whr 1 kilowatt hour is dfind as the nrgy used by a i

kilowatt

(= 1000 was) pplian

in 1 hour.

Questions
Q10. A 1000 watt 230 volt Itri hatr to b fitted with a fi. lrhih on of th foowing frrss should b hose 3 A5 5 , 13 A.

In this hpte e i|l strt b studing rflection nd

ears go bout the ature of light, both of ulhih cn epl.in refltion nd refrction. oe theory sid tht light as rde up of tin particles. Tbe other theor sid tht light osists of u)aus, Vhich thor proued to b correct? Ve u',ill look t the euidene for nd gist ech theor nd bo more euidene u)|s euntuall obtined a ntur lter ulhih led to deptne of one theor nd rejection of th other. The story of the nture of light had further tists in store ith the disouer of photoeletriit t th end of the ineteenth centr. Inuestigtions on this effect produced obserutions hib ould ot be eplind ntil nu) theor of light, nmel tbe photon theor, u)s proposed b Ibrt Einstein, then oung phsicist emploed b the Siss Ptnt ffie. instein u)ent on to dvelop his theories of reltivit hih include the stonishing outotne that nothing n trul fster thn light. The speed of light in spa t 300000 kilometres per second is the osri speed litit. Euen more stoundig is Einstein's disouer that energ nd tnass are interchngeable on scIe cording to his fmous eqution = mc, ulhere is the speed of light. The deueloptnent of our understding of Iight took plce ouer seuerl entries nd continues to deuelop s phsiists striue to understd ulh light prouides the link betuleen energy nd mss. So let us look t this story in bit more detil.

on to onsider to different theories put forrd ouer 300

refraction of light nd the forrnation of imgs. we then ttloue

GT J ! J
1+

I l

1+ r

q)
-

rr+
ln this hapter you will Iearn: about the properties of light, inIuding refletion, ref ration and interferene . why Newton theory of Iight Was eventually rejeted in favour of wave theory . about eletromagnetie waves and their ptoperties . what photons are and how instein established the photon theory of light.

Properties of light
A lasr beam or a bam of sunlight travls in a straight lin. On a loudy day, sunlight that beaks through a gap in the louds an sn as a straight beam extnding to th ground. \ talk .ray'? aut the Sun's rays but what do w man y th wod word for th path that light It sems lik a vry onvnint taks whn it radiats from a souf (e.g. light from th Sun). So for onvnin w rill think of light in trms f rays. Also, lt us assum for nour that light travls in straight lins.

o o {r

Stand in front of a flat mirror and you will s an image of yourslf. You vrill also b al to s beyond your own image th image of any othr objt hind you. ah image is th

Refletion of light

same distane hind th mirror as th objt is in front. So if you stand 50 ntimtrs in front of a flat mirror. your imse is 50 ntimtrs bhind th mirror and is tlrrfor 10 ntimtres away from you. Stp ak from th mirror nd your image steps bak by th sam distne.

ak.a semitransparnt .mifror' from llophan film ovr an opn box. Put th bo on its side so th film is vrtial and p|ace a small ojt in front of it. You should al to s an imag of the objt in th bo. ov the objet aout until its image apars to e at th ak of the ox. You should find th distan from th objt to the .mirror' is thn th sam as the distan from th .mifror' to the ak f th box.

Mirror imges

tw light rays from a point bjt bfor and after rfltion. Th angl twn ah light ray and th mirror is the sam hfor rfletion as aftr refltion. Somon looking into th mirror along oth rfltd rays would s an imag of th ojt at th position whr th rfltd rays appar to om from. Th mirror in th ray diagram in Figure 8.1 is a lin of rymmtry. This is eaus each ra from th objt to th mirror is at th sam angl to th mirror as th orrsponding .lpparnt ray' from th imag to th mirror. Thrfor, th imag and th objt ar thr sam distan from th mirror.

Rfraction of light
Rfration of light is th hang of dirtion of a light ray when it Passes from on transparnt substan to another trensparnt substane. For eampl, whn light passs from air into a lens, its dirtion hangs unlss its initial dirtion was rt right angles to th lns surfa. Anothr example an sn whn the bottom of a swimming pool is viwd from aov th watr surfae. Th pool appars shallwr than it rally is. This i bause light from a point on th ottom of th pool that passs through the surfa non-normlly is rfrated away from th normal at the surf. As a rsult, th imag of an

*l.]

plane

mirro

#s

point object

-'
'*
#-.

image
"a

,"r0"@
(a) the lW

/*:'
nol",

oblet undr watr apPars losr to th surfa than th objt rlly is.

0l rrf|etion

Light is rfratd
(b) image formtion by a p|ne mirror

figre 8.1

usually eprssd in th form.

a ra o.t light is dirted at a ertain angle onto a flat mirrr, thelight ray rflets off th mirror at th_same angl. In othr wo{ds,.th -angl btwn th mirrr and the gt ry for rfletion is th sm as the angle etwn thirror and th light ray after rfltion. Thistatemnt is known as the l of refletion and it holds fo any mirror. The law is
Tlrn t=f

torards the normal whn it passs from air into a transparnt substan. awa from th normal when it passes from a transparent sustan into air.
Refration here

/
..

whr l is the ngl btwn th inidnt ray and the normal (whih is th lin at right angles to th mirrr at the point of inidn) and r is the angle twen th reflted raynd the normal. Using this law, w9 an xplain th distan rul by means of a ra diagtam as shown in Figur 8.1. This diagra reprsents
tlgr 8.2

-lD--

|mage of objet

ng|9oJ

-Jng]lert-i- -

Swimming pool

objet on poo| f|oor

(a) refrtion at Wter

surface

(b) testing the law of refration

Refration tests

observe a drinking straw in a cup of water. Notie that

it

appears to bend at the surfae. his is beause |ight refracts

at the surfae. Look at an objet through a magnifying g|ass. You should see an enlarged image of the objet beause |ight from the objet passing through the magnifying gIass is refrated. he image is further from the Iens than the objet. P|ae a g|ass of water on top of newspaper print and observe the print through the water. The print viewed through the water appears to be higher up than the rest of the print. Again, this is beause light refrats at the surfae.

The I of rfrctio was disoverd by Snll in Holland in 16]'8. H masurd th angl of rfration, /, btwen th norml a,,.d th rfrated ta f'or diffrnt valus of th angl of inidene, i (i.. th angl btwn the normal and the inident ray). He found that th ratio sin ilsin r is always th sam for a givn transparnt substan. This ratio is rfrrd to as thr rfrativ indx (symo| n) of' th substan. Figur 8.2 (b) shows how to tst th law of rfrtion. Rfrativ indx. n = sin i
slrl r

|Un

8.3

trigonometry qutions

Solution

(tl

(b) Rearrang z

n =sin 30 | sin22= 0.50 I 0.34 = 7.5

=

sin ilslnrtogiv sin r =s:niln

sin 60/1.5

35"

8ummary
mirror nd the light ray after rfletion. Snll,s law of rfration: sin i/sin f = |\ whr l is th angl twn the normal and th inidnt ra, r is th angle twn ]h normal and th refracted ra and z is the rfrativ indx of
th substan. Lrr, of refletion: Th angl twn the mirrr and the light ray fr rfltion is the sam as th angl twn th

Maths kit For th right.angld triangl ABC shown in Figure 8.3,let th angl BAC be dentd by th grk ltter 0 (pronouned .theta'). Th fllowing qutions arr used to dfine thr .sin trigonometry funtions inluding sin 0 (pronound
thta'):

olh, lh, tan0 = ola,

os 0
=
=

sinO

Questions
Q1.
If you stand 0.60 m in front of a flatmirror, how far away fom you is your own imag?

whr o is th length f th opposite side to 0, a is th lngth of th adjant sid to 0 and h is the lngth of th sid opposit th right angl.

Q2. Stat th law of rfltion at a f|at. mirror. Q3. Copy and omplt th ray diagram in Figur
the formation of an imag by a f|at mirror.

8.4 showing

Worked example A light ray entrs a glass blok at an angl f inidn of 30". Th angle of rfration was found to be 22". Calulat (a) th rfrativ index of th glass blok, () th angl of refration for an angle of inidn of 60".

1.5 et an angl of inidn of 60" as shown ovrlaf. Calulat th angle of rfration of the light ray.

Qa. (a) what is mant y rfration of light? (b) A light ray is direted at a glss lok of rfrativ ind

ded to assum the orpusls did not los any sped du to th impat so thy movd way from th wall at th sam angl rr thy had movd towards it.

rll bouning off a wall for that was how he explained the rfltion of light, supposing that th orpusles of light und off a mirror lik a ball bouns off a wall. Newton

Nwton usd his orpusular theory to explain rfration of llght as wll as rfltion. Aording to Nurton, a orpusl of
obseryer
ligle 8.4

plane
mirror

towards th substan. Th for of attration auss it to mov faster in th substane than in air. ore importantl5 if irr initial diretion is not dirtly along the normal, th inras of ped auss its dirtion to hange narr to th normal.

light in air moving towards a transparent substan is attated

Q5. Copy

and omplte the path of th light ray through the glass blok in th diagram.

tho].8.0
tigure 8.5

relrtion mod|

heories of light
Newton theory of Iight
If you have playd or observd a game of snooker you will know that ll ouns off a wall at the same angl as it hits th wall _ providd it is not spinning as it rolls towards th wall. In addition to stablishing laws on motion and gravity, Sir Isaa Nwton put forward a thory of light in whih h prposd that light onsists f tiny partils rhih h alled orpusles. Prhaps Nrton had th ida in his mind about a

A modl of refration an b mad using a marbl and a pi of ard foldd down the middl. on half of the ard nds to fixd on book rith a slight slop so the other half of th Gsrd sloPs steply down to th tale on whih th book rests. obsrve the progess of a marl rolled slowly afoss th ard on th book tovrards th fold. Vhn it passes ovr th fold onto the stePer stion' its sped inrass and its dirtion hangs at the fold.

Huygens'wave theory of light

Aout the sam tim as Newton put forward th orpusular theory of light, an alternativ thory of light was put forward in Holland y Christiaan Huygns. Aording to Huygns,

that light travls slower in a transparnt substan than in ir. In omparison, Nwton ndd to assum light travls fastr in a transparnt substan than in air.

Watr surfae. This imaginative thory also providd an planatin of th laws of rfltion and rfration of light. Rfletion of watr Wavs is obsrvd whn sea Wavs bun off a harbour wall. Rfration of watr Wavs is the rason why wavs on a bah usually run straight up th bah, rgardls of th dirtion of th wavs as thy approah th beah. Th waves slow down as the watr boms lss dp and this rdution in spd auss thm to move dirtly towards the ah. This situation is not unlik a front-whl driv vhile that vrs off a road onto muddy ground. Th vhil hangs dirtion s it gos off the road baus on of th front whls leavs th road and loss som of its grip bfor th othr one dos. To xplain refration f light, Huygns ndd to assume

light onsists of a wavmotion whih moves through sPa or air or any transparent substan lik Wavs mov oss a

f light.

rvntnth ntury' most peopl livd Nwton baus th rpd of light ould not e measurd and Nrton's sintifi rputation was muh gteat.er than that of uygns. NWton's thoris of motion and gravity wr outstandingly sussful ln xplaining th motion of objts in all possil situtions. So Nwton's theory of light was aepted for over a ntury vn thugh thre was no diret eviden for th orpusular thory

Th idea that light onsists of tiny partils hld sway until th first dead of th nintenth entury whn Thomas Young at th Royal Institution in London usd light to dmonstrat th phnomenon of interfrne. Young showed that if a narrow i()ure of light is osrved through two losly spad slits, a rris of right and dark ands (rfrrd to as .frings') ar rn. Th frings ar rplad by a road and of light if on f the two slits is bloked. Thus th dark ands r formd whre light from one slit anls out light from th othr slit. Th light from th tro slits is said to intrfr

ngativly whr a dark fringe is formd. Th light from ah slit anls th light from th othr slit.

ah slit rinfors th light from the ther slit.

positivly whr a bright fring is formd. Th light from

oberving interferene

Us th double slit arrangmnt shown in Figure 8.8 to oserv intrfrne frings using light from a torh lamp adapted as a

nrrow soure. You ought to al to se right and dark

peralll frings.

figre 8.7 using wavr thory to expIain refration

Young double sIits experiment

Rfletion nd rfration of light an oth b xplained using ithr Newton's rpusular theory or Huygns'Wave thory of light. Nwton's theory assumes that light travels fastr in a transParent substan than in ai whras Huygns' thory .!hih assums it travls slowr in a transparrnt substan. .!7hen theory is oret? th thoris were ompared in th
tlgure

8.8 obsrvation

of interfere fringrs

Th phnomnon of interfrn an also be dmonstratd by sending straight waves on a watr surfa towrds two narrow losly spad gaps in a barrier in th water. Th wavs that pass through th gaps spread out and ovrlap. In the ovrlap rgion, wav rsts and troughs from on slit overlap and pass through rsts and troughs from th othr slit.

mirror whr it was refltd bak to th dg of th og whl. Th bam Passs ak through th dg of th og whl if a
whl. Figure 8.9 shows th ida. If th wheel is turned fastr nd fastr from zro spd, an obsrvr looking at the imag of th light sour along the returning am would se th imag nt rtain rotation spds only. At eah suh rotation spd, th tim taken by th am to travl from th whl and bak again is qual to th tim takn for a gap to rplad y anothr 8a t th light am.
gap twn the teth is presnt whn ah puls rturns to th

mts a trough. Iith light, this ours at ah dark fring. Young dmonstrated th phnomenon of intrfrn of light for an audin of invitd gusts at th Royal Institution. Hwvr, h was unabl to onvin them that light was wav lik in its nature as thy prfrrd to liv that som unknown proprty of orpusls would explain th phenonmon f intrfrn. Th disput aout whthr light onsists of wavs or partils was only sttld sveral dads latr whn it was shwn larly that light travls slowr in watr than in air * as prdited y Huygns ovr a ntury arlir!
Th vyavlngth of light, th distane from on rst of a wav

o Canllation ours whr a rrst

Rinformnt ours whr a rst mts a rst or a trough meets trough. Tith light, this ours at ah right fring.

N N

to th nxt rrst'

olour is shown in Figur 8.10. Not that th wavelngth

masurmnts using Young's slits arrangemnt, th wavlngth of ah olour an b detrmined. The uravlngth of ah
drass from aout 0.0007 millimtres f rd light t about

dpnds

on its olou. By

making

l3ll"
|tguru

Distant mirror

,t/

8.9 the sped o| light

0.0004 millimtrs from violt light. Two thousand wavelengths of yllow light would fit int th spa btwn adjaent millimtr marks on a rulr.

Th smallness of th wavlngth of light is the rason why wav ffts ar diffiult to dmonstrat with light.

}.<lr a whl with N teth turning at a rotation frqun of f turns Pr seond, th tim takn for 1 rotation of th whel = 1ff, th tim taken for one gap to rpla th nt gap, f = tim for ]. rotation / N = 1f1V.

The speed of light

Light travls through spa at a spd of 300000 kilomtrs pr sond. Light from th Sun taks about 500 sonds to rah th rth. Light from th most distant galaxis rahing us now was mittd thousands of millions of yars ago. The first aurat masurment of th spd of light was mad by Fizeau in Fran in 1849. H obsrvd light frm a narrow sour of light after it had travelld a distane of over 17 kilomtrs. A narrow bam of light from th sour ras dirtd at th teth of a rotating og wheel whih hopped the bam into pulss. Th bam was thn dirtd to a distant

D in this tim (from the 'rhel and bak), th sped f light, = distan / tim takn = D/(7|fN )
If th light travels distan
=

DfN

frqueny at whih th imag rappard was 25.2 rotations pr seond whn th total distan from th whl and ak was 17.3 km. rov for yourslf that ths masurmnts giv a valu fr the sped of light of 315 000 kilometrs pr seond. Fizau usd this mthod to show that light travls mor slowly through watr than through air. Improved methods for th masurmnt of th spd of light wr subsquntly dvisd.

}.izau usd a whel with 720 teeth and found that th lorst

Th spd of light in a vauum is now dfined as 299792.458 kilomtrs per sond.

.Watr

Eletromagneti Waves

wavs are disturans that travl aross th surfa. Sound wavs in air ar pressur variations that travl through the air. Seismi wvs ar vibrations that travl through th
waves? In the nintenth ntury' it was gnrally thought that light onsists of virations in an invisil substane rfrrd to

whn axrell publishd his theory of eltromagnti wavs' it was immdiatly ra|izd that infrared radiation whih had bn dttd byond th red part of the visile sptrum tlnsists of ltromagnti waves yond the red nd of th visibl sptrum. In addition, ultraviolt radiation whih uras knrwn to li byond th violt pat of the visibl spetrum

arth aftr bing ratd in an arthquak. what ar light

as .thr' whih Was thought to fill spa. |n 1862, a mathmatial thry of light wavs was publishd by th Sottish physiist, Jams axwll. He showd that light
ltri vibrations, t. Suh Wavs rr rfrred to as letromagnti Wavs. axwell ombind the theory of
onsists of vibrating ltri and magnti filds in whih th eltri vibrations genrat magneti vibrations whih gnrat

ltromagnti wavs ven longr in wavlngth than infrard radiation? That about byond ultraviolt radiation? Sveral deades aftr Maxwll publishd his thor5 th Grman physiist Hinrih Hrtz disvrd how to produ and dtt letromagnti waves muh longr in wavlength thn infrard radiation. These wvs bam known as rdio aus and within a fw years thy w bing ud to transmit vrirlss signals etwen Britain and Amria.

(iluld thre be

must also onsist of ltromagnti wavs.

eltri filds rith the thory f magnti fields to show that suh ltromagneti wavs ought to travl through spa at a sped of 300000 kilomtrs pr sond. H knw that light travls at this spd thrugh spa so h onluded that . light onsists of eltromagneti wavs, and . eltromagnti Wavs ist byond both ends of the visil
sp[rum.

Tning in
whn you tun in to a radio or TV station, you re adjusting r reivr iruit so it will pt radio or TV wavs of a tain wavlength only. Th wavelegth of a wav is th distan |ong th rav from on wavepeak to th net wavpak. Th Grk symbol l (pronouned .lambda' ) is usd for wavlength. Th tunr of a rdio reiver usually displays th wavelength or th frquny of the waves whih th tuner
epts.

Th frquny is th numbr of mplt yles of

fli'l]iii

i\,i\,\,i

passing a poit ah sond, whr on yle is from one wav rst to th nxt wave Ist. Th unit of frquny is th hrtz (abbrviatd as Hz), whr 1 z = 1 yl per sond. Loal radio stations broadast at frequnis of about 100 mgahrcz (Hz), whre 1 MHz - 1 million hertz. The spd of waves is th distane pr sond travlld by
wav rst. For waves moving at sped U' a wve rst would

wavs

tigre

8.10 th r|tromagnetic spetrum

travl a distane in 1 sond qual to u. Th numbr of wavlngths in this distane is equal to u l l, whr }' is the wavelength of the wavs. Hen the frqunc, f, of the waves' ,hih is th numer of waves passing a given point in 1 sond, is qul to u / }. Frequen, f -- speed of aves, u / ululength }

through spae'

Hne for eltromagneti waves of wavlngth },, th frequny of th wavs = /h, wher is th sped of letromagnti wavs. For trnsmission through ir or
=

1'E
.l

300000 kilomtrs per sond.

Worked example Calulat (a) th frequny of radio waves f wavlngth 100 metrs in air, (b) the wavelength of radio waves in air of frequny 100 MHz. Th sped of letromagnti rravs in ir = 300000 kilometrs per seond. Solution (a) Frqunc, f = spd, / wavlngth, } = 300000 x 1000 mtrs pr sond / 100 mtrs = 3000000 |lz = 3.0 Hz. (b) ultiplying oth sids of /= l X }" gives f }u = . Dividingbothsids of f }'=cbf gives}'=cIf.
Hn }' = 300 000 = 3.0 m.

s .9

=E

-g I s.E

g
g

E. E.gs

E
=3g

g
. -9
L

.9

*fi

t--

1000 metres per seond / ].00 000 000

Hz

]l

1Frequeny bands
trGqonG ]ag0 long wave (LW) up t0 00 kHz

u8t
interatioal A radio

metlium wave (MW)

high frequey (HD

300 kHz-8 MHz

AM radio AM radio
FM ratlio

$30

MHz

very high frequeny (vHf

ufu high frequey (UH

3F300 MHz
30&000
MHz

v broadasting,
mobi|e hones

mirowave

above 000 ltllHz 500 Hz approx

.l
mi||io

satellite TV globa phoo |inks fibre opti 0m. muiation liks tl'Hz.

light

. o o. o . lc .9) . 0) () A,

.P.E o,

(d

.-

ol

o (!

; EAE

o.

". o *s,8
.

Note: 1 MHz = 1 000 000 Hz. 1 Tz =

tlgrc

8.11 frequeny bnds

.9,

(! .9

X-rays

A fw yars aftr th disovry of radio wavs' the Grman physiist Rontgn disovrd how to produe and dtt
Thse wavs bam known as X-rs. Thir disovry rivd grat publiity as newspaprs laimed they ould be
letromagneti wavs muh shortr than ultraviolet rediation.

-g

I 6 ! fi
(6 o

o 3

: d .!, oEo
-.|=

Es
;

s t(\|

;9s ; g
Flt

5 g i E 8 s

quikly put to us in hospitals to photograph rokn bons in limbs. his is.possibl baus .rys arbsorbd by dns matrials suh as bone and thy pss through soft atrial suh as human tissu. By direting a beam of x-rays t a photographi film in a light-proof wrappr, the ?il- i' laked whre -rays reah it baus t -ays, unlik light, an pass through the wrappet.If a limb is pld in th path f the bam bfor it rahs th film, a sadow of th bon in th limb an sen on th film whn it is dveloped baus th bon prevntd X-rays from rahing th film. In th same dead as X-rays wre disovrd, th disovry of radioativity y Bquerel in Fran ld to th onlusion ihat radioativ sustans an mit eletromagneti waves vn shortr than -rays. This type of radiation iJknoyn as gamma radiation (or y radiation using th Grk ltter Y' ponund .gamma'). axwll,s theory of eltromagnti wavs was thus nfirmd y ths disovries. Preditns from the thorv wr used to dvlop many pratial appliatins suh as th; dsign of r-dio transmittrs on ships and of -ray tubs for us in hospitals. Classil physis basd on Nwton's laws and axwell's theory of eletromagneti waves was abl to ount for vry known phnomenon or obsrvation. any physiists toward the nd of th nintenth entury thoughi e laws of natur had mor or lss bn disovered using thoris of lassial physis.. It smed that littl else reained to b xplaind although mor! aurat masurments of th propities of materials nd.light w99ld probably nebl thm t justify thir ontinud fforts. Although som niggling mino-disovris wer proving toublesome to xplain' many physiists y th turn of th entury wer satisfid that th law of natur e mostly known.

usd.

to .se' through bjts. I fat, X-ray mahins wr

a rtain valu. Th fft happns with ultraviolt radiation bause its frequny is muh ighr than the frquny of any olour of lighi. Th invstigators knw that eltrons ar ontaind invery atom. They also knw that metals ondut eltriity baus som of th ltrons in a mtal move about insid th mtal, not nfind to individual atoms. Now they

had found that light ould b usd to mak som of ths ltrons esape irom th mtal. This fft is alld the photoeltri effect.

light

s
^\

,/
ligure
8.1

metal plate

photoe|ectriity

Pris obsrvations using light

Photoe|etricity and photons

when Hrtz was invstigating how to produ nd detet radio wavs' h notied that th sparks indud by radio wves in a .spark-gap' dttor wer strongr whn uliraviolt radiation was dirtd at the spark gap ontats. Hrtz ws mor intrsted in rdio wavs so h passd his obsrvation on to othr..physiists to invstigat. Further invstigations showd the.fft happens baus a mtal emits tiny native partils alld eletrons whn illuminatd with lightf fquniy abov

produed th astonishing onlusion that th frquny f h.9 .thrshold' iisht ndd to b gratei than or qual to a rtain vilu that dpndd on th mtal ing tstd. Th xistn of suh a thrhold frquny ould not e xplaind using th wave thory of light. Aording to wav thory. th fft should happn rgardlss of th frquny of th ligh.t. It was xpetd ihat thfft would happn mre slwly th lorr th6 frquny of light used - ut it would nvrthlss.happen ardg to wavJthory. Howevr, th xprimnt.al rsults shwd at ltrons wer not mittd at all if the frequny of th light was below th thrshold frquny. ln 1905, this trublm prolm from th last fw yars of th ninetenth

of diffrnt

frqunies

entury was to shattr th wll-stablishd lassial wav theory of light.

instein photon theory of Iight

instin was an awkward studnt t th University in Zwic for h kpt asking qustions that his professors wr unwilling or unable to answr. graduat it a dgr in physis ii 1902 and ventually seurd a post as pat.'.i offiei in Berne, Sritzrlnd. H attndd to his offiiai dutis ffiintly anj
*1'^ al to prrrsu his idas abut physis in his

'p,,.ii-.. Wrot svral sintifi papi' whih revoh'tionizd physis and whih rast the lawi of physis. ! shll turn to his mind-boggling ideas about spa and tim in haptr 10. For th mmnt, we will onitrat on his xp-lantion of photoltriity for rhih h was awardd th Nol Prize for physis in |921. instin. xplain photoltriity in his 1905 papr on th int.rtion of light.and matter by invnting a nwthry of light whih h alled the photon theor 1 t;gt. insiin assumed that light is omposd of wvpajkts wih he alld photons. Th ky points f photon th6ry are: 1 ah photon is a.pkt of letromagneti Waves moving in a. partiular diretion, not spreading in all dirtions as* in lassil wav thory. 2' The nefgy. of a photn is in proportion to th frequeny of th wvs in the wavpakt. instein usd an arlir ida from Plank in Brlin about enrgy whih we shall mt in haptr 10 and assumd th nrgy E of a photon is givn by.the quation In 1905, h
B=hf,
whr is a onstant rfrrd to as th Plank onstant. b xplain photoeltriity using photon thor5 instin said

}.

Thus if an ltron nar th surf absorbs a photon of nrgy hf,itansape ifth photon nergy hfisgreater than or qual to W, th rork funtion of the mtal. Th thrshld frquny of th light thrfor is qual to W / h,orrspondingto hf = w. Hn th frquny of th inidnt |igt,, f must b gratr than or equal to th thrshold frquny for photoltri mission to our. Thus instin photon thory provides an explanation of photoeltriity. Furthr prditions about th intration of light and matter wr onfirmd by mor invstigations aftr 1905 and 1'921' th photon thory had
n fully apted.

The story of Iight so far

orpusular in natur. Huygns' wav thory of light was not aptd until th arly deads of th nintnth ntury whn was disovrd y Young in th first dad of th ninetnth ntury but ras not aptd at that tim as evidene for th wv thory of light. The partile natur of light was rintrodud as a rsult of th disovry of photoeltriity and its subsqunt xplanation y instin in trms of his photon
intrfrn xprimnts and partil-lik in photoletriity. This dual natui of light was to provid a Path in a dirtin

[n th svntnth ntury' Nwton thought that light was

light was shorn to trvl slwer in water than in a! 1s piedited by Huygns but not by Nwtn. Interferen of light

thory. Light has

a dual

natur whih

is

,avJike in

ompltly unxptd by physiists at th nd of th ninieenth entury. \ithin two dads, th lassial laws of
physis had givn ray as a rvolution swept through physis .! will met thr nW and our prption of mattr and nrgy. physis, known as quantum physis, in Chaptr 10.

that

2 3

n ltron in a mtal nds a minimum amount of nrgy sap. This amount of nrgy is alld th work funtiJn of th metal, an e|ect'ron near th surfa an sap if it gains nergy equal to or greater than th work funtion of t mtal, ". an ltron is abl to sapr from th surfa if it absorbs a singl photon of nergy greater than the work funtion of th mtal.
to.

Summary
quation for th frquny of
wavs / wavlngth.
wav: frequny = spd of th

letromagnti waves wavlngth; gamma rays and X-rays; ultraviolt radiation; visibl light; infrard light; mirowavs; radio wavs.

Th sptrum of ltromagnti wavs in ordr of inreasing

Visibl light overs th wavelngth range from bout 0.0004 mm for violt light to aout 0.0007 mm for infrard light. 3 All ltrmagnti Wavs travl in a vauum at a spd of 300000 kilometrs pr sond.

Wavpakets of ltromagneti radition. Th nrgy of a photn E = hf, rrher is the Plank onstant and f is the frequny of th light.
y assuming that the nrgy gaind by a ondution ltron in a mtal'whih asorbs a photon (= hfl is sffiient to nal th

Photon theory 1 Light onsists of photons whih ar

2 Photoltriity is xplaind by th photon thory

eletron t leav th surfa of the mtal if / > th work funtion of th mtal.

Questions
Q6.
() (a)

.lV.hat

pair of losly spad doul slits. Q8. (a) What is a photon of light? (b)What is the photoeltri fft?

why was th wav thory of light ventually aptd? Q7. xplain why a Pattrn of bright and dark frings is osrvd whn light from a narrow slit is obsrved through a

was th nature of light aording to Nwton?

fft?

eplained by wav thory? (d) Hor dos the photon theory xplain th photoletri

() What aspt of th photoltri fft ould not

gamma rays, infrard radiation, mirovlavs, radio wavs' ultraviolt radiation, visil light.

the following Parts of th eletromagnti sptrum in ordr of inrasing wavlngth:

Q9. List

Q10. Light from a lasr am has a wavlength of 0.0006 mm. (a) Vhat is th olour of this light?
speed of light is 300 000 kilomtrs pr send.
()

(b) Calulat th frequny of light of this wavelngth. Th

o q) rr+ oo o s) oa a I

fl

What typ of radiation is byond th long wavlength end of th visible spetrum?

o.

In this hpter ou will learn:

.
.

about atoms and what is inside them how atoms join together to form molecules why solids, liquids and gases have chrateristic properties.

a e mterils hue been disovered or inuented in th past ntuf b scientists etending tbeir knoledge bout eisting mterils. Befor the Scientifi g, ttlost mterils u)ere turl products or rde from rinrals. The Scietifi ge brought tle processes' neu) produts nd ne discouer.ies luhich hu ben put to se to rnke our lius better. A list of materils sed b eh of us eur d ulold be uery long, All th more surprising the tht Il rtlteri|s nd substies, mnuftured or nturl, re mde from no more thn 92 bsi substnces kon s chrnil elemts. Before the Sientific Age' ll substnes ere thoupht to be md from four bsi eletents, nmel ert|l, ulter, ir d fir. Progress to or preset knoledge is d to the fforts of mn sientists hose expriments nd obserutios gue rise to scintific theories to eplin the perinlentl dt nd then to further preditions d more eperiments. Ne mterils continue to be discouered i the sat|,e u)Ay' often leding to r' deuices nd produts. Understnding the properties of n substnce requires nderpinning houlldg nd soud grasp of ertain ke ides. In th haptr, e ill look t th deuelopmet of thse ides ad s ho the prouide the foadtions of the sciene of mterials'

molules link togthe in th liquid stat and th solid stat beause thy xrt fors on ah othr. Ths fores ar rfred to as onds baus they bind th substan in th

liquid or th solid stat. nrgy supplid to a solid at its mlting point auss it to mlt bause th molules gain suffiint nrgy to brak fre from ah othr. nrgy supplied to a liquid at its oiling point auss it to vaporiz
from ah othr.
baus the moluls gain suffiint nrgy to mov away

Compounds and elements

compound
substans.
is a pur substan whih onsists of one typ of molule only. A ompound an e rokn down into othr

n element is a pur substan that annot b brokn down into othr substans. Thr ar just 92 natva||y ouring lmnts. Furthr short-livd lmnts hav bn disoverd in
nulear rtions but none of ths is found naturally. n tom is the smallst part of an elmnt that is hrateristi of th lmnt. Th atoms of an lmnt ar idntial to on another and diffr from th atoms of any other lmnt. Th lightst atom is th hydrogen atom. Th havist naturally ouring atom is th uranium atom whih is 238 tims havier
than th hydrogen atom. fore onds. ah type of moleul nsists of a fixed numr

Atoms and moleules

How would you dsribe th diffrenes btwn solids, liquids and gass} Solids hav thi own shap whras liquids and gass do not. Liquids nd gases an flow whreas solids annot. Liquids and solids hve surfaes wheras gases do not. Th thr stats of mattr' solid, liquid nd gas, ar desribd as physial stats beaus substan an hangd from on stat into another then bak into its formr stat by hating and ooling. For ampl, i mlts and boms water il hatd. In ontrst, hemial hanges involve rations btwen substans that annot b rvised by simple physil mns suh as hating and ling. For xample, water and arbon dioxid ar formd whn a andl burns ut andl wax annot asily b formd from rratr and arbon dioxid. Th obvious differnes btwen th thre stats of mattr ar xplaind using two ky idas: all substans onsist of molules. A molul is th smallest Partil of a substan that an xist indpndently. Th molules of a pure substan ar idntial to on another and diffr from th molules of anv oth substn.

moleule onsists of two or mor atoms jind togethr by

molule onsists f on arbon atom and two oxygn atoms. Its hmial formula is therfor writtn as CO,. Th id of atoms was first put forward in Anint Gre by th philosophr Demoritus (470_400 ) who onsidrd ojets to b made of tiny indivisibl and indstrutibl partils h alld atoms. His thory was rjtd y Aristotl . in favour of th thory of th lmnts,, arth, watr' air and fir. Th atomi thory was stablishd in its modrn form in th arly nintnth ntury by John Dalton (1766-1'844). tle knw frm th work of other sintists that th omposition y
wight of th lmnts in a givn ompound is always th same.

and typ of atoms. For exampl, vry arbon dioxid

baus a ompound onsists of mpound atoms or moluls, ah molul of a mpound bing ompsd of a fixd numbr of atoms of th lmnts whih th ompund an rokn down into. H urorkd out th rlativ wight of ah typ of atm, ased on on unit of

H ralizd that this is

thy form ompounds. Dlton's atoi ihory ld to the Priodi Tabl whih is th asis of modrn hemistrv and whih an only xplaind using quantum mhani (s
p. 156).

atomi weight for th hydrogen atom. H drw up a tabl of atomi wights for ll th known elmnts and usd it to -xplain why elmnts ombin in simpl proportions whn

th nulus is omposd of two types of partils, protons and nutrons. The nulus of the hydrogn atom is a single

How small is a molecule?

Mo|eu|es are muh smal|er than the tiniest grain visible with an optiaI microscope. You an see for yourse|f just how sma|| a mo|eule is by making an oil fi|m one moleule thik as fo||ows: 1 Pour water into a tray on a draining board until the water brims over. When the water has settled, |ean the water surfae by moving a ruler aross the surfae from one end of the tray to the other end. hen sprinkle some very |ight dry powder on the water surfae. 2 he net step is to dip a needle into some oiI to obtain a tiny oil droplet on the end of the needle. The needle tip is then touhed on the water at the centre of the tray. You shou|d see a large path of oi| spread over the watel pushing the powder away. Provided the path does not reah the sides of the tray, it is no more than one moleu|e thik.

proton. th proton is a positivly hargd partile and is slightly lightr than th nutron whih is unharged. ltrons move in th spae round th nulus at rlativly large distans. The harg of th ltrn is qual and opposite to th harg of th proton. Th ltron is about 2000 times lighter than th proton.

-ro******n, l*\

**

ol6ctron
l|gro

9.1 the struture 0f thr atom

lnside an atom
By th end of th nintenth ntury' sintists knw tht atoms ar not indivisibl or indstrutible. ltrons Wre disovrd
g-ass

An atom is rpsentd by th symbol o,, rher Z is the .A, proton numbi of th ato and the ass number, is th
numr of protons and nutrons in th nulus. Th mass of an atom is approximatly qual to tims the mass of a hydrgn atom. This is baus is th number of protons and nutrons in its nuleus and eah proton or neutron has a mass

th gas atoms y th strong eltril field applied to th disharg tube. Regardless of whih typ of gas was used, it was disovrd that idntial ngativly hargd artils were produed as rll as positively hargd atoms of diffring wights. It was therefor onludd tht ths negativly hrgd patiles, rfrrd to as letrons' ar in very typ f atom. Furthr invstigations on radioativity (s Chaptr 11) ld to th onlusion that . evry atom ontains a positively harged nulus whr most of its mass is onntratd.

as a result of exprimnts on eltrial dishargs through at vry low prssurs. Ths ltrons are pulld out of

approximately equal to the mass of a hydrogn atom. Fo eiampl, th symbol ,Li rprsnts an atom of lithium with thre protns and four nutrons in its nulus and thr eltrons moving about th nulus. Th mass of suh an atom is approximatly svn tims th mass of a hydrogn atom.

!sotopes All atoms of th same

with diffrnt numbrs of nutrons ar refrrd to as isotops.

lemnt ontain th sam numbr of protons in th nulus of ah atom. Th numbr of nutrons in ah atom of an lmnt an diffr. Atoms of an lmnt

For ample, natural uranium mostly onsists of the isotope and a small proportion f th isotop e,''sz|J . Both typs of atoms are uranium atoms' ah nulus ontaining 92 protons. Howvr, the isotope 238zI.I ontains three more neutrons than
,8,zIJ

(a)

ah

of arbn dioid Co, onsists of two oxygn and on aron

th isotop

235zU.

(b) 28',U is an omposd of92

qual t th numbr of protons in th nulus. Th hmial proprties of an lemnt ar the sam for all th isotops of the lemnt. This is aus hmial rations ar determind bv th ltrons in an atom. Atoms of th sam lemnt undrg th sam hmial rations aus ah atom has th same ltron arfangmnt ven if th atoms ar diffrnt isotops
of th sam lmnt.

Note that the numr of ltrons in an unhargd atom is

atom onsists f on -

of uranium. ah nulus of 2892U is and746 () Th lightst atom is th hydrogn isotop ''H. This typ of
and on

The atomi sale of mass Th mss of an atom or a molule is usually xpressed in atomi mass units (symol u) whre 1 u = 1.66 x 10.2? kilograms. on unit of atomi mass (1 u) on this sal is dfind as 1| th of th mss of a', atom. This type of atom is usd baus it an asily isolated from othr aron
toms.

Th atoms in a molul ar joind t ah othr by bonds whih hold the atoms togthr. Atoms and moluls in liquids and solids form onds that prvnt th partils moving away from ah othr. If the onds ar suffiintly strong, th mluls lok ah other togthr in a rigid strutur. Thr ar svral diffrnt typs of bonds. Th ltron arrangmnt of ah p of atom dtermins the typ of bnd formd. Th typ of nd formd dtrmins th physial state of the
substane at a given tmprature.

More about bonds

Summary
Th isotops of an lmnt hav th sam numbr of protons and diffrnt numrs of neutrons.
"

is th

symol of an isoto

th Z protons

and (A - Z) neutrons.

1. (a) !hat typ of harg is arrid by (i) an letron, (ii) a prton? (b) Th most ommon isotope of oxygn has 8 eletrons, 8 protons and 8 nutrons in ah atom. (i) !ht is th mass of this type of atom in atomi mass units? (ii) What is th totl harg f th nuleus of this typ of atom? (iii) !7hat would b th ovrall harg of suh an atom if it lost
n letron?

Questions

The letons in an atom mov rund th nulus lik plants moving round th Sun. Th ltrial attration twn ah ltron and th nulus prevents th ltrn from laving th tom. Th ltrons in an atom an only oupy rtain orits round th nulus. Thse allowed orits ar alld shells.Bach shll an hold up to a rtain numbr of ltrons. Th innrmost shll of an atom an only hold two ltrons. Th nxt shll frm th nuleus an hold up to ight ltrons. Th narr a shll is to th nulus, th lss th nergy is of an ltron in th shll. Th ltrons in an atom fill th shlls from th innrmost shll outwards. ah ltron in a shll an only sap to an outr shll if it is givn a rtain amoun of nrgy. Th list blow shws the arrangmnt of th ltrons in th 11 lightst atoms. Ths oupany ruls wr workd out from th hmial propertis of th lmnts and an b plaind asing quatum me h is.
Th hemial proprtis of an elmnt dpnd on th ltron rangmnt of its atoms. Beause a ompltly mPty or full shll is in a lowr nergy stat than a partially full shll, atoms rat by gaining or losing ltrons to lav th atom with full shlls only. Thus an atom of sodium rats by losing th letron in its third shll whras an atom of fluorin reats by eepting an xtra ltron into its sond shll. othr typs f atoms rat by sharing ltrons to form ompltly full shlls.

2. Fill

th word list low.

th gps in the following paragraph using words from

tom eltro isotope molecule neutron

proton

lemet

Atomic

numberZ
Hydgen
Helium
'l

Number of e|ecilrons in eah shell 1st 2nd td shell

shll
1

shell
0 0
1

shll of ltrons. Anothr xample is provided by the aron dioid molul whih nsists of on arbon atom
ovalnt onds with th aron atom. Th outr shll of th arbon atom in a molule is thrfor filld with ight ltrons' four oiginally belnging to th arbon atom and two from ah oxygn atm. Th outr shll of ah oxygn atom in th molul also has ight ltrons, si from th oxygn atom and two from th aron atom.

and two oxygen atoms. ah oxygen atom forms two

0 0 0

2 3 4 5

2
2

hium
Beryllium

2
2

2 3
4

0
0 0 0

Bon
Carbon Nitgen

6
7

2
2
2

5 6 7 8

Orygen
Fluorine

I I
10
11

0
0 0
1

shell

Innermosl

Oxygen

atom

Carbon atom

Oxygen atom

2 2

Neon Sodium

The Priodi Tal is a tl of all the known lmnts listd in rows in order of inrasing mass numr. Th elemnts in a olumn of th Table ar rferrd to as a .group' beaus thy hav similar hmial proprtis. This is bause eah typ of atom in a olumn has th sm numr of letrons in a prtially filld or ompltly filled outr shll. For xampl, lithium, sodium, potassium and rtain havir lmnts ar mtals that readily rat aus eah typ of atom in this group has a singl ltron in an outr shell. This lon ltron is asily rmovd whn th atom rats with anothr atom. Anothr distintiv group of elemnts ar th inrt gass, hlium, non' argon' xnon and krypton. Atoms of all ths
lmnts hav full ltron shlls and ar thrfore unrativ.

seonl

innermosl shell

x @
ova|ent bonds

e|tron ova|ent bond

tigur

9.2

Types of bonds
Th typ of ond formd twen two atoms or moleuls depnds on how the atoms or moluls an los or gain or shar ltrons to rah a lower nergy stat. o A oulnt bod is formd as a result of two atoms sharing a pafu of ltrons. ah atom ontributs an ltron to the bond from its outer shll. For exampl, hydrogn gas onsists of moleuls whih eah onsist of two hydrogn atoms. Th two atoms form a ovalnt ond y sharing thir two ltrons so ah of th atoms in th moleul has a full

@
@

@
@

@
@

@
@

@
@

Sodium ion Chlorine ion

ah ion is attrated equally to its 4 nearest neighbours so is held in its p|ae

ligure 9.3 ioni boding

o n ioni bond is formd whn an atom of one lemnt loss an ltron in its outr shll to an atom of a differnt lemnt. Th donor atom eoms positively hrgd
ltron oms ngatively hargd. Chargd atoms ar alled ions. Hn th atoms that form ioni bonds attrat ah othr baus thy ar oppositly hargd. Th haratristi shap of a rystal is baus it ontains positiv and negativ ions arrangd in a rgular pattrn rfrrd to as a lttie. ah ion is hld in plae in th latti y ioni bonds formd with adjaent oppositely harged ions. Ioni rystals dissolv in watr baus Watr moluls wakn th fors of attration btween the ions in an ioni rystal.
baus it loss an ltron whras th atom that gains th

Summry
of ltrons.

Th ltrons in an atom an only oupy ertain allowd

Typs of bonds:

orbits alled shlls. ah shll an hold up to a rtain numr

A ovalnt ond is whr atoms shar ltrons. An ioi bond is whr one type of atom gains one or mor
ltrons from a diffrnt typ of atom.

talli bonds onsist of a lattie of positiv mtal ions

mtal.

surroundd y letrons whih mov about frly inside th

Grystalformation
Observe a few grains of common salt under a magnifying glass and you wil| see that the grains are ubi in shape. Wath the grains dissolve at the edge of a drop of water. Then blow steadily over the Wter to make it evaporate' You wil| see the grains form again. he hemia| name of ommon sa|t is sodium h|oride. lt ontains positively harged sodium ions nd negative|y harged
h|orine ions.

A molular ond ats btwn two moluls that ar so los that th ltrons of eah molul ar slightly attratd to th
nuleus of th othr molul.

Questions
Q3. xplain in trms of ltrons why
(a) hlium atoms do not intrat rith othr typs of atoms'

(b) sodium ions rry a positiv harge.

(a) two atoms shar a

Q4. wht typ of bond is formd whn

an ltron.

tlli bonds are formd in solid mtal whih onsists of a latti of positiv mtal ions surroundd by letrons whih mov aout frly insid th mtal. ah mtal atom has lost on or more of its outr ltrons. Thse letrons ar rfrrd to as onductio lectrozs aus they arry ltri harg through the mtal rhn a voltag is plad aross th mtal. The ondution ltrons prvent th positiv ions from moving out of pla in th lai. Solid mtals ar muh stronger than many othr solids baus mtalli bonds ar qually strong in all dirtions. oleculr bonds at twn unhargd moluls at los rang. This type of bond is formd whn two moleules r so lse that th eltrons of ah molul ar slightly attratd to th nuleus of th othr molul. oleules in liquids mov about at rndom ut rmain in th liquid baus bonds betwen th moluls prvnt them from lving the liquid surfa. If th liquid tmperatur is raisd, th fastr moving moluls nar th surfa an reak away from th liquid and om gs molules.

pair of ltrons, (b) on typ of atom gains an ltron and ne type loss

A solid

Solids and struture

ojet has its own natural shap baus the fore onds lok th atoms of th solid togthr. !hen a solid objt

is strthd or omprssed or twistd, th atoms ar pulld awy from ah othr. If th fors distorting an objt ar removd and th ojt rturns to its natural shp, th objt is said to possss elastiity. If th distorting fors ar suffiintly larg, the ojet will not regain its natural shape and is prmanntly distortd. For xampl' a prspex rulr that is nt slightly boms straight again whn th bnding fors ar rmovd. If the nding fores arc |arge nough, th rulr bnds prmanently or raks. Anothr xampl is a papr lip whih is dsignd t b stong nough to hold shts of papr tgethr ut not too strong r it would e impossibl to us. [f

to muh for is applid to a papr lip, it bnds prmanently. Th limit byond whih an bjet loses its lstiity is rfrrd

to as its lstic limit. bov its lasti limit, th bjt is prmanntly distortd and is said to e plsti rathr than
formd with diffrent atoms whn the ojt shows plasti
haviour.

lasti. Th bonds btwn atoms in th ojt rak and ate re-

Elstiity tests
Carry out eah of the fo|lowing tests and deide if the e|asti |imit has been exeeded in eah ase.

Measure the |ength of a rubber band using mil|imetre ru|er' Streth the rubber band and then re|ease it. Measure its unstrethed |ength again' polythene bag. Repeat the test with a length of string.

2 3

Repeat the above test with a strip of polythene ut from a

You should find that the rubber band and the length of string
remain within their own eIasti limits but the polythene does not.

Atoms in solids
A solid may b lassifid as ithr rystallin, amorphous or as
a polymr. 1. Grystalline

Th atoms in a rystal are arrngd in a rgular pattrn. As a result, th rystal has a rogniza|e shap. For xmpl, sodium hlorid rystals ar ubi baus sodium and hlorin ions oupy altrnat positions like opposing spolts fans next to ah othr in rows of seats. Imagin ah .rds' fan sitting with an opposing.blus'fan immditly in front, behind and on ithr sid. Th analogy nds ther as th sodium ins ar muh smallr than the hloin ions and arry opposit harg whih is why th strutur holds togethr. Crystals with a partiular shap onsist f rows of atoms arranged in suh a Way as to rat th haratristi shape of th rystal.

solids

would hav littl ffet on th stak. etals onsist of tiny rystls alld grains, pakd togthel with no spas btwn adjant grains. To visualiz the grain strutur insid a mtal, imagine an aeria| viw of a landsap onsisting of small ploughed filds with no spaes btwn th filds and with a diffrnt dirtion of furrows in ah fild. Th atoms in a grain ar arrangd in rows lik th furrows in a fild. Aross the oundary twn two adjaent grains, th rows hang from on dirtion to a diffrnt diretion like th furrows in diffrent dirtions in two adjant filds. Th grains in a mtl an b osrvd using a powerful mirosop if th mtal surfa is land and polished to mak it vry smooth. The strngth f a mtl is due to the presene of grain oundaris. Vhn fors ar applid to a mtal within th lasti limit of th mtal, the layrs of atoms in ah grain ar unal to slid past ah othr baus th layrs in adjant grains ar not in th sam dirtion. Imagin many paks of ards, ah hld by a rubr band, jumbld togthr in a larg ardboard box. Th bo would diffiult to distort baus th ards that ould mad to slid y a sidways push for would be prvntd from doing so y adjant paks. If all th ards in all th paks wre horizontal, thn th bo uld asily b distortd by pushing it sidways.
Testing steel
Hat tratmnt of stl altrs its strength baus it hangs th siz of the grains. If th end of a stel wir is hatd in a flm and thn suddnly oold in watr' th wir boms vry brittl and snaps asily. Heating th wir auss the grains to bom largr and fwr so thr ar fewr oundaris in th mtal. Suddn qunhing in watr maks ths larg grains boundaris to stop layrs of atoms sliding past eah othr when fors ar applid to th mtal.

no fft n it. Th rason why th rystal lavs as aov is baus th tapping for is paralll to the layrs of atoms in th rystal and it auss th atoms in on layer to slid over th atoms in an adjant layr. Th ffet is not unlik applying a for to a stak of ards on a table so the ards slid ovr ah othr. Th sam for pushing dwn on the stak of ards

prmannt and thrfor wakr as thr a fwr grain

A rystal is diffiult to brak but a small amount f

for applid in a suital dirtion an aus it to lav into two smaller rystals. Suh a for an be applid by tapping th rystal with a sharp edg parlll to on of its fas. The sam amount of for applid differntly to th rystal would hav

Amorphous solids Th atoms in an amorphous solid ar lokd togthr in

2.

ontat with eah other at random. In a liquid, the atoms ar

haphazardly. Glass is an xampl of an amorphous solid, onsisting of silion atoms and oxygen atoms linkd togthr by ovalnt onds. Glass is rittl aus th ffts of strss in th glass du to bending fors onntrat at tiny raks in th surfa. Ths raks then dpen whih auss th strss in th glass to bom ven mor onntratd so the glass
snaps suddnly.
If glass is heatd strongly, it loss its rittlnss as raks in th surfa disappear and it softns nough for it to lown or

in ontat with ah othr but thy ar not lokd together and mov about in random dirtions. An amorphous solid is somtims dsrid as a,frozen liquid' as if th atoms of a liquid suddnly stoppd moving and lokd togethr

polymr an be muldd int any shap by warming thn ooling it. Thermasetting polmers suh 4s baklit whih is usd for ltrial fittings hav strong ross-links that mak them stiff and hat rsistant. Rubbr is a natural polymr whih onsists of long moleuls that tnd to url up. ross-links btwn th moleules brak whn th rubbr is strthd and r-form when it is rlasd. Raw rubr is mad muh stiffr by adding sulphur in a .vulanizing'. Th sulphur atoms form Proess knorrn as strong ross-links twn th rubr moluls thus making th rubbr muh strongr and stiffr. A tyre tIe
With every turn of a tyre, every part of the tread is squshed then strethed as it makes ontat with the road surfae- he tyre is made of rubber beause rubber is resi|ient whih means that it strength. nergy must be used to streth rubber and some of this

drawn into any dsired shap by a skilld glassblowr. On ooling, it sts in its nw shap when it rovrs its stiffnss
and brittleness.

polymr. Thermoplstis suh

nd, th doul ond is rplad y a singl bond whih enabls th arbon atoms to link togthr in a long row. ah ron atom in th polymer molule is thus joind y a single ovalent ond to a aron atom on eithr sid and y a ovalnt bond to ah of two hydrgn atoms. Many diffrnt polymrs xist, ll onsisting of long moluls whih ar hains of idntial shorter moleules. Th long moleules of a polymr ar tangld togethr in amorphous polymers suh as polyarbonat whih is usd to mak .hard hats'. The atoms in ah hain ar linked togthr y ovalnt bonds. Bonds form twn hains whr two hains ar in ontat. Ths ross-links an b strong (.g. ovalnt onds) r wak (.g. molular onds) dpending on the typ of

3. Polymers A polymr onsists of long moluls, ah onsisting of a hin of atoms' formd as rsult of idential shortr moluls joining togthr nd.on. For ampl, polythn onsists of long polythyln molules formd y making ethylne moluls join nd-on. ah thyln molule onsists of two aron atoms and four hydrogn atoms. Th two arbon atoms ar joind togthr by a doul ond (i.. two ovalnt onds) and two hydrogn atoms ar attahd to .Whn ah aron atom. th thyln molules join nd-to-

can be strethed and squashed repeatedly without |osing its

journeys very unomfortable.

energy is reovered when the rubber .rebounds' bak to its normal shape. he unreovered eergy heats the rubber and raises its temperature. Fue| usage ou|d be redued if a|| the energy used to streth and squash a ar tyre Was reoverable. Howevel the tyre wou|d need to be very stiff whih ou|d make

Summary
lastiity is the prperc of a solid that nabls it t rgain its natural shap after it has en distortd. A rystallin solid onsists of atoms in a rgular arrangmnt. An amophous solid onsists of atoms lokd togthr at random. A polymr onsists of long hain moluls. tals onsist of tiny rystals alled grains.

Questions
Q5. !hat is mant by
objt.
(a) elastiit (b) th lasti limit of an

amorphous polythne ar plymrs with wak ross-links that brak whn th polymr is warmed, ausing it to softn. Ths ross-links r-form whn th polymr is oold again so th

as

polyaronat and

Q6. Stat whthr ah of th following slid matrials is rystalline, polymeri or amorphous:

als.
(a) (b)

Q7. Pv is a polymr usd to mak ltrial wirs and

Vhat properties of VC mak it suitabl for this use? lrhy ould it be dngrous if a PVC al ovrheats?

(a) stel, () polyarbonate' () sodium hlorid, (d) glass, (e) rubbr

Molecules in fluids
Any sustan that an flow is a fluid. The molules in a fluid are not lokd togethr and they move aout at random. In a gas, th molules mov vry fst and are sparatd by lrg mpty spaes. Th moluls in a liquid mov about mor slowly than in a gas and thy ar in ontat with eah othr. Liquids (and solids) ar muh dnsr than gass beaus th atoms and molules in liquids (nd solids) ar muh losr to ah othr thn thy ar in gases. Th fors btwn gas moluls af too small to afft th fast-moving moleuls in a gas. Howver, in liquids and solids, th moluls mov mor slowly than in a gas and th fors btrn them ar strong nugh to pull th moluls togthr.

Diffusion tests Some further xampls of diffusion an asily be bsrvd in th following situations: 1 Rlas a drop of ink in a glass of watr and srv th ink gradually sprading out. vntually, th ink bms evenly sprad through th watr. 2 Spray a small quantity of dodorant or perfum onto a loth thn walk to th othr sid of the room. You should b al to dtt th dodorant using your nose within a few minutes. 3 Pour a small quantity of vinegar onto a saur and you shuld al to dtt its prsen almost immdiatly using your nos. Diffusion always results in an vn spread f ah substan throughut th ontainer. This hppens aus th moleuls
mov about at random and there is a hug numr of moleuls pr ui millimtr in ny liquid or gas. If thr wr just a fw moluls pr ubi millimtr on avrag, th distribution of moluls would be unvn and onstantly hanging.

Diffusion
throughout the watI. This pross of th sprading of a fluid in anthr fluid is known as diffusion. It ours baus th moluls of ah fluid are in motion and so thy mov aout until thy ar vnly distributd. Diffusion takes pla with gass as wll as with liquids. For xampl, vapour from a liquid with a strong odour sprads out through th surrounding ir.

without stirring th watr. The milk gradually spreads

Obsrv a few drops of milk spreading out in a glass of watr

Howvr, with a large number of moluls pr ui millimtr, flutuations in th distribution would be ngligible. Imagin a thousand million moleuls in a ontainr of volum 1000 ubi millimtrs (= 1 ubi entimtr). ah ubi millimtr would thrfore ontain 1 million moluls on avrage at an givn instant. The probability of ther eing signifiantly mor or lss molules in a ubi millimetre at an instant would b ngligil. Diffusion rsults in vn sprading aus th possiility of uneven sprading is ngligile for
larg numbrs of moluls.

Visosity
.!atr

Somon nar the liquid would noti the odour bfor somon furthr away. Initiall5 th vapour moleuls ar onentratd nar th surfa of th liquid but gradually thy move way from th liquid in vry dirtion until thy ar venly distriutd throughut th air. This pross is th sam s what happns when a ontainr is filld with ed ads thn with blu bads on top. If th lid is thn losd and th ontainr is shakn rpeatedly, th ads gradually mov out until thy ar distriutd at random throughout the ontainr. Providd thr ar a large numbr of beads prsnt' the bads bom vnly distriuted.

flows mor asily than ooking oil whih flows mor asily than syrup. Th visosit of a fluid is a masur of its rsistane to flow. Syrup has a highr visosity than ooking oil whih has a highr visosity than Watr. In genral, gass flow muh mor asily than liquids so th visosit of a gas is muh lowr than th visosity of a liquid. Visosity depnds on tmpratur. oil flows more asily th warmr it is. Th lorr th tmpratur of th oil, th less asily it flows. This is part of th rason why starting a vehile an b diffiult on a old morning. The oil in th ngine is old

bms .thikr, and hader to stir until it rahs a onsistny allowing it to be sprad in a stiky past onto th wallpapr. Visosity is du to the movmnt f moluls in a fluid btwen lyrs moving at diffrnt speds. oluls that transfr from slw-moving layrs to faster mving layrs .drag, on th faster moving layrs. Thus visosity is a form of frition twn layrs in a fluid moving at diffrent spds. Fastmoving layrs in a moving fluid ar dragged by slwr moving layrs whih ar dragged y layrs moving evn slowr and so on. Fr exampl, whn a fluid flows thrugh a pip, th surfa drags on fluid narby whih drags on fluid furthr away whih drags on fluid furthr away and so on.

and thrfore lss fftiv as a luriant. Sm liquids bom mor or lss visous whn stirrd. For exampl, paint in a tin bmes .thinnr' if it is stirrd nough whih mans that it flows mr asily and is asir to apply. Th opposit efft happens to wallpaper past whn it is stirrd. Gradually it

Q9.

(a) Pla ths

re'm srup tr

liquids in rdr of inreasing visosity:

u,ter

(b) Crrtion fluid is usd to ras rrors on papl Why is it nssary to shak th ottl bfor us if it has nt n usd for som tim? () Dsrie a situation wher a liquid boms mor visous whn it is warmed.

Pressure
A fluid will gnrally flow from high prssur to low Prssur, drivn y th for du to the prssur diffren. For xampl, in most hmes, ld watr is supplid t a old Watr tank Yia fd pips onntd to a main watr pip outdoors undr th

ground..Watr is pumpd into th main pip at high pressur at a lal pumping station and flows along th pip int th hms when rquird. Prssur is ausd rhn an oiet xrts a for on a fluid. The fluid in a syring squirts out of the nozz|e of th syring whn a for is applied to th nd of the syring. Th greatr th fore, th fastr th fluid squirts out. Th narrowr th syring, th asir it is to us baus lss for is ndd to rate a ertain prssur with a narrow syring mpard to a wid syring. Th prssur in th syring is th for pr unit ara ating on th fluid. The gratr th for or th smallr th ara of th objt, th highr th prssur ratd in the fluid. Pressure - fore pr unit r Th unit of prssure is the psl (Pa), whih is qual to th prssur xrted by a for f 1 newton ating on an ara of 1 squar metr prpndiular to th ara.

A helth problem
Narrow arteries restrict blood flow and ause the heart to work harder to keep the blood iru|ating round the body. he f|ow rate through a pipe of diameter D is proportiona| to Dl4. his means that if an artery is narrowed by internal deposits to half its normal

norma| rte unless the heart works 16 times harder. ln reality, the heart wou|d be unable to work that muh harder so the flow rate wou|d be redued onsiderably.

width' the flow rate would be redued to one-sixteenth of its

Summary
Diffusion is th pross of th sprading of on fluid into anothr fluid. Th visosity of a fluid is a masur of its rsistan to flow.

Hydrostatic pressure
Th fore of th arth gravity auss prssur in a {luid. Th prssur in a liquid in an open ontainr inreass with dpth blow th surfa. This is why watr runs out of a sink mor slowly as th sink mptis. Th prssur of th watr at th plughol dpends on th depth of watr in the sink. As th dpth bems lss, the pressur oms lss and th rat f flow drops.

Questions
(a) Dsri and xplain what is osrvd whn a solubl aspirin is droppd into a glass of rratr. (b) A drinking glass ontains som lmonade and a sli of lmon. Th lmon sli is thn rmovd. E,xplain why th lemonad still tastes of lmon even though th sli has bn

Q8.

removed.

th top, as in Figur 9.4.

onsider a liquid of dnsity p in an upright ylindr open at

= f||8>

1. Th wight of th liquid in th ylind t mass of th liquid in th ylindr.

whr m is te

About high blood pfiessure Blood prssur is traditionally masurd using n instrumnt alld a sphgmomnotneter whih onsists of an inflatal

2. Te prssur on th bas of th ylindr

=

th wight of th the bas arca

liquid

uff attahd to a hand pump and a mrury-filled ontainer. Th uff is wrappd round th uppr arm and inflatd so it uts off th blood supply to th lowr arm. Th pressur in th uff
auss th mrury to rise from th ontainer up a vrtial glass

8.
A
=

3. Th volum V of the liquid in the ylinder th height of th liquid in th ylindr.

hl wher

is

Th prssure at th bas = rgh = mgh = pgh sin th

a"!!,,,or tL fiqoi P = .

nd th mrury lvel drops. Th puls at th wrist an b dttd when th uff prssur drops suffiintly to allow lood flow to rsum. The hight of th merury in th glass .systoli' tub at this point is a masure of th maximum or lood pressur. Blood pressur is usually exprssd in millimtrs of mrury (arviatd mmHg as th hmial symbol for mrury is Hg).

tub fixd to the ontainr. The uff prssur is thn relasd

ylinder

liquid of density p
l.s\\Yj:1

|igr

9.4 hydrostati ressure

and
figre

Thus the prssur' p, due to a olumn of liquid of height dnsity p is given by th quation,

9.5 mesurig

b|ood pressure

=Pgh
g = 9.8 mls2 alulate the prssure du to a depth of 5.0 mtrs in rrater. The dnsity of watr = 1000 kg -'

Worked example

Solution
=

hpg

5.0

1000

9.8

49 000 Pa.

Blood prssur varis du to th beating of th hart. A prson's blood pressur is usually masured and rorded as .diastoli the systoli prssur and a lowr valu known as th pressure,. Th lood prssure of a typial young prson is 120 / 80 mmHg whih mans th systoli prssuf is 120 mmHg and th diastoli pfessur is 80 mm Hg. A systoli prssur rading onsidrably in exss of this indiats high lood prssur and th nd for medial tratmrnt.
To onvrt mmHg to pasals, us the formul P = hpg were h is th rading onvrtd from mm to mtrrs' p is th dnsity of merury whih is 1.3 600 kg m' and g = 9.8 m/s_,.

For a rading of 120 mmg, h = 0.120 mtrs' ...p = 0.120 13 600 X 9.8 = 15 000 a.

Gs pressure
Th pressur of a gas is du to gas molules hitting th ontainr surfa and rounding. In a gas, th avrag sparation of th moluls is muh |atger than th size oa mlul. In omparisn, th moluls in a liquid or in a solid ar always in ontat with ah othr. Gas moluls mov aout at high spds, olliding with ah other and th

The prssur of a gas in a sald ontinr inrases if th gas is hatd. This happns baus th moluls of th gas mov aout faster whn the gas is hatd. Thus the impats n th ontainr surfa are mor forful and mor frequnt so th prssur of th gas is gratr. If th gas is oold, th pressur falls s th moluls mov slower and thir impats ar lss forful and lss frquent. Th prssur would e zero if the gas was oold to absolut zro whih ls -27". S p. 61. Th pressur of a gas at onstant tmPratufe inrass if the volum of th gas ontainr is redud. For eampl, if th air

ontainer at random. The motion of gas moluls in box is lik- squash alls flying aout in a squash ourt' hitting th walls and rounding and oasionally hitting ah othr. Th pressur du to th fft of gravity on th gas is muh muh smallr than th pressur du to th rpatd impats of th moluls on th ontainr. Th fr du to th impats is smoothd out aus th numbr of moluls pr sond hitting th surfa of th ontainr is vry larg.

in a yl pump is trappd by bloking th outlt thn omprssd y pushing the handl down th arrl, th fssur of th air in th pump inrass. Th rason why this happns is that th air moluls hit th ontainr surfa mor oftn in a smallr spa baus thy hav lss distan to travl btrn suessive impats lith th ontainr surfe. Summary
Prssur

Th first dirt vidne for the xisten of moluls was obtaind by th eightnth-entury Sottish otanist, Robrt Brown. He usd a mirosop t obsrv tiny pollen grains flating in air and h saw that th grains quivrd aJ they movd about at random. e rasond that thir quivring haphazard motion was baus ah grain was bomardd unerrnly by fast-moving moluls. Th unven impats y moluls too small to s wr foreful nough t push ah tiny grain abut at random.

= for pr unit ara ating prpndiular to th ara. Th unit of prssur is th pasal (Pa), whih is qul to 1 nwton pr squar metr. Prssur du to a olumn of liquid = pg wher is th hight of th olumn and p is th dnsity of th liquid Gas pssure: Th prssure of a gas is du to gas moluls hitting th ontinr surfae and rounding.

Questions
Q10.
(b) xpanding your hest auss you to draw air into your lungs, () th wll of a dam is thikr at th as than t th watr surfa. Q11. (a) xplain why the prssur in a vhil tyre is gratr immdiately after a ar journy than bfor.
() air supplid to a divr undr Watr must at high prssur,

In trms of prssure' plain why:

gas mo|eu|e

'-

(b) Th brak systm of a vhil ontains a rk fluid. xplain why it is importnt that the brak systm ontins no air uls.

surface

ligure 9.6 gas pressure

kg / m. () A blod prssur monitor attahd to a patint givs a rading of 720 mmHg. onvrt this reading to pasals. The dnsity of mrury is 1'3 600 kg / m..

Q12. (a) alulat th hydrostati prssur at th bottom f a swimming pool of dpth 2.0 m. Th densiry of watr is 1000

J oo
{ '

r-t r

o ao {r o a
J
fl l

GT

s)

|n

.
.
. .

this hapter you will learn: how instein revolutionised sience a entury ago about the theory of relativity and the quantum theory the two great theories of modern physics
why quantum effects are unertain what is meant by time travel-

hales re onsquees of th theor of reltiui. In this hptr,

Reltiuit theory is bout the tur of sp, time, mss nd erg. Nclar poluer d discouris suh s qurks d blk

theor is bot obserutions, processes d itirctions inuoluing euets t sub.miroscopic sl. Informtion tebolog d ortuitios t,t,,ould not hue deuelopd itbout the quntum theary u,,hih prouids the theoriical bsis of deuies sucll s trsistors d intgrted iruits,

reuolutionized phsis i the aentieth entur. The qunturn

undisouerd

This chpter is bout the hllo gret theories of rnadrn pbsics, the quntum theor nd th theory of rltiuit. Both theories,

t the d of t|le

nieteenth etur,

losly spad slits. Light also has a partil-lik natur baus it onsists of wavpakts or photons. If light an hay Wavlik natur and a partil-lik natur' an a mattr partil suh was as an letron possss a wvJike natur? This qustion .l'923 onsidrd y th Frnh physiist, Louis d Brogli, in who put forward th hypothesis tht partils hav a dual wavlngth, l, of th wavs and th sped, u, of the partile ar linkd through the qution

nature whih is wave-like or partileJik aording to th situation whih the pail is in. H proposd that th

)',=h

ill look t the ides of qunturn theory d the theory of reltiu before metig ulr pott,ler, qurks, blh holes nd otber big discoueries in the finl hapters of this book.

mu

whr is th Plank onstant and m is th mass of th partil.

The nr disvris in physis at th start of th twntith entury ratd a rvolution in th subjt as prvious assumptions about th nature of mattr and radition wr ovrthrown. Th disovery of photoltriity (s p. t26| |edto th onlusion that light onsists of wavpakts or .photons'. Th smallst quantity of light is thrfore th photon. Thus a light beam onsists of many photons. Th disovry of the ltron produd the onlusion that the smallst quantity of ltri harg is the harg arrid y the ltron. An eltri urrent onsists of many ltrons moving on avrag in th prviously thought of as quantitis that flow or sprad out ontinuously. Howvr, th new physis showd that these quantitis are multipls of basi amounts' th asi amount rfrred to as a qutum. Thus th quarrtum of harg is th harg arrid by th ltron. Th quantum of light is th photon. Thse ideas olltivly am known as the quntum thory.In th nxt fw pags, w will look at som of th key ruls of quantrrm thory.
.V

Quantum theory

\ithin a fw yars, de Broglie's strang idas had bn shown to b tru whn it was disovrd that a beam of ltrons dirted at thin mtal foil is sttrd into ertain dirtions only. The sam typ of fft happns whn a bam of light is dirtd at a st of losely spad slits; light sprads out on passing through ah slit. This fft, known as diffation, happns rhn any typ of wavr passs through a gap. Th diffratd light wavs rinfor in rtain dirtions only. Diffration is a wav proprty and rinformnt is an ampl of intrferen (s p. 11,9| whih is also a Wave proprty. through

ltrons in a bam thus have as wavs whn th bam passs a thin mtal foil baus thy mrge in rtain dirtions only, just as a light am dos whn aimd at a st of

paralll slits.

sam dirtion. Quantities suh as eltri harg and light wr

Te Ietro ricrosope is muh mor powrful than light mirosope. letrons in a am in a vauum tube pass through .lnss' ar a thin spimn and ar sattered by it. agnti fluoresent srn usd to fous th sattrd eltrons onto a whr they form a magnifid image of the spimen. uh mor dtail an b sen in th image than in a light mirosop. Th amount of dtail possibl in a mirosop dpends on how

mh diffration ours whn the ravs Pass through th

Wave mehanis
have sn that light has a wav.lik natur baus it

produs an intrfrn paffrn whn it passs through two

lnss. The smallr th ravlngth of th Wavs or th bigger th gap thy must pass through, th lss the diffration that ours and th gretr th dtail that an b sn in the image. Th ltrons in the bam hav a muh shortr wavlngth than light wavs so muh mor detail is sen.

.
next lowest

energy leve| 2 eletrons in

diffrated

lowest

ertain diretions on|y

figre

energy leve| well

10.1 eItron diffrtion

ligul 10.2 energy

|eve|s

.!7ave

Energy levels and line spetra

mhanis is usd to xplain why th eletrons in an atom

ltron from laving the atom. In fft, th ltron is trappd in a .wll'. Th d Brogli wavlngth of an ltron in th well must suh that a whole numbr of wavelngths must fit aross the wll. Bause th spd of an ltron and its d Brogli wavlngth ar rlatd by th Brogli quation )' = h l lu, it follows that th spd of an letron in rll an only hav rtain valus. Thus th kinti energy of th lton an only have rtain values. As a rsult, th nrgy of th ltron in th wll is at rtain lvels only. The xa values for ths lvls dpnds on th shape and dpth of th wll whih dpnds on th harg of th nulus and how many othr ltrons are prsnt. The ky point howvr is that th enrgy of an letron in a onfind spa is .quantizd'nt ntinuous. ah nergy levl orrsponds to a .shll' surrounding th nulus rhr an letron at that energy lvl is loatd. Th hydrogen atom is th simplst atom as it onsists of a singl Proton s th nulus and a singl eletron. The ideas abov giv th nrgy lvls of the hydrogn atom at valus of E,| n2,wh n = L for th innrmost shell, = 2 fot th nt shll, t. and r is th nrgy lvl of th innermost shll.

Oupy .shlls' and why an eletron in an atom has a fixd amount f nrgy whih depends on th shll it oupis. Th nergy of an letron in a shll is alled an energ leuel. n ltron trapped in an atom dos not hav nough kinti nrgy to saP from th atom. Th for of letrostati attration betwn th letron and th nulus prevnts th

Th nergy lvls of an atom dtrmin te line spctrum of light mittd by an atom. A lin sptrum onsists of a pattrn of welldefind bright olourd lins, ah lin bing du to light of a rtain wavlngth from th atom..Whn an atom mits light, n ltron in a shll moves to a diffrent shll at a lowr nergy levl. Th letron loses nrgy and rlass a photon whih arris away th nergy lost by th letron. Photons with the sam nergy all hav th sam wvlngth so the sptrum of light from this type of atom onsists of wll-dfind ravlengths. Th sptrum of light an sen by using a prism to split th light int olourd lins, ah lin bing du to light of a rtain wavlngth. The pattrn of olourd lins is th lin spetrum of th typ of atom that mits th lit. h typ of atom produs its orn lin spetrum bause th nergy lvels of eh typ of atom ar uniqu to that typ of tom. Th hydrogn sptrum onsists of lins that math atly letron transitions betwen energy lvels givn by th appropriate formula.

|igure 10.3 a Iine spetrum

The Uncertainty Principle

S far w hav sn that quantum thory mans that nrgy, th

Summary
is

quantizd. veryday prien suggsts otherwis as light ray sems to b a stady stram of enrgy and th spd of any vryday moving bjt is not rstritd to allowd valus only. Yt partils at th sub-atomi sal must oby the ruls of th quantum world. Th reason why w do not perin th quantum world in our vryday xperins is baus suh xprins ar due to vry larg numbrs of partiles, ah with its own nergy. ! fail to s individual photons of light aus vn the faintst image sen by th ye is du to hug numbrs of photons.

apacit

to do work, is not a ontinuous quantity ut

Th de Brogli wavlength'of a partil'

whre is th Plank onstant' m is the mass of th partil and u is its spd.

Th Untainty Prinipl: Th lss unrtain th position of a

partile is, the mor unrtain its spd is. Th lss unrtain th sped of a paftil is, th mor unrtain its position is.

Questions
Q1. In ah of th following exprimnts, state whthr
ltron bhaves as a wave or a partil. (a) An ltron in a bam is dfltd by a magnti fild. () An ltron in a bam passs through a mtal foil and is diffratd in a ertin dirtion. () An eltron in n atom is knokd out of th atom by a photon.
(a) Desrib th diffrne bfwn a ontinuous sptrum and a lin sptrum.

th

tmprature of an objt' nrgy transfr from th ojt to th thrmomtr taks plae. For a larg objt, this transfr maks Howvr, if th ojt is suffiintly small, the ation of making th measurmnt would altr th objet's tmpratur. Anothr xampl is th dtrmination of th spd of an ojt. This uld don by timing th objet as it passs two fixd positions. Th objet would ned t b observd as it passs ah position. on a larg sale, th at f observing th objt would not afft its spd. Howver, if th bjt is a su-atomi partil, photons usd to osrv it ould hange its sped whn thy ar satterd by it. Thus th ation of making an osrvation on this sal dtrmins what is oservd.

obsrvatin affts th outom of th obsrvation. For xampl, whn a thrmomtr is usd to masur th
objt.

Quantum ffts are obsrved whre th ation of making an

no measurale diffrne to th tmpratur of th

Q2.

letrons in th light sour ar at wll-dfind nrgy lvls.

() xplain why an optial lin sptrum indiats that th

Q3. Th diagram blow shows thr of th nrgy lvls of th ltrns in a rtain atom. (a) List th thr diffrnt downward ltron transitions that ar possil in this atom. () \hih of th thre letron transitions prdus th smallst
photon nrgy?

fundamental unrtainty in th stat of a partile in tht its spd and its position annot dtrmind simultanously. Th less unrtain the positin of a partile is, th mor unertain its sped is. Th lss unrtain t}r spd of a partil is, the more unrtain its position is. Hisnbrg's Unrtainty Prinipl lads to th onlusion that th shortr th duration of a proess, th mor unrtain th nrgy of th partiles involvd. Clarly, enrgy in the quantum wrld is a muh mor mystrius quantity than in th world of mahins and ngins.

physiist

Quantum ffts r us unrtain and nd to b dsribd as suh. Ths idas wr put On a formal basis by th Grman .Wrnr

Heisnrg who proved that thr

is

Q4. Th spd of the ltrons in n eletron mirosop an b inrased y inrasing th voltag applied to th mirosop. Th voltage is inrasd so th spd of th eltrons is doubld. (a) How is th d Brogli wavlngth of th ltrons in th
am hangd? () How is th final imag affected by this inras of sped?

th mathmatial dtails hr and look at why th prditions made y instin rvolutinized our undrstanding of spa and
tim.

Th osrvd lngth of a moving rod is shortr th fstr th rd travls towards or away from th bsrvr. A moving lok runs slwr than a statinary lok.

Relativity
b made to trvel fastr than light. Th sped of light in a vauum is th ultimat spd limit. Alrt instein was th first prson to rca|ize the fundamntal signifian of th speed of light. Bfor instin, sintists had attmptd to find out if th spd of light was afftd by th spd of the osrvr or th light sour. Nwton's laws of motion prdited thatif an ojt is thrown forwards at a sped of 10 m/s from a vehil moving in a straight lin at 30 m/s, the spd of th ojt rlative to th ground is 40 m/s. Physiists for instin thought th sm rul should apply to light from a moving light sour. They knw that th spd of light in vauum is 300 000 km/s so they rasond that a light bam on a mving sorrr aimd in th forward dirtion of th soure ought to travel fastr than 300000 km/s. xprimnts were dvisd to test this prdition but th spd of light was found to the same, regardlss of th spd of th light sour. No on ould

No ojt an

Both ffts require objts to b moving at spds approahing the spd of light. xpriments using partil bams at spds approahing th spd of light have onfirmd instin's prditions. For xampl, th liftim of fast-moving unstabl partiles alld muons is longr than if thy ar stationary. Anothr xample is a twin rho travls at high sped away from th ath and ak again. on rturn, he or sh would find that h or sh is youngr than th stay-at-hom fwin bause a travllr,s lok runs slowr than a stationary lok.

Two further prditions made by instein in his 1905 Theory of Rlativiry rvolutinizd our undrstanding of mass and entgy. Th mass of a moving objt inreass with its sped. If an ojt is alratd to a gratr sped, its mass inrass. instin showd that th rnass would b infinit at the speed of light hen th onlusion that no ojt an b mad to

o nrgy E an

plain this rsult satisfatorily rrntil instein providd th answr in 1905 whn h pulishd th thory of rlativity. instin at tht time was no mor than a junior sintist at th Swiss Patnt offi. His offiial dutis wr not too dmanding and h was al to dvlop his ideas in his spar tim. His thory of rlativity startd with just two assumptions: 1 The spd of light is the sam for any obsrvr, regardlss of th spd of th sour or th spd of the osrvr. 2 All motion is reltiv. Th first assumption uts out th argumnt aout whthr th spd of light dpnds on th spd of th light sour. Th sond assumption mns that all physial laws pressd in mathmatial form must b th same for ll osrvrs moving at onstant veloity rlativ to ah othr. instin put ths assumptions forward as his starting points and thn rorkd .!
mathmatially through thir onsequens. shall lav asid

travel as fast as light. onvrtd into mass rn and vi vrsa in aordane with instin famous quation

F,=mC whr is th sped of light in a vauum. For xampl, th onvrsion of 4 tonns (= 4000 kg) of mattr into nergy
would rlas about 4 x 10,0 J of nrgy, nough to met th annual dmnd for nrgy for th ntire world. Chek th alulation yurslf, given m = 4000 kg and = 3 X 108 m/s.

Albe instein 187}1955

instin did not distinguish himslf aadmially at sonday shool in unih. His family moved to unih from Ulm a ear aftet his birth and mvd to ilan 14 yars latr. instin
dislikd th regimntd shol system that prvaild in Germany

t that tim and he lft shol

rgnized his unusual talnts in mathmatis and physis and

prmaturly.

His family

arrangd for him to mplt his seondary eduation in Zluri.In 1896, h gaind a pla to study at th Srriss Fdral Institut of Thnology (known as th ...) in Zurih and

graduatd with a physis degr four years latr. H dvloped a reputation for asking awkward questions whih his profssors ould not always answer. Two years aftr laving .TH., h managed to serrrr a post in th Swiss Patnt offi at Brn. H worked at his idas on physis in his spar tim with the support of his wif and his frinds. In 1905, h pulishd papers on th rferrd to as spial rlativity. He was appointed to a part-tim post at th Univrsity of Brne in 1'907 and bame a profssor in 1909.In 1'914, after a rif spll in Pragu, instin took up th post of Dirtor of th Kaisr !ilhlm Institut for Physis in Berlin. H publishd th Gneral Theory of Rlativity in 1916 in whih h showd that gravity is a featur of spae and tim. H eame a hushold nam whn his prdition that gravity bends spa was onfirmed in 7979 y th British stronome Sir Arthur ddington. In 1,933, instin was ford to emigrate from Grmany and h spnt the rst of his lif in Amria.

Summary
instein's thory of spial rlatity assums that

1 Th

photon thory of radiation and th theory of rlativity, now

spd of light is th same for any observ rgardlss of th sped of the sour or the spd of th obsrvr. All motion is rlativ.

nergy and mass: nergy an b onvftd into mass m and vi vrsa on a sal givn y |, = mc. rhere is th sped of light in a vauum.

Questions
Q5.

(a) An atom of mass 2x 1.0-28 kg rless a photon of light of nrgy 1 x ]"OJ,J. Show that th mass loss of th atom is

The masss of toms wr measured auratly and it was disovrd tht mass was lost whn a radiotive hang took pla and that th nrgy rlasd mathd th mass loss in aordan with = m. or dramatiall nuli an be
that ould wip out th human ra if vr nulear Wapons wr to be used in a war. In addition, physiists hav disovered that high nrgy photons are apabl of turning into maffr in th form of partils and antipartils. The rvrse proess is
mad to rlas enrgy and this pross an be ausd on sal

th letron (i.. its harg / mass value) was smallr th gratr th spd of th ltrons. Furthr tsts shored that th mass of an ltron did indd inras with spd as instin prditd.

xperimental vidn in support of th thory of spil rlativity was found in th disovery that th spifi harg f

of enrgy 1
Q6. The
sond.

ngligibl. () A nulus in an atom of mass 2

derass by about 0.5" as a rsult of this pross.

10'3J. Show that th mass of the nulus

1018 kg relass a

photon

Sun radiats nrgy at a rate of, 4 X ]-026 watts. Calulate th amount of mass onvertd into enrgy y th Sun vry

also possible whr a Patril and an antipartile annihilat ah othr and turn into photons. All ths prosss rquire th us of' E, = mc. Perhaps th most amazing aspet of instein's work is that after a ntury of using = m, th mhanism behind th onversion of mass and nergy is still not larly understood. With ths thoughts in mind, w rdll mov on in the nxt

haptr to look at what is now known about matter and its

proprtis at an ven smllr sl than th nulus.

Th serh to disouer the fundmentl struture of ratter hs been the ntrI thme of siene for the pst fe turies nd is a qust tht otius tod Ne disouries build o preuious diioueris nd eisting theories, enbling eisting thories to b refined or rleu) ides deueed. Th ides bot tors tht ere

first put forrd thousnds of ers go b Demoritus in Ancient Gree ulere redisouered b lohn Dlto in t|l earl
ineteenth century. Dlton's theory tht toms re idiuible nd indestrtible ulorked ell for lmost ntur util the disouery tht torns ontined rch lighter ngtiue prtils

ulhih bme knon s eltrons. periments b rest Rutherd i the first dedes of the fiaetieth etury shoed
nuleus

tht euer tor contis positiue nulus here most of its mss is loted. Further eperiments ld to the colusion tbt the eletrons moue roud the nuIans. In this hte ule ill look t t|le disoueries tht led to this picture of th tom befor mouing

is

omposed

of protos nd neutros, nd tht

t|le

C oo
r+
-

o 1+ r {r J o a s) rr+

protos nd nutrons r on'osed of pils alled quark*.We kno tht for ury tpe of piI' there is orrespoding pe of ntiprtile. Like Pndora's box hih hs bo inside bo inside a bo nd so on' the serh to douer the strutre of f|ter hs ucouered struture t sucessiuel srller scles. No the serh is on to find out if quarks d lectrons r msttions of nture on n eun srller sl.

on to look t tb astonishing piture ruld b phsicists .W probing mttr o incredibl smll scles. knootl no tllt

1+

lnside the atom

Nw disoveris ftn lad to nw invntions rrhih thn lad to mor new disovries. For ampl, in th mid-nintnth ntury' th disovry of ltromagnti indution by ihal
}.araday led to th invention of a rang of ltromagneti dvis

rr+
ln this chapter you will learn: . what radioativity is and what auses it

suh as th dynamo (s p. 101), th transformr (se p. t02) and th indution oil. The induion oil is lik a

. .

what is inside the nucleus of the atom about quarks and leptons, the fundamental partiles from which all matter is

transform xpt th primary oil is onntd to a battry in .mak and sris with .mak and rak'swith. In operation, th brak' swith rpatdly swiths lh urrnt throu th primary oil on and off. ah tim th primary urrnt is swithed on or off, th hanging magnetism through the seondary oil auss an indud voltag aross th sondary oil. Th sondary oil has

many mor windings on

ah tim th mk and reak srvith opns or loses.

Consquntly, a very larg voltage is indud in th sondary

it

than th primary oil

has.

oil

omposed.

to b attratd towards th ngativ letrod in the gas and th ltrons to attrated towards th positiv eletrod. rookes rea|ized that sitive nd negativ ions wr ratd in th gas and h rasond tht the mission of light y th gas was when positiv ion and a ngativ ion ollide and reomin to form an atom again.
atoms as positiv ions

The indution oil was usd y Sir !illiam Crookes in the midnintenth ntury to invstigat if gass ondut ltriity at vry low prssurs and high voltag. Crooks found that gass ondut whn subjetd to high voltag at et low prssurs. More importantly, h found that light is mitted y th gas in ths onditions. Non tubs and othr olourful illuminatd displays afe th rsult of Crooks' disovry that th olour of light mittd dpends on th typ of gas in th tu. Crookes aried out further resarh into th natur of th partils rsponsil for arrying ltriity in the gas. It was alrady known that ondution in a liquid solution suh as salt watr is du to th prsn of positiv and ngative ins in th solution. !hn two ltrodes onntd to a attery ar plad in th solution, th positiv ions are attratd to the negativ ltrod and th ngativ ions ar affratd to th positiv letrod. Crooks rorked out that a gas at low prssur onduts for th sam rason, namely th prsn of positiv and ngativ ions in th gas. Howvr, unlik in a liquid solution, ions in a gas are only ratd when th gas is at low prssur and a high voltag xists aross the gas. Th high voltage aross th gas auses letrons to b torn out of individual gas atoms' laving the

By applying an ltri fild r a magnti field to th am befor it hit th sren' th ions ould dfltd and th defletion ould masurd from th shift of position of th spot of light on th sren. 1 Th ltri fild was ratd befwn two mtal .dfleting' plats on abov th othr. on plat was onnted via a swith to th positiv terminal of a high voltag supply unit and th othr plt to th ngativ trminal of the supply. Th deflting plates wre positioned so that the bam passed .!hn th swith was losed, th spot on th btwen them. sren was sn to dflt baus th ions wr aflratd to

2 The

the oppositely hargd dfleting plat.

TV

insulatd rir ither sid of th narror part of th tube and passing a urrnt through th two oils. Th dfltin ould rvrsd y rvrsing th urrnt or it ould b inrasd y inrasing the urrnt. This prinipl is usd in all mdrn
sreen and form a pitur on th srn.

magnti fild was ratd by plaing two oils of

tues and VDUs to mak an ltron bam san th

Reminder about ions An ion is a hargd atom. A positive ion is formd by removing an ltron from an unhargd tom. A ngativ ion is formed by adding an ltron to an unhargd atom.

magnet tigure
11

'1

def|tion of e|ectrons

The disovery of the eIetron

Rsarh into the ondution f gases at Yer low pressur by Jsph Thomsn led to th disovery of th ltron in 1,897, Thomson found that th ngativ ions wr always th sam, rgardlss of whih gas was prsnt. H disovrd that the positive ions wr gas atoms with ltrons rmovd. Thomson made ths disoveries with appartus h dsigned and onstrutd tht produd ams of ions. Thomson's apparatus was in effet th vry first TV-lik tu as th tube widned out into a srn with a flat nd. The srn was oatd intrnally with a hmil that produd a spot of light where th ion
am hit the srn.

Thomson found that th defltion of th ngativ ions did not dpnd on th typ f gas usd whras th dfltion of th positiv ions did. H ralizd that ths ngativ partils are in .orpusls of vry typ of atom and rfrrd to thm as letriity, befor thy am known as eltrons. H masurd
the dfltion of th ltrons in a bam y deflting thm with eltri and magnti filds f known stfngths. From his masurmnts, h workd out th harg / mass value of th .speifi harg'). This was a ltron (known thnially as its

signifiant masurment baus th spifi harg f most ions had bn masurd dads earlir in ltrlysis xprimnts.

For xampl, it was known that hydrogn gas was rlasd

whn letriity is passed through aidified wter and that 96000 ouloms of letri harg ras nedd to produ 1 gram of hydrogn gas. Th spifi harg of the hydrogn ion was thrfor known to b 96000 ouloms pr gram, largr than the speifi harg of any othr ion until Thomson disoverd that th ltron has a spifi harg about 1850 tims gratr than that of th hydrogen ion. Thomson ould not
lighter than th hydrogen ion or ause th ltron arries muh mor harg than a hydrogn ion. Hwever, assuming tht th hydrogn ion and the ltron arry equal and opposit amounts of harg, Thomson and most of his ontemporaris rkoned that th eltron must muh lighter thn th
hydrogen atom.
be rtain if this vry lrg valu is baus the eltron is muh

The harg of th letron, e' was msurd by th Amrian physiist, Rort illikan, in 1915. His vlu of e was vry los to the now-apted valu of 1,.6 x 1019 oulombs. Th mass of th ltron ould then alulatd from its spifi harge elr = 1'.8 108 uloms pr gram (= 1850 x 96000 oulombs pr gram) and its atual harg e = 1,6 X 10'' . Prov for yourself that thse figurs give a vlu of 9 x 10-,s grams (= 9 x 10j1 kilograms) fr th mass of th ltron. !ithin 20 ears of Thomson's disovery, sientists had workd
out that th eltrons in an atom orbit nuleus of positiv harg in th atom. Th disovery of th nulus is part of th nt rad in th dvlopmnt of our undrstanding of th strutur of th tom.

and a high gas onduts eltriity if it is at low and a is applid aross it. Pairs of positiv . The ngativ ar ratd from gas mov to th oppositly hargd ltrod in th tu. Light is ollid and a ngativ mitted if a positiv and reombin. Q2. A am of eltrons hits a srn and produs a spot of light. Th am is thn defltd using a magneti fild whih auss th spot to mov a ntimetr downwards on th sren. How would th spot be afftd if th magnti fild was (a) inrasd in strngth, () revrsed in dirtion? Q3. Th spifi harge f th ltron is 1,.76 x ].011 oulombs pr kilogram. The harg of th ltron is ]'.60 10_19 C. Use this data to show that th mass of th ltron is 9.1 X 10J' kg.

Radioativity
was Radioativ ,l'896 disovrd aidntly

Summary
prssures.

whn h was onduting resarh into th Bqurl in ffts of X-rays on uranium ompounds. H had fisovrd that rtain substns eposed to X.rays glow and ontinud to glow whn th X-ray mahine Ws swithd off. H wantd to know if th rvrs fft was possible, nmly mission of -rays after th substan had n xposd to strong sunlight. In radinss for a sunny day, h plad a wrappd photographi plate in a drawr with a small quantity of th uranim ompotrnd on it. Aftr svral dull days, h didd to dvlop th plats, expting to obsrv no mor than a faint img of th ompound. H was
threfor vry surprisd whn he found a vry strong imag on th plat. He rea|izedthat th uranium ompound ws emitting som form of radiation without having n xposd to sunlight.

in Paris by

Hnri

Gass ondut whn sujetd

to high voltage t vry low

positive ion is formd by rmoving an ltron from an unharged atom. A ngativ ion is formed y adding an ltron to an unhargd atom. The speifi harg of a partile is its harg / mass valu.

Questions

Ql.

Complt th following sntnes using words from th list below:

toms ios light prssur

uoltge

Furthr tsts showd that th substan mits this radiation ontinuously vn whn stord in darknss for long priods and that th radiation passs through glass ut not through mtal. Th .radioativ' baus it did not nd to substan was dsribd as b supplid with nrgy to mak it mit radiation and was threfor emiing radiation ativly. Bquerel ntinud his rsearh on -rays nd passd the investigation of radioaivity on to his rsarh studnt, ari Curi. Iithin two yars' Mari Curi and her husband Pierr had disovred other sustans whih are radioadiv, inluding tlvo nw lmnts, radium and polonium. Bquerl and th Curies wre awardd th 1903 Nobl Priz in physis for thir disovris.

rsarh showd that th nulus itslf is omposd of nutrons and protons. In rnt dades, sintists hav disovrd that protons and neutrons are omposd of smallr paltiles whih ar rfrrd to as quarks. any qustions abut th sub-atomi world rmain unanswred and mor qustions arise as mo disovris ar mad. We will look at som f ths qustions latr in this hapter aftr w hav studid radioativity in more dtail.

rnst Ruthford who shord that th radiation is produd whn unstable atoms disintgrat. H used th radiation t probe th atom and h ddud that every atom ontains a positively harged nulus whr most of its mass is loatd. Furthr

Th natur of radioativity was stalished by

T"
gammf radiation
llgure 11.2 radioactivity

many protons or nutrons. Suh a nulus bomes stal r lss unstal y emitting on of three ryps of radiation:

Radioativ is du to th instility f a nulus whih hs too

Ruthrford. It onsists of a tue onntd to an ltloni ountr. ah time an ionizing partile ntrs th tub, th ountr rgisters it as a singl ount ad a lik is hard. The tub itslf is sald and hollo with a thin window ovr on
nd and a mtal rd along its axis. Th tub ontains gas at vry low prssur. With svral hundrd volts brwn th rd and th tub, an ionizing paltil ntring th tube ionizs th gas atoms whih thn ioniz mor atoms, t. Th gas beoms

Alph rdition () onsists of partils, eah omposd of two protons and tw neutrons. An partile is mittd y a very large unstabl nulus. Alpha radiation . is easily stoppd y ardoard or thin mtal, . has a rang in air of no mor than a fw ntimtrs, ionizes air moluls muh more stfongly than th other two typs of radioativ radiation. Bt rdition (p) onsists of eltrons, ah mittd whn a nulus with too many nutrons disintgrates. A nutron in suh a nulus suddnly and unexptdly hngs to a proton; in th pross' an letron is ratd and instantly mittd from th nulus. Bta radiation . is stoppd y 5_10 mm of metal, has a rnge in air of about 1 mtr,

onduting for a fration of a seond, ausing a tiny puls of

letriity to pass through th ountr and rgistred.

ionizs air moluls less strongly than

3 Gmm raditio (y) onsists of high nrgy photons. A photon is a pakt of ltromagneti Wavs. A gamma

rdiation.
llgre 11.3 usig a geiger ounter

phton is mittd from a nulus with surplus energy aftr it has emittd an r or a p partil. Gamma radiation

To us a gigr ountef: .start ount' swith is pressd and a stopwath is startd 2 th at th sam tim, the .stop ount, swith is prssd aftet a masurd tim (.g. 100 sonds).
1

is stoppd only y svral ntimtrs of lad, has an infinit range in air, ionizs air moluls vry wakly.

th ounter is st to zro,

The geiger outfier is usd to dtt radioativ radiation. This

dvi was invntd y ans Gigr who workd with

The ount rate is the numbr f ounts pr sond. This is alulatd by dividing th numbr of ounts by th ounting tim. In prati, the masurmnt is rpeated sveral tims to obtain an avrge valu for the ount rat. Bkground rdioctiu must b taken into aount whn
measuring e ount rat due to a radioativ sour. Bkground radioativity is ausd by radioaive sustanes present in roks, y th ff of osmi radiation o th atmospher and y

Hlf life
Th half life of a radioativ isotope is th tim takn for half th numr of atoms of th isotope to disintegrat. Suppose 10000 atoms of a rtain radioative isotop ar Present initially. Th numr f atoms drass from 10 000 to 5000 after on half lif, thn from 5000 to 2500 after a further half lif, thn from 2500 to 1'250 aftet a furthr hlf lif, t. Th amount of th radioativ isotop thrfore drases wi
time as shown in Figur 11.4 whih is a halflif urv. HalfJif valus rang from a fration of a sond to billions of yars. For xample, th half life of uranium 238 (,'8zU\ is bout 4.5 illion
yars.

rdioativity, th ount rat is masurd with th sour present and without th soure prsnt. Th ount rat du to th sour is th differen btween th two masurments.

radioative pollutants rlasd into th atmosphere suh as happnd at Chrnoyl n 1986. To tak aount of bakground

Radiotivity at work 1 Radioativ trars ar usd in mdiin and nvironmental thnology. Th trr nds to b a radioativ isotope that emits B or y radiation bause this rype of radiation an pass through matrils. For xampl' srrppos a gas lak ours in an underground gas pip. The lak an b pinpointed by injting a small quantity of a radioative gas into th pipe and thn moving a giger ountr at ground level along the pip. The sour of th lak would b rhr th ounter reds more than th bakground ount rate. Anothr
xampl from mdial physis is in th dignosis of a lokd kidney. The patint is given a drink of watr ontaining ^very small quantit of a radioativ trar. A gigr ountr is hld

Radioativ disintegration is a random pross. For a larg numbr of atoms of a givn radioativ isotop, th proportion that disintgrat pr sond is onstant. This follors ause of th random natur of radioativ disintegration. To appreit this, suppos a thousand di ar rolled and all ths that show
IE

-l

0000

o o 8000 o

against ah kidny. For a normal kidny, th ount rat would rise thn fall as th water passd through. In a bloked kidng th ount rate would ris and not fall bak as the watr would not pass through the kidny. Radioativity is usd to monitor industrial prosses suh as thiknss monitoring of metal plating produed in a rlling mill. oltn mtal is fored betwen two stl rollers nd th mtal ools to form a metal plat as it passs through. With a ta sour and a gigr tube ithr side of th plat, th ount rat vries ording to th thiknss of the plat. An inrase of thiknss would aus th ount rat to drop and a dreas of thiknss would aus the ount rat to ris. Th ount rate signal is usd to ontrol th pressur on th
stl rollrs.

6000

would deras as lw.

Numberof throu

a,1-' are thn rmovd. vith suh larg numbr to start With' th numr of di rmovd would b aout 167 (= 1000 / 6) beaus, on avrge' on-sith rould shw a .1'. If th pross Was rpatd with th 833 rmaining di (= 1000 _ 767), te numbr rmoved in this sond throw would b about 19 (= 833 / 6).If th pross rrr to b rpated a numbr of tims, ah tim using th rmaining die, the numr rmaining
0 2 694 116

If th ount fat was rdud to on quarter' th objt would 2 X 5600 yars old 1= 2 half livs).

Summary
Alpha radiation
(r) onsists of partiles, ah omposd of two protons and two nutrons. Bta radiation () onsists of ltrons, ah mittd whn a nulus with too many nutrons disintegrats.

3 578 96

5
4U2

Numberof die rcmining Numberof dice removed

1000 833
167

12
80

139

67

Gamma radiation (y) onsists of high enrgy photons. Th half lif of a radioative isotop is th tim takn for half th numr of atoms of th isotop to disintgrate.

Th numr of di rmaining drops to aout half in lss than four throws. Th .half lif' f this pross is about four throws thrfor. You an prov for yourslf that th numr would drp t aut 250 in about four mor throws.

A graph of th numr of di rmaining against th number of throws is th sam shap as th half-lif urv in Figure 11.4.

Questions

ounter and a radioativ sour with a long half lif. ]'. Numer of ounts in 600 seonds with no soufe presnt
=

Q4. Th following masurmnts Wer made using a

245.

geigr

Rdioative hazards Radioativity is dangous to human halth baus ionizing radiatin kills living lls and auss tumours. For this fason' th us of radiativ surs is sujt to strit rgulations. For xample, radioativ sours must kpt in a lad ontainr to prvnt radiation from saping. Also, radioativ sours should only moved using a suitabl handling dvie. Baus radioativ soures with long half lives remain radioativ for many yars, disposl of rdioativ sours and produts is sujtd to lgal rgulations. Radioativ rst frm nular rators must b stored in sald ntainrs at
approvd sites.

2. Numr of ounts in 100 sonds with the sour 20 mm from th gigr tue = 455,461',48. 3. Numbr of ounts in 1.00 sonds with a 1' mm mtal plat

btwn the sour and th tub = 325, 40,3L5. (a) Calulat th akground ount rat in ounts pr sond. (b) Show that th orretd ount rat due to th sour without th plat presnt has an avrag valu of 4.10 ounts per seond. () Showihat th orretd ount rat du to th sour with th plat prsnt has an aeta} value of 2.86 ounts pr sond. (d) sow t,at 70Y" of th radiation inidnt on th plat psss through it. () What typ f radiatin is mittd by th sour?

Rdiotiue dtig nals th ag of anint objts to e masured. Fr xampl, living wood ontains a small .W.hn proportion of a radioative isotop of aron, 'ogC. a tr dis, the proportion of this isotop gradually dreass as ths atoms disintgrat with a half lif of aout 5600 yars. To
masur th ag of an anint woodn ojt, th ount rat du to a sample of th objt is masurd and ompard with the ount rat of an qual mass of wood from a living tree. This ompaison an thn b usd to work out how many half livs hav lapsd sin th tr usd to mak th anint objt did.

Q5. A rtain radioativ isotop has a half lif of 8 hours. A solution ontaining 500 million atoms of this isotop is prpared. How many atoms of this isotope hav not
disintgratd after (a) 8 hours' () 24 hours, () on wek?

ntirntter was prditd y the British physiist Paul Dira in L926. He rkond that for vry typ of partil, thr is a orrsponding antipartile with idntial mass and th opposite typ of harg if th partil is hargd. He prditd that a

Quarks and leptons

annihilate ah othr. \ithin a fw yars. the Ameiian physiist Carl Andrson had dttj th positron' th antipartil of th eltron. Andrson first osrvd the trak of a positron in a dvi known as a loud hambr. A hargd partil passing through a loud hamr leavs a trak baus it rats ions along its path. The ions us tiny droplts to form from th vapour in th hamr, laving a visil trak. Andrson rognizd the trak was produd by a partil lik th ltron but th magneti fild applid to th himbr mad th trak urv in th opposit dirtion to that xpetd for an
eltron. atmosphr from spa. Ths partils ar produd by the Sun atmospher' rating asads of prtils at high sped that an rah the arth's surfa. As well as positrons, oiher partils alld pi-msns (or pions) wr disoverd. Ths partils wr alld mso7s baus thy wr found to b imiddlwight' prtils' havir than ltrons ut lightr than partils that ar ratd in prtil pairs, ratlter than partile_antipartil pairs, and whih dayd into pions and protons.

partil and its anartil an b ratd as a pair and thy an

Fo vry type of qurk, thre is a orrsponding antiquark.

W
up

harge = +e

charge = - |e

{ffi-b
down

rffi

osmi radiation onsists of partiles that entr the arth's

introducing the quarks harge = +

1

or other stars. Thy rash into th nuli of toms in

th

charge = 0

protons. Furthr invstigations rvald the xistn of .strange'

inside a proton

W
{;*{:::tj*

.,,{"*\

Alrators hav bn onstruted to rat and studv ths

of partiles and antipartils. In essn, an alrator is an vauatd tu ntaining eltrods whih ar usd to aelrat hargd partils suh as ltrons or prtons
nr typs
spds approahing th spd

ligre 11.5 quarks

msons and other short.livd partils and antipartils from th alerators, physiists hav disovrd a larg numer o shortlived partils and antipartils, hargd and unhargd, with a

th hrgd prtils ollid with th targt nuli to reat nrgy

partiles ar thn diretd in a narrow bam at atatget. Som of

of light. Ths

hargd

3
4

of th

harged partiles

in th

am. Using ths

Quarks ombin in thrs to frm partils lik the proton and th nutron. Antiquarks also ombin in thrs to form antipartils lik th antiproton and th antineutron. Suh omposit partils ar olltivly rfrred to as bryos. A mson onsists of a quark and an antiquak.

rang of masss. Ths nwly disovrd pariils and

antipartils wr found to fit pattrns that ould plaind by assuming that protons and nutrons ar omposd of thr lmntary partils whih bam known as quarks. Th quark model is based on th following assumptions:

In trms of th harg of th ltron, th u, and t quarks eah caff a harg of +2le and th othr thr quarks aff a harge of -1/e. An antiquark arris an qual and opposit harg t its orrsponding quark. Th symbol for an antiquark is the sm rPrsnts th symbol for a down antiquark.

as for a quark but with a ar ovr th top. For xample,

1 Thre are six differnt types of quarks, th up quark,

bottm quark and the top quark. (rferred to as u' d, s, , and t for brvity).

down quark, th strang quark, th harmd quark, th

th

Thus . a proton is omposd of two up quarks and a down quark,

 a nutron onsists of an up quark and two down quarks, . a pion onsists of an up or down quark and an up or down antiquark, . strang Partils ontain strang quarks or atiquarks.

Summary
There r six diffrnt typs of quarks, th up quark (u), th down quark (d), th strang quark (s), th harmd quark (), th bottom quark () and th top quark (t). 2 For evry typ of quark, thre is a orresponding antiquark. 3 Quarks ombin in thrs to form Partils lik th proton

Quarks

high spd ollids with anothr proton' th following proton + proton

In quark trms,

Th ration of pions and strang partils and antipartils an be xplaind using the quark modl. For xample, if a proton at

intration ould take pla:

positiv

pion + proton +
udd

nrrtron

uud + uud ud

+ uud +

In the ollision, a down quark and a down antiquark ar ratd from th kinti nergy of th high spd proton. The quarks

and th neutron' olltivly rfrrd to s baryons. Antiquarks also ombin in thrs to form antibaryons. 4 A mson onsists of a quark and an antiquark. ) Th u, and t quarks ah arry a harg of +,|e and the othr thr quarks cart a harge of -1|'e.
Leptons

nd th antiquark rgroup to form a positive pion, a proton and nuffon.

Leptons ar eltrons, positrons and rtin other partils and antipartils whih ar thought to be elmntary.

omard a target, Thse ltrons wer sattrd by th targt nuli in dirtions orrsponding to thr hard ntrs in vry nutron and proton. Whr do ltrons fit into this modl? Th answr is that thev do not. letrns, positrons and rtain othr partils and antipartils r thought to b lmntary in the sns thy re not omposed of smallr partils. Thes partils and antipartiles ar olletivly rferrd to as leptons. All prtils not in th quark family blong to th lpton family. Quarks and antiquarks might thmslvs mposed of vn smaller partils. Th differn of harg bfwn th up quark and th down quark is qual to the harg of th eletron. This perhaps suggsts there is a dpr link betwn quarks and lptons. The

The quark model was onfirmd y physiists using th Stanford Linar Alerator to alrat letrons to speds within a tiny fration of th sped of light nd us them to

Questions
Q6. !(z-hat is th total hrge of a baryon that onsists of (a) an up quark, a down quark and a strang quark, (b) thr up
quarks, ()thr down quarks?
That is th total harge of a mson that onsists of (a) an up antiquark and a down quark' (b) a strang antiquark and down quark, () a down antiqurk and an up quark?

Q7.

nutron.

Q8. writ down th quark omposition of Q9.

.!hn

(a) a proton, (b) a

th quark omposition of th nutron taks pla in this

pross?

a nutron in th nulus hangs into a proton. Ihat hange

a eta Partil is mittd from an unstal nulus,

in

Larg Hadron ollider at RN, the uropan Centr for Nulear Rsarh, might provid som answrs whn its onstrution is ompltd and it boms oPrational. This
aelrator is dsigned to ollid protons at nergis mor than 20 times gratr than the biggst alrators in urrnt use. Th mhanism linking mass and nrgy might at last unovrd, a ntury aftr instin disovrd th link.

Q10. A proton moving at high spd ollids with a nutron to rat a strang quark and a strang antiqurk. Th quarks and th antiquark rgroup to form thr omposit pailes whih inlud a strang mson, a strng baryon and a third partil. Idntify th quark omposition of the third Paftil.
Proton + nuffon

uud

udd '

stran8e mson + a strng bryon

ds

sdd

o J 5 oo 5 GT o {r oo a
t+ r
. .

Yet before t|le disouer of uler fissio, Lord Rutherford rekoned tht obtining energy o a lrge sle from the nulus ,mooshin'. Nuler ts fissio, the splitting of lrge nuleus, s discouerd b tto Hhn d Fritz Strssmnn i Berli in 1938. Phsiists round the orld rogized the signifince of this discouer s the energ relsed in this process is muIl grtr th n othr proess. The British nd US Gournments reogized the dredfill militry pou)er the Nzi dicttorship in Germn ould possess if Germ beme the first ntiot| to possess nucler Lupons. The nhtt proiet as set in Americ to take ucler tepo, the tom bomb, befor such lupon could be mde i Germn. In ft, Germ hd been defeted hen the first tor bombs ere dropped on the lese cities of Ngski d Hiroshim brigig the Secod ,World wr to an nd. Nuler rctors for letriit generation ouere subsequentl deueloped d o ount for quarter of

th hur rce lik uler phsics has. be this is not srprising s ucler ulpons hue tbe pit to destro the llur re.

No other brh of siene hs so fr hd n impt o

Britin's electricit genertion. Conerns bot rdioctiu

fall out of fuour bt the current gertion of ucler por

sttions r need to be replced if letricit uts nd rtionig re to be uoided. In this hpter, e ill look t the priipls of nuler fissio, ho ular rectors orh nd h the re likel to ontinue to make signifit ontributio to our eletriit supplies.

ste d the |lerobl disstr hue used ucler pou)er to

NuIear fission
A radiotiv sustane emits radiation eaus th nuli of
its atoms ar unstal and disintgtate at random, mitting r radiatin or B radiation or Y radiation. Suh hngs auss nrgy rlas on a sale aout a million tims gratr than whn atoms rat hmially. Howvr, radioativ isotops with suffiintly long half livs ar not ativ nough t rlas nrgy at a fast nough rate to produ ltriity on a larg sal. This is why Ruthrford rkoned nular powr was unrealisti - until nulear fission ras disovred.

ln this hapter you will learnl

. . . .

about nuIear fusion and

nu]ear fission

how a nuclear reactor works about the fast breeder reator about the benefits and drwbacks of nulear power'

Nular fission is th splitting of a |atge nulus into two apprximatly qual fragmnts. Enrgy is rlasd in this proess on a sal vn grter than whn radioativ disintegration ours. Hahn and Strassmann provd this

proess happend to th uranium isotope 25,U. Furthr invstigations shored that this isotop ould mad to fission y ombarding it with nutrons and that two or thr nutrons ar rlased whn suh a nulus splits. Ths rlasd neutrons ar refrrd to as fission nutrons. Thus a hain ration is possile in whih a nutron splits a uranium 235 nulus and two or thr fission nutrons ar rlasd whih go on to split othr uranium 235 nuli, lading to mor nutrons ing rlasd whih thn go on to split mor uranium 235 nuli. ah fission evnt rlass nIgy and s an enormous amount of nergy is relasd if th hain ratin is maintaind.

hlium nulus whih onsists of two protons and two nutrons is 0.8% lss than th mass of tw protons and two nutrons separatd from ah othr. This diffrn is alld t.he rnss defet of th nulus and is due to th protons and
nutrons binding togethr when th nuleus was formd. Th binding nrgy of th nulus an b alulatd from th mass
dft using instin,s famous quation E
= r2.

ffi

inoming neutron

ffi
tigure 12.1 fission

""","-rtW
f \*{

n",,"t"","o

Biding nergy = mss defet X , Nular masss ar usually xpressd in atomi mass units (u) using th arbon 12 sal (se p. 1'36) and th enrgy rleasd y a nulus is usually prssd in millions of elton volts (MV) whr 1 V = th nrgy gained by an eletron alratd through a millin volts = 1.6 x 10r,J. Using th above quation, a mass dft of xatly 1 u quats to 931 fuIV of binding nrgy. The binding enery per ncleo of a nuleus is the inding nrgy of a nulus dividd by the numbr of nulons (i.. protons and nutrons) in th nulus. This quantity is a masur of the stability of a nulus. It an e asily lulatd for any nulus ozX of' known mass y following th stps
blow:

1 Th;

Binding energy
Why should a |atge unstabl nulus rlas nergy when it fissions or in a radioative hang? The potntial nrgy of a
rlativ to ah othr. A stal systm is on in whih th potntial nrgy of th system is at its lowst. .W.hn an unstabl systm oms mor stal, it hanges to a stat of lowrr potntial nrgy. The protons and th nutrons in a nulus ar held togthr y a strong attrativ for that prvnts th protons pushing away from on anthr. To sparate th protons and nutrons from on another, work would nd to don on thm to ovrome th strng nulear for. Th work ndd to sparat a nulus into sparat nutrons and protons is rfrred t as th inding nrgy of th nulus. The gratr the binding nrgy of a nulus' th gratr th rork that luld b nedd to sparat th nutrons and the protons in th nulus from ah thr.
Th mass of a nulus is lss than the mass of th sam number of sparat nutrons and protons. For exmpl, th mass of a systm dpends on th positions of th partils in th systm'

2 3

nucleus.

Note: Z = the ttmber of pratons in the nlus, = th urbr of neutrons nd protons, so A - Z is the nutber of neutrons in the

mass deft (in atomi mass units) f the nule us, tm = Zmn + 6 - Z) m* - wher mnis the mass of a proton and rz* is th mass of a nutron. The binding nrg o (in V) = 931, X tm. Th binding nrgy pr nulon = o l A.

Worked example Th mass of a 235g,U nulus is 234.993 u. Th mass of a proton = 1.00728 u and th mass of a nutron = 1.00867 u. Calulat th inding rnrgy pr nulon of a25s,U nulus. Solution Z = 92, A = 235 ... th numr of nutrons = - Z = I43 ... Mass dft = (92 x L.00728| + (743 1.00867) 24.9933 = I.91624 tl ... Binding nrgy = 1.91624 9I = 1'784 e ... Binding nrgy pr nuln = 1784 l 235 -- 7.6 eV pr nulon.

 is shown in Figur 12.2. Rmmbr th greatr th binding

nrgy pr nulon of a nulus is, th more stal th nulus is. Th graph shos that

A graph of inding nergy per nulon against nulon numr

Summary
Nular fission is the splitting of a |arge nulus into fwo
approximatly qual fragmnts. Th binding nrgy of a nulus is th work ndd to sparat a nulus into sparat nutrons and protns.
dft (in u) f th nulus.

2
3 4

th inding nelgy pr nulon is inrasd whn nulear fission f a urnium 235 nulus ours' th inding nrgy pr nulon is inrasd when light nuli
are fusd tgther.

th binding enrgy pr nulon inrass as inrass to a maximum of aout 9 V pr nulon at about = 50 to 60 thn derass graduall5 th most stabl nuli are at about = 50 to 60 sin this is whre the binding nrgy pr nulon is gratst,

Binding nrgy (in MV)

931 m,werc Azz is th mass

!hn a uranium 235 nulus undrgos fission, th two fragmnt nuli eah omprise aout half th numr of nuleons. Thrfor the binding nrgy pr nuln inrass from aout 7.5 V pr nulon for uranium 235 to about 8.5 V pr nulon for th fragmnts. Thus th binding nrgy pr nulon inrass by about 1 V for vry nuleon whih means that th nrgy rlasd from th fission of a singl nulus is about 200 V. Th mass of a uranium 235 nuleus is about 4 10l. kg. Prve for yurslf that 1 kilgram of uranium 235 would rlas about 100 million million joules if ompltly fissiond. In ontrast, th nergy rlasd y urning fossil ful is aout 10 million jouls per kilogram.

Ql. A nutron striks a2''zU nulus and auss it to fission. Thr nutrons are rlasd in this pross. On f th fission fragments is the non isotope 16s+. How many nutrons and hw many protons ds th othr fission fragmnt ontain?
(b) Calulate th binding nrgy pr nulon of a nulus f th uranium isotope "trrlJ (mass = 238.05076 u). The mass of a Proton = 1,.00728 u and th mass of a nutron = |,00867 a, Q3. (a) plain what is mant y a hain ration.

Questions

Q2.

(a)

.shat

is mant y binding nrgy?

(b) In a rtain hain ration, eah fission vnt rlass on avrag two neutrons that go on to aus furthr fission aftr 0.1 sonds. Hovr many nuli would have ben fissiond 1

seond after an initial fission vnt?

10

A nular rator in normal opration

NuIear reators

.sg
-g

B+

=
i

fission vnt auss exatly on furthr fission vnt. Th ontrol rods ar mad of material that asors nutrons and thy an b movd in or out of the rator or to keep the numbr f nutrons in th or onstant. Shuld the fission rat ris, th ontrol rods ar pushd into th or little to mop up surplus nutrons and thus rdu th fission rate. Th mass of uranium 235 must xd te riticl mss which is th last mass for fission to be sustaind. If th mass of uranium 235 is lss than th ritial mass' too many neutrons sap or ar asord y uranium 28 if this is prsnt. h ful in a nulear rator is nrihd uranium ontaind in

rlass enetg at a stady rat. This is mad possile baus th rat of fission vnts in th rator is ontrolledv ontrol rods so that ah

tigure 12.2 binding energy

2 he moder|or s|ows down the neutrons

onrete se

lrom each fission event,

so they an produe

fission of more U-235.

Otherwise they are

absorbed by U-238
Without produing

3 he contlo| rods bsorb

fission.

eess neutrons t0
ensure only one neutron per fission produes further lission.

4s
steam out

is mostly uranium 238 (,,',,U) and it ontains less than 1"% uranium 235 (,,szU). Uranium 238 absors nrutrons withut fission. For this rason' th prntag of uranium 235 must b inrasd t about 2_3% (i.. enrihed) therwise nutfons ar asord without fission or they esap from th rator or. The first tor borb onsisted of two sub-ritial hmisphrs of pur uranium 25 p|aced at opposit nds of a hollow ylindr. 10hn th dvie ws dtonatd, the two hmisphrs wr ford together into a supr-ritial mass whih thn xplodd.
sald ful rods. Natural uranium

hermal nulear reators

The nutrons rlasd whn a uranium 235 nulus fissions in a nular reator mov too fast to aus furthr fission so thy ned to b slowed down. This is ahivd y surrounding th ful rods that ontain th uranium 235 with a suital substan, a modrtor, t|lat .modrats' the sped of the neutrons. Th modrator nds to omposd of light atoms. Th nutrons ollid with th modrator atoms and transfr kinti nrgy in th pross to th atoms. This transfr pross is most fftiv if th moderator toms are as light as possil. Th modrator must lso unrativ. For ths rasons' Watr or graphit (whih is aron) is usd as th modrator. Aftr may ollisions with mderator atoms, th nutrons mov slowly nough to aus furthr fission. Thy ar thn rfrrd to as thrml nutrons aus thir kinti nrgis ar of th
sam ordr of magnitud as th modeator atoms.

I The

rods ontain

'uel enrihed uranium

Whih is 97% U.238 and 3% U-25.

4 nergy re|esed by

fission is removed s
heat by a o|ant' Whih is pumped through the retor ore. he energy re|esed is co|oss| _
'I

kg of U-235 releases

more energy than 200 tonnes of oI.

00|ant pumps

6 The spen| fue| is high|y rdioative and must be stored fr mny tr0m the reator'

he ore is in a thik-w||ed steel vesse|

ya after remov|

enased in oncrete t0 Drevent neutrons

nd rdiotive parti|es lrom esaping.

Th dsign of on typ f thrmal nulear reator is shown in Figure 1,2.3.The ful rods ar plad in hannls in th solid graphit or. The ontrol rods ar in hannls btwn th fuel rods' Th modrator bms vry hot baus its atoms absorb kineti nrgy from th nutrons so aron dioxide gas as a oolant fluid is pumpd through th modrator hannls. Th ntir or is enlosd in sald stl vssl whih is onnted vi inlt and outlt pips to a hat hangr. Th oolant is pumpd round this sald iruit and usd to rais stam in th hat xhangr to drive ltriity gnrators.

Fuel usage
ligure 12.3
a thermal nu|ear rractor

Th omplt fission of a kilogram of uranium 235 rlass about 8 X 10,J of nrgy (= 80 million million juls). A 1000

.W power station oprating at an ffiiny of 25Yo neds 4000 million joules of nrgy from its ful evry sond. ah day, th ful would therefr nd to rlase about 350 million millin jouls. About 4 kilograms of uranium 235 wuld thrfor b ndd to kp a 1000 .! nular rator oprating for a da. If th ful for th rator ontained 2Yo uranium 235, thn th mass of ful ndd per day would b about 200 kg (= 0.2 tonns). In ontrast, a 1000 ! oil.fired powr station uses aout 40 000 tonns of oil pr day.

Questions
Q4. plain what is mant by th tetm ritil mss in rlation to nular fission.
th ation of (a) th modrator, () th oolant in nular reator.

Q5. xplain Q6.

per week in 1000 .W nular rator OpIating at an

effiieny of.25%.

Use th folloring dat,a to alulat th mass of ful usd

Chernoyl wr movd permanntly to othr parts f th UssR. Childrn hav n most afftd as a rsult of illnsses

xprind rainfall in this prid Wr most atlecgd as th rain watr ontaind paItils of radioative istops. Th ful rods in a nular reator ontain many diffrnt radioativ isotops inluding uranium 238, plutoniam 239 (produd as a rsult of uranium 238 asoring nutrons) and nutrn-rih fission fragments. Th half lives f thse isotops rang from frations of a sond to millions of yrs. Bakground ount rats inrsed temprarily in th weks after th Chrnoyl disastr. any thousands of ppl in the distrits surrounding

Chernobyl In 1986, a nular reator at Chrnobyl in th then USSR eplodd and sattrd radioativ sustans into the atmosphr and th surrounding land. Within days, ths substans wre sattrd y th atmosph ovr othr ountris inluding Britain. Upland rgions in Britin that

nrgy rlasd pr kilogram of uranium 235 = 8 uranium 235 ontnt of the ful = 2o.

10'.J;

nergy options for the future

Th dmand for nrgy is likely to inras in th nxt fw dads. As w saw in Chaptr 06, oil and gas supply mor than 60Y" of th world's nrgy supplis. Howvr, prsnt known srvs will prably b usd up within th nxt 50 yars. Coal provids aout a third of th wrld's nrgy supplis at prsnt. Known fesrvs of al ould last up to thr nturis at th prsent rate of' usage. About 8Y' of worldwid nIgy dmand is mt by nular powr stations as thy provid btwn a quartr and a third of th ltriiry supplis in industrial ountris. World reservs f uranium rill probably last aout 50 yars at the prsnt rat of us. Rnwabl sours of energy suh as hydroltriity supply lss than 3% of, th world's nrgy dmand..Whn th world oil and gas rservs ar usd up, oal ould be used instad but th inrasd l;te of us would shrtn th liftime of th world's oal rsrvs to littl mor than a ntury. In addition, grenhous gass produd by urning fossil fuls would still b produd at an xssiv rat. Th nrgy otions for th futur ar probaly limited to the inrasd us of nular powr and th dvlopmnt of rnwale nrgy rsorrrs on .W lookd t diffrnt a muh largr sal than at prsent. renwabl nrgy rsours in haptr 06. Wrld uranium rsrvs ar unlikly to last eyond th nd of th ntury and nular rators ar not in favour politially at prsnt. In this haptr, w will look at two othr nulr options whih ould
b dvlopd mor.

suh as leukemia ausd by radioativ partils ntring thir bodis. Th rator usd stam as th oolant. Th aus f th disastr sms to hav ben an interruption in th olant flow whih allowd th or to ovrhat. Th stam ratd

hmially with th moderatr to produ hydrogn whih ploded and lw th top off th rator vssl. any of th mrrgeny workrs did subsquntly from disass ausd by xposur to radioativity.

Summary
Fr a stady hain ration in a nular rator' xatly n fissin nutron per fission vent must go on to produ a
furthr fission event.

A thrmal nular rator ontains a modratr whih slws fission nutrons down to nabl thm to produ furthr
fission of uranium 235.

Nuler fusion
Th Sun radiats nrgy at a olossal rat of 400 million million million million jouls evry sond. A millionth of th nrgy radiatd by th Sun in 1 sond would be nough to mt the world's nrgy nds for a whol yar. Th Sun

produs nergy in its or as a result of fusing hydrogn nuli to form hlium nuli. This pross startd about 5000 millin yars ago whn th Sun was formd and is likely to ontinu

hydrogn in its or.

for anothr 5000 million yars for th Sun runs out of

To make hydrogn atoms fus to form hlium atoms' the atoms o{ hydrogn must ollid at spds ovr a thousand times fastr than thy would hav in th arth's atmosphr. Th stps in

hydrogn nuli ar as fllows: 1 wo hydrogn nuli olliding at suh spds fus to form a nulus of th hydrogn isotope, dutrium 2lH. 2 A high spd ollision twn a deutrium nulus and anothr hydrogn nulus auss a nulus of the hlium isotop ,,H to form. 3 A ollision twn two of thes hlium nuli would aus th formation of a nulus of th stabl hlium isotope azH and th rlas of two protons.

the pross of th frmation of a hlium nulus from

yars.

Th vry high seds nssary for th pross to work ar ahivd in th Sun aus th nrgy rlasd hats its or to mor than 10 million dgrs. Suh high tmpratur onditions hav n ahivd brifly in nular fusion rators' nabling light nuli to e fusd nd rlas nrgy in th prss. In suh onditions, th atoms los thir ltrons and th nuli mov aout as a .plasma' without arrying ltrons with them. Th plasma is ontained in a dughnutshapd tube by mans of magnti filds ut it loss all its nrgy if it touhes th tu. This ntainmnt prolm is th rason why fusion at prsnt annot b mad to last more than a short tim. Thus nular fusion rators rmain undr dvlopment at prsnt and are unlikly to ontribut signifiantly to world nrgy supplis for at last anothr 50

nular rator ontain unusd uranium 238 and th plutonium isotop ,9,cPu. Plutonium is an artifiial lmnt that is mad in a nular reator whn uranium 238 nuli absorb nutrons. Plutonium 29 an b fissiond by fast neutrons. Thus a hain reation is possil without th nd for a modrtor. A rator that uss plutonium 239 as its ful is alld a fst bredr ractot aus th ful is fissiond y fast nutlons, and th rator an rd its own ful y allowing nutrons from .lankt' of uranium the plutonium or to be absorbd y a 238 surrounding th r. Thus a fast brdr rator rats its own fuel in th frm of plutonium 239 fuom uranium 238. Th ntir ontnt of ntural uranium an thus b fissiond' not iust th uranium 235 ontnt. Fast brdr rators would thrfr xtnd th liftime of th world,s uranium supplis frm a ntury or so to several thousand yars. Howevr' th spnt ful would still ontain many radiativ isotops from th fissin fragmnts and the dangr of plutonium lakag to th nvironmnt would inras as grater quantitis of plutnium would in us. Plutonium 239 as a half lif of 24 000 years and is muh mor radioativ than uranium 238 or uranium 235' furthr dangr is that plutonium 239 ould aumulat inadvrtntly in th pross f manufaturing th fuel rods; if too muh plutnium aumulatd' an unontrollabl hain ration ould b staftd, nding in a nular xplosion. Th primntal fast brdr reator at Dounray in Sotland provd that suh a fator works but it has n dommissiond aus of th risk f plutonium lakag. Nw fast dr rators ar unlikly to b onstrutd in th foresale futur. Hwvr, unlss rnwabl rsoures are dvlopd on a muh largr sal, plutonium reators may nssary.

Summary
Nular fusion is th pross of fusing light nuli togther to frm havir nuli. Nular fusionlitors ar still in th dvlopmntal stag. Fast brder rators using plutonium ould tnd th liftim of th world's uranium rsrvs y hundrds of yars. Rnewal nrrgy rsours ned to
dvelpd n a muh largr sal than at prsnt if many mor nular reators ar not uilt.

Fast breeder reators

Natural uranium ontains lss than 1'" of uranium 235. Th otet 99Yo is uranium 238. Th spent ful rods from a thrmal

Questions
Stat on advantag and one disadvantag of (a) oal and (b) uranium s a fuel to provid ltriity. .!hat is meant by nulear fusion? Q8. (a) () Give one thnial rason why nular fusion is diffiult to

Q7.

sustain in a rator.

breder rator mpard with the thrmal nular reator.

Q9. (a) That type of ful is usd in a fast brder rator? (b) Giv on advantag and on disadvantage of th fast

rnwable rsours dsribed in haptr 06) tat. ar likely to availabl after th world's oil and gas reservrs ar used up.

Q10. Disuss th rang

of

nrgy options (inluding

'

g)

a hr o
g

TI

o oo o
+
ln this hapter you will |earn:

. .

about Newton theory of gravity and its limitations how instein predited that gravity bends spae about the Big Bang theory
and the future of the Universe.

prtiles nd ntiprtils hich nihiltd to produce rdition nd ess prtiIes. The entir [Jiurs hs ben epndig ever since the Big Bg. All the rtltter in the Uniurse hs fored from tbe css prtiles left ftr the erl stges of the Big Bng. Hotll ulill tb Uniuerse chg i future? This is problem tht phsiists r ell be bI to nsulr soon. I tbis hpter, e ulill look t the discoueries
tbt hue led to or prsent stte of knoIedg.

ne of th gret sucesses of modern siene is the disouer tht the Uniuerse originted bout 12000 million ers go in a tclsri ep|os,i,o, th Big Bang, hih crted spe d time. Tbe enormous ener relesed i th Big Bng reted

Kpler's 1st Law introdud th nw ida that the orbits f th plants ar in genral llipss, not irls. Figur 13.1(a) shors how to sketh an llips. Kplr said that ah planet's orbit was an ellips with the Sun at one of th foal points of th llips. Kplr's 2nd Law aros eaus h knw from his osrvatins that th progrss of ]vlars at its maimum distane from th Sun is 0.8 tims slowr than its progrss at its last distan. H thus workd out that if an imaginary straight lin from th Sun to ars took a rtain amount of

Phsics nd stroorn hue ls ben t the ttig dg of humn endeuor. Neu"lton put the tulo subjets on firm matherntil bsis t,uhen he rote th Prinipia athmatia, pblished in 1687, in hih he set out the mthemtil priiples of phsis. He sbouled tht these prinipls 1our the rotion of obiets itl spe s e|I s objets on the rth.

Netaton's ls of motion nd of gruit prouided the frmulork for the deuloprent of phsis for ouer to
eturis until Einstin produed his theories of rltiuit. we

luill looh in this chptr t Nto's theor of gruit nd Einstein's thor of gener| rltiuit hih rep|aed it nd hih led to predictions nootl onfirmd suh s th bending of
light by gruit, blk holes nd the epnsion of the IJiuers.

About gravity
From arth, the plants appar as wandring stars bus eah plant' as sIl against th distant stars, hangs its position rlativ t the rth as it orbits th Sun. Johann Kplr (157\_1630) dvisd thre laws t dsri th motion of th plants, using his own osrvations and thos of his prdssor in Pagu, Tyh Brah (1545_|601,I,th formost astronomer of his ra. Keplr's 1st Lt,tl: ah plant movs on an lliptial path rund
the Sun.

ligure 13.1 (a) making an ellipse

P
e
i

A
e
I

p h
i

e
I

o
n

Kepler's 2nd L.. th straight lin from th Sun to a plant swps out qual aras in qual tims as th planet movs round th Sun. Kepler's 3rd Lz the ube of th man radius of th orbit of a plant is in proportion to the squar of the tim takn by th plant fo ah orbit.

Times from P1 to P2 = ime from P to P4 if area SP1P2 = SPP

(b) Kple/s 2nd Lw

r is

tim t s\^Iep through an angl of 10" at minimum distan, th lin would swp through an angl f 8" in th same tim at maimum distan. H also knw that th last distan from th Sun to th planet Mrs is about 0.9 tims th maximum distan and h showd that a swp of 8" at maximum distan ovrs afl atea qual to th ara swept out for 10" at minimum distane. Kplr,s 3rd Law rquird th masuremnt of th mean rdius of orbit, r, of ea plant and th tim, T, ah plant taks to orbit th Sun. Th rsults of thes masurments ar givn in th tal blow. Not that th valu of r' l T is te sam for vry plant. Thus Kpler 3rd Law follows, namely

SUN

proprtional t 7".
lrle-ry

-._-:-_-----.w.....

\rus
o.72

Entt
10 'to
't.0

,tns

.l{nr
52
119

s' 95

fl
1

rhAU. 7hyre

0.9

15
't.9

424 10

061
1.0
=

N5
10
ligure 13.2 Newto's theory of universal gravitation

1.0

10

A'U.

= 1

astronomial unit

the mea distane from the sun to the Erth'

. .

Newton's theory of universal gravitation

Th rason why th planets mov round th Sun rmaind a mystfy until Nwton dvlopd th thory of gravity. Nwton had alrady workd ut th laws of motion (s pp. 36-43) and h knew that a for must at on h plant to kep it moving round the Sun. H ralizd that this for must an attrativ for and that it dpndd on th mass of th plant, th mass of th Sun and th distane from th plant to th Sun. H thn ddud that th fre of gravity varies with th invrse of th squar of th distan from the plant to the rntr of th Sun. In othr words, at 2 from th Sun, th for of gravity on an objt du to th ^.U. is a quartel what it would b on th Sun sam ojt at 1 A.U.; at 3 A.U., th for would b a ninth what it would b on th sam objt at 1 A.U. Nwton mad this prdition y taking the stps low:

From Kplr's 3rd Law, h knw that / ?o is onstant and as th sped u is qual to 2ltr / whr 2r is th iumfrn of th orbit, h ddud tatuz r is onstant. NWton thn showd that as u2 r is onstant, then u2 / r must
proportiona|t.o
1'

Thus the for of gravitational attration btwn th Sun and a plant is proportiona| to 1' I f . Nwton ut forward th thory that th for of gravitational attration betwn any two objts is 1 proportional to th prdut of th masss of th objts,

inversly proportional to th square of th distan btwn th ntrs of th objts.

H workd

out th thory of motion for any jt moving round a irl of radius / at a onstant spd u and provd that th for nded is proportiona|toi, I r.

H thn provd th gnral result that this for law ausd planets to move on lliptial paths round th Sun. H also showed that th invrs squar law explaind th motion of omts round th Sun, th oon's orbital motion round th arth and how th oon's gravity auss th oan tids on th arth. Nwton's theory of gravity is dsrid as univrsal theory aus it plains th motion of objts on th arth as rrll as in spa. Howvr, a minor prolm was disovrd in th nintnth ntury in nntion with the rbit of erury that ould not b explained y Nwton's thory. Th problm

rmaind until instin solvd it using his general theory of rIativity, a thory whih drastially alterd our undrstanding of spa and tim. \X/ shall look at the onsquenes of thii rvolutionary thory in the nxt part f this hapter.

How to Iose weight

The pu|| of gravity on an objet on the oon is one-sixth of the pul| of gravity on the same objet on the arth. A 60 ki|ogram person has a weight of about 600 newtons on the arth but only about '1 00 newtons on the Moon.

masufemnts on th position of th prihlion had rvald that this position was slowly advaning at a rate of 1 .2 hundrdths of a degr pr ntury. Th prihlion is th narst point along th orbit to th Sun. instein provd that this prihlion advan was ausd by th Sun gravity distorting spa nar to th Sun.

. .

he Moon's mass is about 1 o/o of the arth mass whih wouId redue |unar gravity to 1Yo ot arth's gravity if the moon had the same radius as the arth. However, the Moon is one-quarter the size of the Earth so its surfae gravity is 16 times stronger than if the arth and Moon were the same size. Hene |unar gravity is 6% of arth's gravity (whih is about one-sixth).
.1

instin also prditd that starlight gtazig th Sun would b dfltd, an fft h said ould be masurd y observing stars nar th Sun during a solar lipse. Thn this prditin was onfirmd y British astronomrs in 191'9, instin bam a worldwid elebrity as .th prson who knw how to bnd light'. or signifiantl5 his thory of genral rlativity was onfirmd and h thus provd that asolute spa and absolut tim do not
ist.
Perihefion advance

,/

rl

Einstein new Universe

light is indpendnt of th motion of th sour and f any obsrvr, h prdited suh ffts as lngth ntratin, tim dilatin and rltivitisti mass. S p. 162. In his thorn h showd that all uniform motion is rlativ and that absolut uniform motion annot b dtfed and is thrfor maningless.
In his 1905 thory of rlativiry instin showed that spae and tim ar not sparat quantitis. By assuming that th spd f
tigre

Aphelion advane
13.3 Merury,s orbit

In othr words, h showd that th lws of physis ar th sam

Gravitational lenses and blak holes

Furthr vidne that gravity bnds light has n otaind y astronomrs in rnt yars as a rsult of th osrvation of distortd imags of som distant galaxis. A galay is an enormous olltion of stars hld togthr y thir own gravity. Th Sun is part of th ilky.say galaxy whih is rkond to ontain mor than a thousand million stars. Th spa btwn galais is thought to b mostly empty. Distortd imags ar ausd by light frm a distant ga|a skimming th edg of an invisibl dark galaxy bfor reahing us. Th dark galaxy ats as a gruittiol lens and bnds this light, ausing us to s a distrtd image f th distant galaxy that mittd th light. oftn, th galaxy that mitted th light is hiddn ompltly bhind th dark ga|a so W s its imag only as pathy rings of light. Th sam fft an obsrvd if a torh bulb is

problm was disovrd

idas on spa and tim in ordr to prov th genral prinipl of relativity that th laws f physis ar th sam for all bsrvers in non-uniform motion as wll as in uniform motion. In th ous f this work, h provd that alratd motion and motion du to gravity annot b distinguished and ar therfor quivalnt. Thus h rdud gravity to a fatur of spa and tim and wnt on to prov that gravity bnds light as a rsult. publishd his gnral thory of rlativity in 1"976 and usd it to eplain th astronomia| puzz|e aout th lliptial orbit of th plant Mrury that had onfoundd sintists vr sin th

fr all obsrvrs moving at onstant vloity relativ to eah othr. From 1.905, h spnt mor than tn yars dvloping his

in th

prvious ntury. arful

obsrvd through a glass lens whih is partly ovred by an opaqu dis; the light from th torh bulb rahs your y via th rim of th lns so you s the rim as a ring of light.

xplosion known as a suprnova and th or is omprssd so muh that a blak hol is formd. Suh a dramati nd will not happen to th Sun as it is not massive nough.

Gravitational lnsing provids unexptd vidn in support f instin's gnral thory of relativity. Rent disoverie of blk holes in spa is furthr vidn in support of instin,s idas. Suh objets wr prditd y Karl Shwarzhild using th gneral thery of rlativity a fw yars aftr instin pulishd th thory. Not evn light an sap from a lak hol. Any objt insid a lak hol annot sap from it. Th mass f a blak hole is so larg that nothing' not evn light, an sap from its gravity. Imagin a rkt projtd into spa from th surfa of a plant. Th rokt will fall bak to th surfa if its sped of projtion is lss than a rtain valu known as th sape spd. The largr the mass of th planet, th biggr th spd ndd to esa from it. Nothing an travl fastr than light so if th mss of th plant is suffiintly larg, nothing an esap from it.
as any objt on or insid th boundary is trappd forvr. A rkt approahing a lak hol ould pass through th vnt horizon into th blak hol, thus boming trappd forvr. No signals ould snt fIom th rokt to obsrvrs outside th vnt hofizon aus nothing, not vn light, an sap from th lak hole. Shwarzhild showd that th vnt hoiizon of a blak hol is a sphre of radius in proprtion to its mass. Fr a lak hol of mass qual to th Sun's mass, th radius of th vnt horizon rould about thr kilomtrs. Suh a lak hol rould pull in neary stars' oming vn larger in the

Summary
Th fr of gravitational attration twn any two objts
is invrsly proprtional to the squar f th distan etween th ntrs of th objts.

Aelatd motion and gravity annot b distinguishd and

ar thrfor quivalnt.

Light follows a urvd path in a suffiintly

gravitational fild.

strong

Th vnt horizon of a blak hol is th boundary of a lak

hol as any objet on or insid th oundary is trappd forver.

An bjt that falls into a lak hol is trappd forvr. Th uet horizon of a blak hole is th boundar of a blak hol

movs on an lliptial path rund th Sun, strthing far bynd th arth's rbit. (a) Skth a diagram to show th orbit of a omt. on your diagram, mark th psition f th Sun and draw a irl to rprsnt th arth's orit. (b) xplain why a omt taks far more tim to rturn to th innr solar systm than it taks to pass through th innr solar
systm.

Questions Q1. A omt

pross.

Q2. (a) Jupitr orits th Sun on evry 11.8 yars. Use Kplr's 3rd Law to prov that its radius of orbit is 5.2 A.U. (b) Th man radius of Saturn,s orit is 9.5 A.U. Us Kplr's 3rd Lar to prov that Saturn orbits th Sun on evet 29
yars.

Evidene for bIk holes Astronomrs rekon that th ga|a 87 has a lak hole at its ntr. Thr ould evn b a lak hol at th ntre of th .Way, Milky our home galaxy. Fortunatly, th Sun is in th outr spiral arms of the galag not at its entre. A star aout 10 or mor tims largr than th Sun would om a lak hole if it ollapsd without loss of mass to a a|| a hundrd thousand times smallr. In fat, suh a dramati ollaps, known aS a suprnou,happens at th nd of the lifyl f a giant sta. Th or of suh a star ollapss whn all its light

Q3. (a) Stat two rasons why th Moon,s surfa gravity is wakr than that of th arth. () Th mass of ars is 1'1"Y" of th mss of th arth. Th
radius of Mas is 53% of th radius of th arth. Us this information to shw that th surfae gravity on ars is 38% of that of th arth. Qa. (a) on a skth digram showing th arth and the Sun, skth th path of a radio signal snt from a spaeraft to th arth whn thir positions are suh that th signal grazs th
Sun.

Th outr layrs of th star ar thrwn ff in a assiv

elmnts hav bn fusd to form havier lmnts (s p. 1'92).

() !ith th aid of a skth diagtam, dsrib how a ga|a an at as a gravitational lns.

Q5.

hl.

(b) Dsrib what is mant y th euet horizon of a |ack

(a) Stat on harateristi fatur of a blak hol.

*j

Iight soure

*q}

ffi*

The expanding Universe

xpansion of th Univrs. Howvr' two nturis arlir, most sintists livd th Univrs to b infinit in spae and in tim, th sam now as it always has n. This viw was hallengd in 1'826 inrih Olrs who provd mathmatially that th sky would b permanently bright if thr Was an infinit numr of stars. So olbrs onludd that th Univers is finit and h

By th nd of th twentith entur5 astronomrs had wrkd out that th Univers is panding. The distant galaxis ar moving way from us as th galaxis move apart du to th

red shift of

W @
i

bsorotion line

ligure 13.4 red shift

rlativity to show that a stati finit nedd t inlud a osmi rpulsion ollapsing. Th qustion of whthr a stat of ollaps or xpansion was settld by the astronomf dwin Hubl in 1929 whn h pulishd th rsults of his survy of about tro dozn galaxis at known distans within aout 6 million light years of th Milky.Way ga|a. Hul disovrd that th sptrum of light
as a red shift and it happns baus th light Wavs from a rding light soure are lngthnd du to th sour moving away as th light is bing mittd from th sotl!:.

usd his gnral thory of Univrs is possil ut he for to stop th Univrse th Univrs is stati or in

must panding, othrwis gravitational attration wuld aus it to ollaps. A ntury later, instin
rkond

it

th furthet a
rssion.

evry ga|a is moving away from vry other ga|ay, ga|a is frm us, th gratr its spd of

Make a mode| of the expnding Universe

Mark a rubber band with spots aIong its |ength at equal interv|s' The spots represent galaxies. Observe how the spots move away from eah other when the band is strethed slow|y. Two spots initia||y near to eah other move away from eah other muh slower than two spots initia|ly far from eah other.

This shift is known

from ah ga|a is shiftd towards th rd part of th sptrum.

proportion to th distane from th Sun to the galaxy. This disovry is known as Hubbl's L. !hy should all ths galaxis rushing away from us? Th arth has no spial pla in th Univrs. Hubl ralizd that th Univrs is xpanding so that

sour movs away (i.. rds). H masurd the wavlngth for th light from ah galay and usd th masu!mnt to alulat th spd f rssion of ah ga|a. His rsults showd that th spd of rssion of a galaxy is in

Hubl knw that th inras of th wavlngth of light du to a rd shift is in proportion to th sped at whih th light

The Big Bang

If th Univrse is xpanding, ould it hv n n muh smallr? In fat, th Univrse originatd in a massiv primordial xplosion, known as th Big Bg, and has bn expanding vr sin. Th Big Bang thory was opposd y sm sintists wh blivd that th Univrs is in a stady stat' panding beaus mattr is pouring into it at points in .whit hols'. In |965, th disput was spa rfrrd to as sttld unambiguously by th disovry of mirowav radiation from all dirtions in spa. This osmi mirowav bakgrund radiation is radiation that has een travlling though sPa vr sin th Big Bang.

hang

galaxis further and furthr awy ontin to support Hubbl's Lar. Ths masurmrnts indiat that th speed of a ga|ax is 20 kilomtres per sond for evry million light yars. Thus a ga|ax whih is moving away from us at a sped of 20000 kilomtrs pr sond must b 1000 million light years distant. Sine no objt an travl faster than th spd of light rhih is 300 000 kilomtrs pr sond, thn th most distant galaxis annot furthr awa t|tan about 15000 million light yars. Thus th Big Bang annot hv takn pla mor than 15 000 million yars ago whih is thrfor th ag of th Univrs. Taking aount of gravit' aus it holds ak th xpansion of the Univrse, givs an ag of about 12a00 rnillion years. In th nxt stin, w will mt quarks and antiquarks again whn w onsidr th hain of vnts in the arly stages f the Big Bang.

Mor aurat mrasurmnts of th rd shift and distans to

The early Universe

Th aus of th Big Bang is not yt known. That is known is that a vast amount of nrgy was suddnly rlasd, rating spae and tim in th pross and ausing spa to xpand from nothing to th siz of a footall in lss than a illionth of a billionth of a illionth of a mirosond.

. .

By this stag' th tmpratur had falln to aout a million million degrs, allowing quaks, antiquarks' ltrons and positrons to form from radiation. After about a minut, th tmpratur had falln to about a thousand million dgrs. Th antiquarks wre annihilatd y th quarks and th positrons wr annihilatd by the protons. At this stag, th Univrs had pandd to a siz iggr than the Solar Systm. Th nutrons and protons joind togethr to form nuli as the Univrs oold furthr. Aftr about 100000 yars, th tempratur had droppd to a few thousand dgrs. Atoms formd as nuli wr al to hold on to ltrons. Th Univrs am transparnt at this stag ause atoms asor light far lss than ions do. Thus the dark ag of th Univrs gan. Aftr a fw illion yars' galaxis egan to frm and mov away fom ah othr as th Univrs ontinud to xpand. Astronomers do not yt know if stars gathrd to form galaies or if stars formd insid galaxies.

eltrons. Th rmaining quarks formd nutrons and

osmi rpulsion fr had n rorkd out y Alxandr Fridmann in Russia in 1'922 using instin,s gnral theory of rlativity. instin dsrid his arlir ida of a osmi rpulsion for .grtst as his lundr,. Howvr, rnt osrvations indiate that th expansion is alrating whih suggsts a fr of rpulsion ould driving th galaxis awy from ah othr
fastr and fastr.

The future of the Universe Th thry of th xpanding Univrs without a

instin's gnral thory of rlativity pdits that th futur f th Univrse dpnds on th avrag density of martr in it whih is at prsnt not known.

. .

If th dnsity is too grat, th Univrs will stop xpanding and thn start to ontrat' nding in th Blg ruh. If th dnsity is too small, the Univrs will pand forvr, a snario known as th Big Yul. If th dnsity is qual to a rtain valu, th Univrs will pand at an vr-dreasing rat without vr rvrsing.

Thus th Univrs, whih is mattr on th largst possibl sal, has dvlopd as a rsult of th propertis of mttr and radiation on the smallst possibl sal. any qustions rmain to b answrd, inluding how gravity wrks and why mattr and antimattr did not annihilate ah thr ompltly in th arly stags of th Big Bang. Clarl5 this did not happn othrwis w would nt xist.

Rnt vidn from mor aurat masurmnts on th osmi mirowav akground suggests th last snario. Howvr, the amount f known mattr in th Univrs is
insuffiint to pfvent a runaway xpnsion of th Univrs. Som form of invisil drk energ not yt known aout might b making th galais alrat as thy mov away from ah
othr.

Summary
Th xpansion of th Univrse: every distant ga|ax is moving away from us. Th furthr a ga|a is from us, th greater its
spd of rssion.

Th Big Bng: th Univers originatd in a massiv primordial xplsion, known as th Big Bang, and has bn xpanding vr sin. Quarks, antiquarks, ltrons and positrons formd from radiatin in th arly stages of th Big Bang.

Univrs?

plain what is mant y th .rd shift,. (b) Yrhat did Hubl disovr aout th link btwn th rd shift.lVhatth distane to a galaxy? and () onlusion about th Univrse Was drawn from Hul's disovery? Q7. A ga|ax at a distan of 100 million light yars was found to b moving away frm us at a spd of 2000 kilomtrs pr seond. Us this infrmation to stimat (a) th distan to a ga|a moving away from us at a spd of 8000 km/s, () th sped of reession f a galay at a distan f 4000 million light yars. .What is th Big Bang thory of th Univrs? Q8. (") () Vhat disovery ausd th Stady Stat thory of th Univers to b rjtd in favour f th Big Bang thory? Q9. Put th following vnts in ordr of tim of frmatin, ommning with the Big Bang Big Bang Atoms formd Galaxis formd Nutrns and protons formd Quarks and ntiquarks formd .What was th approximat ag of th Univrs whn Q10. (a) (i) nutrons and prtons formd, (ii) it bame transparent? () Vhat is thought to e the most likely futur of th

Questions
(a)

Q6.

C rr+
-

{r

g)

o r
J g)

o
GI l
GT

.
ln this hpter you will learn:

. .

about the present frontiers of physis why physis can help us

avoid atastrophe

about the ha|lenges of

physics in the future.

phsis i the net ful dedes m or m not b s ruolutionr s a etL'ry go but the ork of pbsiists ill udoubtedl ontine to prouid rjor beefits to us ll.

In the finl hpte e ill look t some of the problems tht re t th frontiers of phsics t presnt. Tbe topis chosen re of eessit dsribed briefl nd other topics ould hue been bose instd. Neuerthelss, the im hr is to outline some of the prablertxs of phsis t preset d to cosider the immese befits tht ould follo if the re solued. f course, no ne predit ho reserh into thes probl?s fa or ma f,ot deulop or here ne problems d opportunities might ris. At the nd of the nieteeth etur, m phsiists reckoned tbt little lse remined to b disoured e?cpt some appren rior problms to do ith rdiotiuit d ligbt. Ten ers ito th tultieth enuury' phsics hd bee reuolutionizd b th qutum theor nd the theory of rltiuit. In th lst fe deds, more sintific koulledg hs been disoured thn in th entir preuious histor of th hurl re. Deuelopmets i

! ll us enrgy from fuels, espeially popl in walthy ountris. Th rat of use of global nrgy is about 10 millin million watts. oil, gas and uranium rsrvs ar unlikly t last

Energy for everyone

into the fwnty-sond entury. Coal resrvs might prhaps last svral nfuris. If everyon on th plant wr ale to us engy at the sam rat as in walthy ountris, th rat of glbal usag would b fiv timrs gratr. ]0orld ppulation is rising fast as rll so ful resrvs are likely to bom sarr .Wars and onflits ould follor if this and more pnsiv. happns. Nw disvris of ful rservs ldll undoutdly

mad but suh disoveris ar unlikly

bfwn growing dmand and delining rsrvs.

to bridg the

gap

The frontiers of physis

Understanding energy
W talk about nrgy' W masur it, w have govefnmnt dpartmnts to ontrol it yet We still do not fully undrstand it. .W. annot s it yt we know when an jt has enrgy baus r an thn mak it do som work. instin worked

out that th mass of n objt inrass as its sped intass, as outlind on p. 163. In fft, whn th spd of an objt approahs th spd of light, th mass of the objet inrass and its motion beoms mor diffiult to hang. instin's quation E = m tlls us how muh th mass hangs for a rtain amount of nrgy transfrrd. How nrgy transfr auss a hang of mass is not yet known vn though instein workd out th sal of transfr a ntury ago. xperimnts in high nrgy physis at laoratoris suh as CRN, th uropan

rsarh ould produ high voltag solar lls apal of produing muh mor powr and voltag than th prsnt gnration of solar lls. ah square mtr of a solar panl faing th Sun uld absrb as muh as 1400 watts of solar powr. vn on a dull day, solar radiation ould generat 100 watts of ltrial powr pr squar metr. T mt gloal
nrgy dmand, less than 0.02% f th surfa of th planet (i.e. atota| ara lss than th Sahara dsrt) would nd to b ovrd in solar panels. No nular wast' no grnhous gases' no oil

In Chptr 1.2, we lookd at th options for th futur in trms of mor rnwal nergy sours and mr nular pow plants. Rnwal nrgy sours using urrnt thnology uld mak a signifiant ontriution but nt enough to plug .dmand gap, at prsnt lvls of invstmnt. If nrgy pris th ris, mor invstmnt in rnwabl enrgy sours is likly ut the grwth of living standards of th past ntury might slow down or stop or vn rvrs if invstmnt is too slor. Nw disovries in sin uld los th dmand gap. For xampl, hydrogn gas ould b usd as the ful for vhils; hydrogn ould produd and olltd from sea Watr by eletrolysis. Solar lls uld provid th ltriity for this pross. At prsnt' solar lls ar xpnsiv and ineffiient. Rsarh into bttf and. hapr solar lls ould rsult in th .hydrogn, onomy replaing th .ptrol' onomy. ln addition, suh

find out why partils suh as ltrons, protons and nutrons possss mass. An answef to this qustion ould thn lad on to finding out how partiles with mass gain mass when mad to travl faster. Th mhanism of = m2 woald thn b unovred, providing a dpr undrstanding of nular fission
and fusion.

Cntr for Nular Rsarh at Gneva, might provid th answr in th nxt fw yars. Ths primnts are dsigned to

pollution, no aid rain!

New materials
Th enfits of nw matrials rah us all in many ways, for
xampl tfuough lightr vhils, bttr thrmal insulation' mor

rliabl artifiial joints and improved ommuniations. Th xplosiv growth of th intrnet is th rsult of th invention of th transistor in th mid-twntieth ntury and th subsqunt developmnt f intgratd iruits on silion hips in th 1970s. Almost ever}thing w d has n afftd by internet and multimdia thnologis. Further dvlopmnts in ommuniations suh as abl TV have taken pla as the result of rsearh into flibl transparnt matrials usd to mak optial fibrs. Suh fibrs are apal of arrying muh more information than oppr wires arry. Anothr potntial rvolution awaits th disovry of rom tmprature superondutors. At prsnt' suprondutors, whih ar ltrial ondutors with zro rsistan, nd to old to vry low tmpraturs. As th tmperatur of a suprondutor is raised, its resistan suddnly rturns at aov a rtin tmpratur refrrd to as its ritial tmpratur. Th highst known ritial tmpratur is not muh mor than aout 130 K, wll low room tempratur whih is bout 290 K. Th bnfits of room tempratur suProndutors would inlud muh mor ffiint transmission of letrial powr aross long distans, lightr

(W\xNn was devlopd in th t990s physiists at CRN to ass nl physiists in othr ountries to gain .Within to sintifi paprs stored ltronially via th Intrnt. a fw yars, TlrTr revolutionizd ommere, industry, ntrtainment and ommuniations. Fw popl reognizd th immns potential .!id .! of th !orld at the time it was st up.

An unpreditable future
Blue skies research
a nw disovry. ihael Farada ould not hav preditd that his disovry of eltromagnti indution (see p. 101) would dvelop into a worldwid industry and provid nrgy to onsumrls on demand. Josph Thomson, the disovrr of th ltron (se p. 168), saw within his orn liftim th dvlopmnt of the ltronis industry but vn h would hav bn amazed at th wid rang of eltronis appliations now. Lord Rutherford invstigations on th struture of th atom (s p, 772| ld to th disovry of th nulus yet even Ruthrford at tat tim ould not forse nular powf and th dvlopmnt of th nular industry.

No on an tll th ffts of

heapr medial sanners and fastr omputrs. Supronduting ables ould usd to transfr ltrial

ltri motors' nomi rnagnti levitation transPort systms'

powr long distans from slar powr stations in rmot aras to populatd ras. Resarh into superondutivity ontinus as sintists attmpt to find out if room tmPratur suprondutivity is possibl.

goals, ften rferrd to as .lu skies resarh', has on many

oasions produd rvolutionary disovris.

Sintifi rsarh that might sm osure or without immdiat

nessary

he World Wide Web

Th Internet is a ommuniations ntwork that was dvisd y th US govrnmnt in th Cld.!0ar t nsur an nmy ountry

omputr to anothr is hopped into a squn of pakts and ah paket is snt indpndently to th sam dstination y any rout. At th dstination, th pakts ar put togthr to rerat th original information. Th individual pakts travl via diffrnt routs to th sam dstination. Th Internet now onsists of a prmannt ntwork of internet srvi providrs (ISPs) onntd to th telephonr systm. Th.lVorld Wid Wb

ould not knok out vital ommuniations by mans of a nular strike. A ntwork of powrful omputrs in different lations wr linkd to eah othr to provid many routs betwen any two omputers. An intrnt mssag from on

However, blu skis rsrh can rvolutinize our understanding of natur as wll as dvloping th ssntial
undrpinning knowldg frm whih rvolutionary invntions and dvlopmnts oftn follow. A flavour of suh rsarh in two aras of physis is outlined low. Lo temperture phsis is a very ativ rsarh fild as sientists attain lowr and lowr tmpraturs no mor than a fratin of a dgr aov th absolute zero of tmpratur. The ploprtis of matrials at suh vry low tmpraturs provide a rih ara of rsarh. Suprondutors wr disoverd as a rsult of masuring th ltrial rsistan of diffrnt

invstors xpet dividnds. Suh applid sarh oftn lads to important disovris and dvlopments suh as intgratd iruits, providing hug rturns for investors and invntors.

Sintifi rsarh drivn y preis aims and targts is in ompanis with xpnsiv quipmnt whr

ondutors at suh low tmpratures. Suprfluidity, th omplete absen of visosity in a fluid, was disovrd whn

suprfluidity lis in th suddn hnge of haviour of th hlium atoms whn oold blow 2.2 K. Instad of mving abolrt at random as thy do aov 2.2 K, th atoms link togthr in a singl quantum stat at or low 2.2 K. Suprfluidity is an exampl f quantum haviour on a sal larg enugh to se dirtly thus it provids a dpr undrstanding of quantum thry. In addition, undrstanding suprfluidity has hlpd sintists undrstand superndutivity in mtals. Chos thor is a rent arrival in sin and has opnd up many nw and intrsting appliations. The idas of haos thory hav bn applid in suh divrs fields as fluid flow, population dynamis in iolgy, mdial rsearh in onntion with hart attaks, shar pis on th finan markts and astroid impats. Chas thry stems from omputr modlling f non-linear systms. Som masurabl quantity (or quantities) is usd to spify th stat f the system at rgular intrvals. If th value of th quantity at sm intrval ds not maintain a onstant rlationship t th valu in th prvious interval, th systm is dsribd as non-liner. A nonJinar systm an hav haotially in rtain irumstans whras a lir systm whr th proprtionality is maintaind is reliabl and
prdital. exampl of a non-linar systm is th motin of an ojt onfind to mov alng a line suh that its positin hangs aording to how far it is from ah of two fixd points alng the lin. Its motion dpnds on its initil position and an hang vry dramatially from onfind haos to running away with just a small hange of its initial position, as shown in Figur 14.1. Th spradsht usd to gnrat this modl is givn in th Appndix. T illustrat how the idas an b applid mor widly, onsidr th population dynamis of animals on a small island. Suppos th island is ppulatd only y a ertain animal spis whih rds on ah ear and whih livs off th natural vgetation on th island. Th numbr of animals eah yar dpnds on the

ontainr. Furthr invstigations showd that this fluid lost its visosity (i.. its resistan to flw) suddenly at2.2K whn it is oold from abov to low this tmpertur. It also bam mor than a million tims mor fftive as a heat ondutr low this tmperatur. Sin this disvry, suprfluidity has also bn disovered in a fw othr fluids. The explanation of

liquid helium was osrvd emptying itslf out f its glass

numer the prvious yar. Too many animals would rdu th food supply and ut th numer of animals that surviv; too fw animals would brd too littl. Suppos th island an support a maximum of 100 animals ah yar. The population hang ah yar is prportional to th population P in th prvious year du to brding and to (100 - P) on aount f th food supply. In othr words, the population in a givn yar dpnds on how far th prvious year's population ras from 0 and 100. Th mathmtis works out similar to th prvious sitution xpt extintion rould our if P rahd 100 in any yar as thre would b no food supply lft.

population on an island. atastroph ould our through an astroid impat whih ould wip ut the human rae just as dinosaurs wre wiped out about 60 million yars ago. Pokts of survivors might e frd to liv as our anstors did, subjtd to th prils of natur. Th astroids ar very larg hunks of rok in orbit about th Sun, mostly btwn ars and Jupiter. In addition to th Sun's gravity pulling on an astroid, Jupitr an affect an asteroid as it is th largst plant of th Solar Systm. Th path of an asteroid thrfor depnds on its

Th human rae on plant arth is not unlike an animal

Chaos and catstrophe

A simple

beming inrasingly awar of th nd to wth out for ollisions with errant astroids and othr larg ojts from spae. Th US Govrnmnt has st up an bsrvatoIy to sarh for and trak astroids. Howver, advand warnings of an astrid impat would not shild th arth from an impat. An international dfns systm neds to st up to safely deflt or dstroy any astroid oI othr larg ojt from spae found to be on ours to ollide with th arth. Governmnts wuld nd to prvid th funds, prhaps reharging popl in th walthy nations thrugh a small annual surharg on hom

distan from th Sun and its distan from Jupitr. Using haos thery, astronomrrs rkn that thr is a vry small possibility of an astroid bhaving haotially and olliding with th arth. No doubt othr solar systms hav th sam prolms. Any arth-like plant in any other solar systm would sujt to astroid impats from astroids in its own solar system. The proaility of intllignt lif elswhr in th ilky.!ay galaxy is threfore vn mor rmot if it an b wipd out by astroid impats. rhaps the human ra is th nly intlligent lif form in th Galaxy at th prsent tim. Astronomrs and sintists ar

Parameter=
Initial pos=

'I

.1

Time

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I I 10 11 12 13 14 15

Old position 0.8 0.91689 0.335292 0.980633 0.083564 0.336955 0.98032 0.073394

0.8 New position 0.91689

Postion v ime
1.2

0.704

0.704

0.335292
0.980633 0.336955 0.983032 0.07394 0.29921 0.314035 0.217556 0.748991 0.628894

0'08564

0.8

insuran poliis. This might sm far-fthd but mtorit impats are not. A larg mtorit impat reatd th Grand Canyon in Arizona. Suh an impat n a dnsly populatd ara would devastat the ara. An astroid impat would dvastate ntir ontinnts and throw millions of tons of dust into th atmosphr. Th sky wuld dark fr many yars and th surfae would fteeze. Fod supplis rrould dwindl and transport would as. An intrnationl dfns system sms a small pri to pay in omparison.

o .0 6

o n

From 'what if?nto wow!

Physis has always bn aout big idas and ig disovris that hav afftd veryon. Yt most big ideas r disovris in physis start out with ..!hat if?' thughts. Intuition, rativity'

0.4

0.922645
0.314035 0.947834 0.217556
0.748991

0.29923"1

0.922645 0.947834 0.827215

imagination, spulation and persistn ar th sort of

5101520
ime

0.827215

Prameter=
Initial pos=

1.l
0.800001

Postion v ime

im

0 'I 2 3 4 5 6 7 I I 10 '11 12 '13 14 15

o|d

0.800001 0.703997 0.916894 0.335276

position New position

0.703997 0.916894 0.335276 0.980611 0.083659 0.337306 0.983535 0.071251 0.291167
0.908
1 1 1

0.98061

0.083659 0.337306 0,983535 0.071251 0.908111 0.367159 1.022355 -0.10056 -0.48695 -3.18594
0.291

'6

"-"

20

8-+o

167

0.367159 1.022355

-60

-0.10056 -0.48695 -3,18594 -58.6792

5101520
ime

ligule 14.1 out 0f haos

strutur of DNA in a Camridge physis laboratory and so startd th sintifi wrld on a trail whih has ld to th sussful ompletion of th human gnom projet. Crik and .W.atson used knowldg about DNA disovrd from -ray diffration primnts to work out th doubl hlix strufur of th DNA molul. The human gnom' th squen of th four ass that link togethr in a vry long hain to frm th DNA molul, has now bn disovrd as a rsult of sientists using ltriity to ontrol hargd fragments of DNA and using lasrs and omputrs to masur th rsults. Th bnfits of genti nginering are ahead bing felt fr xampl by suffrrs of ysti fibrosis who an now lad normal livs outsid th shadow of rippling illnss and arly dath. Suh devlpmnts will undoutedly bring many mor nefits to many pople. Th physiists who disovrd -rays, lasers and nw ltrni dvis leading to modrn omputrs ould sarly hav imagind how thir idas and disovris hav n utilizd by othr sintists. .!ho knows what an emerg from an ida? At th tim of writing, physiists ontinu to struggl to ronile quantum thry and relativity thory' th two great thoris of modrn sin. Gravity whih mrgs from rlativity thry lis outside th standard modl of quarks and lptons whih is rotd in quantum theory. Can thes two grat theoris brought togther? Som physiists think that a omind thory is possile thrugh a mathmatial framwork rfrrd to as

to think haratristis that ar ndd .Wtsn up nW idas. Fifty yars sussfully modlld th ago, Franis Crik and Jams

to aount for th alration of th xpansion of th Univrs suggsts that energy has further proprtis that w do not yt know aout.

string thory. Howvr, othrs sk a diffrnt solution y hallnging suh basi tnts as th onstany of.shatvr of th speed light and th prinipl of onsrvation of nrgy. th solution is if thr is on, th history f physis tlls us that nw prolms will proably mrg whih will all for nw idas and frsh insight. Th onpt of .dark nrgy, mntiond on p.206

) ft

iF

Erl tl

Siene and soiety

odrn sin has providd us with th mans of finding out about natur on a sal from quarks to quasars. any mor sintifi disovris undoutdly li ahad. Th obsrvations and primnts arrid out by sintists provid ssntial guidan for th thoris of sin. Bfor th Sintifi Ag was ushred in by Galilo, fw dard to hallng th mdival hurh on th thory that th arth must at th ntr of th
Dvlop your intrst in physis furthr after rading this book y rading on or mor of th following oks or y visiting som rlvant websits listd blow.

GI
-l 1+

Univrs. Th frdoms w now tak for grantd suh as human rights and dmoray would prhaps not hav bn won if th struggl for intlltual frdom, th hallmark of modrn sin sin Galilo, had ben lost. Prhaps th rl long-term hallng for th futur is t xtnd th immns benfits of sin to th entir human ra and to find out how to sustain ths nfits indfinitly. Sintifi knowledg is vital for a bttr futur. I hop you hav njoyd using this book and that you will take your physis studis further.

Further readang
For those who wish to study physis at a higher level 1' Neul Uderstding Phsis for Adued Leuel (4th dition) by Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-7487041'4-6), publishd by Nlson Thorns. This is an all-mbraing omprhnsiv physis txtbook writtn for UK AS and A lvl physis ourss' inluding options in astrophysis, ltronis, matrials sin and medial physis. It also ovrs th
rquirmnts of th Intrnational Balaurat Physis oufse. It is writtn to tak students from GCS physis to univrsify physis ntran lvl.

C + r

{r
J

o
.

Foudtions of Phsics (2nd dition) y Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-333-702-9), pulishd by Palgrave. This book is intndd for studnts who ar following a ollg physis ass ours or a univrsity foundation physis ours. It is also suital for first-yar studnts on dgr programms in whih physis is a susidiry subjt. Th ook ovrs th sujt from GCS lvl to univrsity physis foundation
lvl.

For those who wish to consolidate and widen their knowledge of physis 1 Ke Sci,ene Phsis (3rd dition) by Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-7487-6243-4), pulishd y Nlson Thorns. This is a popular shool physis txtok writtn for UK and Intrnational GCs physis ourss. It ovrs th sujt at a slightly highr lvl than Teh Yourself Phsics.

Teh Yourself 101 Ke Ides i Phsis by Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-340-79048-2), pulishd y Hoddr & Stoughton duatinal. This ook prvids a srrmmary of 101 ky idas or onepts in physis, ah vering a singl pag. It is wriffn so th rdr an dip in and ut of the sujt, on ida at a time. instein - bginer's guide by Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-34078043-6)' publishd by Hodder 6 Stoughton duational. Th book prsents instin,s work in historial ontxt' tking th rader through th thory f rlativity and its impliations from blak hols to tim travl.

,7

tl

ST

For those who wish to develop their interest in physis linked to astronomy and cosmology 7 Th Yourself Cosralog y Jim Breithaupt (ISBN 0-3407092-7I, publishd y Hoddr & Stoughton duational. Th book provids an introdution t osmolgy from its historial dvlopmnt to th inrdibl disvris of rnt dades. 2 Tcb Yourself 101 Ke Ideas in stroor Jim Brithaupt (ISBN 0-340-7821,4-5), plished by oddr & Stughtn duational. Th ook proy'ids a summary of 101 ky idas Or onpts in astronom, hovring a singl pag. It is wrin so th radr an dip fi^and out of th subjt, one
idea at a tim.

Answers to Chapter 01 questions 1ffm (b)4.5 X 1o'm () 6.5 X 108 kg X 1&'9kg 2. (a) 7.5 X 10_,m () 1.59 m () 5.6 10, m (d) 6'5 X 10' kg (e) 2.7 X 10r kg
(a) 1.5 (d) 3.5

L.

o o . o t+ o
C

3. 4. 5.
6.
-7

(a) 10 (b) 10. (b) 0.005 (a) 12500

Websites
Thr ar so many physis and astronomy wsits you an visit that whr to start an prplxing. Nws of physis Institut of Physis wesits, listd blow. Some furthr wsits fr physis organizations ar also listd.

6000 kg 9. 930 kgims 10. 7500 kg/m'

8.

72kg

(a) 0.001 m3 800 kg/m' (b) 3.1 kg

kg

m,

() 3000 kg/m.

dvlopmnts an b otaind from the

UK or

Amrian

Answers to Chapter O2 questions

o o
fl

2 3 5

1 www.iop.org fr

th UK Institut of Physis. www.aip.org for th Amrian Institut of Physis. www.ppar.a.uk for th UK Partile Physis and Astronomy Rsarh Cunil. http:l|puli.wb.rn.h for th uropan ntre for

Nular Rsarh.
Leiestr.

www.spantr.o.uk for th UK Ntional Spae Cntr,

10.

L. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

(a) 720

(a) 67

(a) 12.5 mls (b) 10 m/s () 133 m/s (a) 13 m/s (b) 310 m/s ()28 m/s (d) 200 m/s
(a) 72000 (b) 20 m/s (b) 200 m m/s (a) 0.25 m/s () 0.50 m/s () 0.0625 m/s, () 3.0 m/s, (a) 50 m/s ()2400

m (b) 4.5 X 1.o' m () 1..8 10. m s (b) 25 s (cl L667 s = 27 min 47 s m

s)

(a) 10

(a) 15

() 5000 additional2000 m)

(a) 4

m/s m/s,

() 11 m

(d) 7000 m (= 5000 m + an

o a r.+ o o
l

Answers to Chapter 03 questions

Answers to Ghapter 07 questions

2.

3. 4. 5. 9.

(a[i) 8 ks (ii) 103 N (b) 103 N (a)(i) I N (ii)24 N (b) (i) 5 m/s' (ii) 4
(a) 2

(a)(i) 19.6

(ii) 39.2

() 100

m|s, N

() 1600

m/s'z

Answers to Ghapter 04 questions

J @) 2a2s I 6. (a) 1000 J (b) s000 J k) 20% 7. (a) ssO kJ (b) O.ss 8. (a) 1000 J () 50 W 9. (a) (i) 3000 J (ii) 900 kJ (iii) 40 J () 24 J (iii) 12so J 10. (a) 8820 J (b) 37s01
Answers to Chapter 05 questions
1'.
OK
(a)

2. . 4. s.

(a) 2000 (b) 2000 J (a) 900000J (b) 9000 sonds () 392 () 1176 ft) a7 w

J N

1,2.

10. 5A (a) {7.75

1.. 1.20 m

2. 3. 4. 6. 9.

1.

ngativ' gains, loses

(a) th

(ii) 9 ulom ()(i) 0.30 (a) 12 hours (b) 36'0 (a) 15 (b) 37.s Y/ ()(i) 0.5 (I24 a ()(i) 1;12 (ii) 1;36 ',\ '

(b) 96

units,68%

Answers to Chapter 08 questions

(b)(i) 92 J

2. 3. 4.

S p. 112 Se Figur 8.1A(b) (a) Rfratin is th hang of dirtion of a light ray whn

(aXi) 0

",27K

(b[i) 100

"C

(ii) 373

(c)

_27",

3.

10.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. e.

No 1: roof = 120 !, window = 500 Ntr', wall = 1800 !?'; total = 3500 (b) No 3: roof = 300 Tf, window = 300 !(/, wall = 600 Tf; total = 1200 r0f () No 1' = t1.09 No 3 = {0.37, Diffrn = {,0'72 (a| 567 () 32 () 599 kJ (a) 25"C ()(i) 21.6 (ii) 12" (a) 3.a () 18.8 minuts (a) 1.1s (b) 3.a kg (a)(i) 8a0 (ii) 53 (b) 71 0r (a[i) 13 (ii) 67 b) 67'w (a) 180 () 0.078 kg

!f

anothr transparnt substan. (b) 5" 5. S Figur 8.2(b). 6. (a) Light onsists of tiny partils alld orpusls. (b) Th spd of light in watr Was found to b lss thn in air, as preditd by wav thory. 9. S summar p. 1,29 10. (a) Rd (b) 500 million million hrtz () Infrard rdiation, radio wavs, mirowavs

it

passs from on transparnt sustan

or air

into

Answers to Chapter 09 questions

kl J MJ kJ kJ kJ

kJ kJ kJ kJ

1.

2.
4. 6.
7.

ltron

ngativ (ii) positiv ()(i) 16 atomi mass units (ii) +8 e, whre e is th magnitud of th hrg of th
(a)(i)
(a) mlul' atoms, atom () isotop, pfotons' neutrons () proton, letron (a) a ovalent bond (b) an ioni bond (a) rystalline (b) polymr () rystllin
(111\

Answers to Ghapter 06 questions

9.

(d) amorphous () polymr (a) a god Itri insulator (b) It would mlt () o mak it lss visous (a) Watr' ram, syrup'
() wallpapr past' ustard

tar

2. 3.
5.

(a)

t7

0.54

() 0.51

000 .s

(a)

(b)

2500

approx

72.
() 33 000 .W approx

(al1,9.6kPa

(b) 16 kPa

() 100 km

Answers to Chapter 10 questions

3. 4. 5.
6.
1'.

1.

(a) ass loss = nrrgy loss / 2 = L.I 10J6 kg whih muh lss than th mass of th atom

partil () wav () partil (a)AB, A, BC (b) B (a) halved () mor dtaild

(a)

4.4

X 1,0'kg

Answers to Ghapter l

questions
Th lowst possil tmpratur (= -273"). aeleration Rat of hang of vloity. atom Th smallst partil of n lmnt haratristi of the lment. vry atom ntains a nulus (whih onsists of protons and nutrons' pt for the hydrogen tom whih has a singl Proton as its nulus) surrundd by ltrons. binding energy nergy nded to sparat a nulus into its onstitunt nutrons and protons. bond Nam for an ryp of for that holds tw partils absolute
togthr.

10.

2. (a) inrasd dfltion () rvrs dfltion 4. (a) 0.41 per sond () bta 5. (a) 250 million () 62.5 million () 238 6. (a) 0 () +2e (c) _e 7. (a) -e (b) 0 (c) +e 8. (a) uud (b) ud 9. d hangs to u
uuu

prssur, voltag, ions, ins, ions, ion, in

zero

E GT o a a q)
T

<

Answers to Chapter 12 questions

L. 2. 3. 6. 6.

38 p,59 n
() 7.4

() 7024 approx 1500 kg

MV

chrge

and ngativ. Partils that possss th same ryp of harg rpl ah othr. Partils that possss opposit typs of

Thr are two typs of harg, rfrrd to as positiv

Answers to Chapter 13 questions

(b) Rd shift is proprtinal to distan
() Th Univrs is xpanding

protons' Atoms, Galais 10. (a)(i) about a minut (ii) 100

7. (a) 400 million light yars () 80000 km/s. 9. Big Bang, Quarks and antiquarks, Nurrons
000 yars old

and

harg attnat ah othr. harge is quantizd in whol numr multipls of e, the harg of th ltron. density Mass pr unit volum of a substan. diffration Spreading of wavs aftr passing through a gap or round an obstal. diffusion Gradual sprad of randomly moving partils in a sustan to a uniform distribution. diode ltrni omponnt that allows urrnt to pass through it in n dirtion only. elasticity Th physial proprty of a sustan that nabls
it to rgain its shape aftr bing distottd. electromagneti spectrum Th sptrum of ltromagnti Waves. Th letromagnti sPtrrrm ompriss gamma rays wavs travl at a spd of 300000 km/s thrugh spa.

and -rays, ultraviolet radiation, visil light, infrard radiatin, mirowavs, radio wavs. All ltromagnti

ngativly hargd partil that is in vry atom, moving round th nulus. Th harg of th lton, e, is qual to L.6 10,,. electron volt (V) t.6 10',J, dfind as th work done whn n ltron movs thrugh a p.d. of 1 volt. ]. V = L.6 X 10,, J. energy Th apaity to hang th motion of an objt. force Any intration that an hang th motion of an bjt. frequency Th numbr of yls of osillation of an osillating bjt, ah yle ing from on xtrm to th opposit xtrm and ak.

electron A

fragments. nulear fusion !7hn light nuli ar fusd tgther.

nuclear fission !hn

larg nulus splits into two

a

gradient Th gradint f a straight lin on a graph is th hang of th qrrantity plottd on th y-ais / orrsponding hang of th quantity plotted on th x-axis. grains Crystallin strutur in a mtal.
gravitation Thr is a for of gravitational attration twn any two masss. Th for is inversly proportional to th
square f th distan twn th ntrs of th masss.

wavpakt of ltrornagnti energy. Th nergy of a phton of frquny /is qual to h f, whr is th Plank onstant. potential energy Th nrgy of an ojet du to its position. power Rat of transfr o{ nrgy. pressure Fr per unit ara ating at right angls to a surfa. proton A positivly hargd artil whih is th nulus of th lightst atom' th hydrogn atom. quarks PartiIs that omin in thrs to frm nutrons of protons. reding bjt du t its rding motion. This inras auss a shift in the lin sptrum of th lighr fronr th ojt towards th rd part of the sptrum. resistne Voltag pr unit urrnt neded to mak ltriiry flow. salar A nn-dirtinal physial quantity. speed of light Distan travlld pr sond y lit. The symol dnots th spd of light in fr spae. = 300000
km/s.

photon Light is omposd of photns. ah photon is

red

shift Th

inras

of th

wavlngth

of light from

half

radioativ isotop to disintgfatr.

tife Th

tim takn for half th numbr of nuli of a

rinforement ours wher rsts mt or whr troughs mt. Canllation ours whr a rest mts a trough. internal energy Th nrgy of an objt rgardlss of its stte of mtion r its position. ion A hargd atom' An unhargd atom ontains an qual numr of letrons and protons. Rmoval of an ltron maks th atom into a positiv ion. Addition of an ltron maks th atom into a ngatiY ion. isotope Th isotops of an lmnt ar forms f th lmnt whih ah hav th same numbr of plotons ut a diffrnt numbr of nutrons in eah nulus. kinetic energy Th nrgy of an objt du to its motion.

interferene

.Whr

fwo ravs pass through ah

othr,

U.value Hat flow pr squar mtr passing through a wall or panl, t. whn th tmpratur diffrn aross the objt is

superonductor An objt with zr ltrial rsistan. superfluid A fluid that has zr visosiry. 1"C.

vetor A
.g. for.

physial quantity that has magnitud and dirtion,

lepton lmntay partils suh as th letron and th positrn that ar not quarks. mass A masure f th quantity of mattr in an objt. moleuIe Tw or mr atoms joined togthr.
momentum Th produt of th mass and th vlity of an obj. neutron An unhargd partil slidy havir than th protn.
protons and nutrons.

veloity Rat of hange f distan in a givn dirtion. viscosity A masur of flow rsistan in a fluid. voltge Powr pr unit urrnt dliverd brwn two pints
wavelength Th last distan along a wav twn two
in a iruit.
rsts.

weight

vry atom ontains a nulus whih is ompsd of one or mor

work

.!ork

Th for of gravity on an jt.

appliation in th dirtion of tir fore.

is dn whn a for movs its point

of

B
s)
' '

o
Spreadsheet for ,out of chaos, figure 14.1
not Th symol $ is fr absolut ll rfrns 1 Ky info lls A1 ad A2, th tt xprssions .Parametr =' and 'Initial position ='.

2 Ke..th.paramtr valu into ll 81. Ky th initial

4

L IT

, 5., tt hadings .Time', into lls A3, 83

position into ll B2.

4o,$B$1oD2"1(1-(D2)) into ll 4 for th nw position alulatd from the old position and th paiamter . 4 X prmtr ulue :uJ. osltiot' = position).
ording to th quation

and 3 rsptivly. Ky O.into ll A4; $B$2 into ll 84 and the formula

.Old position' and .Nw positin'

antimatter 177 antipartiles .|78 Arhimedes 12

a.. generator 101 absolute tmperture 61 absolute zero 61 ace|eration 29 a|ternating urrent 102 ammeter 94 amorphous solid 143
.

ova|ent bond 138 ritial mass 187 rysta| 142 rysta||ine so|ids 142

de Broglie equation 158

density 16

diffration 157

diffusion 146

atom 1

diode 97

distane time graph 26

atomi mass unit 16 balaned fores 38 bryon 179 beam ba|ane 13 Big Bang theory 205 binding energy 184 bIak hoIe 202 blood pressure measurement 15't boiling point 67

dynamo 101

X old positio X

(1

old

effiieny of a heat engine 78 effiieny of a mahine 55 Einstein, Albert 16i!

5 Key

6 7

on th .r-axis.

(A4) +1 into ll A5; key C4 into ll 85; opy th ontnts of 4 into C5. Copy lls A5, B5 and C5 dln olumns A, B and C. To hatt th rsults, plot ol. C on th y-axis against ol. A

elasti limit 142 e|astiity .l41

bonds 137

e|etri be|I 9!) e|etri motor 1( e|etriity bil| 107 eIectriity meter 107

entre of gravity z} haos theory 214

electromagnet 98

omponents in para||el 94 omponents in series 94 ompound 133 ondution. e|etrica| 87 ondution, therma| 62 onvetion 63 ou|omb' the 90

charge 88 Chernobyl 190

e|etromagneti spetrum 1 22 eletromagneti waves 122 eIetron miroscope 157 e|etron, the 88 e|etron vo|t l85 e|etroni harge 170 e|etrons in the atom 158 element 133

energy 51,80 energ onservation of 8,52 energy levels 158

event horizon 202

Faraday, Mihae| 2 Feynman, Rihrd 1

molecular bond 140 mo|eule 133 momentum 37

motor

salars 43

resistor 96

fuse 107

frequeny l23

fossil fuels

fore 37,39

effet l0o

8l

nevon.

neutron 1.5 Newton, |saa 40

sientific method 4 shells 158 solar power 82

grvitationa|

grains 143 gravittion, Newton theory lens

201

Galileo 24 gas pressure t52 gradient 27

of

198

nu|ear fission l&3 nuIear fusion 192 nuc|ear reator, fast breeder l92 nuIear reators, therma| l87 photoe|etri effet .|26

Newton 1st Law of motion 37 Newton 2nd Law of motion 39

the l

speifi heat apaity 68 speifi latent hat 71

speed of light 120 speed time grahs 30 stati e|etriity 87 superondutors 213 superfluids 213 supernova 202 symbols 28 temperature sa|es 60' 62 theories of light 1'16 thermodynamics, laws of 79 thermometers 60 tidal power 84 top pan b|ane 17

the the the the the the the

ampere 90 joule 50 kelvin 62

ohm 95 pascal 149 volt 92

watt 53

speed 25

varib|e resistor 96

vetors 4 velocity 28 visosity 147 voltage 92 volume 16

Hubb|e Law 204 hydrostati pressure 149 insulatori electrical 87 insulator, thermal Gl interferene 119 interna| ombustion engine 76 internal energy 79 ioni bond 140 ions 1l, 168 isotope 135 Kep|er |aws 196

het 79 het engine 75 heat transfer 62 Heftz' einrih l23

Periodi ab|e l38

prefixes 15 pressure 149 proton 135

powers of ten 15

potential energy Sl, 57 power 50' & power' e|etrial 97

Plank, Mx 128 p|astiity l42 po|ymer 1l

photons 126

wavelength 123 Wave mehanis 156 wave power 84

wave speed equation

transformer i02 U-value 64

units
SI

weight 41 wind power 8tl work 50

World Wide

1B

Web 212

trigonometry 115
Unertainty Priniple 160

X-rays

124

Young s|its 118

PtoIemy mode| of the So|ar System 12

units 14

kineti energy 51' 57

|aw of ref|etion 1i2 |aw of refration 114

quarks 178

quantum theory 156

radition, thermal 6i}

leptons 180 light emitting diode 97 line spetrum l59

radioativity 171 alpha radiation 172 beta radiation 172 gamma radiation 122
red shift 204 reflection of light I t refration of |ight l13 relativity' generat 2( geiger ounter half life 175

measuring y|inder 17 melting point 67 meson 179

meta|li

mass 37,41, 169 Maxwell, James 3

mains e|etriity l05

'73

re|ativity,

moderator 189

bond 140

relay 98

speia| 162

resistane 95

renewable energy 82, 2i

physis
o
Do you Want to understand the key onepts of physis? Do you need to know basic physis for a ourse or exam? Do you need to refresh your memory?

Physics offers a omprehensive introdution to the main

branhes of physis and the key ideas that run through the subjet. |t introdues you to the impotant onepts and essentiai fats, outlines important reent and histori disoveries, gradual|1, introdues the neessary mathematiaI skiIIs and offers questions, answers and worked xamoIes,

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