The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea megathrust earthquake that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on Sunday, 26 December

2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The quake itself is known by the scientific community as the SumatraAndaman earthquake.[3][4] The resulting tsunami is given various names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, and Boxing Day tsunami. The earthquake was caused by subduction and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing over 230,000 people in fourteen countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 meters (98 ft) high.[5] It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the hardest-hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand. With a magnitude of Mw 9.19.3, it is the third largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. The earthquake had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre (0.4 inches)[6] and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.[7] Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia.[8]The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than $14 billion (2004 US$) in humanitarian aid.[9]

Cu o magnitudine de 9.1 - 9.3, este al treilea cel mai lung cutremur inregistrat vreodata de un seismograf. Cutremurul a durat intre 8.3 si 10 minute. S-a simtit in toata planeta, provocand alte mici cutremure chiar si in Alaska. Epicentrul sau a fost intre Simeulue si Indonezia. Dezastrul a avut o replica umanitara pozitiva. In total, omenirea donand peste 14 bilioane $.

Earthquake characteristics
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

The earthquake was initially documented as moment magnitude 8.8. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.[10] Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw9.19.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.[11]
Events

Caracteristicile cutremurului Cutremurul a fost initial documentat in momentul magnitudinii de 8.8. In februarie 2005, oamenii de stiinta au estimat iar magnitudinea la 9.0. cele mai recente studii arata ca in 2006 s-a obtinut o magnitudine de 9.19.3.
In a study of Chlieh et al., by fitting obtained data with various models, the 1-day coseismic seismic moment release corresponds to Mw 9.15, and the 40-day postseismic seismic moment release was about 35% of the coseismic seismic moment release. In total, the seismic moment release corresponds to about Mw 9.2.
[12]

Timeline Countries affected:

Indonesia Sri Lanka India more...

Response

Humanitarian

See also

Warning System Library damage 2005 Sumatra earthquake

The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately 160 km (100 mi), in the V Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea T level (initially reported as 10 km (6.2 mi)). The northern section of the Sunda E megathrust, which had been assumed dormant, ruptured; the rupture having a length of 1,300 km (810 mi).[8] The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt simultaneously as far away as Bangladesh, India,Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and

the Maldives.[13] Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the sea floor to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, causing the complete destruction of the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga. [14]

The epicentre of the earthquake, just north ofSimeulue Island.

Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and theAlpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event, which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones, have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the Good Friday Earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean Earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram below for perspective. Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on themoment magnitude scale. Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0)[15] and Thoku, Japan (magnitude 9.0) on 11 March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. However, the death toll from these was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts and also due to the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan. Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (western North America, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.

Tectonic plates

A pie chart comparing the seismic moment release for the largest earthquakes from 1906 to 2005 compared to all other earthquakes for the same period

Main article: plate tectonics The megathrust earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) of fault surfaceslipped (or ruptured) about 15 metres (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the India Plate slides (or subducts) under the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes:

Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 kilometres (250 mi) long and 100 kilometres (60 mi) wide, located 30 kilometers (19 mi) beneath the sea bedthe largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed of about 2.8 kilometres per second (1.7 miles per second) (10,000 km/h or 6,200 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds. A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) (7,500 km/h or 4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike-slip (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).

The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year (2.4 inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries theNicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causingpartial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust throughvolcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.

As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the sea floor is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire 1,600-kilometre (1,000 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the sea floor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 millimetres (0.004 in).[16]

Aftershocks and other earthquakes

Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 from 26 December 2004 to 10 January 2005. The site of the original quake is marked by the large star in the lower right square of the grid.

Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 2005 Sumatra earthquake, which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicenter, and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event.[17] This earthquake was so large that it produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the 7th largest earthquake on record since 1900. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months.[18][19] As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand's subantarctic Auckland Islands, and north of

Australia's Macquarie Island. This is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average.[20] Some seismologists have speculated about a connection between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two earthquakes happened on opposite sides of the Indo-Australian Plate. However, the U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship in this incident. Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (to the hour) after a 6.6 magnitude earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city of Bam in Iran on 26 December 2003.[21] Some scientists confirm that the December earthquake had activated Leuser Mountain, a volcano in Aceh province along the same range of peaks as Mount Talang, while the 2005 Sumatra earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra.[22] Geologists say that the eruption of Mount Talang in April 2005 is connected to the December earthquake.[23]

Energy released
The energy released on the Earth's surface only (ME, which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.11017 joules,[24] or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, this is but a tiny fraction of the total work done MW (and thus energy) by this quake, 4.01022 joules (4.01029 ergs),[25] the vast majority underground. This equates to 4.01022 J, over 360,000 times more than its ME. This is a truly enormous figure, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima), or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.081020 J. The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MW were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with 2.51023 joules (250 ZJ) and 7.51022 joules (75 ZJ) respectively.[26] The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 2030 cm (812 in), equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded. By February 2005, the earthquake's effects were still detectable as a 20 m (0.02 mm; 0.0008 in) complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth's surface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months after the earthquake.[27] Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to hugeRayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm (0.4 in) in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic

surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock.

Vertical-component ground motions recorded by the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network.

The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth.[28] It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145 east longitude,[29]or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 or 2.4 in).[30] However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 s per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake. More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 45 m (1316 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (8 in).[31] Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[32] In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and 2,700 fathoms;

3,300 and 16,000 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonarsystem, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500metre-high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometers wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. Anoceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.[33] The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason 1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.[34] These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.[35] Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.

Tsunami characteristics

Animation of the tsunami caused by the earthquake showing how the tsunami radiated from the entire length of the 1,600 km (990 mi) rupture.

Scale showing the size of the tsunami waves that hit Indonesia.

The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in atsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami which causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called ateletsunami and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.[36] The tsunami, like all others, behaved very differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a small hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a very high speed of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour, but in doing so forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 metres (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 metres (100 ft) in some areas when travelling inland.[5] Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was 60 centimetres (2 ft). These are the first such observations ever made. Unfortunately these observations could not be used to provide a warning, since the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours to analyze.[37][38] According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about fivemegatons of TNT (20 petajoules). This is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the twoatomic bombs), but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places the waves reached as far as 2 km (1.2 mi) inland.[39]

Tsunami wave field in the Bay of Bengalone hour after the M=9.2 earthquake. View to the northwest.

Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicenter. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region. Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the Indian state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka also suffered substantial impacts. Also distance alone was no guarantee of safety; Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away. Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours (for Somalia) to reach the various coastlines.[40][41]The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was also struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast. The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South Africa, some 8,500 km (5,300 mi) away, where a 1.5 m (5 ft) high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach this spot at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached Antarctica, where tidal gauges at Japan's Showa Base recorded oscillations of up to a metre (3 ft 3 in), with disturbances lasting a couple of days.[42] Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around 20 to 40 cm (7.9 to 16 in).[43] At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected inVancouver, British Columbia, Canada. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.[44]

Signs and warnings

Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 a.m. local time.

Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around the ocean. Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world. Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacific Ocean because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire", and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place there. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where this earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883. It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami. In the aftermath of the disaster, there is now an awareness of the need for a tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean. The United Nations started working on an Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System and by 2005 had the initial steps in place. Some have even proposed creating a unified global tsunami warning system, to include the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean. The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunami can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is only felt weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast. Around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results.[45]However, not all tsunami causes this "disappearing sea" effect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee. One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, very close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking yet before the tsunami

struck.[46] On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket, Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunami in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.[47] John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground. Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated Onge tribecould have been wiped out. Of the six native tribes only the Nicobarese, who had converted to Christianity and taken up agriculture in place of their previous hunter-gathererlifestyle, and mainland settlers suffered significant losses.[48] Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties.[49][50] Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami.[51]

Phases and wave form

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensureverifiability.

USGS graphics showing the wave structure of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Red indicate a positive wave form while blue represent a negative wave form.

A tsunami can arrive at a coastline in one of two ways. In the first form, a negative wave, a trough precedes the actual arrival of the crest or "wave" itself. Here, the more common and better recognized warning sign of an impending tsunami strike is a rapidly receding sea followed by a sudden onrushing body of water traveling inland at high speed. The second form in which a tsunami arrives is the positive wave or crest first. In this case, the warning signs are much more vague if any. The sea will usually start rising immediately, slowly at

first without the receding phase, like an on-coming high tide. However, instead of stopping at tidal level, the sea will keep rising faster and faster until the crest of the tsunami passes and continues moving inland. The second form of tsunami waves are usually more dangerous, since they can arrive without easily identifiable warning, giving residents less time to prepare and outrun the tsunami. These two types of tsunamis are usually generated simultaneously (in opposing direction of travel) by a megathrust earthquake similar to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.

Retreat-rise cycle (negative wave)

The tsunami was a succession of several waves, occurring in retreat and rise cycles with a period of over 30 minutes between each peak. The third wave was the most powerful and reached highest, occurring about an hour and a half after the first wave.

Rise-retreat-rise cycle (positive wave)

If the crest of a tsunami arrives first, there won't be any recession. The sea level will increase rapidly to inundate everything in the path of the tsunami. This appears to be the case in countries such as Sri Lanka and India that lies to the west of the Andaman-Sumatra fault where the tsunami originates.

Second tsunami wave starting to retreat, Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, 10:17 am

Receding waters after the second tsunami, 10:20 am

3rd tsunami wave, 11:00 am

4th tsunami wave, 11:22 am

Death toll and casualties

Chennai's Marina beach after the tsunami.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey a total of 227,898 people died (see table below for details).[52] Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000.[53] However, another report by health minister Fadilah Supari has estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 casualties.[54] The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death due to the tsunami occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa, 8,000 km (5,000 mi) away from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high sea levels and waves. Relief agencies report that one-third of the dead appear to be children. This is a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters.Oxfam went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishermen to return and looking after their children in the houses.[55] In an addition to the large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic countries. The European nation hardest hit may have been Sweden, whose death toll was 543.[56]

States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organisations feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response. In the end, this fear did not materialise. For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the time zones of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Runion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: (India, Sri Lanka); UTC+6: (Bangladesh); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC, add the above offsets to find the local time of the earthquake.

Country where deaths occurred

Confirmed

Estimated1

Injured

Missing

Displaced

Indonesia

130,736

167,799

n/a

37,063[57]

500,000+[58]

Sri Lanka2

35,322[59]

35,322

21,411[59] n/a

516,150[59]

India

12,405

18,045

n/a

5,640

647,599

Thailand

5,3953[60]

8,212

8,457[61]

2,817[60]

7,000

Somalia

78

289[62]

n/a

n/a

5,000[63]

Myanmar (Burma)

61[57]

400600[2]

45

200[64]

3,200

Maldives

82[65]

108[66]

n/a

26

15,000+

Malaysia

68[67]

75

299[68]

n/a

Tanzania

10[69]

13

n/a

n/a

n/a

Country where deaths occurred

Confirmed

Estimated1

Injured

Missing

Displaced

Seychelles

3[70]

57[70]

n/a

200[71]

Bangladesh

n/a

n/a

n/a

South Africa

24[72]

n/a

n/a

n/a

Yemen

2[73]

n/a

n/a

n/a

Kenya

n/a

n/a

Madagascar

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

1,000+[74]

Total

~184,167

~230,273

~125,000 ~45,752

~1.69 million

Note: All figures are approximate and subject to change. The first column links to more details on specific countries.
1

Includes those reported under 'Confirmed'. If no separate estimates are available, the number Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people initially declared by Tamil Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners. Does not include South African citizens who died outside of South Africa (e.g., tourists in

in this column is the same as reported under 'Confirmed'.

2

Tiger authorities from regions under their control.

3 4

Thailand). For more information on those deaths, see this

Countries affected

Countries most affected by the tsunami, with the earthquake's epicenter.

Main article: Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others. Many other countries, especially Australia and those in Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the region on holiday. Both Sweden and Germany lost over 500 citizens each in the disaster.

Event in historical context

See also: Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake This earthquake was the biggest in the Indian Ocean in some 700 years, or since around A.D. 1400.[75][76] In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hardhit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 550 to 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis during the last 1,200 years in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra. Radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.[77] This earthquake was the third most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900, and the confirmed death toll is just under 200,000 due to the ensuing tsunami. The deadliest earthquakes since 1900 were the Tangshan, China earthquake of 1976, in which at least 255,000 were killed; the earthquake of 1927 in Xining, Qinghai, China (200,000); theGreat Kanto earthquake which struck Tokyo in 1923 (143,000); and the Gansu, China, earthquake of 1920 (200,000). The deadliest known earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this time period may not be reliable.[78] The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history. Prior to 2004, the deadliest recorded tsunami in the Pacific Ocean was in 1782, when 40,000 people were killed by a tsunami in the South China Sea.[79] The tsunami created by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa is thought to have resulted in 36,000 deaths. The most deadly tsunami between 1900 and 2004 occurred in 1908 in Messina, Italy, on the Mediterranean Sea, where the earthquake and tsunami killed 70,000.

The most deadly tsunami in the Atlantic Ocean resulted from the1755 Lisbon earthquake, which, combined with the toll from the actual earthquake and resulting fires, killed over 100,000. The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined have been described as the deadliest natural disaster since either the 1976 Tangshan earthquake or the 1970 Bhola cyclone, or could conceivably exceed both of these. Because of uncertainty over death tolls, it might never be known for sure which of these natural disasters was the deadliest.

Possible human component in magnitude of damage

A town near the coast of Sumatralies in ruin on 2 January 2005. This picture was taken by a United States military helicopter crew from the USSAbraham Lincoln that was conducting humanitarian operations.

Indonesians gather under an approaching helicopter to receive food and supplies.

In an opinion piece in the Wall Street Journal, published five days after the tsunami, a journalist, Andrew Browne, argued that the human destruction of coral reefs may have played a role in exacerbating the destruction caused by the tsunami. Many countries across Asia, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, have put forth efforts to destroy the coral surrounding their beaches, and instead make way for shrimp farms and other economic choices. On the Surin Island chain of Thailand's coast, Browne argued, people may have been saved as the tsunami rushed against the coral reefs, lessening its impact. However, there were many fewer people on these islands, which helps explain the lower death toll. Many reefs areas around the Indian Ocean have been destroyed using dynamite because they are considered impediments to shipping, an important part of the South Asian economy.[80] Similarly, Browne argued that the removal of coastal mangrovetrees may have intensified the effect of the tsunami in some locations. He argued that these trees, which lined the coast but were removed to make way for coastal residences, might have lessened the force of the tsunami, in certain areas. Another factor, Browne argued, is the removal of coastal sand dunes.[80]

Humanitarian, economic and environmental impact

Main article: Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of special

concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A and B. There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.[81] In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly for fear of disease. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programmeprovided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.[82] Further information: Health risks from dead bodies Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions,[83] with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6-million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering US$343 million, Norway and theNetherlands offering both US$183 million, the United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the World Bank offering US$250 million. Also Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system[84] According to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US$950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.[85] In mid-March the Asian Development Bank reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous.[86] Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the UK the public donated roughly 330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about 5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen. In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.

Economic impact
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale you examine. While local economies were devastated, the overall impact to the national economies was minor. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism[87]. The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear.[88] In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the

fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.[89] While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created demand for fiberglass reinforced plastic catamarans in boatyards of Tamil Nadu. Since over 51 000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.[90] But some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by salt water from the ocean.[91] Even though only costal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted like a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand[92] Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian Island of Sumarta by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to 4,000 feet, and are now only 100 feet in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. However, officials hope that piracy in the region will drop off as a result of the tsunami.[93] Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were completely untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.[94]

Environmental impact

Tsunami inundation, Khao Lak, North of Phuket, Thailand ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model.

Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been inflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversity and groundwater. In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of sewage collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant resources to assess.[95] According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and the soil by saltwater infiltration and deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are completely without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The Colombo-based International Water Management Institutemonitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event.[96] IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[97] The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is working with governments of the region in order to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it.[98]UNEP has decided to earmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.[99] In response to a request from the Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefsthe lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.

Other effects
Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs. The hardest hit area, Aceh, is considered to be a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to armed conflictbetween the Indonesian military and Acehnese separatists. Some believe that the tsunami was divine

punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers and/or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that there were Muslims killing other Muslims in an ongoing conflict.[100] Saudi cleric Muhammad Al-Munajid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break.[101] The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led the main rebel group GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.[102] The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.[103] The 26 December 2004 Asian Tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, the Portland, Oregonbased company Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand.[104] In response, the India Home Affairs minister announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tidal waves were likely along the India southern coast and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulences in the region.[104] The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads.[105] The announcement was a false alarm and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement.[105] On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a selfdescribed earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.[106] Three days after the announcement, Indian National Congress president Sonia Gandhi called Science & Technology minister Kapil Sibal to express her concern about Sibal's 30 December public warning being "hogwash".[107] Another result of the tsunami, respective toward Indian culture, was the water that washed away centuries of sand from some of the ruins of a 1,200-year-old lost city atMahabalipuram on the south coast of India. The site, containing such notable structures as a half-buried granite lion near a 7th century Mahablipuram temple and a relic depicting an elephant, is part of what archaeologists believe to be an ancient port city that was swallowed by the sea hundreds of years ago.[108][109] The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest hit country outside Asia, 543 Swedish tourists, mainly in Thailand, died. With no single incident having killed more Swedish people since the battle of Poltava in 1709, the cabinet of Gran Persson was heavily criticized for lack of action. Apung 1, a 2600 ton ship, was flung some 23 km inland by the tsunami, and has become a popular tourist attraction in Banda Aceh.

See also

Disasters portal India portal Thailand portal Indonesia portal Sri Lanka portal Asia portal

Aceh Tsunami Museum Aid Still Required Children of the Tsunami: No More Tears (documentary film) July 2006 Java earthquake List of earthquakes List of Indonesian earthquakes May 2006 Java earthquake Megathrust earthquake Megatsunami Plate tectonics Pornthip Rojanasunand, a prominent Thai doctor who took charge of ID of bodies Queen of the Sea rail disaster, caused by the tsunami was the deadliest rail disaster in history Seismology Seismotectonics 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami Tectonics Tsunami Tsunami: The Aftermath, a television miniseries about its after-effects Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

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External links
Find more about 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions and translations from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource

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The 26 December 2004, Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami: Field Perspectives on the Impacts to the Peoples, Cultures, Politics, and Economies of One of the World's Most Vibrant Regions, Speaker: Tom Casadevall, 26 September 2006. Sponsored byThe Center for Global Studies and Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Special Event Page, Amateur Seismic Centre, India Seismograms for this earthquake via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer[dead link] Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake IRIS Special Report BBC, History of deadly earthquakes Tsunami Surges on Dry Coastal Plains: Application of Dam Break Wave Equations, Coastal Engineering Journal, 48 4: 355370 The 26 December 2004 Tsunami: a Hydraulic Engineering Phenomenon of International Significance. First Comments, Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 2, pp. 2532 Surviving the Tsunami Stories of Hope Thomson Reuters Foundation & IFRC Channel News Asia One Year On, Memorial & Updates to the Asian Tsunami Disaster 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2004-12-27. Satellite images of tsunami-affected areas (National University of Singapore) Thailand Tsunami Then and Now Comparison Series by photojournalist Zoriah Miller Five years on and the decisions for recovery by British Red Cross

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Rspunsul umanitar la Cutremurul din Oceanul Indian din 2004 a fost imediat i s-a manifestat la nivel mondial. n continuare se afl o list de organizaii caritabile, grupate conform rilor n care i au sediul. n interesul neutralitii, donaiile directe spre organizaii din rile afectate sunt preferate donaiilor via organizaiilor din ara ta; totui, ar trebui s-i formezi tu singur o prere despre organizaiile de mai jos

Tsunami... Cuvantul "Tsunami" provine din limba japoneza, din cuvintele: "tsu" care inseamna "port" si "nami" care inseamna "valuri" (val de port). Tsunami este un val sau mai multe valuri in ocean care poate fi lung de sute de kilometri si despre care este stiut ca a atins inaltimi mai mari de 10,5 metri. Imensul tsunami din 26 decembrie 2004 a traversat 600 km intr-o ora si 15 minute (75 de minute), ceea ce inseamna 480 de km / ora. Valurile de o asemenea dimensiune sunt capabile sa produca pagube imense regiunilor de pe coasta. Cum sunt valurile? Pentru o intelegere mai exacta, trebuiesc stiute cateva notiuni despre valuri: - valurile au o creasta (partea cea mai de sus) si o albie (partea cea mai de jos)

- inaltimea unui val este distanta dintre creasta si albie - lungimea unui val este distanta dintre crestele a doua valuri consecutive - frecventa valurilor se masoara in timp - cat timp este necesar ca doua valuri consecutive sa atinga acelasi punct; daca impartim acel timp la 60 (minutele dintr-o ora), vom sti cate valuri trec prin acel prunct intr-o ora. Cum este tsunami? Daca luam in considerare aceste caracteristici, vom vedea cat de diferite sunt valurile obisnuite de tsunami: - viteza valurilor obisnuite este de 8 - 100 km / ora - pentru tsunami este de 800 - 1 000 km / ora - frecventa valurilor obisnuite este de 5 - 20 secunde - pentru tsunami este de 10 minute - 2 ore - lungime valurilor obisnuite este de 100 - 200 metri - pentru tsunami este de 100 - 500 km Cum se formeaza tsunami? Cea mai comuna cauza a unui tsunami sunt vulcanii si cutremurele de sub apa. In anumite cazuri de subductie, o parte a placilor tectonice de pe fundul marii pot interactiona intre ele si va rezulta un cutremur. Focarul cutremurului este punctul unde apare ruptura, pietrele se sparg si primele unde seismice sunt generate. Epicentrul este punctul de pe placa tectonica de deasupra focarului. Cand aceasta parte a placii se ridica si trimite tone de pietre in sus cu o forta inimaginabila, energia acelei forte este transferata apei. Energia impinge apa in sus deasupra nivelului marii. Aceasta este punctul de nastere al unui tsunami si, este totodata, si motivul pentru care, la tarm, apele se retrag foarte mult, ca din senin. O data ce apa a fost impinsa in sus, forta gravitationala actioneaza pe suprafata apei. Este acelasi fenomen ca atunci cand arunci o piatra in apa, dar invers. Energia este generata de o forta care se misca mai degraba inspre afara decat inauntru. Forta incredibila creata de miscarea seismica genereaza viteza mare a valului tsunami. Abilitatea unui val tsunami de a-si mentine viteza este data de adancimea apei. Un val tsunami se misca mai repede in ape adanci decat in ape cu adancime mica. Asa se face ca un val tsunami are cam un metru atunci cand se deplaseaza prin ape adanci si poate atinge inaltimi foarte mari cand se apropie de tarm (unde apa este putin adanca). Tsunami... - cutremurul care a generat valul tsunami din 26 decembrie 2004 in Oceanul Indian a fost calculat ca avand 9 grade pe scara Richter, unul din cele mai mari inregistrate in istorie. Valul urias a ajuns pe coasta a 10 tari si a ucis mai mult de 225.000 de oameni. - in 17 iulie 1998 un tsunami a ajuns pe costele din Papua-Noua Guinee si a ucis peste 2.000 de oameni - in 16 august 1976 a atins costele din Golful Moro din regiunea Filipinelor si a omorat peste 5.000 de oameni.

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On Sunday, 26 December 2004, the greatest earthquake in 40 years occurred about 150 kilometers off the west coast of northern Sumatra Island in Indonesia. The earthquake generated a disastrous tsunami that caused destruction in 11 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Origin Time and Epicenter

The great tsunamigenic earthquake occurred on Sunday, 26 December 2004, at 00:58:50 UTC (6:58:50 a.m. local time). The epicenter was at 3.298 N, 95.779 E and its focal depth was very shallow (much less than 33 km - possibly about 10km) Magnitude and Energy Release The quake was widely felt in Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Bangladesh and India. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS NEIC (WDCS-D)), the moment magnitude of the earthquake which is larger than the Richter magnitude - was 9. Such magnitude would make this earthquake to be the fourth largest in the world since 1900 - and the largest since the 1964 Alaska earthquake. However, on the basis of subsequent analysis of additional seismograms from around the world, scientists at Northwestern University determined the earthquake's magnitude to be 9.3 and not 9.0, as originally estimated. Therefore, the calculated energy release was 1.13 X 10 (raised to the 30 power) dynes-cm , or three times larger than originally thought. The revised estimate makes this earthquake to be the second largest ever instrumentally recorded. The largest earthquake ever recorded, which measured 9.5, was in Chile on May 22, 1960.

Tectonic Setting The region where the great earthquake occurred on 26 December 2004, marks the seismic boundary formed by the movement of the Indo-Australian plate as it collides with the Burma subplate, which is part of the Eurasian plate. However, the Indo-Australian

tectonic plate may not be as coherent as previously believed. According to recent studies reported in the Earth and Planetary Science Letters (vol 133), it apears that the two plates have separated many million years ago and that the Australian plate is rotating in a counterclockwise direction, putting stress in the southern segment of the India plate. For millions of years the India tectonic plate has drifted and moved in a north/northeast direction, colliding with the Eurasian tectonic plate and forming the Himalayan mountains. As a result of such migration and collision with both the Eurasian and the Australian tectonic plates, the Indian plate's eastern boundary is a diffuse zone of seismicity and deformation, characterized by extensive faulting and numerous large earthquakes. USGS graphic showing the migration of the Indian tectonic plate The epicenter of the 26 December 2004 earthquake was near the triple point junction of three tectonic plates where major earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred in the past. Previous major earthquakes have occurred further north, in the Andaman Sea and further South along the Sumatra, Java and Sunda sections of one of the earth's greatest fault zones, a subduction zone known as the Sunda Trench. This great trench extends for about 3,400 miles (5,500 kms) from Myanmar (Burma) south past Sumatra and Java and east toward Australia and the Lesser Sunda Islands, ending up near Timor. Slippage and plate subduction make this region highly seismic. The volcanoes of Krakatau, Tambora and Toba, well known for their violent eruptions, are byproducts of such tectonic interactions. In addition to the Sunda Trench, the Sumatra fault is responsible for seismic activity on the Island of Sumatra.

This is a strike-slip type of fault which extends along the entire length of the island. The Burma plate encompasses the northwest portion of the island of Sumatra as well as the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands, which separate the Andaman Sea from the Indian Ocean. Further to the east, a divergent boundary separates the Burma plate from the Sunda plate. More specifically, in the region off the west coast of northern Sumatra, the India plate is moving in a northeastward direction at about 5 to 5.5 cm per year relative to the Burma plate.

Three-dimensional computer-generated graphic of the seabed in the vicinity of the recent earthquake in Southeast Asia. (Picture / Reuters, Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott(9 Feb 2005))

Seismicity of the Region Earthquakes originate at two principal tectonic sources in Indonesia. The major tectonic feature in the region is the Sunda Arc that extends approximately 5,600 km between the Andaman Islands in the northwest and the Banda Arc in the east. The Sunda Arc consists of three primary segments; the Sumatra segment, the Sunda Strait Segment and the Java Segment. These locations represent

the area of greatest seismic exposure, with maximum earthquake magnitudes of up to 7.75 or even more on the Richter scale (as this latest earthquake with Moment Magnitude 9 indicates - and which occcurred on the Sumatra segment). The region where the earthquake occurred - and particularly the Andaman Sea - is a very active seismic area. According to the literature (Bapat 1982) from 1900 to 1980, a total of 348 earthquakes were recorded in the area bounded by 7.0 N to 22.0 N and 88.0 E to 100 E. However, only five of these earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal had magnitudes equal to or greater than 7.1 ( ranging from 7.1 to 8.5). Also Sumatra is in the center of one of the world's most seismically active regions. Earthquakes with magnitude greater than 8 struck Sumatra in 1797, 1833, and 1861. Earthquakes with magnitude greater than 7 struck offshore islands in 1881, 1935, 2000, and 2002.

British Geological Survey graphic of the seismicity of Southern Asia (note high concentration of earthquakes in the Andaman Sea and Northern Sumatra)

Aftershocks As of 1 January, 2005, there were about 84 aftershocks with magnitudes ranging from 5.0 to 7.0 in the region of Northern Sumatra and the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Twenty six (26) of these - including the largest- occurred on 26 December 2004, the same day as the main earthquake. Since 1 January 2005, many more aftershocks have occurred. The aftershocks are expected to continue for several weeks and months. Some of the major aftershocks have occurred in the vicinity of the epicenter of a past earthquake which had occurred on 26 June 1941 and some in the area near the Nicobar Islands where the 1881 earthquake had occurred. The distribution of afteshocls suggests that the earthquake resulted by the sudden slip of these two plates and that there was a slip as well as an upward thrust of the Burma plate along this boundary. Chronological Sequence of Major Aftershocks Along the West Coast of Northern Sumatra and in the Nicobar and Andaman Island Region Following the Major Earthquake om 26 December 2004
MAGNITUDE DATE UTCTIME LATITUDE LONGITUDE DEPTH REGION West Coast of Northern Sumatra West Coast of Northern Sumatra Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands

8.9

2004/12/26 00:58:51 3.298

95.779

10.0

5.9 5.8 6.0

2004/12/26 01:48:47 5.393 2004/12/26 02:15:58 12.375 2004/12/26 02:22:02 8.83

94.423 92.509 92.532

10.0 10.0 10.0

5.8 5.8 6.0 5.9 6.1 7.3 5.7 5.7 5.8 6.5 6.2

2004/12/26 02:34:50 4.104 2004/12/26 02:36:06 12.139 2004/12/26 02:51:59 12.511 2004/12/26 02:59:12 3.177 2004/12/26 03:08:42 13.808 2004/12/26 04:21:26 6.901 2004/12/26 06:21:58 10.623 2004/12/26 07:07:10 10.336 2004/12/26 07:38:25 13.119 2004/12/26 09:20:01 8.867 2004/12/26 10:19:30 13.455

94.184 93.011 92.592 94.259 92.974 92.952 92.323 93.756 93.051 92.382 92.791

10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

West Coast of Northern Sumatra Andaman Islands Andaman Islands West Coast of Northern Sumatra Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands Andaman Islands Andaman Islands Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands Andaman Islands

6.3

2004/12/26 11:05:01 13.542

92.877

10.0

Andaman Islands

Crustal Displacements and Rupture The distribution of the larger aftershocks indicates that the two tectonic plates (the India plate and the Burma subplate) slipped for about 1,200 km along their boundary. The aftershocks extend from northern Sumatra (approximately 3 degrees North Latitude) to the Andaman Islands (approximately 14 degrees north). Therefore, the length of the overall rupture is estimated to be about 1,200 km.

However, the slippage does not appear to be continuous. It appears that it occurred in two phases along two sections of the great fault that parallels the Sunda Trench. The rupture started near the epicenter off the western coast of North Sumatra and progressed - at a fast rate - northward to the Andaman islands along a preexisting major fault. For the first 500-600 km the orientation of the rupture (the quake's strike) was appoximately 320- 330 degrees. Subsequently the rupture continued - at a much slower rate in an approximate North-South direction - for another 500 -600 km along another segment of the northern Sunda fault system. This is probably the same segment that ruptured during the 1941 Andaman Islands earthquake which also generated a destructive tsunami. It has been estimated that this megathrust faulting along the India and Burma boundary has resulted in a shift that averaged about 15 meters with maximum slip being 20 meters. The vertical upward movement of the sea floor may have been several meters - possibly as much as 5 meters or more in some places. At some of the islands there may be subsidence while at others there was upthrusting. Field surveys of the islands off Summatra and of the Nicobar and Andaman islands - when completed will provide better estimates of net crustal movements.

The Great Tsunami of 26 December 2004 in the Indian Ocean

The great earthquake of December 26, 2004 was extremely damaging and resulted in many deaths. However, most of the destruction and deaths were caused by the catastrophic tsunami waves it generated. Massive tsunami waves wiped out entire coastal areas across

southeastern Asia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Myanmar and islands in the Andaman Sea and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. DEATH TOLL The tsunami waves caused considerable destruction and killed people more than 2,000 kilometers away, in the Seychelles and in Somalia . As of February 10, 2005, the global death toll has been raised to 226,566 and continues to rise. The demographics in this part of the world are not very good. There are many remote islands in the Nicobar, Andaman, Maldives and off the African coasts, so there are many unreported deaths.

No Tsunami Warning Issued The large tsunami which struck 11 of the nations that border the Indian Ocean was a complete surprise for the people living there, but not for the scientists who are aware of the tectonic interactions in the region. Many seismic networks recorded the massive earthquake, but there was no tide gauges or other wave sensors to provide confirmation as to whether a tsunami had been generated. There was no established communications network or organizational infastructure to pass a warning of any kind to the people coastlines. No Tsunami Warning System exists for the Indian Ocean as there is for the Pacific. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu had no way of providing warning information to the region. Part of the problem is that most of the countries in the region have underestimated their potential tsunami threat from the Northern end of the Sunda Trench. Review of historical records would have revealed that a very destructive tsunami occurred in 1941, in the same general area. This particular tsunami killed more than 5,000 people on the eastern coast of India, but it was mistaken for a "storm surge". Thousands more must have gotten killed elsewhere in the islands of the Bay of Bengal in 1941, but there has been no sufficient

documentation. Unfortunately, no Regional Tsunami Warning System, Preparedness Program, or effective Communications Plan exist for this part of the world.

Tsunam i Genera ting Area Based on the plate tectoni cs of the conver gence zone that has formed the SundaT rench and on aftersh ock distribu tion, the tsunam i generat ing area is believe d to be a somewhat irregular, broken up ellipsoid which changes from a Northwest Southeast orientation of about

330 degrees in the lower section to an almost North South 360 degrees orientation in the upper section. The major axis of the ellipsoid is estimated to be approximately 1,200 km and its minor axis to be about 180 km. It is believed that this ellipsoid type of block movement occurred along an oblique but very shallow subduction angle and that the Burma subplate was thrusted upward by several meters (as much as 5m in some places) with an oblique lateral movement of as much as 15 meters and possibly as much as 20 meters along the southern tsunami generating region. These are rough estimates which may have to be revised when more data becomes available. Also, the earthquake's relatively slow slippage along the 1,200 kms long rupture added additional energy to tsunami generation. A preliminary estimate of the Tsunami Generating Area ( Modified USGS map showing the earthquake epicenter, the distribution of initial major afteshocks ,and the interaction of major tectonic plates along the Sunda Trench ) A personal communication was received from Indonesia that at Simeulue, an island close to the epicenter off the coast of Northern Sumatra, there was only vertical displacement but no tsunami. Surprisingly, residents of beach communities claimed that no tsunami waves were observed, no deaths from the tsunami were reported, but that the island rose and is now several kilometers longer. No information has been provided on how much the island rose, but preliminary data indicates that it may have been as much as 5 meters. The reason that the tsunami did not cause deaths and destruction on Simeulu Island is because the amount of crustal uplift was greater than the height of the waves. Additional eyewitness accounts or observations will help clarify whether this was the case. A preliminary estimate is that the tsunami generating area involved about 280-300,000 square kilometers of the ocean floor. This estimate will probably be revised and corrected as well, as more data on aftershock distribution

becomes available and when tsunami travel times to operating tide gauge stations in the Bay of Bengal are obtained - if any exist or survived the tsunami impact. Also, field surveys and data collection will help determine the net crustal displacements on the islands off Sumatra and in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. This will permit more accurate determination of the volume of undersea crustal displacements that contributed to such catastrophic tsunami generation. These results have implications for why Sri Lanka suffered such a great impact and also indicate that the chances of similar large tsumanis occurring in the same area are reduced.

Evaluation of tsunami reccurrence in the region Indonesia is surrounded by four major tectonic plates, the Pacific, the Eurasian, the Australian and the Philippine plates. All these major tectonic plates and their subplates are presently active. Major

earthquakes and tsunamis can be expected in the semienclosed seas and along the Indian Ocean side of Indonesia. Major earthquakes in the semi-enclosed seas can generate destructive local tsunamis in the Sulu, Banda and Java Seas. Major earthquakes along the Sunda Trench can generate tsunamis that can be destructive not only in Indonesia but to other countries bordering the Indian Ocean. In the immediate vicinity off Northern Sumatra, most of the stress and energy that had accumulated were released by the crustal movement that caused the 26 December 2004 earthquake. The subduction of the India tectonic plate underneath the Burma plate caused upward thrusting of an extensive block and generated the destructive tsunami. There was significant slip and rupture for about 600 km and possibly a less significant slip for another 400 km along the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Thus, it is unlikely that another major earthquake will occur in the immediate region off Northern Sumatra in the near future, but stress will start building up again. Also, it is quite possible that not all of the energy was released in the Nicobar and Andaman section of the Sunda Trench by the 26 December 2004 earthquake - in which case the next major earthquake could occur there sooner than one off Northern Sumatra. Although the danger of another major tsunami has passed, strong aftershocks in the region could possibly generate small local tsunamis. Aftershocks can be expected to last for many weeks and months in the region, but they should diminish in strength with the passage of time. Most of the aftershocks will result from gravitational adjustments of the crustal material that was moved during the major earthquake. The aftershocks represent nature's way of restoring stability and temporary equlibrium. It is unlikely that a destructive tsunami will occur again soon in the same region, however caution is advised for the coastal residents in Northern Sumatra and in the Nicobar and Andaman islands. If an afteshcok is stong enough and it is strongly felt, evacuation to higher elevation is advised. In

fact, strong shaking of the ground is nature's warning that a tsunami may be imminent. Furthermore - and though the stress in the region off Northern Sumatra has been released by the 26 December 2004 earthquake - this does not necessarily mean that another earthquake further north or further south cannot occur. In the North, a repeat of the 1881 Nicobar Islands or of the 1941 Andaman Islands earthquakes and tsunamis can be expected in the future - although it is difficult to say how soon. Such events seem to occur on the average of every 50 years. To the South, the movement of the tectonic plates may have added stress along other tectonic boundaries. A repeat of earthquakes and tsunamis along the Sunda Trench off the central region of Western Sumatra, as in 1833 (magnitude 8.7) and 1861, is very possible. Such earthquakes and tsunamis can be expected every hundred years or so. In fact, the 26 December 2004 earthquake occurred along the section that did not rupture during the 1861 earthquake. It took approximately 144 years to occur. However, this does not mean that it will take that long for the next destructive tsunami to occur again off central or northern Sumatra. Destructive tsunamis are possible in the next 20 years or less. A repeart of the 1833 earthquake could generate a devastating tsunami. This section of the Sunda megathrust is one of the more likely sources of a destructive tsunamis in the region. Other seismic regions further south have the potential of generating destructive tsunamis even sooner. As in 1977, a major tsunami could be generated in the eastern section of the Sunda Trench that would affect not only Indonesia, but the northern and northwestern coasts of Australia.

Map of Sumatra showing Simeulue Island to the west near the epicenter of the 26 December 2004 earthquake where uplift and elongation of the island were observed and reported. Note proximity to Lake Toba, the submerged caldera of the volcano which, about 75,000 years ago, was the site of the greatest volcanic explosion on earth in the last two million years. The explosion of Toba sent 2,800 cubic kilometers of material into the earth's atmosphere and caused major climatic changes

Effects of the 26 December 2004 Tsunami in the Bay of Bengal and in the Indian Ocean

Waves of up to 10.5 meters in height struck Northern Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India. Destructive waves also struck the Maldives, Somalia, Kenya and the islands off the African coast. The tsunami was recorded by tide gauge stations not only in the Indian Ocean, but in the Pacific as well. In Manzanillo, Mexico, the tide gauge recorded a wave of 2.6 meters. Eighteen (18) countries bordering the Indian Ocean were affected by the tsunami. These were: Indonesia, Thailand, India, Sri-Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Maldives, Reunion Island (French), Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Somalia, Tanzania, Kenya, Oman, South Africa and Australia. DEATH TOLL -The tsunami had its greatest impact and casualties in Indonesia, Thailand, India, Shri-Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar, Maldives and Somalia. Eleven (11) countries reported deaths, some in tens of thousands.The death toll thus ar has been reported as 226,566. However, this is an underestimate as thousands are still missing and many more may have been killed in remote islands. More

than 1.5 million people were left homeless around the region. The following is a brief summary compiled from numerous government, U.N., and media sources. Efforts are being made to obtain tsunami wave heights. This section of the report will be changed and updated as more information becomes available. INDONESIA Tsunami waves of up to ten meters swamped the smaller outlying islands of Sumatra as well as its northern and western coastal areas - about 100 km (60 mi) from the earthquake epicenter . Hardesh hit was the northern Aceh province. Nearly all the casualties and damage took place within this province. Very heavy damage occurred as far South as Tapatkuan. The waves also propagated around the northern tip of Sumatra into the Straits of Malacca and struck coastal settlements along the northeast coast as far east as Lhokseumawe. According to the latest official reports (Ministry of Health) 166,320 people were killed, 127,774 are still missing and 655,000 people were displaced in Northern Sumatra. A total of 110 bridges were destroyed, 5 seaports and 2 airports sustained considerable damage, and 82% of all roads were severy damaged. The death toll is expected to rise. The following is a summary of the tsunami impact in Northern Sumatra.

Banda Aceh - The tsunami waves completely destroyed the city of Banda Aceh's infrastructure and killed thousands of its inhabitants. Banda Aceh is capital of the Aceh province. in Northern Sumatra. Leupung - The tsunami completely obliterated Leupung, a town in the district (Kabupaten/Kota) of Aceh Besar, close to the city of Banda Aceh. Most of the town's 10,000 inhabitants perished. It is estimated that only two to seven hundred people survived. Gleebruk - The waves completely destroyed Gleebruk, a village in the district (Kabupaten/Kota) of Aceh Besar just to the southwest of Banda Aceh. Teunom - The tsunami hit hard Teunom, a town of 18,000 people in the Aceh Barat (West Aceh) district of the

Province of Aceh. According to official estimates about 8,000 people lost their lives. Calang - The waves completely devastated Calang, the capital of the district. Only about 30 per cent of the town's population survived. Prior to the tsunami the town's population was estimated to be between 9,000 and 12,000. Satellite Image of Banda Aceh taken on 2 Jan 2005 Meulaboh - A series of seven waves killed about 40,000 people and destroyed port facilities and most parts of Meulaboh, a town with a population of 120,000. About 50,000 people were left homeless. Simeulue Island - Tsunami waves of about 5 meters in height struck the island. Although Simeulue was close to the earthquake's epicenter, suprisingly none of the island's 70,000 inhabitants were killed by the waves. Only five people died as a result of the earthquake which destroyed about 90% of all buildings along the coast. Apparently, the island rose which accounts for the lower wave heights that were observed. Also, villagers on the island had an awareness of the dangers of tsunamis, emphasized by traditions memoralizing a destructive tsunami in 1907 that had killed thousands of people. Nias Island - The island was severely impacted by the tunami which killed many people and severely damaged all existing infrastructure. Original official accounts gave the number of dead at 122, but these appear to be underestimates. According to unconfirmed sources the waves killed 600 people and the final death toll may ecxeed 1,000.

THAILAND Hardest hit was the Southwest coast of Thailand, particularly Phuket and the resort areas of Phi Phi and Khao-Lak. It

took about two hours for the first of the tsunami waves to reach the resort of Phi Phi island. The arrival of the tsunami was heralded by a recession of the water which exposed the sea bottom for considerable distance, including previously submerged rocks. According to eyewitness reports, the first wave arrived at about 10:30 am local time and it was about 4 meters high. The second wave arrived about 2.5 minutes later and it was 7 meters. The third about 11 meters.The waves destroyed all beachfront hotels, bungalows and other structures at Phi Phi, hurling boats and other floating objects . All electricity and phone lines were cut. The hisghest reported wave was 11.6 meters at Khao-Lak beach. Thai Government sources reported 5,313 deaths, 8,457 injuries and 4,499 missing,including more than 1,000 foreign tourists. Many of the missing are presumed dead. It is expected that these estimates will be revised upwards.

INDIA The estimated number of casualties in India is 16,000, but at least 6,000 more are missing. It is expected that the death toll will rise. Hardest hit were the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which were close to the tsunami generating area. Along India's southeastern coast, several villages were swept away, and thousands of fishermen at sea were missing. On the western coast of India' mainland, hardest hit was the state of Tamil Nadu. Andaman and Nicobar Islands - The tsunami hit hard the Andaman and Nicobar group which comprises of a total of 572 islands of which 38 were significantly inhabited. Entire islands have been The waves literally washed away some of these islands, and there were reports that the island of Trinket had split in two. The Great Nicobar and Car Nicobar were the worst hit among all the southern Nicobar Islands

because of their proximity to the earthquake's epicenter and relative low topography. The maximum tsunami wave reached a height of 15m. According to reports one fifth of the population of the Nicobar Islands is said to be dead, injured or missing. Chowra Island lost two thirds of its population of 1,500. The official death toll is 812, but about 7,000 were reported as missing. The unofficial death toll (including those missing and presumed dead) is estimated to be about 7,000 and expected to rise. On 30 December 2004, four days after the great earthquake, Barren 1 volcano on Barren Island - located 135 kilometres (80 miles) northeast of the capital Port Blair - erupted. Andhra Pradesh - There was significant loss of life and destruction. The affected districts were Krishna, Prakasam, Nellore, Guntur, West Godavari and East Godavari. Kerala - The tsunami killed many people (official toll 168) and caused extensive destruction particularly at Kollam (131 dead), Alappuzha (32) and Ernakulam (5) were also affected. Pondicherry - In the Union territory of Pondicherry, the affected districts were Pondicherry (107 dead), Karaikal (453 dead). The latest official toll was 560. An estimated 30,000 people were rendered homeless . Tamil Nadu - The tsunami had a great impact on the state of Tamil Nadu on India's mainland with entire coastal villages destroyed. According to official reports the overall death toll in the state was 7,793. The Nagapattinam district had 5,525 casualties. The latest reported death toll at Velankanni was 1,500. Kanyakumari district has had 808 deaths, Cuddalore district 599, the state capital Chennai 206 and Kancheepuram district 124. The death tolls in other districts were Pudukkottai (15), Ramanathapuram (6), Tirunelveli (4), Thoothukudi (3), Tiruvallur (28), Thanjavur (22), Tiruvarur (10) and Viluppuram (47). The death toll may be significantly higher as many are still missing. The nuclear power plant at

Kalpakkam was shut down after sea water rushed into a pump station. No radiation leak or damage to the reactor was reported.

SRI-LANKA The first of the tsunami waves took a little over two hours to reach Sri-Lanka. A clock on the western side of Sri Lanka at Colombo stopped at 9:20 in the morning, so the tsunami travel time to Colombo (first wave) must have been about 2 hours and 20 minutes. Sri-Lanka's south and east coasts were hardest hit. More than 50,000 people lost their lives - mostly children and the elderly. Most of them (more than 1,200) were in the eastern district of Batticaloa. At Trincomalee in the northeast, the tsunami reached more than 2 km (1.25 mi) inland killing about 800 people. In the neighboring Amparai district alone, more than 5,000 people died. The naval base at Trincomalee was reported to be submerged. About 3,000 more people died in Mullaitivu and Vadamaradchi East. A train, known as the "Sea Queen", while traveling between Colombo and Galle, with 1,600 passengers on board, was struck and derailed by the tsunami. Only about 300 of the passengers survived. More than one and a half million people were displaced in Shri-Lanka and the death toll is expected to rise.

MALAYSIA Despite Malaysia's proximity to the tsunami generating area, the impact of the waves was not as severe as in other countries in the region or countries thousands of kilometers away. Malaysia was partly sheltered by Sumatra and the tsunami waves attenuated somewhat in the Straits of Malacca. However, there were numerous deaths and destruction reported. The country's worst affected areas were the northern coastal areas and the outlying islands. Hardest hit were Penang,Kedah, Perak,

Selangor and Langkawi. It was reported that the red flag warning system used by lifeguards on beaches in some resort areas in Penang helped reduce fatalities there. Houses in fishing villages along coastal areas were damaged in Batu Maung and Bayan Lepas in Penang. Coastal areas in Peninsular Malaysia e.g. 13 villages in Kuala Muda, Kedah and Kuala Triang in Langkawi island were also affected. About a quarter of the boats anchored in Rebak and Telaga harbour in Langkawi were damaged. The number of deaths currently stands at 68 with 52 in Penang, 10 in Kedah, 3 in Perak and 1 in Selangor. Another 6 are missing.

MYANMAR The mainland of Myanmar was somewhat sheltered from the full impact of the tsunami by the numerous offshore islands. Also the approximate North-South orientation of the tsunami generating area, resulted in waves of lesser amplitude traveling northward. Still the tsunami caused numerous deaths and destruction in Myanmar. Reportedly 90 people were killed, but eyewitnesses estimate that more than 600 people have died. 788 buildings have been reported as damaged or destroyed. 30,000 people were displaced.

MALDIVES The waves flooded two-thirds of Male, the capital. Hardest hit were the outlying low-level atolls. Some other low lying islands were completely submerged, including some where major resorts were located. Preliminary reports stated that the tsunami killed 82, that 26 are missing, and that there was extensive

destruction. However, communications with remote islands were down and the death toll will probably rise. Thirteen islands have been abandoned because all buildings were destroyed and the fresh water supply was contaminated by the sea.

SOMALIA The tsunami waves traveled a distance of 4,500 km (2,800 miles) and struck Somalia on Africa's east coast. The height of the waves remains to be determined. Hardest hit was the semi-autonomous Puntland area, particularly the region between Hafun in the Bari region and Garacad in the Mudug region. The narrow and lowlying peninsula of Hafun, 1150km (715 miles) northeast of Mogadishu, was particularly devastated. The waves caused devastation in the Puntland area , striking the town mosque of Brava and destroying the villages of Beyla, Garacad, Muduy and Nugaal. Other coastal areas including Lower Juba were also affected. At Kulub and Hurdiye, all the fishing boats were either lost or destroyed. According to a UN report 1,180 homes and 2,400 boats were destroyed. The main bridge which connects Hafun to the mainland was washed away. Te flooding rendered freshwater wells and reservoirs unusable. A total of 298 people lost their lives and 50,000 more were displaced. The final death toll is expected to rise as there are many more missing.

AUSTRALIA No casualties were reported. The tsunami caused minor flooding along the northwestern coast and rurging activity was reported along Western Australia. At Geraldton,

425 km north of Perth, several boats were ripped from their moorings. At Busselton, 325 km south of Perth, a father and son in a boat were washed out to sea, but were subsequently rescued. Swimmers at Christmas Island were sucked 150m out to sea by the tsunami. Subsequently they were carried safely back to shore.

BANGLADESH The tsunami's impact was relatively mild. The waves killed two children and capsized a tourist boat. KENYA There was minor damage. One person was reported drowned at Watamu, near Mombasa. MADAGASCAR The tsunami waves ranged from 1.6 meters to 10 meters along the souteastern coastal areas near the towns of Manakara, Sambava and Vohemar. There was considerable destruction - leaving about 1,000 people homeless - but no deaths were reported. MAURITIUS Waves completely submerged a village in the north of the island. There have been no reports of casualties. OMAN The tsunami hit the coastline but no casualties were reported. REUNION ISLAND (France) The tsunami sunk over 200 boats and caused considerable damage to port facilities.
SEYCHELLES

The tsunami killed three people. Seven more people are missing. The waves destroyed a major bridge in Port Victoria.
SOUTH AFRICA

A sea level rise of about 2-3 meters was reported for KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape. One person was reported killed at Blue Horizon Bay near Port Elizabeth. A boy drowned in the Quinera River at Gonubie.
TANZANIA

The tsunami waves killed ten people. An unknown number of people are still missing. An oil tanker run run aground in Dar es Salaam harbor, damaging an oil pipeline. More information on the tsunami effects in the Bay of Bengal and other areas of the Indian Ocean will be provided with a later update.

Tsunami Wave Heights and Tsunami Travel Times Tsunami waves varied in height. Maximum reported height was reported as being 10.5 meters, A detailed report on tsunami wave distribution for different of the stricken areas througout the Indian Ocean is being compiled from reports of eyewitnesses and other sources. A list of tsunami wave heigts as recorded by tide stations will be provided. However, most of the tide stations that recorded the tsunami are at distant locations. It is not known at this time whether any tide gauge stations closer to the tsunami generating area recorded the tsunami. An effort is being made to locate such records from tide stations that were not destroyed by the tsunami - if such stations exist, Tsunami travel times for different areas in the Bay of Bengal and throughout the Indian Ocean are being compiled. Travel times of the first tsunami wave after the earthquake: Sumatra 10 minutes ,Thailand: 1 Hour, Sri Lanka: 2 hours, India: 2 Hours, East Africa: about 7 Hours.

Map of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Not to Scale)

Peninsula of Acep Meulaboh in Northern Sumatra - one of the hardest hit by the tsunami areas. Lessons Learned There were many lessons already learned from this tragic event in Southeast Asia. Many more lessons will be learned in the near future as this tragedy unfolds and reveals the many failures to value and protect human life in this neglected region

of the world. Indeed a bitter lesson was already learned that great earthquakes and destructive tsunamis do occur in this region. Tsunami Destruction at Banda Aceb, Northern Sumatra (photo of unknown origin ) The magnitude of the tsunami disaster could have been mitigated with a proper disaster preparedness plan and a functioning early warning system. A warning perhaps could not have been of much help in the immediate tsunami generating area of Sumatra and the Nicobar and Andaman islands, because the tsunami waves reached the shore very quickly. However the strong shaking by the earthquake should have been nature's warning for the local residents that a tsunami was imminent and they could have run to higher ground to save their lives. A simple program of public education and awareness of the potential hazard could have saved many lives in the immediate area.

Tsunami destruction at Thailand's Khao Lak Beach ((photo of unknown origin ) For the more distant coastlines of India, Shri-Lanka, and other locations in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, there was ample time to issue a warning - if only an early warning system existed for this region of the world and if there was a way of communicating the information to the coastal residents of threatened areas. No such warning system exists at the present time - the lack of disaster awareness or preparedness is appalling. It was reported that in many areas where there was extensive losses of lives, when the water withdrew before the arrival of the tsunami, the local residents went to the shore to collect stranded fish, instead of running to higher ground. People were totally unaware of the imminent danger. A simple educational program on hazard awareness could have prevented the extensive losses of lives - particularly of children. One third of those that perished were children.

The Tsunami Warning System which operates in the Pacific Region does not have the capability of extending a warning to countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Although the magnitude and location of the eartquake were quickly determined, there were no wave sensors in the area to confirm the generation of a tsunamni. Although both Indonesia and Thailand are members of the Pacific Tsunami Warning System network, they do not operate wave sensors on the western coast of their islands or territories. India and Shri Lanka are not members of the international Warning System in the Pacifc and they have not shown interest in joining any regional early warning system. An erroneous belief has persisted that tsunamis do not occur frequently enough to warantee participation into a regional tsunami warning system. Local government authorities in the region did not even have a plan for disseminating warning information to the threatened coastlines - even if a warning had been provided. There was not even a basic educational plan for disaster preparedness. It should be obvious that such a program is necessary to prevent similar tragedies in the future.

Supplementary Material
Devastating Natural Disasters On Camera Careers in Weather Videography The Use Of CCTV In Disasters CCTV Cameras The History Of CCTV And Security

LINKS TO PAST AND RECENT EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI DISASTERS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC OCEAN

Tsunamis of the Indian Ocean INDONESIA 1883 : Near and Far-Field Effects of Tsunamis Generated by the Paroxysmal Eruptions, Explosions, Caldera Collapses and Slope Failures of the Krakatau Volcano in Indonesia, on August 26-27, 1883 INDIA 2002 - The Earthquake of January 25, 2001 in India PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1998 - he Tsunami of 17 July 1998 in Papua -New Guinea INDONESIA 1977 : The Earthquake and Tsunami of August 19, 1977 INDONESIA 1883 : The Great Tsunami of August 26, 1883 from the Explosion of the Krakatau Volcano ("Krakatoa") PILIPPINES 1976 - The Earthquake and Tsunami of August 16, 1976 , in the Philippine Islands VANUATU 1999 - The Earthquake and Tsunami of November 26, 1999 in Vanuatu

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7. Valul Tsunami din Oceanul Indian 26 decembrie 2004

Cutremurul care a avut loc la data de 26 decembrie 2004 in Oceanul Indian, a fost un seism submarin, al carui epicentru s-a aflat chiar in apropierea coastei nordice a insulei indoneziene Sumatra. Cutremurul a avut o magnitudine de 9.3 grade pe scara Richter si a provocat o serie de valuri tsunami, care au afectat regiunile de coasta din opt tari asiatice, cauzand moartea confirmata a 229.866 de persoane, dar suspectata in cazul a peste 300.000. Peste un milion de gospodarii si case au fost maturate de valurile uriase, iar autoritatile se tem in continuare de izbucnirea unor epidemii aparute din cauza contaminarii apei, care ar putea dubla numarul de victime. Data fiind rata mare de natalitate din tarile afectate, aproape o treime din victimele tsunamiului din 2004 au fost copii. Seria de valuri inalte de pana la 30 metri a transformat mai bine de 4 milioane de localnici ai zonelor afectate, in sinistrati. Cutremurul a avut cea mai lunga durata inregistrata vreodata, intre 8.3

si 10 minunte. A determinat devierea intregii planete cu un centimetru de la axa sa fireasca si a declansat o replica tocmai in tinuturile Alaskai.
http://www.descopera.ro http://www.peteava.ro/id-668729-imagini-infioratoare-valul-tsunami-din-2004-din-oceanul-indian
Pe 26 decembrie 2004, un cutremur cu magnitudinea de 9,3 grade pe scara Richter a lovit coasta vestica a insulei indoneziene Sumatra. Ceea ce a urmat a fost un tsunami devastator care a maturat cea mai mare parte din coastele oceanului Indian. A reprezentat unul dintre cele mai distrugatoare dezastre naturale inregistrate in istorie, iar peste 225.000 de persoane au fost ucise in 11 tari. Zonele cele mai lovite au fost Indonezia, Sri Lanka, India si Thailanda. Pe net au circulat numeroase imagini triste si terifiante ale tsunami-ului in timp ce devasta regiunile de coasta. Plajele si atractiile turistice au fost primele lovite in majoritatea locurilor. Videoclipul prezinta o compilatie a mai multor filmulete de acest fel.