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How Cameras Work

by Tom Harris

Photography is undoubtedly one of the most important inventions in history -- it has truly transformed how people co that are actually many miles -- and years -- away from us. Photography lets us capture moments in time and preser

A fully manual single-lens-reflex camera

The basic technology that makes all of this possible is fairly simple. A still film camera is made of three basic eleme film) and a mechanical element (the camera body itself). As we'll see, the only trick to photography is calibrating an a crisp, recognizable image.

There are many different ways of bringing everything together. In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we'll look at a ma where the photographer sees exactly the same image that is exposed to the film and can adjust everything by turnin electricity to take a picture, a manual SLR camera provides an excellent illustration of the fundamental processes o

Next Page >> HSW Home Bending Light

The optical component of the camera is the lens. At its simplest, a lens is just a curved piece of glass or plastic. It and redirect them so they come together to form a real image -- an image that looks just

But how can a piece of glass do this? The process is actually very simple. As light travels from one more quickly through air than it does through glass, so a lens When light waves enter a piece of glass at an angle, one part of the wave will reach the glass befo

is something like pushing a shopping cart from pavement to grass, at an angle. The right wheel h wheel is still on the pavement. Because the left wheel is briefly moving more quickly than the rig moves onto the grass. The effect on light is the same -- as it enters the glass at an angle, it bends in one direction. It bend light wave enter the air and speed up before other parts of the wave. In a standard converging, or out. This means rays of light passing through will bend toward the center of the lens on entry. In a the light will bend when it exits as well as when it en

This effectively reverses the path of light from an object. A light source -- say a candle -- emits lig same point -- the candle's flame -- and then are constantly diverging. A converging lens takes those back to one point. At the point where the rays converge, you get a real image of the candle. In the variables that determine how this real image is form

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Intro Focus

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We saw in the last section that a real image is formed by light moving through a convex lens. The nature of this re the lens. This light path depends on two major factors:

The angle of the light beam's entry into the lens The structure of the lens

The angle of light entry changes when you move the object closer or farther away from the lens. You can see this enter the lens at a sharper angle when the pencil is closer to the lens and a more obtuse angle when the pencil is f to a certain total degree, no matter how it enters. Consequently, light beams that enter at a sharper angle will exit angle" at any particular point on the lens remains constan

As you can see, light beams from a closer point converge farther away from the lens than light bea the real image of a closer object forms farther away from the lens than the real im You can observe this phenomenon with a simple experiment. Light a candle in the dark, and hold a see an upside down image of the candle on the wall. If the real image of the candle does not fall d The light beams from a particular point don't quite converge at this point. To focus the image, mov the candle.

This is what you're doing when you turn the lens of a camera to focus it -- you're moving it closer o the lens, you can line up the focused real image of an object so it falls dir

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Lens Shape and Image Size

In the last section, we saw that at any one point, a lens bends light beams to a certain total degree, no matter the li This total "bending angle" is determined by the structure of the lens.

A lens with a rounder shape (a center that extends out farther) will have a more acute bending ang the lens out increases the distance between different points on the lens. This increases the amoun of the light wave is moving faster than another part, so the light makes a sharper Increasing the bending angle has an obvious effect. Light beams from a particular point will conver the lens. In a lens with a flatter shape, light beams will not turn as sharply. Consequently, the light farther away from the lens. To put it another way, the focused real image forms farther away from t has a flatter surface. Increasing the distance between the lens and the real image actually increases the total size of th think about it, this makes perfect sense. Think of a projector: As you move the projector farther aw the image becomes larger. To put it simply, the light beams keep spreading apart as they travel The same basic thing happens in a camera. As the distance between the lens and the real image beams spread out more, forming a larger real image. But the size of the film stays constant. When lens, it projects a large real image but the film is only exposed to the middle part of it. Basically, the middle of the frame, magnifying a small section of the scene in front of you. A rounder lens prod image, so the film surface sees a much wider area of the scene (at reduced magnific Professional cameras let you attach different lenses so you can see the scene at various mag magnification power of a lens is described by its focal length. In cameras, the focal length is defi between the lens and the real image of an object in the far distance (the moon for example). A number indicates a greater image magnification.

A standard 50 mm lens doesn't significantly shrink or mag the image.

Different lenses are suited to different situations. If you're taking a picture of a mountain range, you especially long focal length. This lens lets you zero in on specific elements in the distance, so you close-up portrait, you might use a wide-angle lens. This lens has a much shorter focal length, so it exposed to the film even if the subject is only a foot away from the camera. A standard 50 mm cam image, making it ideal for shooting objects that aren't especially c

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Most parapsychologists recognize that the skeptical viewpoint is largely beneficial to the public's understanding o magician James Randi, help steer the ESP discussion away from emotional responses and toward logical an reasonable explanations for apparent paranormal phenomena. By explaining the statistics of coincidence and th thinking critically about its beliefs and assumptions.

But skeptics like Randi can also detract from the ESP discussion. Randi is widely known for his of the existence of paranormal phenomena in a supervised demonstration. So far, nobody has been evidence that none of this stuff exists. Several high-profile professed psychics have accepted th casts them in a bad light. To many parapsychologists and ESP believers, Randi's challenge is just theatrics, like the psych scientists are not in the business of claiming prize money in publicized demonstrations, nor are th first place. The primary mission of science is to investigate truth -- generally speaking, scientists ar findings. By lumping legitimate researchers in with entertainers, skeptics

ESP believers mainly find fault with the implication that providing a logical explanation for apparent disproves the existence of ESP. It's an absolute certainty that many demonstrations of psychic pow will be imperfect, and that data may turn out to be useless. But this has no bearing When all is said and done, we simply don't know whether ESP exists. Given what we do understan ESP doesn't make any sense, but this is not a valid reason to rule it out. In the history of manki universe many times in response to new evidence. The scientific process is never about deciding w For much more information about ESP, including intriguing experiments, famous predictions and no << Prev Page HSW Home Snap Shot Intro Next Page >>

In the last two sections we looked at the basic idea of photography -- you create a real image with a converging le layer of light-sensitive material. Conceptually, this is all that's involved in taking a picture. But to capture a clear im together.

Obviously, if you were to lay a piece of film on the ground and focus a real image onto it with a co picture. Out in the open, every grain in the film would be completely exposed to light. And without a To capture an image, you have to keep the film in complete darkness until it's time to take the pict let some light in. At its most basic level, this is all the body of a camera is -- a sealed box with a sh film. In fact, the term camera is shortened from camera obscura, literal For the picture to come out right, you have to precisely control how much light hits the film. If you l the picture will appear washed out. If you don't let enough light hit the film, too few grains will re section, we'll look at the different camera mechanisms that let you a

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The Right Light

In the last section, we saw that you need to carefully control the film's exposure to light, or your picture will come ou level? You have to consider two major factors:

How much light is passing through the lens How long the film is exposed

To increase or decrease the amount of light passing through the lens, you have to change the size of the iris diaphragm, a series of overlapping metal plates that can fold in on each other or expand way as the iris in your eye -- it opens or closes in a circle, to shrink or expand the diameter of the le and when it is larger, it captures more light.

The plates in the iris diaphragm fold in on each other to sh the aperture and expand out to make it wider.

The length of exposure is determined by the shutter speed. Most SLR cameras use a focal plane s consists of two "curtains" between the lens and the film. Before you take a picture, the first curta When you take the picture, this curtain slides open. After a certain amount of time, the second exposure.

When you click the camera's shutter release, the first curtain slides open, exposing the film. After closed, ending the exposure. The time delay is controlled by the camer This simple action is controlled by a complex mass of gears, switches and springs, like you might f it releases a lever, which sets several gears in motion. You can tighten or loosen some of the sprin the gear mechanism, increasing or decreasing the delay between the first curtain opening and the very slow shutter speed, the shutter is open for a very long time. When you set the knob to a ve behind the first curtain, so only a tiny slit of the film frame is expose The ideal exposure depends on the size of the light-sensitive grains in the film. A larger grain is m grain. The size of the grains is indicated by a film's speed, which is printed on the canister. Diff photography -- 100 ISO film, for example, is optimal for shots in bright sunlight, while 1600 fi

Inside a manual SLR camera, you'll find an intricate puzzl gears and springs. Click on each picture for a high-resolu close-up shot.

As you can see, there's a lot involved in getting the exposure right -- you have to balance film spe level in your shot. Manual SLR cameras have a built-in light meter to help you do this. The main conductor light sensors that are sensitive to light energy. These sensors express this light energy interprets based on the film and shutter speed. In the next section, we'll see how an SLR camera body directs the real image to the viewfinder bef when you press the shutter button.

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SLR vs. Point-and-Shoot

There are two types of consumer film cameras on the market -- SLR cameras and "point-and-shoot" cameras. The a point-and-shoot camera, the viewfinder is a simple window through the body of the camera. You don't see the r idea of what is in view.

In an SLR camera, you see the actual real image that the film will see. If you take the lens off of a works. The camera has a slanted mirror positioned between the shutter and the lens, with a piece o This configuration works like a periscope -- the real image bounces off the lower mirror on to the screen. The prism's job is to flip the image on the screen, so it appears right side up again,

When you click the shutter button, the camera quickly switches the mirror out of the way, so the im connected to the shutter timer system, so it stays open as long as the shutter is open. This is why take a picture.

The mirror in an SLR camera directs the real image to th viewfinder. When you hit the shutter button, the mirror flip so the real image is projected onto the film.

In this sort of camera, the mirror and the translucent screen are set up so they present the real advantage of this design is that you can adjust the focus and compose the scene so you get professional photographers typically use SLR came These days, most SLR cameras are built with both manual and automatic controls, and most Conceptually, automatic cameras are pretty much the same as fully manual models, but everythin of the user. The central microprocessor receives information from the autofocus system and the l which adjust the lens and open and close the aperture. In modern cameras, this a

Automatic point-and-shoot camera use circuit boards an electric motors, instead of gears and springs.

In the next section, we'll look at the other end of the spectrum -- a camera design with no complex

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Homemade Cameras

As we've seen in this article, even the most basic, completely manual SLR is a complex, intricate machine. But elements are so simple you can make one yourself with only a few inexp

The simplest sort of homemade camera doesn't use a lens to create a real image -- it gathers ligh to make and a lot of fun to use -- the only hard part is that you have to d A pinhole camera is simply a box with a tiny hole in one side and some film or photographic paper tight," the light coming through the pinhole will form a real image on the film. The scien If you were to shine a flashlight in a dark room, through a tiny hole in a wide piece of cardboard, th moved the flashlight, the light dot would also move -- light beams from the flashlight m In a larger visual scene, every particular visible point acts like this flashlight. Light reflects off each small pinhole lets in a narrow beam from each point in a scene. The beams travel in a straight line, top of the piece of film, and vice-versa. In this way, an upside down image of the scene forms on small, you need a fairly long exposure time to let enough There are a number of ways to build this sort of camera -- some enthusiasts have even used old re most popular designs uses an ordinary cylinder oatmeal box, coffee can, or similar container. removable plastic lid. You can build this camera in a few simple steps:

1. The first thing to do is paint the lid black, inside and out. This helps light-proof the box. Be su that will reflect more light. 2. Cut a small hole (about the size of a matchbox) in the center of the canister bottom (the non 3. Cut out a piece of heavy-duty aluminum foil, or heavy black paper, about twice the size of th 4. Take a No. 10 sewing needle and carefully make a hole in the center of the foil. You should

too big. For best results, position the foil between two index cards and rotate the needle as y 5. Tape the foil over the hole in the bottom of the canister, so the pinhole is centered. Attach th through the pinhole. 6. All you need for the shutter is a piece of heavy black paper large enough to cover most of th securely to the side of the cannister bottom, so it makes a flap over the pinhole in the middle side of the pinhole. Keep the flap closed until you are ready to take a picture. 7. To load the camera, attach any sort of film or photographic paper to the inside of the caniste it and develop it in complete darkness. With this camera design, you won't be able to simply develop it yourself or get someone to help you.

Choosing a good camera design, film type and exposure time is largely a matter of trial and error. But, as any pinh interesting thing about making your own camera. To find out more about pinhole photography and see some grea next page.

Throughout the history of photography, there have been hundreds of different camera systems. Bu homemade box camera to the newest digital camera -- combine the same basic elements: a lens sensor to record the real image, and a mechanical system to control how the real image is expose all there is to photography! For more information, check out the links on the next

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Why do people have red eyes in flash photographs?

We've all see photographs where the people in the picture have spooky red eyes. T photos taken at night with a flash. Where do the red eyes come from?

The red color comes from light that reflects off of the retinas in our eyes. In many a including dogs, cats and deer, the retina has a special reflective layer called the tap lucidum that acts almost like a mirror at the backs of their eyes. If you shine a flash headlights into their eyes at night, their eyes shine back with bright, white light. Her Encyclopedia Britannica has to say about the tapetum lucidum:

Among many nocturnal vertebrates the white compound guanine is found in epithelium or retina of the eye. This provides a mirrorlike surface, the tapetu lucidum, which reflects light outward and thereby allows a second chance f absorption by visual pigments at very low light intensities. Tapeta lucida pro familiar eyeshine of nocturnal animals. Humans don't have this tapetum lucidum layer in their retinas. If you shine a flashlig person's eyes at night, you don't see any sort of reflection. The flash on a camera i enough, however, to cause a reflection off of the retina -- what you see is the red the blood vessels nourishing the eye.

Many cameras have a "red eye reduction" feature. In these cameras, the flash go twice -- once right before the picture is taken, and then again to actually take the pi first flash causes people's pupils to contract, reducing "red eye" significantly. Anoth to turn on all the lights in the room, which also contracts the pupil.

Another way to reduce or eliminate "red eye" in pictures is to move the flash away f lens. On most small cameras, the flash is only an inch or two away from the lens, s reflection comes right back into the lens and shows up on the film. If you can detac flash and hold it several feet away from the lens, that helps a lot. You can also try b the flash off the ceiling if that is an option. Here are some interesting links:

How Your Eyes Work How Photographic Film Works How Cameras Work How Digital Cameras Work How Light Works What about red eyes? The Nocturnal Eye Neuroscience Tutorial: Eye and Retina

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The Nocturnal Eye


What appears as pitch black to a human may be dim light to a nocturnal animal. The reason lies in the structure of the eye itself.

Pupils Nocturnal animals tend to have proportionally bigger eyes than humans do. They also tend to have pupils that open more widely in low light. So, at the outset, nocturnal eyes gather more light than human eyes do. Rods and cones After the light passes through the pupil, it is focused by the lens onto the retina, which is connected to the brain by the optic nerve. The retina is an extremely complex structure. It's made up of at least 10 distinguishable layers, and is packed with more sensory nerve cells than anywhere else in the body.

The retina is home to two different kinds of light receptor cells -rods and cones. (Both are named after their relative shapes.) Cones work in bright light and register detail, while rods work in low light, detecting motion and basic visual information. It is the rods that become highly specialized in nocturnal animals. In fact, many bats, nocturnal snakes and lizards have no cones at all, while other nocturnal animals have just a few. Tapetum Many nocturnal eyes are equipped with a feature designed to amplify the amount of light that reaches the retina. Called a tapetum, this mirror-like membrane reflects light that has already passed through the retina back through the retina a second time, giving the light another chance to strike the lightsensitive rods. Whatever light is not absorbed on this return trip passes out of the eye the same way it came in -- through the pupil. The presence of the tapetum can be observed at night when a pair of glowing eyes reflects back a flashlight or some other light source. (Interestingly, different animals have different color tapeta, a fact that can aid in nighttime animal identification.)

Circular vs. slit pupils One consequence of having extremely light sensitive eyes, is that they must be adequately protected during the day. Some animals accomplish this with a retractable eye flap. Others rely on their pupils. The circular pupil, because of the way the muscle bunches as it contracts, is the least efficient at closing rapidly and completely. A slit pupil, with two sides that can close like a sliding door, is far better at this task, which is why so many nocturnal eyes have slit pupils. These apertures can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal.
Night Vision | Zoology After Dark Resources | Guide | Transcript | Night Creatures Home
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| Updated November 2000

EYEANDRETINA
A.Anoverviewofthefunctionoftheeye: Lightentersthepupil,isfocusedandinvertedbythecorneaandlens, andisprojectedontothebackoftheeye.Atthebackoftheeyeliesthe retina,sevenlayersofalternatingcellsandprocesseswhichconverta lightsignalintoaneuralsignal("signaltransduction").Theactual photoreceptorsaretherodsandcones,butthecellsthattransmittothe brainaretheganglioncells.Theaxonsoftheseganglioncellsmakeup theopticnerve,thesingleroutebywhichinformationleavestheeye.

B.Structuresattheanteriorpoleoftheeye:

Movingpartsoftheeye: 1.Theirisisreallyashutter thatcanbecloseddownto regulatetheamountoflight enteringtheeye.Thisprocessis controlledbytwomuscleswith distinctinnervation: thepupillarysphincter muscleconstrictsthepupillike apursestring,andisunderthe controloftheparasympathetic system.Thereforeitis innervatedbyfibersfromthe oculomotornervewhich originateintheEdinger Westphalnucleusofthe midbrain. thepupillarydilatormuscle iscomposedofradialfibers whichpullthepupilopen,and iscontrolledbythe sympatheticsystem.Therefore itisinnervatedbypost ganglionicsympatheticsfrom thesuperiorcervicalganglion. Rememberthatthepre ganglionicscomefromT1. 2.Thelensisanaturallyelasticstructure.Ifithaditsway,itwould roundupintoamoresphericalshape.Undernormalconditions, however,anarrayofradialfibersthezonulefibersholdthelens

stretchedoutintoamoredisclikeshape.Thisshapeallowsforfar focusing.Whathappenswhenyouneedtonearfocus?Atthispointthe ciliarybody,ahooplikestructurethatsupportsthezonulefibers, comesintoplay.Imagineaspiderwebbuiltintotheopeningofa drawstringpurse,suspendingadiskintheopening.Whenthepurseis open,thespiderwebistaut.Ifyoupullthedrawstring,however,the webwillgoslackandcollapseonitself.Theciliarybodyisthe drawstringpurse,inthisanalogy.Theciliarymusclewithinitisthe drawstring.Whentheciliarymusclecontracts(thisisalsounder parasympatheticcontrol),thezonulefibersgoslack,thesuspendedlens isreleasedfromtheirtension,anditisfreetoroundup.Thischangeis necessaryfornearfocusing.Theentireprocessofadjustingthefocusto differentdistancesiscalledaccommodation. C.Theretina:

Theretinaisasevenlayeredstructureinvolvedinsignaltransduction. Ingeneral,dark"nuclear"or"cell"layerscontaincellbodies,whilepale "plexiform"layerscontainaxonsanddendrites.

Tracethesignalthroughtheretina: LightentersfromtheGCLsidefirst,andmustpenetrateallcelltypes beforereachingtherodsandcones. Theoutersegmentsoftherodsandconestransducethelightandsend thesignalthroughthecellbodiesoftheONLandouttotheiraxons. IntheOPLphotoreceptoraxonscontactthedendritesofbipolarcells andhorizontalcells.Horizontalcellsareinterneuronswhichaidin signalprocessing. ThebipolarcellsintheINLprocessinputfromphotoreceptorsand horizontalcells,andtransmitthesignaltotheiraxons. IntheIPL,bipolaraxonscontactganglioncelldendritesandamacrine cells,anotherclassofinterneurons. TheganglioncellsoftheGCLsendtheiraxonsthroughtheOFLtothe opticdisktomakeuptheopticnerve.Theytravelallthewaytothe lateralgeniculatenucleus. D.Specializationsoftheretina: Thefoveadefinesthecenterof theretina,andistheregionof highestvisualacuity.Thefovea isdirectedtowardswhatever objectyouwishtostudymost closelythissentence,atthe moment.Inthefoveathereare almostexclusivelycones,and theyareattheirhighest density. Theratioofganglioncells:photoreceptorsisabout2:1here, thehighestintheeye.Inaddition,atthefoveaalloftheother celltypessqueezeoutofthewaytoallowthemostlighttohit thecones.Thismakesthefoveavisiblemicroscopically.The bloodvesselsalsoskirtawidemarginaroundthefovea.The

areainandaroundthefoveahasapaleyellowpigmentation thatisvisiblethroughanophthalmoscope,andiscalledthe macula. Theganglioncellaxonsallleavetheeyeballatonelocation,theoptic disk.Attheopticdiskallphotoreceptorsandaccessorycellsarepushed asidesotheaxonscanpenetratethechoroidandthesclera.Thiscreates aholeinourvision,theblindspot.Normallyeacheyecoversforthe blindspotoftheother,andthebrainfillsinmissinginformationwith whateverpatternsurroundsthehole.Thereforewearenotconsciousof theblindspot. Photoreceptorsarenotdistributedevenlythroughouttheretina.Most coneslieinthefovea,whereasperipheralvisionisdominatedbyrods. Overall,rodsgreatlyoutnumbercones.Reviewthecharacteristicsof rods(blackandwhitevision,verysensitivetolowlight)andcones (colorvision,notsosensitive)andexplainthesephenomena: 1.Toseeafaintstar,youcannotlookdirectlyatit,butmustlook slightlytotheside. 2.Apersonwithmaculardegenerationcanbecomefunctionallyblind, yettheirnightvisionisnotreallyaffected.Howwouldtheircolor perceptionbe? E.Interestinganatomicalfacts: Thecorneaiscontinuouswiththesclera,whichinturniscontinuous withthedura. Thechoroid,ahighlyvascular,highlypigmentedlayerbetweenthe scleraandtheretina,iscontinuouswiththeciliarybodyandtheiris.Do notconfuseitwiththepigmentepithelium. Thepigmentepitheliumisasinglecelllayerthick,andcomesfrom theouterlayeroftheoriginalopticcup(aclassicembryological "pushedinball").Inthematureretinaitispusheddirectlyupnextto theneuralretina,whichcamefromtheinnerlayeroftheopticcup.

Theyarenotfusedtogether,however,andcanseparatealongtheold planea"separated"or"detached"retina. F.Signalprocessingintheretinathecentersurroundreceptivefield. Ifyouweretorecordfromaphotoreceptor,youwouldfindthatitwas "ON"(hyperpolarized,paradoxically)wheneverlightshoneonit.Ifyou recordedfromaganglioncellinstead,youwouldfindthatdiffuselight didlittletothecell.However,thecellwouldrespondwelltoasmall spotoflight,asmallringoflight,oralightdarkedge.Wesaythatthis cellhasacentersurroundreceptivefieldthecentermustbemainly lightandthesurroundmainlydark,orviceversa.Whathappens betweentheoutersegmentandtheganglioncell?Thiscomplex receptivefieldiscreatedbytheinterneuronsoftheretina:thebipolar cellsandthehorizontalcells,primarily. Let'straceasignalthrough:

1.Lighthyperpolarizesthe cone(orrod).Forsimplicity's sake,wewilljustsaythatturns ONthecone,andthereby excitesthebipolarcelldirectly underneath.Thatbipolarcell thenexcitesitsganglioncell. Thesamethingishappeningto neighborcells. 2.However,here'sthetrick. Theneighborconesalsoexcite horizontalcells.Thehorizontal cellssendprocesseslaterally andinhibitthecenterbipolar cell. So,whatdoesdiffuselightdo? Itexcitesthecentralbipolar cell,butalsoinhibitsitviathe neighbors.Resultthe ganglioncelldoesnotget excited.Itcontinuestotick alongatitsnormal,tonicrate. 3.Asmallspotoflight, however,excitesthebipolar cellbutnotitsneighbors.There isnoinhibition,soitisfreeto getreallyexcitedandexcitethe ganglioncell,whichfireslike crazy.

4.Aringoflightexcitesonly theneighbors.Now,the bipolarcellisstrongly inhibited,withnoexcitation.In responsetothisstrong silencingofthebipolarcell,the ganglioncellshutsdownas well.Itwillnotturnonagain untilthelightisturnedoff,at whichtimeyouwillseea rebound"offresponse". ThisisanONcentercell. Thereverseofthisentire scenariocanbecreatedby reversingallthesignals(which wecandowithdifferent receptorstothesame neurotransmitter)youthen haveanOFFcentercell. Thisuniquecentersurroundreceptivefieldisalsoapropertyoflateral geniculateneurons.Thingsgetevenmorecomplicatedupinthecortex. Whatisthepoint?Well,ourentirevisualsystemexiststoseeborders andcontours.Weseetheworldasapatternoflines,eventhingsas complexasaface.Wejudgecolorsandbrightnessbycomparison,not byanyabsolutescale.(Don'tbelieveit?Putthattealscarfnexttoablue shirt,you'llcallitgreen.Onagreencoat,you'llcallitblue.)Thissystem oflateralinhibitionintheretinaisthefirststeptowardssharpening contoursandpickinguponbordersbetweenlightanddark.Diffuse lightisignoredbytheganglioncell,butasharpdotwillreallyturnit

on.Higherupinthecortex,allthesedotswillbecombinedintolines, whichwillbecombinedintocurves,etc,etc. RETURNTOHOMEPAGE

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