C++ CN BN

(Ngi dch: Nguyn Minh Thng [Homepage]) [Ti liu tham kho: http://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/]

1. C bn v C++
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Cu trc mt chng trnh C++ Cc bin, kiu v hng Cc ton t Giao tip vi console

2. Cc cu trc iu khin v hm
Cc cu trc iu khin Hm (I) Hm (II)

3. D liu nng cao

Mng Xu k t Con tr B nh ng Cc cu trc Cc kiu d liu do ngi dng nh ngha. (typedef, union, enum)

4. Lp trnh hng i tng

Cc lp. Constructors v Destructors. Con tr ti cc lp Qu ti cc ton t. Cc thnh phn this, Static Quan h gia cc lp: bn b, tha k Cc phn o. a hnh

5. Phn nng cao

Templates Namespaces Exception handling

Bi 1.1

Cu trc ca mt chng trnh C++

C l mt trong nhng cch tt nht bt u hc mt ngn ng lp trnh l bng mt chng trnh. Vy y l chng trnh u tin ca chng ta :
// my first program in C++ #include <iostream.h> Hello World!

int main () { cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; }

Chng trnh trn y l chng trnh u tin m hu ht nhng ngi hc ngh lp trnh vit u tin v kt qu ca n l vit cu "Hello, World" ln mn hnh. y l mt trong nhng chng trnh n gin nht c th vit bng C++ nhng n bao gm nhng phn c bn m mi chng trnh C++ c. Hy cng xem xt tng dng mt :
// my first program in C++

y l dng ch thch. Tt c cc dng bt u bng hai du s (//) c coi l cht thch m chng khng c bt k mt nh hng no n hot ng ca chng trnh. Chng c th c cc lp trnh vin dng gii thch hay bnh phm bn trong m ngun ca chng trnh. Trong trng hp ny, dng ch thch l mt gii thch ngn gn nhng g m chng trnh chng ta lm.
#include <iostream.h>

Cc cu bt u bng du (#) c dng cho preprocessor (ai dch h ti t ny vi). Chng khng phi l nhng dng m thc hin nhng c dng bo hiu cho trnh dch. y cu lnh #include <iostream.h> bo cho trnh dch bit cn phi "include" th vin iostream. y l mt th vin vo ra c bn trong C++ v n phi c "include" v n s c dng trong chng trnh. y l cch c in s dng th vin iostream
int main ()

Dng ny tng ng vi phn bt u khai bo hm main. Hm main l im m tt c cc chng trnh C++ bt u thc hin. N khng ph thuc vo v tr ca hm ny ( u, cui hay gia ca m ngun) m ni dung ca n lun c thc hin u tin khi chng trnh bt u. Thm vo , do nguyn nhn ni trn, mi chng trnh C++ u phi tn ti mt hm main. Theo sau main l mt cp ngoc n bi v n l mt hm. Trong C++, tt c cc hm m sau l mt cp ngoc n () th c ngha l n c th c hoc khng c tham s (khng bt buc). Ni dung ca hm main tip ngay sau phn khai bo chnh thc c bao trong cc ngoc nhn ( { } ) nh trong v d ca chng ta
cout << "Hello World";

Dng lnh ny lm vic quan trng nht ca chng trnh. cout l mt dng (stream) output chun trong C++ c nh ngha trong th vin iostream v nhng g m dng lnh ny lm l gi chui k t "Hello World" ra mn hnh. Ch rng dng ny kt thc bng du chm phy ( ; ). K t ny c dng kt thc mt lnh v bt buc phi c sau mi lnh trong chng trnh C++ ca bn (mt trong nhng li ph bin nht ca nhng lp trnh vin C++ l qun mt du chm phy).
return 0;

Lnh return kt thc hm main v tr v m i sau n, trong trng hp ny l 0. y l mt kt

thc bnh thng ca mt chng trnh khng c mt li no trong qu trnh thc hin. Nh bn s thy trong cc v d tip theo, y l mt cch ph bin nht kt thc mt chng trnh C+ +. Chng trnh c cu trc thnh nhng dng khc nhau n tr nn d c hn nhng hon ton khng phi bt buc phi lm vy. V d, thay v vit
int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

ta c th vit
int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

cng cho mt kt qu chnh xc nh nhau. Trong C++, cc dng lnh c phn cch bng du chm phy ( ;). Vic chia chng trnh thnh cc dng ch nhm cho n d c hn m thi.

Cc ch thch.
Cc ch thch c cc lp trnh vin s dng ghi ch hay m t trong cc phn ca chng trnh. Trong C++ c hai cch ch thch
// Ch thch theo dng /* Ch thch theo khi */

Ch thch theo dng bt u t cp du x (//) cho n cui dng. Ch thch theo khi bt u bng /* v kt thc bng */ v c th bao gm nhiu dng. Chng ta s thm cc ch thch cho chng trnh :
/* my second program in C++ with more comments */ #include <iostream.h> int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; // says Hello World! cout << "I'm a C++ program"; // says I'm a C++ program return 0; } Hello World! I'm a C++ program

Nu bn vit cc ch thch trong chng trnh m khng s dng cc du //, /* hay */, trnh dch s coi chng nh l cc lnh C++ v s hin th cc li.

Bi 1.2

Cc bin, kiu v hng s

Identifiers
Mt tn (indentifiers) hp l l mt chui gm cc ch ci, ch s hoc k t gch di. Chiu di ca mt tn l khng gii hn. K t trng, cc k t nh du u khng th c mt trong mt tn. Ch c ch ci, ch s v k t gch di l c cho php. Thm vo , mt tn bin lun phi bt u bng mt ch ci. Chng cng c th bt u bng k t gch di ( _ ) nhng k t ny thng c dnh cho cc lin kt bn ngoi (external link). Khng bao gi chng bt u bng mt ch s. Mt lut na m bn phi quan tm n khi to ra cc tn ca ring mnh l chng khng c trng vi bt k t kho no ca ngn ng hay ca trnh dch, v d cc tn sau y lun lun c coi l t kho theo chun ANSI-C++ v do vy chng khng th c dng t tn

asm, car, bool, break, marry, catch, to char, class, const, const_cast, continue, default, delete, do, double, dynamic_cast, else, enum, explicit, extern, false, float, for, friend, goto, if, inline, int, long, mutable, namespace, new, operator, private, protected, public, to register, reinterpret_cast, return, short, signed, sizeof, static, static_cast, struct, switch, template, this, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid, typename, union, unsigned, using, virtual, void, volatile, wchar_t

Thm vo , mt s biu din khc ca cc ton t (operator) cng khng c dng lm tn v chng l nhng t c dnh ring trong mt s trng hp.
and, and_eq, bitand, bitor, compl, not, not_eq, or, or_eq, xor, xor_eq

Trnh dch ca bn c th thm mt t dnh ring c trng khc. V d, rt nhiu trnh dch 16 bit (nh cc trnh dch cho DOS) cn c th cc t kho far, huge v near.
Ch : Ngn ng C++ l "case sensitive" c ngha l phn bit ch hoa ch thng. Do vy bin RESULT khc vi result cng nh Result.

Cc kiu d liu
Khi lp trnh, chng ta lu tr cc bin trong b nh ca my tnh nhng my tnh phi bit chng ta mun lu tr g trong chng v cc kiu d liu khc nhau s cn lng b nh khc nhau.
B nh ca my tnh chng ta c t chc thnh cc byte. Mt byte l lng b nh nh nht m chng ta c th qun l. Mt byte c th dng lu tr mt loi d liu nh nh l kiu s nguyn t 0 n 255 hay mt k t. Nhng my tnh c th x l cc kiu d liu phc tp hn bng cch gp nhiu byte li vi nhau, nh s nguyn di hay s thp phn. Tip theo bn s c mt danh sch cc kiu d liu c bn trong C++ cng nh min gi tr m chng c th biu din

Tn char short

S byte M t 1 2 K t hay kiu s nguyn 8-bit kiu s nguyn 16-bit

Min gi tr c du: -128 to 127 khng du: 0 to 255 c du: -32763 to 32762

long

kiu s nguyn 32-bit S nguyn. di ca n ph thuc vo h thng, nh trong MS-DOS n l 16-bit, trn Windows 9x/2000/NT l 32 bit... Dng du phy ng Dng du phy ng vi chnh xc gp i Dng du phy ng vi chnh xc hn na Gi tr logic. N mi c thm vo chun ANSI-C++. Bi vy khng phi tt c cc trnh dch u h tr n.

khng du: 0 to 65535 c du:-2147483648 to 2147483647 khng du: 0 to 4294967295 Xem short, long 3.4e + / - 38 (7 digits) 1.7e + / - 308 (15 digits) 1.2e + / - 4932 (19 digits)
true

int float

* 4

double 8 long 10 double bool 1

hoc false

Ngoi cc kiu d liu c bn ni trn cn tn ti cc con tr v cc tham s khng kiu (void) m chng ta s xem xt sau.

Khai bo mt bin
c th s dng mt bin trong C++, u tin chng ta phi khai bo n, ghi r n l kiu d liu no. Chng ta ch cn vit tn kiu (nh int, short, float...) tip theo sau l mt tn bin hp l. V d
int a; float mynumber;

Dng u tin khai bo mt bin kiu int vi tn l a. Dng th hai khai bo mt bin kiu float vi tn mynumber. Sau khi c khai bo, cc bin trn c th c dng trong phm vi ca chng trong chng trnh.
Nu bn mun khai bo mt vi bin c cng mt kiu v bn mun tit kim cng sc vit bn c th khai bo chng trn mt dng, ngn cch cc tn bng du phy. V d

int a, b, c;

khai bo ba bin kiu int (a,b v c) v hon ton tng ng vi :

int a; int b; int c;
Cc kiu s nguyn (char, short, long and int) c th l s c du hay khng du tu theo min gi tr m chng ta cn biu din. V vy khi xc nh mt kiu s nguyn chng ta t t kho signed hoc unsigned trc tn kiu d liu. V d:

unsigned short NumberOfSons; signed int MyAccountBalance;

Nu ta khng ch r signed or unsigned n s c coi l c du, v vy trong khai bo th hai chng ta c th vit :

int MyAccountBalance
cng hon ton tng ng vi dng khai bo trn. Trong thc t, rt t khi ngi ta dng n t kho signed. Ngoi l duy nht ca lut ny kiu char. Trong chun ANSI-C++ n l kiu d liu khc vi signed char v unsigned char. c th thy r hn vic khai bo trong chng trnh, chng ta s xem xt mt on m C++ v d nh sau:

// operating with variables #include <iostream.h> int main () { // declaring variables: int a, b; int result; // process: a = 5; b = 2; a = a + 1; result = a - b; // print out the result: cout << result; // terminate the program: return 0;

ng lo lng nu nh vic khai bo c v hi l lng vi bn. Bn s thy phn chi tit cn li trong phn tip theo

Khi to cc bin
Khi khai bo mt bin, gi tr ca n mc nhin l khng xc nh. Nhng c th bn s mun n mang mt gi tr xc nh khi c khai bo. lm iu , bn ch cn vit du bng v gi tr bn mun bin s mang:
type identifier = initial_value ;

V d, nu chng ta mun khai bo mt bin int l a cha gi tr 0 ngay t khi khi to, chng ta s vit :
int a = 0;
B xung vo cch khi to kiu C ny, C++ cn c thm mt cch mi khi to bin bng cch bc mt cp ngoc n sau gi tr khi to. V d :

int a (0);

C hai cch u hp l trong C++.

Phm vi hot ng ca cc bin

Tt c cc bin m chng ta s s dng u phi c khai bo trc. Mt im khc bit gia Cv C++ l trong C++ chng ta c th khai bo bin bt k ni no trong chng trnh, thm ch l ngay gia cc lnh thc hin ch khng ch l u khi lnh nh trong C.
Mc d vy chng ta vn nn theo cch ca ngn ng C khi khai bo cc bin bi v n s rt hu dng khi cn sa cha mt chng trnh c tt c cc phn khai bo c gp li vi nhau. Bi vy, cch thng dng nht khai bo bin l t n trong phn bt u ca mi hm (bin cc b) hay trc tip trong thn chng trnh, ngoi tt c cc hm (bin ton cc).

Global variables (bin ton cc) c th c s dng bt k u trong chng trnh, ngay sau khi n c khai bo.
Tm hot ng ca local variables (bin cc b) b gii hn trong phn m m n c khai bo. Nu chng c khai bo u mt hm (nh hm main), tm hot ng s l ton b hm main. iu c ngha l trong v d trn, cc bin c khai bo trong hm main() ch c th c dng trong hm , khng c dng bt k u khc. Thm vo cc bin ton cc v cc b, cn c cc bin ngoi (external). Cc bin ny khng nhng c dng trong mt file m ngun m cn trong tt c cc file c lin kt trong chng trnh. Trong C++ tm hot ng ca mt bin chnh l khi lnh m n c khai bo (mt khi lnh l mt tp hp cc lnh c gp li trong mt bng cc ngoc nhn { } ). Nu n c khai bo trong mt hm tm hot ng s l hm , cn nu c khai bo trong vng lp th tm hot ng s ch l vng lp ....

Cc hng s
Mt hng s l bt k mt biu thc no mang mt gi tr c nh, nh:
Cc s nguyn

1776 707 -273

chng l cc hng mang gi tr s. Ch rng khi biu din mt hng kiu s chng ta khng cn vit du ngoc kp hay bt k du hiu no khc.
Thm vo nhng s h c s 10 ( ci m tt c chng ta u bit) C++ cn cho php s dng cc hng s c s 8 v 16. biu din mt s h c s 8 chng ta t trc n k t 0, biu din s h c s 16 chng ta t trc n hai k t 0x. V d:

75 0113 0x4b

// C s 10 // c s 8 // c s 16

Cc s thp phn (dng du phy ng) Chng biu din cc s vi phn thp phn v/hoc s m. Chng c th bao gm phn thp phn, k t e (biu din 10 m...).

3.14159 // 3.14159 6.02e23 // 6.02 x 1023 1.6e-19 // 1.6 x 10-19 3.0 // 3.0
K t v xu k t Trong C++ cn tn ti cc hng khng phi kiu s nh:

'z' 'p' "Hello world" "How do you do?"

Hai biu thc u tin biu din cc k t n, cc k t c t trong du nhy n ('), hai biu thc tip theo biu thc cc xu k t c t trong du nhy kp (").
Khi vit cc k t n hay cc xu k t cn phi chng trong cc du nhy phn bit vi cc tn bin hay cc t kho. Ch :

x 'x'

x tr n bin x trong khi 'x' l k t hng 'x'.

Cc k t n v cc xu k t c mt tnh cht ring bit l cc m iu khin. Chng l nhng k t c bit m khng th c vit bt k u khc trong chng trnh nh l m xung dng (\n) hay tab (\t). Tt c u bt u bng du x ngc (\). Sau y l danh sch cc m iu khin :

\n \r \t \v \b \f \a \' \" \ \\

xung dng li v u dng k t tab cn thng theo chiu dc backspace sang trang Ku bp du nhy n du nhy kp du hi k t x ngc

V d:
'\n' '\t' "Left \t Right" "one\ntwo\nthree"

Thm vo , biu din mt m ASCII bn cn s dng k t x ngc (\) tip theo l m ASCII vit trong h c s 8 hay c s 16. Trong trng hp u m ASCII c vit ngay sau du s ngc, trong trng hp th hai, s dng s trong h c s 16 bn cn vit k t x trc s (v d \x20 hay \x4A). Cc hng chui k t c th c vit trn nhiu dng nu mi dng c kt thc bng mt du s ngc (\):

"string expressed in \ two lines"

Bn c th ni mt vi hng xu k t ngn cch bng mt hay vi du trng, k t tab, xung dng hay bt k k t trng no khc.
"we form" "a unique" "string" "of characters"

nh ngha cc hng (#define)

Bn c th nh ngha cc hng vi tn m bn mun c th s dng thng xuyn m khng mt ti nguyn cho cc bin bng cch s dng ch th #define. y l dng ca n:
#define identifier value

V d:
#define PI 3.14159265 #define NEWLINE '\n' #define WIDTH 100

chng nh ngha ba hng s mi. Sau khi khai bo bn c th s dng chng nh bt k cc hng s no khc, v d
circle = 2 * PI * r; cout << NEWLINE;

Trong thc t vic duy nht m trnh dch lm khi n tm thy mt ch th #define l thay th cc tn hng ti bt k ch no chng xut hin (nh trong v d trc, PI, NEWLINE hay WIDTH) bng gi tr m chng c nh ngha. V vy cc hng s #define c coi l cc hng s macro
Ch th #define khng phi l mt lnh thc thi, n l ch th tin x l (preprocessor), l l do trnh dch coi c dng l mt ch th v dng khng cn kt thc bng du chm phy. Nu bn thm du chm phy vo cui dng, n s c coi l mt phn ca gi tr nh ngha hng.

Khai bo cc hng (const)

Vi tin t const bn c th khai bo cc hng vi mt kiu xc nh nh l bn lm vi mt bin

const int width = 100; const to char tab = '\t'; const zip = 12440;
Trong trng hp kiu khng c ch r (nh trong v d cui) trnh dch s coi n l kiu int.

Bi 1.3

Cc ton t
Qua bi trc chng ta bit n s tn ti ca cc bin v cc hng. Trong C++, thao tc vi chng ta s dng cc ton t, l cc t kho v cc du khng c trong bng ch ci nhng li c trn hu ht cc bn phm trn th gii. Hiu bit v chng l rt quan trng v y l mt trong nhng thnh phn c bn ca ngn ng C++.
Ton t gn (=). Ton t gn dng gn mt gi tr no cho mt bin
a = 5;

gn gi tr nguyn 5 cho bin a. V tri bt buc phi l mt bin cn v phi c th l bt k hng, bin hay kt qu ca mt biu thc.

Cn phi nhn mnh rng ton t gn lun c thc hin t tri sang phi v khng bao gi o ngc
a = b;

gn gi tr ca bin a bng gi tr ang cha trong bin b. Ch rng chng ta ch gn gi tr ca b cho a v s thay i ca b sau s khng nh hng n gi tr ca a.

Mt thuc tnh ca ton t gn trong C++ gp phn gip n vt ln cc ngn ng lp trnh khc l vic cho php v phi c th cha cc php gn khc. V d:
a = 2 + (b = 5);

tng ng vi
b = 5; a = 2 + b;

V vy biu thc sau cng hp l trong C++

a = b = c = 5;

gn gi tr 5 cho c ba bin a, b v c Cc ton t s hc ( +, -, *, /, % ) Nm ton t s hc c h tr bi ngn ng l:

+ cng - tr * nhn / chia % ly phn d (trong php chia)

Th t thc hin cc ton t ny cng ging nh chng c thc hin trong ton hc. iu duy nht c v hi l i vi bn l php ly phn d, k hiu bng du phn trm (%). y chnh l php ton ly phn d trong php chia hai s nguyn vi nhau. V d, nu a = 11 % 3;, bin a s mang gi tr 2 v 11 = 3*3 +2.
Cc ton t gn phc hp (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |=) Mt c tnh ca ngn ng C++ lm cho n ni ting l mt ngn ng sc tch chnh l cc ton t gn phc hp cho php chnh sa gi tr ca mt bin vi mt trong nhng ton t c bn sau:

value += increase; tng ng vi value = value + increase; a -= 5; tng ng vi a = a - 5; a /= b; tng ng vi a = a / b; price *= units + 1; tng ng vi price = price * (units + 1);

v tng t cho tt c cc ton t khc. Tng v gim. Mt v d khc ca vic tit kim khi vit m lnh l ton t tng (++) v gim (--). Chng tng hoc gim gi tr cha trong mt bin i 1. Chng tng ng vi +=1 hoc -=1. V vy, cc dng sau l tng ng:

a++; a+=1; a=a+1;

Mt tnh cht ca ton t ny l n c th l tin t hoc hu t, c ngha l c th vit trc tn bin (++a) hoc sau (a++) v mc d trong hai biu thc rt n gin n c cng ngha nhng trong cc thao tc khc khi m kt qu ca vic tng hay gim c s dng trong mt biu thc th chng c th c mt khc bit quan trng v ngha: Trong trng hp ton t c s dng nh l mt tin t (++a) gi tr c tng trc khi biu thc c tnh v gi tr tng c s dng trong biu thc; trong trng hp ngc li (a++) gi tr trong bin a c tng sau khi tnh ton. Hy ch s khc bit :
V d 1
B=3; A=++B; // A is 4, B is 4

V d 2
B=3; A=B++; // A is 3, B is 4

Cc ton t quan h ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= ) c th so snh hai biu thc vi nhau chng ta c th s dng cc ton t quan h. Theo chun ANSI-C++ th gi tr ca thao tc quan h ch c th l gi tr logic - chng ch c th c gi tr true hoc false, tu theo biu thc kt qu l ng hay sai.

Sau y l cc ton t quan h bn c th s dng trong C++

== Bng != Khc > < > =

Ln hn Nh hn Ln hn hoc bng Nh hn hoc bng

< =

V d:

(7 == 5)

s tr gi tr
false

(6 >= 6)

s tr gi tr
true

tt nhin thay v s dng cc s, chng ta c th s dng bt c biu thc no. Cho a=2, b=3 v c=6
(a*b >= c)

s tr gi tr true. s tr gi tr
false

(b+4 < a*c)

Cn ch rng = (mt du bng) lf hon ton khc vi == (hai du bng). Du u tin l mt ton t gn ( gn gi tr ca biu thc bn phi cho bin bn tri) v du cn li (==) l mt ton t quan h nhm so snh xem hai biu thc c bng nhau hay khng.

Trong nhiu trnh dch c trc chun ANSI-C++ cng nh trong ngn ng C, cc ton t quan h khng tr v gi tr logic true hoc false m tr v gi tr int vi 0 tng ng vi false cn gi tr khc 0 (thng l 1) th tng ng vi true.

Cc ton t logic ( !, &&, || ). Ton t ! tng ng vi ton t logic NOT, n ch c mt i s pha bn phi v vic duy nht m n lm l i ngc gi tr ca i s t true sang false hoc ngc li. V d:
!(5 == 5)

tr v false v biu thc bn phi (5 == 5) c gi trtrue.

!(6 <= 4) tr v true v (6 <= 4)c gi tr false. !true !false

tr v false. tr v true.

Ton t logic && v || c s dng khi tnh ton hai biu thc ly ra mt kt qu duy nht. Chng tng ng vi cc ton t logic AND v OR. Kt qu ca chng ph thuc vo mi quan h ca hai i s:

i s th nht a true true false false V d:

i s th Kt qu Kt qu hai a && b a || b b true false true false true false false false true true true false

( (5 == 5) && (3 > 6) ) tr v false ( true && false ). ( (5 == 5) || (3 > 6)) tr v true ( true || false ).

Ton t iu kin ( ? ). Ton t iu kin tnh ton mt biu thc v tr v mt gi tr khc tu thuc vo biu thc l ng hay sai. Cu trc ca n nh sau:
condition ? result1 : result2

Nu condition l true th gi tr tr v s l result1, nu khng gi tr tr v l result2.

7==5 ? 4 : 3

tr v 3 v 7 khng bng 5.

7==5+2 ? 4 : 3 tr v 4 v 7 bng 5+2. 5>3 ? a : b a>b ? a : b

tr v a, v 5 ln hn 3. tr v gi tr ln hn, a hoc b.

Cc ton t thao tc bit ( &, |, ^, ~, <<, >> ). Cc ton t thao tc bit thay i cc bit biu din mt bin, c ngha l thay i biu din nh phn ca chng ton t asm M t

& | ^

AN Logical AND D OR Logical OR XO Logical exclusive R OR NO o ngc bit T SHL Dch bit sang tri SH Dch bit sang R phi

~ << >>

Cc ton t chuyn i kiu Cc ton t chuyn i kiu cho php bn chuyn i d liu t kiu ny sang kiu khc. C vi cch lm vic ny trong C++, cch c bn nht c tha k t ngn ng C l t trc biu thc cn chuyn i tn kiu d liu c bc trong cp ngoc n (), v d:
int i; float f = 3.14; i = (int) f;

on m trn chuyn s thp phn 3.14 sang mt s nguyn (3). y, ton t chuyn i kiu l (int). Mt cch khc lm iu ny trong C++ l s dng cc constructors ( mt s sch thut ng ny c dch l cu t nhng ti thy n c v khng xui tai lm) thay v dng cc ton t : t trc biu thc cn chuyn i kiu tn kiu mi v bao bc biu thc gia mt cp ngoc n.
i = int ( f );

C hai cch chuyn i kiu u hp l trong C++. Thm vo ANSI-C++ cn c nhng ton t chuyn i kiu mi c trng cho lp trnh hng i tng.

sizeof()

Ton t ny c mt tham s, c th l mt kiu d liu hay l mt bin v tr v kch c bng byte ca kiu hay i tng .
a = sizeof (char);

a s mang gi tr 1 v kiu char lun c kch c 1 byte trn mi h thng. Gi tr tr v ca sizeof l mt hng s v vy n lun lun c tnh trc khi chng trnh thc hin.

Cc ton t khc Trong C++ cn c mt s cc ton t khc, nh cc ton t lin quan n con tr hay lp trnh hng i tng. Chng s c ni n c th trong cc phn tng ng.

Th t u tin ca cc ton t
Khi vit cc biu thc phc tp vi nhiu ton hng cc bn c th t hi ton hng no c tnh trc, ton hng no c tnh sau. V d nh trong biu thc sau:
a = 5 + 7 % 2

c th c hai cch hiu sau:

a = 5 + (7 % 2) a = (5 + 7) % 2

vi kt qu l 6, hoc vi kt qu l 0

Cu tr li ng l biu thc u tin. V nguyn nhn ni trn, ngn ng C++ thit lp mt th t u tin gia cc ton t, khng ch ring cc ton t s hc m tt c cc ton t c th xut hin trong C++. Th t u tin ca chng c lit k trong bng sau theo th t t cao xung thp.

Th t 1 2 3

Ton t
:: () [ ] -> . sizeof ++ -~

M t scope

Associativit y Tri Tri

tng/gim o ngc bit

Phi

! & * (type) + -

NOT Ton t con tr Chuyn i kiu Dng hoc m Ton t s hc Ton t s hc Dch bit Tri Tri Tri

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

* / % + << >> < <= > >= == != & ^ | && || ?: = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= ,

Ton t quan h Tri Ton t quan h Tri Ton t thao tc Tri bit Ton t logic Tri

Ton t iu kinPhi Ton t gn Du phy Phi Tri

Associativity nh ngha trong trng hp c mt vi ton t c cng th t u tin th ci no s c tnh trc, ton t pha xa nht bn phi hay l xa nht bn tri. Nu bn mun vit mt biu thc phc tp m li khng chc lm v th t u tin ca cc ton t th nn s dng cc ngoc n. Cc bn nn thc hin iu ny v n s gip chng trnh d c hn. Bi 1.4

Giao tip vi console.

Console l giao din c bn ca my tnh. Bn phm l thit b vo c bn cn mn hnh l thit b ra c bn.

Trong th vin iostream ca C++, cc thao tc vo ra c bn ca mt chng trnh c h tr bi hai dng d liu : cin nhp d liu v cout xut. Thm vo , cn c cerr v clog l hai dng d liu dng hin th cc thng bo li trn thit b ra chun (thng l mn hnh) hoc ra mt file. Thng thng cout c gn vi mn hnh cn cin c gn vi bn phm. S dng hai dng d liu ny bn s c th giao tip vi ngi s dng v bn c th hin th cc thng bo ln mn hnh cng nh nhn d liu t bn phm.

Xut d liu (cout)

Dng cout c s dng vi ton t qu ti << (overloaded - bn s hiu r hn v thut ng ny trong phn lp trnh hng i tng)
cout << "Output sentence"; // Hin th Output sentence ln mn hnh cout << 120; // Hin th s 120 ln mn hnh cout << x; // Hin th ni dung bin x ln mn hnh

Ton t << c gi l ton t chn v n chn d liu i sau n vo dng d liu ng trc. Trong v d trn n chn chui "Output sentence", hng s 120 v bin x vo dng d liu ra cout.Ch rng dng u tin chng ta s dng du ngoc kp v l mt chui k t. Khi chng ta mun s dng cc hng xu k t ta phi t chng trong cp du ngoc kp chng c th c phn bit vi cc bin. V d, hai lnh sau y l hon ton khc nhau:
cout << "Hello"; cout << Hello; // Hin th Hello ln mn hnh // Hin th ni dung ca bin Hello ln mn hnh

Ton t chn (<<) c th c s dng nhiu ln trong mt cu lnh:

cout << "Hello, " << "I am " << "a C++ sentence";

Cu lnh trn s in thng bo Hello, I am a C++ sentence ln mn hnh. S tin li ca vic s dng lp li ton t chn (<<) th hin r khi chng ta mun hin th nhiu bin v hng hn l ch mt bin:
cout << "Hello, I am " << age << " years old and my email address is " << email_add;

Cn phi nhn mnh rng cout khng nhy xung dng sau khi xut d liu, v vy hai cu lnh sau :
cout << "This is a sentence."; cout << "This is another sentence.";

s c hin th trn mn hnh:

This is a sentence.This is another sentence.

Bi vy khi mun xung dng chng ta phi s dng k t xung dng, trong C++ l \n:
cout << "First sentence.\n "; cout << "Second sentence.\nThird sentence.";

s vit ra mn hnh nh sau:

First sentence. Second sentence. Third sentence.

Thm vo , xung dng bn c th s dng tham s endl. V d

cout << "First sentence." << endl; cout << "Second sentence." << endl;

s in ra mn hnh:
First sentence. Second sentence.

Tham s endl c mt tc dng c bit khi n c dng vi cc dng d liu s dng b m: cc b m s c flushed ( chuyn ton b thng tin t b m ra dng d liu). Tuy nhin, theo mc nh cout khng s dng b m.

Nhp d liu (cin).

Thao tc vo chun trong C++ c thc hin bng cch s dng ton t qu ti >> vi dng cin. Theo sau ton t ny l bin s lu tr d liu c c vo. V d:
int age; cin >> age;

khai bo bin age c kiu int v i nhp d liu t cin (bn phm) lu tr n trong bin kiu nguyn ny. ch bt u s l d liu nhp t bn phm sau khi phm Enter c g. V vy d bn ch nhp mt k t th cin vn s kin nhn ch cho n khi bn g phm Enter.
cin

// i/o example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int i; cout << "Please enter an integer value: "; cin >> i; cout << "The value you entered is " << i; cout << " and its double is " << i*2 << ".\n"; return 0; }

Please enter an integer value: 702 The value you entered is 702 and its double is 1404.

Ngi s dng chng trnh c th l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn gy ra li trong mt chng trnh n gin s dng cin (nh chng trnh trn). Trong khi bn mun nhn mt s nguyn th ngi s dng li nhp vo tn ca h (l mt xu k t). Kt qu l chng trnh s chy sai v

 khng phi l nhng g m chng trnh mong i t ngi dng. Bi vy khi bn s dng d liu nhp vo t cin bn phi tin chc rng ngi dng s hon ton hp tc v rng anh ta s khng nhp tn ca mnh khi chng trnh yu cu nhp s nguyn. Sau ny, khi nghin cu vic s dng cc xu k t chng ta s xem xt cc gii php kh thi gii quyt cc li loi ny. Bn c th dng cin nhp mt lc nhiu d liu t ngi dng:
cin >> a >> b;

tng ng vi
cin >> a; cin >> b;

Trong c hai trng hp ngi s dng phi cung cp hai d liu, mt cho bin a v mt cho bin b v c ngn cch bi mt du trng hp l: mt du cch, du tab hay k t xung dng. Trong trng hp kiu khng c ch r (nh trong v d cui) trnh dch s coi n l kiu int. Bi 2.1

Cc cu trc iu khin.
Mt chng trnh thng khng ch bao gm cc lnh tun t ni tip nhau. Trong qu trnh chy n c th r nhnh hay lp li mt on m no . lm iu ny chng ta s dng cc cu trc iu khin. Cng vi vic gii thiu cc cu trc iu khin chng ta cng s phi bit ti mt khi nim mi: khi lnh, l mt nhm cc lnh c ngn cch bi du chm phy (;) nhng c gp trong mt khi gii hn bi mt cp ngoc nhn: { v }. Hu ht cc cu trc iu khin m chng ta s xem xt trong chng ny cho php s dng mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh lm tham s, tu thuc vo chng ta c t n trong cp ngoc nhn hay khng.

Cu trc iu kin: if v else

Cu trc ny c dng khi mt lnh hay mt khi lnh ch c thc hin khi mt iu kin no tho mn. Dng ca n nh sau:
if (condition) statement

trong condition l biu thc s c tnh ton. Nu iu kin l true, statement c thc hin. Nu khng statement b b qua (khng thc hin) v chng trnh tip tc thc hin lnh tip sau cu trc iu kin.

V d, on m sau y s vit x is 100 ch khi bin x cha gi tr 100:

if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100";

Nu chng ta mun c hn mt lnh c thc hin trong trng hp condition l true chng ta c th ch nh mt khi lnh bng cch s dng mt cp ngoc nhn { }:
if (x == 100) { cout << "x is "; cout << x; }

Chng ta cng c th ch nh iu g s xy ra nu iu kin khng c tho mn bng cch su dng t kho else. N c s dng cng vi if nh sau:
if (condition) statement1 else statement2

V d:
if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100"; else cout << "x is not 100";

Cu trc if + else c th c mc ni kim tra nhiu gi tr. V d sau y s kim tra xem gi tr cha trong bin x l dng, m hay bng khng.
if (x > 0) cout << "x else if (x < cout << "x else cout << "x is positive"; 0) is negative"; is 0";

Cc cu trc lp
Mc ch ca cc vng lp l lp li mt thao tc vi mt s ln nht nh hoc trong khi mt iu kin no cn tho mn. Vng lp while . Dng ca n nh sau:
while (expression) statement

v chc nng ca n n gin ch l lp li statement khi iu kin expression cn tho mn. V d, chng ta s vit mt chng trnh m ngc s dng vo lp while:

// custom countdown using while #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n; cout << "Enter the starting number > "; cin >> n; while (n>0) { cout << n << ", "; --n; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; }

Enter the starting number > 8 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Khi chng trnh chy ngi s dng c yu cu nhp vo mt s m ngc. Sau , khi vng lp while bt u nu s m ngi dng nhp vo tho mn iu kin iu kin n>0 khi lnh s c thc hin mt s ln khng xc nh chng no iu kin (n>0) cn c tho mn. Chng ta cn phi nh rng vng lp phi kt thc mt im no , v vy bn trong vng lp chng ta phi cung cp mt phng thc no buc condition tr thnh sai nu khng th n s lp li mi mi. Trong v d trn vng lp phi c lnh --n; lm cho condition tr thnh sai sau mt s ln lp. Vng lp do-while Dng thc:
do statement while (condition);

Chc nng ca n l hon ton ging vng lp while ch tr c mt iu l iu kin iu khin vng lp c tnh ton sau khi statement c thc hin, v vy statement s c thc hin t nht mt ln ngay c khi condition khng bao gi c tho mn. V d, chng trnh di y s vit ra bt k s no m bn nhp vo cho n khi bn nhp s 0.
// number echoer #include <iostream.h> int main () { unsigned long n; do { cout << "Enter number (0 to end): "; cin >> n; cout << "You entered: " << n << "\n"; } while (n != 0); return 0; } Enter number You entered: Enter number You entered: Enter number You entered: (0 to end): 12345 12345 (0 to end): 160277 160277 (0 to end): 0 0

Vng lp do-while thng c dng khi iu kin kt thc vng lp nm trong vng lp, nh trong v d trn, s m ngi dng nhp vo l iu kin kim tra kt thc vng lp. Nu bn khng nhp s 0 trong v d trn th vng lp s khng bao gi chm dt. Vng lp for . Dng thc:
for (initialization; condition; increase) statement;

v chc nng chnh ca n l lp li statement chng no condition cn mang gi tr ng, nh trong vng lp while. Nhng thm vo , for cung cp ch dnh cho lnh khi to v lnh tng. V vy vng lp ny c thit k c bit lp li mt hnh ng vi mt s ln xc nh. Cch thc hot ng ca n nh sau: 1, initialization c thc hin. Ni chung n t mt gi kh ban u cho bin iu khin. Lnh ny c thc hin ch mt ln. 2, condition c kim tra, nu n l ng vng lp tip tc cn nu khng vng lp kt thc v statement c b qua. 3, statement c thc hin. N c th l mt lnh n hoc l mt khi lnh c bao trong mt cp ngoc nhn. 4, Cui cng, increase c thc hin tng bin iu khin v vng lp quay tr li bc 2. Sau y l mt v d m ngc s dng vng for.
// countdown using a for loop #include <iostream.h> int main () { for (int n=10; n>0; n--) { cout << n << ", "; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Phn khi to v lnh tng khng bt buc phi c. Chng c th c b qua nhng vn phi c du chm phy ngn cch gia cc phn. V vy, chng ta c th vit for (;n<10;) hoc for (;n<10;n++). Bng cch s dng du phy, chng ta c th dng nhiu lnh trong bt k trng no trong vng for, nh l trong phn khi to. V d chng ta c th khi to mt lc nhiu bin trong vng lp:
for ( n=0, i=100 ; n!=i ; n++, i-- )

{ // ci g y cng c... }

Vng lp ny s thc hin 50 ln nu nh n v i khng b thay i trong thn vng lp:

Cc lnh r nhnh v lnh nhy

Lnh break. S dng break chng ta c th thot khi vng lp ngay c khi iu kin n kt thc cha c tho mn. Lnh ny c th c dng kt thc mt vng lp khng xc nh hay buc n phi kt thc gia chng thay v kt thc mt cch bnh thng. V d, chng ta s dng vic m ngc trc khi n kt thc:
// break loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n; for (n=10; n>0; n--) { cout << n << ", "; if (n==3) { cout << "countdown aborted!"; break; } } return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, countdown aborted!

Lnh continue. Lnh continue lm cho chng trnh b qua phn cn li ca vng lp v nhy sang ln lp tip theo. V d chng ta s b qua s 5 trong phn m ngc:
// break loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { for (int n=10; n>0; n--) { if (n==5) continue; cout << n << ", "; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Lnh goto.

Lnh ny cho php nhy v iu kin ti bt k im no trong chng trnh. Ni chung bn nn trnh dng n trong chng trnh C++. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c mt v d dng lnh goto m ngc:
// goto loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n=10; loop: ; cout << n << ", "; n--; if (n>0) goto loop; cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Hm exit. Mc ch ca exit l kt thc chng trnh v tr v mt m xc nh. Dng thc ca n nh sau

void exit (int exit code);

c dng bi mt s h iu hnh hoc c th c dng bi cc chng trnh gi. Theo quy c, m tr v 0 c ngha l chng trnh kt thc bnh thng cn cc gi tr khc 0 c ngha l c li.
exit code

Cu trc la chn: switch.

C php ca lnh switch hi c bit mt cht. Mc ch ca n l kim tra mt vi gi tr hng cho mt biu thc, tng t vi nhng g chng ta lm u bi ny khi lin kt mt vi lnh if v else if vi nhau. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
switch (expression) { case constant1: block of instructions 1 break; case constant2: block of instructions 2 break; . . . default: default block of instructions }

N hot ng theo cch sau: switch tnh biu thc v kim tra xem n c bng constant1 hay khng, nu ng th n thc hin block of instructions 1 cho n khi tm thy t kho break, sau nhy n phn cui ca cu trc la chn switch. Cn nu khng, switch s kim tra xem biu thc c bng constant2 hay khng. Nu ng n s thc hin block of instructions 2 cho n khi tm thy t kho break.

Cui cng, nu gi tr biu thc khng bng bt k hng no c ch nh trn (bn c th ch nh bao nhiu cu lnh case tu thch), chng trnh s thc hin cc lnh trong phn default: nu n tn ti v phn ny khng bt buc phi c. Hai on m sau l tng ng: v d switch
switch (x) { case 1: cout << "x is 1"; break; case 2: cout << "x is 2"; break; default: cout << "value of x unknown"; }

if-else tng ng
if (x == 1) { cout << "x is 1"; } else if (x == 2) { cout << "x is 2"; } else { cout << "value of x unknown"; }

Ti ni trn rng cu trc ca lnh switch hi c bit. Ch s tn ti ca lnh break cui mi khi lnh. iu ny l cn thit v nu khng th sau khi thc hin block of instructions 1 chng trnh s khng nhy n cui ca lnh switch m s thc hin cc khi lnh tip theo cho n khi n tm thy lnh break u tin. iu ny khin cho vic t cp ngoc nhn { } trong mi trng hp l khng cn thit v c th c dng khi bn mun thc hin mt khi lnh cho nhiu trng hp khc nhau, v d:
switch (x) { case 1: case 2: case 3: cout << "x is 1, 2 or 3"; break; default: cout << "x is not 1, 2 nor 3"; }

Ch rng lnh switch ch c th c dng so snh mt biu thc vi cc hng. V vy chng ta khng th t cc bin (case (n*2):) hay cc khong (case (1..3):) v chng khng phi l cc hng hp l. Nu bn cn kim tra cc khong hay nhiu gi tr khng phi l hng s hy kt hp cc lnh if v else if. Bi 2.2

Hm (I)
Hm l mt khi lnh c thc hin khi n c gi t mt im khc ca chng trnh. Dng thc ca n nh sau:

type name ( argument1, argument2, ...) statement

trong : type l kiu d liu c tr v ca hm name l tn gi ca hm. arguments l cc tham s (c nhiu bao nhiu cng c tu theo nhu cu). Mt tham s bao gm tn kiu d liu sau l tn ca tham s ging nh khi khai bo bin (v d int x) v ng vai tr bn trong hm nh bt k bin no khc. Chng dng truyn tham s cho hm khi n c gi. Cc tham s khc nhau c ngn cch bi cc du phy. statement l thn ca hm. N c th l mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh. Di y l v d u tin v hm:
// function example #include <iostream.h> int addition (int a, int b) { int r; r=a+b; return (r); } int main () { int z; z = addition (5,3); cout << "The result is " << z; return 0; } The result is 8

c th hiu c on m ny, trc ht hy nh li nhng iu ni bi u tin: mt chng trnh C++ lun bt u thc hin t hm main. V vy chng ta bt u t y. Chng ta c th thy hm main bt u bng vic khai bo bin z kiu int. Ngay sau l mt li gi ti hm addition. Nu chng ta s thy s tng t gia cu trc ca li gi hm vi khai bo ca hm:

Cc tham s c vai tr tht r rng. Bn trong hm main chng ta gi hm addition v truyn hai gi tr: 5 v 3 tng ng vi hai tham s int a v int b c khai bo cho hm addition. Vo thi im hm c gi t main, quyn iu khin c chuyn sang cho hm addition. Gi tr ca c hai tham s (5 v 3) c copy sang hai bin cc b int a v int b bn trong hm.

Dng lnh sau:

return (r);

kt thc hm addition, v tr li quyn iu khin cho hm no gi n (main) v tip tc chng trnh ci im m n b ngt bi li gi n addition. Nhng thm vo , gi tr c dng vi lnh return (r) chnh l gi tr c tr v ca hm.\

Gi tr tr v bi mt hm chnh l gi tr ca hm khi n c tnh ton. V vy bin z s c c gi tr c tr v bi addition (5, 3), l 8. Phm vi hot ng ca cc bin [nhc li] Bn cn nh rng phm vi hot ng ca cc bin khai bo trong mt hm hay bt k mt khi lnh no khc ch l hm hay khi lnh v khng th s dng bn ngoi chng. V d, trong chng trnh v d trn, bn khng th s dng trc tip cc bin a, b hay r trong hm main v chng l cc bin cc b ca hm addition. Thm vo bn cng khng th s dng bin z trc tip bn trong hm addition v n lm bin cc b ca hm main. Tuy nhin bn c th khai bo cc bin ton cc c th s dng chng bt k u, bn trong hay bn ngoi bt k hm no. lm vic ny bn cn khai bo chng bn ngoi mi hm hay cc khi lnh, c ngha l ngay trong thn chng trnh. y l mt v d khc v hm:
// function example #include <iostream.h> int subtraction (int a, int b) { int r; r=a-b; return (r); } int main () { int x=5, y=3, z; z = subtraction (7,2); cout << "The first result is " << z << '\n'; cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2) << '\n'; cout << "The third result is " << The The The The first result is 5 second result is 5 third result is 2 fourth result is 6

subtraction (x,y) << '\n'; z= 4 + subtraction (x,y); cout << "The fourth result is " << z << '\n'; return 0; }

Trong trng hp ny chng ta to ra hm subtraction. Chc nng ca hm ny l ly hiu ca hai tham s ri tr v kt qu. Tuy nhin, nu phn tch hm main cc bn s thy chng trnh vi ln gi n hm subtraction. Ti s dng vi cch gi khc nhau cc bn thy cc cch khc nhau m mt hm c th c gi. c hiu cn k v d ny bn cn nh rng mt li gi n mt hm c th hon ton c thay th bi gi tr ca n. V d trong lnh gi hm u tin :
z = subtraction (7,2); cout << "The first result is " << z;

Nu chng ta thay li gi hm bng gi tr ca n ( l 5), chng ta s c:

z = 5; cout << "The first result is " << z;

Tng t nh vy
cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2);

cng cho kt qu ging nh hai dng lnh trn nhng trong trng hp ny chng ta gi hm subtraction trc tip nh l mt tham s ca cout. Chng ta cng c th vit:
cout << "The second result is " << 5;

v 5 l kt qu ca subtraction (7,2). Cn vi lnh

cout << "The third result is " << subtraction (x,y);

iu mi m duy nht y l cc tham s ca subtraction l cc bin thay v cc hng. iu ny l hon ton hp l. Trong trng hp ny gi tr c truyn cho hm subtraction l gi tr ca x and y. Trng hp th t cng hon ton tng t. Thay v vit
z = 4 + subtraction (x,y);

chng ta c th vit:
z = subtraction (x,y) + 4;

cng hon ton cho kt qu tng ng. Ch rng du chm phy c t cui biu thc ch khng cn thit phi t ngay sau li gi hm.

Cc hm khng kiu. Cch s dng void.

Nu bn cn nh c php ca mt li khai bo hm:
type name ( argument1, argument2 ...) statement

bn s thy r rng rng n bt u vi mt tn kiu, l kiu d liu s c hm tr v bi lnh return. Nhng nu chng ta khng mun tr v gi tr no th sao ? Hy tng tng rng chng ta mun to ra mt hm ch hin th mt thng bo ln mn hnh. N khng cn tr v mt gi tr no c, hn na cng khng cn nhn tham s no ht. V vy ngi ta ngh ra kiu d liu void trong ngn ng C. Hy xem xt chng trnh sau:
// void function example #include <iostream.h> void dummyfunction (void) { cout << "I'm a function!"; } int main () { dummyfunction (); return 0; } I'm a function!

T kho void trong phn danh sch tham s c ngha l hm ny khng nhn mt tham s no. Tuy nhin trong C++ khng cn thit phi s dng void lm iu ny. Bn ch n gin s dng cp ngoc n ( ) l xong. Bi v hm ca chng ta khng c mt tham s no, v vy li gi hm dummyfunction s l :
dummyfunction ();

Hai du ngoc n l cn thit cho trnh dch hiu l mt li gi hm ch khng phi l mt tn bin hay bt k du hiu no khc. Bi 2.3

Hm (II). Truyn tham s theo tham s gi tr hay tham s bin.

Cho n nay, trong tt c cc hm chng ta bit, tt c cc tham s truyn cho hm u c truyn theo gi tr. iu ny c ngha l khi chng ta gi hm vi cc tham s, nhng g chng ta truyn cho hm l cc gi tr ch khng phi bn thn cc bin. V d, gi s chng ta gi hm addition nh sau:
int x=5, y=3, z; z = addition ( x , y );

Trong trng hp ny khi chng ta gi hm addition th cc gi tr 5 and 3 c truyn cho hm, khng phi l bn thn cc bin.

n y cc bn c th hi ti: Nh vy th sao, c nh hng g u ? iu ng ni y l khi cc bn thay i gi tr ca cc bin a hay b bn trong hm th cc bin x v y vn khng thay i v chng u c c truyn cho hm ch c gi tr ca chng c truyn m thi. Hy xt trng hp bn cn thao tc vi mt bin ngoi bn trong mt hm. V vy bn s phi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin nh trong hm duplicate trong v d di y:
// passing parameters by reference #include <iostream.h> void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c) { a*=2; b*=2; c*=2; } int main () { int x=1, y=3, z=7; duplicate (x, y, z); cout << "x=" << x << ", y=" << y << ", z=" << z; return 0; } x=2, y=6, z=14

iu u tin lm bn ch l trong khai bo ca duplicate theo sau tn kiu ca mi tham s u l du v (&), bo hiu rng cc tham s ny c truyn theo tham s bin ch khng phi tham s gi tr. Khi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin chng ta ang truyn bn thn bin v bt k s thay i no m chng ta thc hin vi tham s bn trong hm s nh hng trc tip n bin .

Trong v d trn, chng ta lin kt a, b v c vi cc tham s khi gi hm (x, y v z) v mi s thay i vi a bn trong hm s nh hng n gi tr ca x v hon ton tng t vi b v y, c v z.
Kiu khai bo tham s theo dng tham s bin s dng du v (&) ch c trong C++. Trong ngn ng C chng ta phi s dng con tr lm vic tng t nh th.

Truyn tham s di dng tham s bin cho php mt hm tr v nhiu hn mt gi tr. V d, y l mt hm tr v s lin trc v lin sau ca tham s u tin.
// more than one returning value #include <iostream.h> void prevnext (int x, int& prev, int& next) { prev = x-1; next = x+1; } int main () { int x=100, y, z; prevnext (x, y, z); cout << "Previous=" << y << ", Next=" << z; return 0; } Previous=99, Next=101

Gi tr mc nh ca tham s.
Khi nh ngha mt hm chng ta c th ch nh nhng gi tr mc nh s c truyn cho cc i s trong trng hp chng b b qua khi hm c gi. lm vic ny n gin ch cn gn mt gi tr cho i s khi khai bo hm. Nu gi tr

ca tham s vn c ch nh khi gi hm th gi tr mc nh s b b qua. V d:

// default values in functions #include <iostream.h> int divide (int a, int b=2) { int r; r=a/b; return (r); } int main () { cout << divide (12); cout << endl; cout << divide (20,4); return 0; } 6 5

Nhng chng ta thy trong thn chng trnh, c hai li gi hm divide. Trong lnh u tin:
divide (12)

chng ta ch dng mt tham s nhng hm divide cho php n hai. Bi vy hm divide s t cho tham s th hai gi tr bng 2 v l gi tr mc nh ca n (ch phn khai bo hm c kt thc bi int b=2). V vy kt qu s l 6 (12/2).

Trong lnh th hai:

divide (20,4)

c hai tham s, bi vy gi tr mc nh s c b qua. Kt qu ca hm s l 5 (20/4).

Qu ti cc hm.
Hai hm c th c cng tn nu khai bo tham s ca chng khc nhau, iu ny c ngha l bn c th t cng mt tn cho nhiu hm nu chng c s tham s khc nhau hay kiu d liu ca cc tham s khc nhau (hay thm ch l kiu d liu tr v khc nhau). V d:
// overloaded function #include <iostream.h> int divide (int a, int b) { return (a/b); 2 2.5

} float divide (float a, float b) { return (a/b); } int main () { int x=5,y=2; float n=5.0,m=2.0; cout << divide (x,y); cout << "\n"; cout << divide (n,m); return 0; }

Trong v d ny chng ta nh ngha hai hm c cng tn nhng mt hm dng hai tham s kiu int v hm cn li dng kiu float. Trnh bin dch s bit cn phi gi hm no bng cch phn tch kiu tham s khi hm c gi. n gin ti vit c hai hm u c m lnh nh nhau nhng iu ny khng bt buc. Bn c th xy dng hai hm c cng tn nhng hot ng hon ton khc nhau.

Cc hm inline.
Ch th inline c th c t trc khao bo ca mt hm ch r rng li gi hm s c thay th bng m lnh ca hm khi chng trnh c dch. Vic ny tng ng vi vic khai bo mt macro, li ch ca n ch th hin vi cc hm rt ngn, tc chy chng trnh s c ci thin v n khng phi gi mt th tc con.

Cu trc ca n nh sau:
inline type name ( arguments ... ) { instructions ... }

li gi hm cng nh bt k mt hm no khc. Khng cn thit phi t t kho inline trong lnh gi, ch cn trong li khai bo hm l .

qui.
Cc hm c th gi chnh n. iu ny c th c ch vi mt s tc v nh l mt s phng php sp xp hay tnh giai tha ca mt s. V d, tnh giai tha ca mt s (n), cng thc ton hc ca n nh sau:
n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * (n-3) ... * 1

v mt hm qui tnh ton s nh sau:

// factorial calculator #include <iostream.h> long factorial (long a) { if (a > 1) return (a * factorial (a-1)); else return (1); } int main () { long l; cout << "Type a number: "; cin >> l; cout << "!" << l << " = " << factorial (l); return 0; }

Type a number: 9 !9 = 362880

Ch trong hm factorial chng ta c th lnh gi chnh n nhng ch khi tham s ln hn 1, nu khng th hm s thc hin mt vng lp v hn v sau khi n 0 n s tip tc nhn c nhng s m. Hm ny c mt hn ch l kiu d liu m n dng (long) khng cho php tnh giai tha qu 12!.

Khai bo mu cho hm.

Cho n gi chng ta hon ton phi nh ngha hm trc lnh gi u tin n n, m thng l trong main, v vy hm main lun phi nm cui chng trnh. Nu bn th lp li mt vi v d v hm trc y nhng th t hm main trc bt k mt hm c gi t n, bn gn nh chc chn s nhn c thng bo li. Nguyn nhn l mt hm phi c khai bo trc khi n c gi nh nhnggx g chng ta lm trng tt c cc v d.

Nhng c mt cch khc trnh phi vit tt c m chng trnh trc khi chng c th c dng trong main hay bt k mt hm no khc. chnh l khai bo mu cho hm. Cch ny bao gm vic khai bo hm mt cch ngn gn nhng cho trnh dch c th bit cc tham s v kiu d liu tr v ca hm. Dng ca n nh sau:
type name ( argument_type1, argument_type2, ...);

y chnh l phn u ca nh ngha hm, ngoi tr:

N khng c bt k lnh no cho hm. iu ny c ngha l n khng bao gm thn hm vi tt c cc lnh thng c bc trong cp ngoc nhn { }. N kt thc bng du chm phy (;). Trong phn lit k cc tham s ch cn vit kiu ca chng l . Vic vit tn ca cc tham s trong phn khai bo mu l khng bt buc.

V d:
// prototyping #include <iostream.h> void odd (int a); void even (int a); int main () { int i; do { cout << "Type a number: (0 to exit)"; cin >> i; odd (i); } while (i!=0); return 0; } void odd (int a) { if ((a%2)!=0) cout << "Number is odd.\n"; else even (a); } void even (int a) { if ((a%2)==0) cout << "Number is even.\n"; else odd (a); } Type a Number Type a Number Type a Number Type a Number number (0 is odd. number (0 is even. number (0 is even. number (0 is even. to exit): 9 to exit): 6 to exit): 1030 to exit): 0

V d ny r rng khng phi l mt v d v s hiu qu. Ti chc chn rng cc bn c th nhn c kt qu nh trn ch vi mt na s dng lnh. Tuy nhin n gip cho chng ta thy c vic khai bo mu cc hm l nh th no. Hn na, trong v d ny vic khai bo mu t nht mt hm l bt buc. u tin chng ta thy khai bo mu ca hai hm odd v even:
void odd (int a); void even (int a);

cho php hai hm ny c th c s dng trc khi chng c nh ngha hon chnh. Tuy nhin l do c bit gii thch ti sao chng trnh ny li cn t nht mt

hm phi c khi bo mu l trong odd c mt li gi n even v trong even c mt li gi n odd. V vy nu khng c hm no c khai bo trc th li chc chn s xy ra.

Rt nhiu lp trnh vin kinh nghim khuyn rng tt c cc hm nn c khai bo mu. cng l li khuyn ca ti, nht l trong trng hp c nhiu hm hoc chng rt di, khi vic khai bo tt c cc hm cng mt ch cho php chng ta bit phi gi cc hm nh th no, v vy tit kim c thi gian. Bi 3.1

Mng
Mng l mt dy cc phn t c cng kiu c t lin tip trong b nh v c th truy xut n tng phn t bng cch thm mt ch s vo sau tn ca mng. iu ny c ngha l, v d, chng ta c th lu 5 gi tr kiu int m khng cn phi khai bo 5 bin khc nhau.V d, mt mng cha 5 gi tr nguyn kiu int c tn l billy c th c biu din nh sau:

trong mi mt trng biu din mt phn t ca mng, trong trng hp ny l cc gi tr nguyn kiu int. Chng c nh s t 0 n 4 v phn t u tin ca mng lun l 0 bt k di ca n l bao nhiu.

Nh bt k bin no khc, mt mng phi c khai bo trc khi c th s dng. Mt khai bo in hnh cho mt mng trong C++ nh sau:

type name [elements];

trong type l mt kiu d liu hp l (int, float...), name l mt tn bin hp l v trng elements ch nh mng s cha bao nhiu phn t

V vy, khai bo billy nh trnh by trn chng ta ch cn mt dng n gin nh sau:

int billy [5];

Ch : Trng elements bn trong cp ngoc [] phi l mt gi tr hng khi khai bo mt mng, v mng l mt khi nh tnh c kch c xc nh v trnh bin dch phi c kh nng xc nh xem cn bao nhiu b nh cp pht cho mng trc khi cc lnh c th c thc hin.

Khi to mt mng.
Khi khai bo mt mng vi tm hot ng a phng (trong mt hm), theo mc nh n s khng c khi to, v vy ni dung ca n l khng xc nh cho n khi chng ra lu cc gi tr ln .

Nu chng ta khai bo mt mng ton cc (bn ngoi tt c cc hm) n s c khi to v tt c cc phn t c t bng 0. V vy nu chng ta khai bo mng ton cc:

int billy [5];

mi phn t ca billy s c khi to l 0:

Nhng thm vo , khi chng ta khai bo mt mng, chng ta c th gn cc gi tr khi to cho tng phn t ca n. V d:

int billy [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };

lnh trn s khai bo mt mng nh sau:

S phn t trong mng m chng ta khi to vi cp ngoc nhn { } phi bng s phn t ca mng c khai bo vi cp ngoc vung [ ]. Bi v iu ny c th c coi l mt s lp li khng cn thit nn C++ cho php trng gia cp ngoc vung, kch thc ca mng c xc nh bng s gi tr gia cp ngoc nhn.

Truy xut n cc phn t ca mng.

bt k im no ca chng trnh trong tm hot ng ca mng, chng ta c th truy xut tng phn t ca mng c hay chnh sa nh l i vi mt bin bnh thng. Cu trc ca n nh sau:
name[index]

Nh trong v d trc ta c mng billy gm 5 phn t c kiu int, chng ta c th truy xut n tng phn t ca mng nh sau:

V d, lu gi tr 75 vo phn t th ba ca billy ta vit nh sau:

billy[2] = 75;

v, v d, gn gi tr ca phn t th 3 ca billy cho bin a, chng ta vit:

a = billy[2];

V vy, xt v mi phng din, biu thc billy[2] ging nh bt k mt bin kiu int.

Ch rng phn t th ba ca billy l billy[2], v mng bt u t ch s 0. V vy, phn t cui cng s l billy[4]. V vy nu chng ta vit billy[5], chng ta s truy xut n phn t th 6 ca mng v vt qu gii hn ca mng.

Trong C++, vic vt qu gii hn ch s ca mng l hon ton hp l, tuy nhin n c th gy ra nhng vn thc s kh pht hin bi v chng khng to ra nhng li trong qu trnh dch nhng chng c th to ra nhng kt qu khng mong mun trong qu trnh thc hin. Nguyn nhn ca vic ny s c ni n k hn khi chng ta bt u s dng con tr. Cn phi nhn mnh rng chng ta s dng cp ngoc vung cho hai tc v: u tin l t kch thc cho mng khi khai bo chng v th hai, ch nh ch s cho mt phn t c th ca mng khi xem xt n n.
int billy[5]; billy[2] = 75; // khai bo mt mng mi. // truy xut n mt phn t ca mng.

Mt vi thao tc hp l khc vi mng:

billy[0] = a; billy[a] = 75; b = billy [a+2]; billy[billy[a]] = billy[2] + 5; // v d v mng #include <iostream.h> int billy [] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071}; int n, result=0; int main () { for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ ) { result += billy[n]; } cout << result; return 0; } 12206

Mng nhiu chiu.

Mng nhiu chiu c th c coi nh mng ca mng, v d, mt mng hai chiu c th c tng tc nh l mt bng hai chiu gm cc phn t c kiu d liu c th v ging nhau.

jimmy biu din mt mng hai chiu kch thc 3x5 c kiu int. Cch khai bo mng

ny nh sau:

int jimmy [3][5];

v, v d, cch truy xut n phn t th hai theo chiu dc v th t theo chiu ngang trong mt biu thc nh sau:
jimmy[1][3]

(hy nh rng ch s ca mng lun bt u t 0).

Mng nhiu chiu khng b gii hn bi hai ch s (hai chiu), Chng c th cha bao nhiu ch s ty thch mc d t kh cn phi dng n mng ln hn 3 chiu. Hy th xem xt lng b nh m mt mng c nhiu ch s cn n. V d:
char century [100][365][24][60][60];

gn mt gi tr char cho mi giy trong mt th k, phi cn n hn 3 t gi tr chars! Chng ta s phi cn khong 3GB RAM khai bo n.

Mng nhiu chiu thc ra l mt khi nim tru tng v chng ta c th c kt qu tng t vi mng mt chiu bng mt thao tc n gin gia cc ch s ca n:
int jimmy [3][5]; tng ng int jimmy [15]; (3 * 5 = 15)

vi

Di y l hai v d vi cng mt kt qu nh nhau, mt s dng mng hai chiu v mt s dng mng mt chiu:
// multidimensional array #include <iostream.h> #define WIDTH 5 #define HEIGHT 3 int jimmy [HEIGHT][WIDTH]; int n,m; int main () { for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++) for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++) { jimmy[n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1); } return 0; // pseudo-multidimensional array #include <iostream.h> #define WIDTH 5 #define HEIGHT 3 int jimmy [HEIGHT * WIDTH]; int n,m; int main () { for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++) for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++) { jimmy[n * WIDTH + m]=(n+1)*(m+1); }

} }

return 0;

khng mt chng trnh no vit g ra mn hnh nhng c hai u gn gi tr vo khi nh c tn jimmy theo cch sau:

Chng ta nh ngha hng (#define) n gin ha nhng chnh sa sau ny ca chng trnh, v d, trong trng hp chng ta quyt nh tng kch thc ca mng vi chiu cao l 4 thay v l 3, chng ta ch cn thay i dng:
#define HEIGHT 3

thnh
#define HEIGHT 4

v khng phi c thm s thay i no na i vi chng trnh.

Dng mng lm tham s.

Vo mt lc no c th chng ta cn phi truyn mt mng ti mt hm nh l mt tham s. Trong C++, vic truyn theo tham s gi tr mt khi nh l khng hp l, ngay c khi n c t chc thnh mt mng. Tuy nhin chng ta li c php truyn a ch ca n, vic ny cng to ra kt qu thc t ging thao tc trn nhng li nhanh hn nhiu v hiu qu hn.

c th nhn mng l tham s th iu duy nht chng ta phi lm khi khai bo hm l ch nh trong phn tham s kiu d liu c bn ca mng, tn mng v cp ngoc vung trng. V d, hm sau:
void procedure (int arg[])

nhn vo mt tham s c kiu "mng ca char" v c tn arg. truyn tham s cho hm ny mt mng c khai bo:
int myarray [40];

ch cn gi hm nh sau:
procedure (myarray);

Di y l mt v d c th
// arrays as parameters #include <iostream.h> void printarray (int arg[], int length) { for (int n=0; n<length; n++) cout << arg[n] << " "; cout << "\n"; } int main () { int firstarray[] = {5, 10, 15}; int secondarray[] = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; printarray (firstarray,3); printarray (secondarray,5); return 0; } 5 10 15 2 4 6 8 10

Nh bn c th thy, tham s u tin (int arg[]) chp nhn mi mng c kiu c bn l int, bt k di ca n l bao nhiu, v vy cn thit phi c tham s th hai bo cho hm ny bit di ca mng m chng ta truyn cho n. Trong phn khai bo hm chng ta cng c th dng tham s l cc mng nhiu chiu. Cu trc ca mng 3 chiu nh sau:
base_type[][depth][depth]

v d, mt hm vi tham s l mng nhiu chiu c th nh sau:

void procedure (int myarray[][3][4])

ch rng cp ngoc vung u tin trng nhng cc cp ngoc sau th khng. Bn lun lun phi lm vy v trnh bin dch C++ phi c kh nng xc nh ln ca cc chiu thm vo ca mng.

Mng, c mt chiu v nhiu chiu, khi truyn cho hm nh l mt tham s thng l nguyn nhn gy li cho nhng lp trnh vin thiu kinh nghim. Cc bn nn c bi 3.3. Con tr c th hiu r hn mng hot ng nh th no. Bi 3.2

Xu k t

Trong tt c cc chng trnh chng ta thy cho n gi, chng ta ch s dng cc bin kiu s, ch dng biu din cc s. Nhng bn cnh cc bin kiu s cn c cc xu k t, chng cho php chng ta biu din cc chui k t nh l cc t, cu, on vn bn... Cho n gi chng ta mi ch dng chng di dng hng ch cha quan tm n cc bin c th cha chng. Trong C++ khng c kiu d liu c bn lu cc xu k t. c th tha mn nhu cu ny, ngi ta s dng mng c kiu char. Hy nh rng kiu d liu ny (char) ch c th lu tr mt k t n, bi vy n c dng to ra xu ca cc k t n. V d, mng sau (hay l xu k t):
char jenny [20];

c th lu mt xu k t vi di cc i l 20 k t. Bn c th tng tng n nh sau:

Kch thc cc i ny khng cn phi lun lun dng n. V d, jenny c th lu xu "Hello" hay "Merry christmas". V cc mng k t c th lu cc xu k t ngn hn di ca n, trong C++ c mt quy c kt thc mt ni dung ca mt xu k t bng mt k t null, c th c vit l '\0'. Chng ta c th biu din jenny (mt mng c 20 phn t kiu char) khi lu tr xu k t "Hello" v "Merry Christmas" theo cch sau:

Ch rng sau ni dung ca xu, mt k t null ('\0') c dng bo hiu kt thc xu. Nhng mu xm biu din nhng gi tr khng xc nh.

Khi to cc xu k t.
V nhng xu k t l nhng mng bnh thng nn chng cng nh cc mng khc. V d, nu chng ta mun khi to mt xu k t vi nhng gi tr xc nh chng ta c th lm iu tng t nh vi cc mng khc:
char mystring[] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Tuy nhin, chng ta c th khi to gi tr cho mt xu k t bng cch khc: s dng cc hng xu k t.

Trong cc biu thc chng ta s dng trong cc v d trong cc chng trc cc hng xu k t xut hin vi ln. Chng c biu din trong cp ngoc kp ("), v d:
"the result is: "

l mt hng xu k t chng ta s dng mt s ch. Khng ging nh du nhy n (') cho php biu din hng k t, cp ngoc kp (") l hng biu din mt chui k t lin tip, v cui chui mt k t null ('\0') lun c t ng thm vo. V vy chng ta c th khi to xu mystring theo mt trong hai cch sau y:
char mystring [] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' }; char mystring [] = "Hello";

Trong c hai trng hp mng (hay xu k t) mystring c khai bo vi kch thc 6 k t: 5 k t biu din Hello cng vi mt k t null. Trc khi tip tc, ti cn phi nhc nh bn rng vic gn nhiu hng nh vic s dng du ngoc kp (") ch hp l khi khi to mng, tc l lc khai bo mng. Cc biu thc trong chng trnh nh:
mystring = "Hello"; mystring[] = "Hello";

l khng hp l, c cu lnh di y cng vy:

mystring = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Vy hy nh: Chng ta ch c th "gn" nhiu hng cho mt mng vo lc khi to n. Nguyn nhn l mt thao tc gn (=) khng th nhn v tri l c mt mng m ch c th nhn mt trong nhng phn t ca n. Vo thi im khi to mng l mt trng hp c bit, v n khng thc s l mt lnh gn mc d n s dng du bng (=).

Gn gi tr cho xu k t
V v tri ca mt lnh gn ch c th l mt phn t ca mng ch khng th l c mng, chng ta c th gn mt xu k t cho mt mng kiu char s dng mt phng php nh sau:
mystring[0] mystring[1] mystring[2] mystring[3] mystring[4] mystring[5] = = = = = = 'H'; 'e'; 'l'; 'l'; 'o'; '\0';

Nhng r rng y khng phi l mt phng php thc t. gn gi tr cho mt xu k t, chng ta c th s dng lot hm kiu strcpy (string copy), hm ny c nh ngha trong string.h v c th c gi nh sau:
strcpy (string1, string2);

Lnh ny copy ni dung ca string2 sang string1. string2 c th l mt mng, con tr hay mt hng xu k t, bi vy lnh sau y l mt cch ng gn xu hng "Hello" cho mystring:
strcpy (mystring, "Hello");

V d:
// setting value to string #include <iostream.h> #include <string.h> int main () { char szMyName [20]; strcpy (szMyName,"J. Soulie"); cout << szMyName; return 0; } J. Soulie

rng chng ta phi include file <string.h> c th s dng hm strcpy. Mc d chng ta lun c th vit mt hm n gin nh hm setstring di y thc hin mt thao tc ging nh strcpy:
// setting value to string #include <iostream.h> void setstring (char szOut [], char szIn []) { int n=0; do { szOut[n] = szIn[n]; n++; } while (szIn[n] != 0); } int main () { char szMyName [20]; setstring (szMyName,"J. Soulie"); cout << szMyName; return 0; } J. Soulie

Mt phng thc thng dng khc gn gi tr cho mt mng l s dng trc tip dng nhp d liu (cin). Trong trng hp ny gi tr ca xu k t c gn bi ngi dng trong qu trnh chng trnh thc hin. Khi cin c s dng vi cc xu k t n thng c dng vi phng thc getline ca n, phng thc ny c th c gi nh sau:
cin.getline ( char buffer[], int length, char delimiter = ' \n');

trong buffer (b m) l a ch ni s lu tr d liu vo (nh l mt mng chng hn), length l di cc i ca b m (kch thc ca mng) v delimiter l k t c dng kt thc vic nhp, mc nh - nu chng ta khng dng tham s ny - s l k t xung dng ('\n'). V d sau y lp li tt c nhng g bn g trn bn phm. N rt n gin nhng l mt v d cho thy bn c th s dng cin.getline vi cc xu k t nh th no:
// cin with strings #include <iostream.h> int main () { char mybuffer [100]; cout << "What's your name? "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); cout << "Hello " << mybuffer << ".\n"; cout << "Which is your favourite team? "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); cout << "I like " << mybuffer << " too.\n"; return 0; } What's your name? Juan Hello Juan. Which is your favourite team? Inter Milan I like Inter Milan too.

Ch trong c hai li gi cin.getline chng ta s dng cng mt bin xu (mybuffer). Nhng g chng trnh lm trong li gi th hai n gin l thay th ni dung ca buffer trong li gi c bng ni dung mi. Nu bn cn nh phn ni v giao tip vi, bn s nh rng chng ta s dng ton t >> nhn d liu trc tip t u vo chun. Phng thc ny c th c dng vi cc xu k t thay cho cin.getline. V d, trong chn trnh ca chng ta, khi chng ta mun nhn d liu t ngi dng chng ta c th vit:
cin >> mybuffer;

lnh ny s lm vic nh n c nhng hn ch sau m cin.getline khng c:

6. N ch c th nhn nhng t n (khng nhn c c cu) v phng thc ny s dng k t trng(bao gm c du cch, du tab v du xung dng) lm du hiu kt thc.. 7. N khng cho php ch nh kch thc cho b m. Chng trnh ca bn c th chy khng n nh nu d liu vo ln hn kch c ca mng cha n. V nhng nguyn nhn trn, khi mun nhp vo cc xu k t bn nn s dng cin.getline thay v cin >>.

Chuyn i xu k t sang cc kiu khc.

V mt xu k t c th biu din nhiu kiu d liu khc nh dng s nn vic chuyn i ni dung nh vy sang dng s l rt hu ch. V d, mt xu c th mang gi tr "1977"nhng l mt chui gm 5 k t (k c k t null) v khng d g chuyn thnh mt s nguyn. V vy th vin cstdlib (stdlib.h) cung cp 3 macro/hm hu ch sau:

atoi: chuyn xu thnh kiu int. atol: chuyn xu thnh kiu long. atof: chuyn xu thnh kiu float.

Tt c cc hm ny nhn mt tham s v tr v gi tr s (int, long hoc float). Cc hm ny khi kt hp vi phng thc getline ca cin l mt cch ng tin cy hn phng thc cin>> c in khi yu cu ngi s dng nhp vo mt s:
// cin and ato* functions #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> int main () { char mybuffer [100]; float price; int quantity; cout << "Enter price: "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); price = atof (mybuffer); cout << "Enter quantity: "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); quantity = atoi (mybuffer); cout << "Total price: " << price*quantity; return 0; } Enter price: 2.75 Enter quantity: 21 Total price: 57.75

Cc hm thao tc trn chui

Th vin cstring (string.h) khng ch c hm strcpy m cn c nhiu hm khc thao tc trn chui. Di y l gii thiu lt qua ca cc hm thng dng nht: strcat: char* strcat (char* dest, const char* src); Gn thm chui src vo pha cui ca dest. Tr v dest.

strcmp: int strcmp (const char* string1, const char* string2); So snh hai xu string1 v string2. Tr v 0 nu hai xu l bng nhau. strcpy: char* strcpy (char* dest, const char* src); Copy ni dung ca src cho dest. Tr v dest. strlen: size_t strlen (const char* string); Tr v di ca string. Ch : char* hon ton tng ng vi char[] Bi 3.3

Con tr
Chng ta bit cc bin chnh l cc nh m chng ta c th truy xut di cc tn. Cc bin ny c lu tr ti nhng ch c th trong b nh. i vi chng trnh ca chng ta, b nh my tnh ch l mt dy gm cc nh 1 byte, mi c mt a ch xc nh. Mt s m hnh tt i vi b nh my tnh chnh l mt ph trong mt thnh ph. Trn mt ph tt c cc ngi nh u c nh s tun t vi mt ci tn duy nht nn nu chng ta ni n s 27 ph Trn Hng o th chng ta c th tm c ni m khng lm ln v ch c mt ngi nh vi s nh vy. Cng vi cch t chc tng t nh vic nh s cc ngi nh, h iu hnh t chc b nh thnh nhng s n nht, tun t, nn nu chng ta ni n v tr 1776 trong b nh chng ta bit chnh xc nh v ch c mt v tr vi a ch nh vy.

Ton t ly a ch (&).
Vo thi im m chng ta khai bo mt bin th n phi c lu tr trong mt v tr c th trong b nh. Ni chung chng ta khng quyt nh ni no bin c t - tht may mn rng iu c lm t ng bi trnh bin dch v h iu hnh, nhng mt khi h iu hnh gn mt a ch cho bin th chng ta c th mun bit bin c lu tr u.

iu ny c th c thc hin bng cch t trc tn bin mt du v (&), c ngha l "a ch ca". V d:
ted = &andy;

s gn cho bin ted a ch ca bin andy, v khi t trc tn bin andy du v (&) chng ta khng cn ni n ni dung ca bin m ch ni n a ch ca n trong b nh.

Gi s rng bin andy c t nh c a ch 1776 v chng ta vit nh sau:

andy = 25; fred = andy; ted = &andy;

kt qu s ging nh trong s di y:

Chng ta gn cho fred ni dung ca bin andy nh chng ta lm rt ln nhiu khc trong nhng phn trc nhng vi bin ted chng ta gn a ch m h iu hnh lu gi tr ca bin andy, chng ta va gi s n l 1776.

Nhng bin lu tr a ch ca mt bin khc (nh ted trong v d trc) c gi l con tr. Trong C++ con tr c rt nhiu u im v chng c s dng rt thng xuyn, Tip theo chng ta s thy cc bin kiu ny c khai bo nh th no.

Ton t tham chiu (*)

Bng cch s dng con tr chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n gi tr c lu tr trong bin c tr bi n bng cch trc tn bin con tr mt du sao (*) y c th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi". V vy, nu chng ta vit:
beth = *ted;

(chng ta c th c n l: "beth bng gi tr c tr bi ted" beth s mang gi tr 25, v ted bng 1776 v gi tr tr bi 1776 l 25.

Bn phi phn bit c rng ted c gi tr 1776, nhng *ted (vi mt du sao ng trc) tr ti gi tr c lu tr trong a ch 1776, l 25. Hy ch s khc bit gia vic c hay khng c du sao tham chiu.
beth = ted; beth = *ted; // beth bng ted ( 1776 ) // beth bng gi tr c tr bi( 25 )

Ton t ly a ch (&) N c dng nh l mt tin t ca bin v c th c dch l "a ch ca", v vy &variable1 c th c c l "a ch ca variable1".

Ton t tham chiu (*) N ch ra rng ci cn c tnh ton l ni dung c tr bi biu thc c coi nh l mt a ch. N c th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi".. *mypointer c c l "gi tr c tr bi mypointer". Vo lc ny, vi nhng v d vit trn
andy = 25; ted = &andy;

bn c th d dng nhn ra tt c cc biu thc sau l ng:

andy == 25 &andy == 1776 ted == 1776 *ted == 25

Khai bo bin kiu con tr

V con tr c kh nng tham chiu trc tip n gi tr m chng tr ti nn cn thit phi ch r kiu d liu no m mt bin con tr tr ti khai bo n. V vy, khai bo ca mt bin con tr s c mu sau:
type * pointer_name;

trong type l kiu d liu c tr ti, khng phi l kiu ca bn thn con tr. V d:
int * number; char * character; float * greatnumber;

l ba khai bo ca con tr. Mi bin u tr ti mt kiu d liu khc nhau nhng c ba u l con tr v chng u chim mt lng b nh nh nhau (kch thc ca mt bin con tr ty thuc vo h iu hnh). nhng d liu m chng tr ti khng chim lng b nh nh nhau, mt kiu int, mt kiu char v ci cn li kiu float.

Ti phi nhn mnh li rng du sao (*) m chng ta t khi khai bo mt con tr ch c ngha rng: l mt con tr v hon ton khng lin quan n ton t tham chiu m chng ta xem xt trc . n gin ch l hai tc v khc nhau c biu din bi cng mt du.
// my first pointer #include <iostream.h> int main () { int value1 = 5, value2 = 15; int * mypointer; mypointer = &value1; *mypointer = 10; mypointer = &value2; *mypointer = 20; cout << "value1==" << value1 << "/ value2==" << value2; return 0; } value1==10 / value2==20

Ch rng gi tr ca value1 v value2 c thay i mt cch gin tip. u tin chng ta gn cho mypointer a ch ca value1 dng ton t ly a ch (&) v sau chng ta gn 10 cho gi tr c tr bi mypointer, l gi tr c tr bi value1 v vy chng ta sa bin value1 mt cch gin tip

bn c th thy rng mt con tr c th mang mt vi gi tr trong cng mt chng trnh chng ta s lp li qu trnh vi value2 v vi cng mt con tr. y l mt v d phc tp hn mt cht:
// more pointers #include <iostream.h> int main () { int value1 = 5, value2 = 15; int *p1, *p2; p1 = &value1; // p1 = a ch ca value1 p2 = &value2; // p2 = a ch ca value2 *p1 = 10; // gi tr tr bi p1 = 10 *p2 = *p1; // gi tr tr bi p2 = gi tr tr bi p1 p1 = p2; // p1 = p2 (php gn con tr) *p1 = 20; // gi tr tr bi p1 = 20 cout << "value1==" << value1 << "/ value1==10 / value2==20

value2==" << value2; return 0; }

Mt dng c th gy s ch ca bn l:
int *p1, *p2;

dng ny khai bo hai con tr bng cch t du sao (*) trc mi con tr. Nguyn nhn l kiu d liu khai bo cho c dng l int v v theo th t t phi sang tri, du sao c tnh trc tn kiu. Chng ta ni n iu ny trong bi 1.3: Cc ton t.

Con tr v mng.
Trong thc t, tn ca mt mng tng ng vi a ch phn t u tin ca n, ging nh mt con tr tng ng vi a ch ca phn t u tin m n tr ti, v vy thc t chng hon ton nh nhau. V d, cho hai khai bo sau:
int numbers [20]; int * p;

lnh sau s hp l:
p = numbers;

y p v numbers l tng ng v chng c cng thuc tnh, s khc bit duy nht l chng ta c th gn mt gi tr khc cho con tr p trong khi numbers lun tr n phn t u tin trong s 20 phn t kiu int m n c nh ngha vi. V vy, khng ging nh p - l mt bin con tr bnh thng, numbers l mt con tr hng. Lnh gn sau y l khng hp l:
numbers = p;

bi v numbers l mt mng (con tr hng) v khng c gi tr no c th c gn cho cc hng.

V con tr cng c mi tnh cht ca mt bin nn tt c cc biu thc c con tr trong v d di y l hon ton hp l:
// more pointers #include <iostream.h> int main () { int numbers[5]; 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,

int * p; p = numbers; *p = 10; p++; *p = 20; p = &numbers[2]; *p = 30; p = numbers + 3; *p = 40; p = numbers; *(p+4) = 50; for (int n=0; n<5; n++) cout << numbers[n] << ", "; return 0; }

Trong bi "mng" chng ta dng du ngoc vung ch ra phn t ca mng m chng ta mun tr n. Cp ngoc vung ny c coi nh l ton t offset v ngha ca chng khng i khi c dng vi bin con tr. V d, hai biu thc sau y:
a[5] = 0; *(a+5) = 0; // a [offset of 5] = 0 // pointed by (a+5) = 0

l hon ton tng ng v hp l bt k a l mng hay l mt con tr.

Khi to con tr
Khi khai bo con tr c th chng ta s mun ch nh r rng chng s tr ti bin no,
int number; int *tommy = &number;

l tng ng vi:
int number; int *tommy; tommy = &number;

Trong mt php gn con tr chng ta phi lun lun gn a ch m n tr ti ch khng phi l gi tr m n tr ti. Bn cn phi nh rng khi khai bo mt bin con tr, du sao (*) c dng ch ra n l mt con tr, v hon ton khc vi ton t tham chiu. l hai ton t khc nhau mc d chng c vit vi cng mt du. V vy, cc cu lnh sau l khng hp l:
int number; int *tommy; *tommy = &number;

Nh i vi mng, trnh bin dch cho php chng ta khi to gi tr m con tr tr ti bng gi tr hng vo thi im khai bo bin con tr:
char * terry = "hello";

trong trng hp ny mt khi nh tnh c dnh cha "hello" v mt con tr tr ti k t u tin ca khi nh ny ( l k t h') c gn cho terry. Nu "hello" c lu ti a ch 1702, lnh khai bo trn c th c hnh dung nh th ny:

cn phi nhc li rng terry mang gi tr 1702 ch khng phi l 'h' hay "hello".

Bin con tr terry tr ti mt xu k t v n c th c s dng nh l i vi mt mng (hy nh rng mt mng ch n thun l mt con tr hng). V d, nu chng ta mun thay k t 'o' bng mt du chm than, chng ta c th thc hin vic bng hai cch:
terry[4] = '!'; *(terry+4) = '!';

hy nh rng vit terry[4] l hon ton ging vi vit *(terry+4) mc d biu thc thng dng nht l ci u tin. Vi mt trong hai lnh trn xu do terry tr n s c gi tr nh sau:

Cc php tnh s hc vi pointer

Vic thc hin cc php tnh s hc vi con tr hi khc so vi cc kiu d liu s nguyn khc. Trc ht, ch php cng v tr l c php dng. Nhng c cng v tr u cho kt qu ph thuc vo kch thc ca kiu d liu m bin con tr tr ti.

Chng ta thy c nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau tn ti v chng c th chim ch nhiu hn hoc t hn cc kiu d liu khc. V d, trong cc kiu s nguyn, char chim 1 byte, short chim 2 byte v long chim 4 byte. Gi s chng ta c 3 con tr sau:

char *mychar; short *myshort; long *mylong;

v chng ln lt tr ti nh 1000, 2000 and 3000.

Nu chng ta vit
mychar++; myshort++; mylong++; mychar - nh bn mong i - s mang gi tr 1001. Tuy nhin myshort s mang gi tr 2002 v mylong mang gi tr 3004. Nguyn nhn l khi cng thm 1 vo mt con tr

th n s tr ti phn t tip theo c cng kiu m n c nh ngha, v vy kch thc tnh bng byte ca kiu d liu n tr ti s c cng thm vo bin con tr.

iu ny ng vi c hai php ton cng v tr i vi con tr. Chng ta cng hon ton thu c kt qu nh trn nu vit:
mychar = mychar + 1; myshort = myshort + 1; mylong = mylong + 1;

Cn phi cnh bo bn rng c hai ton t tng (++) v gim (--) u c quyn u tin ln hn ton t tham chiu (*), v vy biu thc sau y c th dn ti kt qu sai:
*p++; *p++ = *q++;

Lnh u tin tng ng vi *(p++) iu m n thc hin l tng p (a ch nh m n tr ti ch khng phi l gi tr tr ti).

Lnh th hai, c hai ton t tng (++) u c thc hin sau khi gi tr ca *q c gn cho *p v sau c q v p u tng ln 1. Lnh ny tng ng vi:
*p = *q; p++; q++;

Nh ni trong cc bi trc, ti khuyn cc bn nn dng cc cp ngoc n trnh nhng kt qu khng mong mun.

Con tr tr ti con tr
C++ cho php s dng cc con tr tr ti cc con tr khc ging nh l tr ti d liu. lm vic chng ta ch cn thm mt du sao (*) cho mi mc tham chiu.
char a; char * b; char ** c; a = 'z'; b = &a; c = &b;

gi s rng a,b,c c lu cc nh 7230, 8092 and 10502, ta c th m t on m trn nh sau:

im mi trong v d ny l bin c, chng ta c th ni v n theo 3 cch khc nhau, mi cch s tng ng vi mt gi tr khc nhau:
c l mt bin c kiu (char **) mang gi tr 8092 *c l mt bin c kiu (char*) mang gi tr 7230 **c l mt bin c kiu (char) mang gi tr 'z'

Con tr khng kiu

Con tr khng kiu l mt loi con tr c bit. N c th tr ti bt k loi d liu no, t gi tr nguyn hoc thc cho ti mt xu k t. Hn ch duy nht ca n l d liu c tr ti khng th c tham chiu ti mt cch trc tip (chng ta khng th dng ton t tham chiu * vi chng) v di ca n l khng xc nh v v vy chng ta phi dng n ton t chuyn kiu d liu hay php gn chuyn con tr khng kiu thnh mt con tr tr ti mt loi d liu c th.

Mt trong nhng tin ch ca n l cho php truyn tham s cho hm m khng cn ch r kiu
// integer increaser #include <iostream.h> void increase (void* data, int type) { switch (type) { case sizeof(char) : (*((char*)data))++; break; case sizeof(short): (*((short*)data))++; break; case sizeof(long) : (*((long*)data))++; break; } } int main () { char a = 5; short b = 9; long c = 12; increase (&a,sizeof(a)); increase (&b,sizeof(b)); increase (&c,sizeof(c)); cout << (int) a << ", " << b << ", " << c; return 0; } sizeof l mt ton t ca ngn ng C++, n tr v mt gi tr hng l kch thc 6, 10, 13

tnh bng byte ca tham s truyn cho n, v d sizeof(char) bng 1 v kch thc ca char l 1 byte.

Con tr hm
C++ cho php thao tc vi cc con tr hm. Tin ch tuyt vi ny cho php truyn mt hm nh l mt tham s n mt hm khc. c th khai bo mt con tr tr ti mt hm chng ta phi khai bo n nh l khai bo mu ca mt hm nhng phi bao trong mt cp ngoc n () tn ca hm v chn du sao (*) ng trc.
// pointer to functions #include <iostream.h> int addition (int a, int b) { return (a+b); } int subtraction (int a, int b) { return (a-b); } int (*minus)(int,int) = subtraction; 8

int operation (int x, int y, int (*functocall)(int,int)) { int g; g = (*functocall)(x,y); return (g); } int main () { int m,n; m = operation (7, 5, &addition); n = operation (20, m, minus); cout <<n; return 0; }

Trong v d ny, minus l mt con tr ton cc tr ti mt hm c hai tham s kiu int, con tr ny c gm tr ti hm subtraction, tt c u trn mt dng:
int (* minus)(int,int) = subtraction;

Bi 3.4

B nh ng
Cho n nay, trong cc chng trnh ca chng ta, tt c nhng phn b nh chng ta c th s dng l cc bin cc mng v cc i tng khc m chng ta khai bo. Kch c ca chng l c nh v khng th thay i trong thi gian chng trnh chy. Nhng nu chng ta cn mt lng b nh m kch c ca n ch c th c xc nh khi chng trnh chy, v d nh trong trng hp chng ta nhn thng tin t ngi dng xc nh lng b nh cn thit. Gii php y chnh l b nh ng, C++ tch hp hai ton t new v delete thc hin vic ny
Hai ton t new v delete ch c trong C++. phn sau ca bi chng ta s bit nhng thao tc tng ng vi cc ton t ny trong C.

Ton t new v new[ ] c th c c b nh ng chng ta c th dng ton t new. Theo sau ton t ny l tn kiu d liu v c th l s phn t cn thit c t trong cp ngoc vung. N tr v mt con tr tr ti u ca khi nh va c cp pht. Dng thc ca ton t ny nh sau:
pointer = new type

hoc

pointer = new type [elements]

Biu thc u tien c dng cp pht b nh cha mt phn t c kiu type. Lnh th hai c dng cp pht mt khi nh (mt mng) gm cc phn t kiu type. V d:
int * bobby; bobby = new int [5];

trong trng hp ny, h iu hnh dnh ch cho 5 phn t kiu int trong b nh v tr v mt con tr tr n u ca khi nh. V vy lc ny bobby tr n mt khi nh hp l gm 5 phn t int.

Bn c th hi ti l c g khc nhau gia vic khai bo mt mng vi vic cp pht b nh cho mt con tr nh chng ta va lm. iu quan trng nht l kch thc ca mt mng phi l mt hng, iu ny gii hn kch thc ca mng n kch thc m chng ta chn khi thit k chng trnh trong khi cp pht b nh ng cho php cp pht b nh trong qu trnh chy vi kch thc bt k.

B nh ng ni chung c qun l bi h iu hnh v trong cc mi trng a nhim c th chy mt lc vi chng trnh c mt kh nng c th xy ra l ht b nh cp pht. Nu iu ny xy ra v h iu hnh khng th cp pht b nh nh chng ta yu cu vi ton t new, mt con tr null (zero) s c tr v. V vy cc bn nn kim tra xem con tr tr v bi ton t new c bng null hay khng:
int * bobby; bobby = new int [5]; if (bobby == NULL) { // error assigning memory. Take measures. };

Ton t delete. V b nh ng ch cn thit trong mt khong thi gian nht nh, khi n khng cn dng n na th n s c gii phng c th cp pht cho cc nhu cu khc trong tng lai. thc hin vic ny ta dng ton t delete, dng thc ca n nh sau:
delete pointer;

hoc
delete [] pointer;

Biu thc u tin nn c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht cho mt phn t v lnh th hai dng gii phng mt khi nh gm nhiu phn t (mng). Trong hu ht cc trnh dch c hai biu thc l tng ng mc d chng l r rng l hai ton t khc nhau.
// rememb-o-matic #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> int main () { char input [100]; int i,n; long * l, total = 0; cout << "How many numbers do you want to type in? "; cin.getline (input,100); i=atoi (input); l= new long[i]; if (l == NULL) exit (1); for (n=0; n<i; n++) { cout << "Enter number: "; cin.getline (input,100); l[n]=atol (input); } cout << "You have entered: "; for (n=0; n<i; n++) cout << l[n] << ", "; delete[] l; return 0; } NULL How many numbers do you want to type in? 5 Enter number : 75 Enter number : 436 Enter number : 1067 Enter number : 8 Enter number : 32 You have entered: 75, 436, 1067, 8, 32,

l mt hng s c nh ngha trong th vin C++ dng biu th con tr null. Trong trng hp hng s ny cha nh ngha bn c th t nh ngha n:
#define NULL 0

Dng 0 hay NULL khi kim tra con tr l nh nhau nhng vic dng NULL vi con tr c s dng rt rng ri v iu ny c khuyn khch gip cho chng trnh d c hn.

B nh ng trong ANSI-C
Ton t new v delete l c quyn C++ v chng khng c trong ngn ng C. Trong ngn ng C, c th s dng b nh ng chng ta phi s dng th vin stdlib.h. Chng ta s xem xt cch ny v n cng hp l trong C++ v n vn cn c s dng trong mt s chng trnh.

Hm malloc y l mt hm tng qut cp pht b nh ng cho con tr. Cu trc ca n nh sau:

void * malloc (size_t nbytes);

trong nbytes l s byte chng ta mun gn cho con tr. Hm ny tr v mt con tr kiu void*, v vy chng ta phi chuyn i kiu sang kiu ca con tr ch, v d:
char * ronny; ronny = (char *) malloc (10);

on m ny cp pht cho con tr ronny mt khi nh 10 byte. Khi chng ta mun cp pht mt khi d liu c kiu khc char (ln hn 1 byte) chng ta phi nhn s phn t mong mun vi kch thc ca chng. Tht may mn l chng ta c ton t sizeof, ton t ny tr v kch thc ca mt kiu d liu c th.
int * bobby; bobby = (int *) malloc (5 * sizeof(int));

on m ny cp pht cho bobby mt khi nh gm 5 s nguyn kiu int, kch c ca kiu d liu ny c th bng 2, 4 hay hn ty thuc vo h thng m chng trnh c dch.

Hm calloc. calloc hot ng rt ging vi malloc, s khc nhau ch yu l khai bo mu ca n:

void * calloc (size_t nelements, size_t size);

n s dng hai tham s thay v mt. Hai tham s ny c nhn vi nhau c c kch thc tng cng ca khi nh cn cp pht. Thng thng tham s u tin (nelements) l s phn t v tham s thc hai (size) l kch thc ca mi phn t. V d, chng ta c th nh ngha bobby vi calloc nh sau:
int * bobby; bobby = (int *) calloc (5, sizeof(int));

Mt im khc nhau na gia malloc v calloc l calloc khi to tt c cc phn t ca n v 0.

Hm realloc. N thay i kch thc ca khi nh c cp pht cho mt con tr.

void * realloc (void * pointer, size_t size);

tham s pointer nhn vo mt con tr c cp pht b nh hay mt con tr null, v size ch nh kch thc ca khi nh mi. Hm ny s cp pht size byte b nh cho con tr. N c th phi thay i v v tr ca khi nh c th ch cho kch thc mi ca khi nh, trong trng hp ny ni dung hin thi ca khi nh c copy ti v tr mi m bo d liu khng b mt. Con tr mi tr ti khi nh c hm tr v. Nu khng th thay i kch thc ca khi nh th hm s tr v mt con tr null nhng tham s pointer v ni dung ca n s khng b thay i.

Hm free. Hm ny gii phng mt khi nh ng c cp pht bi malloc, calloc hoc realloc.

void free (void * pointer);

Hm ny ch c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht bi cc hm malloc, calloc and realloc. Bi 3.5

Cc cu trc Cc cu trc d liu.

Mt cu trc d liu l mt tp hp ca nhng kiu d liu khc nhau c gp li vi mt ci tn duy nht. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
struct model_name { type1 element1; type2 element2; type3 element3; . . } object_name; trong model_name l tn ca mu kiu d liu v tham s ty chn object_name

mt tn hp l cho i tng. Bn trong cp ngoc nhn l tn cc phn t ca cu trc v kiu ca chng.

Nu nh ngha ca cu trc bao gm tham s model_name (tu chn), tham s ny tr thnh mt tn kiu hp l tng ng vi cu trc. V d:
struct products { char name [30]; float price; } ; products apple; products orange, melon;

Chng ta nh ngha cu trc products vi hai trng: name v price, mi trng c mt kiu khc nhau. Chng ta cng s dng tn ca kiu cu trc (products) khai bo ba i tng c kiu : apple, orange v melon.

Sau khi c khai bo, products tr thnh mt tn kiu hp l ging cc kiu c bn nh int, char hay short. Trng tu chn object_name c th nm cui ca phn khai bo cu trc dng khai bo trc tip i tng c kiu cu trc. V d, khai bo cc i tng apple, orange v melon nh lm phn trc chng ta cng c th lm theo cch sau:
struct products { char name [30]; float price; } apple, orange, melon;

Hn na, trong trng hp ny tham s model_name tr thnh tu chn. Mc d nu model_name khng c s dng th chng ta s khng th khai bo thm cc i tng c kiu mu ny.

Mt iu quan trng l cn phn bit r rng u l kiu mu cu trc, u l i tng cu trc. Nu dng cc thut ng chng ta s dng vi cc bin, kiu mu l tn kiu d liu cn i tng l cc bin. Sau khi khai bo ba i tng c kiu l mt mu cu trc xc nh (apple, orange and melon) chng ta c th thao tc vi cc trng to nn chng. lm vic ny chng ta s dng mt du chm (.) chn gia tn i tng v tn trng. V d, chng ta c th thao tc vi bt k phn t no ca cu trc nh l i vi cc bin chun :
apple.name apple.price orange.name orange.price melon.name melon.price

mi trng c kiu d liu tng ng: apple.name, orange.name v melon.name c kiu char[30], v apple.price, orange.price v melon.price c kiu float.

Chng ta tm bit apples, oranges v melons n vi mt v d v cc b phim:

// example about structures #include <iostream.h> #include <string.h> #include <stdlib.h> struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; Enter title: Alien Enter year: 1979 My favourite movie is: 2001 A Space Odyssey (1968) And yours:

} mine, yours; void printmovie (movies_t movie); int main () { char buffer [50]; strcpy (mine.title, "2001 A Space Odyssey"); mine.year = 1968; cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (yours.title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); yours.year = atoi (buffer); cout << "My favourite movie is:\n "; printmovie (mine); cout << "And yours:\n "; printmovie (yours); return 0; } void printmovie (movies_t movie) { cout << movie.title; cout << " (" << movie.year << ")\n"; }

Alien (1979)

V d ny cho chng ta thy cch s dng cc phn t ca mt cu trc v bn thn cu trc nh l cc bin thng thng. V d, yours.year l mt bin hp l c kiu int cng nh mine.title l mt mng hp l vi 50 phn t kiu chars. Ch rng c mine and yours u c coi l cc bin hp l kiu movie_t khi c truyn cho hm printmovie().Hn na mt li th quan trng ca cu trc l chng ta c th xt cc phn t ca chng mt cch ring bit hoc ton b cu trc nh l mt khi. Cc cu trc c s dng rt nhiu xy dng c s d liu c bit nu chng ta xt n kh nng xy dng cc mng ca chng.
// array of structures #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> #define N_MOVIES 5 struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter title: Alien year: 1979 title: Blade Runner year: 1982 title: Matrix year: 1999 title: Rear Window year: 1954

} films [N_MOVIES]; void printmovie (movies_t movie); int main () { char buffer [50]; int n; for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++) { cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (films[n].title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); films[n].year = atoi (buffer); } cout << "\nYou have entered these movies:\n"; for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++) printmovie (films[n]); return 0; } void printmovie (movies_t movie) { cout << movie.title; cout << " (" << movie.year << ")\n"; }

Enter title: Taxi Driver Enter year: 1975 You have entered these movies: Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Matrix (1999) Rear Window (1954) Taxi Driver (1975)

Con tr tr n cu trc
Nh bt k cc kiu d liu no khc, cc cu trc c th c tr n bi con tr. Quy tc hon ton ging nh i vi bt k kiu d liu c bn no:
struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; }; movies_t amovie; movies_t * pmovie; y amovie l mt i tng c kiu movies_t v pmovie l mt con tr tr ti i

tng movies_t. OK, by gi chng ta s n vi mt v d khc, n s gii thiu mt ton t mi:

// pointers to structures #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; Enter title: Matrix Enter year: 1999 You have entered: Matrix (1999)

}; int main () { char buffer[50]; movies_t amovie; movies_t * pmovie; pmovie = & amovie; cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (pmovie->title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); pmovie->year = atoi (buffer); cout << "\nYou have entered:\n"; cout << pmovie->title; cout << " (" << pmovie->year << ")\n"; return 0; }

on m trn gii thiu mt iu quan trng: ton t ->. y l mt ton t tham chiu ch dng tr ti cc cu trc v cc lp (class). N cho php chng ta khng phi dng ngoc mi khi tham chiu n mt phn t ca cu trc. Trong v d ny chng ta s dng:
movies->title

n c th c dch thnh:
(*movies).title

c hai biu thc movies->title v (*movies).title u hp l v chng u dng tham chiu n phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi movies. Bn cn phn bit r rng vi:
*movies.title

n tng ng vi
*(movies.title)

lnh ny dng tnh ton gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu trc movies, trong trng hp ny (title khng phi l mt con tr) n chng c ngha g nhiu. Bn di y tng kt tt c cc kt hp c th c gia con tr v cu trc:

Biu thc
movies.title movies->title

M t Phn t title ca cu trc movies Phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi

movies

Tng ng vi

(*movies).title

*movies.title

Gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu trc

movies

*(movies.title)

Cc cu trc lng nhau

Cc cu trc c th c t lng nhau v vy mt phn t hp l ca mt cu trc c th l mt cu trc khc.
struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; } struct friends_t { char name [50]; char email [50]; movies_t favourite_movie; } charlie, maria; friends_t * pfriends = &charlie;

V vy, sau phn khai bo trn chng ta c th s dng cc biu thc sau:
charlie.name maria.favourite_movie.title charlie.favourite_movie.year pfriends->favourite_movie.year

(trong hai biu thc cui cng l tng ng).

Cc khi nim c bn v cu trc c cp n trong phn ny l hon ton ging vi ngn ng C, tuy nhin trong C++, cu trc c m rng thm cc chc nng ca mt lp vi tnh cht c trng l tt c cc phn t ca n u l cng cng (public). Bn s c thm cc thng tin chi tit trong phn 4.1, Lp. Bi 3.6

Cc kiu d liu t nh ngha.

Trong bi trc chng ta xem xt mt loi d liu c nh ngha bi ngi dng (ngi lp trnh): cu trc. Nhng c cn nhiu kiu d liu t nh ngha khc:

T nh ngha cc kiu d liu (typedef).

C++ cho php chng ta nh ngha cc kiu d liu ca ring mnh da trn cc kiu d liu c. c th lm vic chng ta s s dng t kho typedef, dng thc nh sau:
typedef existing_type new_type_name ;

trong existing_type l mt kiu d liu c bn hay bt k mt kiu d liu nh ngha v new_type_name l tn ca kiu d liu mi. V d
typedef typedef typedef typedef char C; unsigned int WORD; char * string_t; char field [50];

Trong trng hp ny chng ta nh ngha bn kiu d liu mi: C, WORD, string_t v field kiu char, unsigned int, char* kiu char[50], chng ta hon ton c th s dng chng nh l cc kiu d liu hp l:
C achar, anotherchar, *ptchar1; WORD myword; string_t ptchar2; field name; typedef c th hu dng khi bn mun nh ngha mt kiu d liu c dng lp i

lp li trong chng trnh hoc kiu d liu bn mun dng c tn qu di v bn mun n c tn ngn hn.

Union
Union cho php mt phn b nh c th c truy xut di dng nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau mc d tt c chng u nm cng mt v tr trong b nh. Phn khai bo v s dng n tng t vi cu trc nhng chc nng th khc hon ton:
union model_name { type1 element1; type2 element2; type3 element3; . . } object_name;

Tt c cc phn t ca union u chim cng mt ch trong b nh. Kch thc ca n l kch thc ca phn t ln nht. V d:

union mytypes_t { char c; int i; float f; } mytypes;

nh ngha ba phn t
mytypes.c mytypes.i mytypes.f

mi phn t c mt kiu d liu khc nhau. Nhng v tt c chng u nm cng mt ch trong b nh nn bt k s thay i no i vi mt phn t s nh hng ti tt c cc thnh phn cn li.

Mt trong nhng cng dng ca union l dng kt hp mt kiu d liu c bn vi mt mng hay cc cu trc gm cc phn t nh hn. V d:
union mix_t{ long l; struct { short hi; short lo; } s; char c[4]; } mix;

nh ngha ba phn t cho php chng ta truy xut n cng mt nhm 4 byte: mix.l, mix.s v mix.c m chng ta c th s dng tu theo vic chng ta mun truy xut n nhm 4 byte ny nh th no. Ti dng nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau, mng v cu trc trong union bn c th thy cc cch khc nhau m chng ta c th truy xut d liu.

Cc unions v danh
Trong C++ chng ta c th s dng cc unions v danh. Nu chng ta t mt union trong mt cu trc m khng tn (phn i sau cp ngoc nhn { }) union s tr thnh v danh v chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n cc phn t ca n m khng cn n tn ca union (c cn cng khng c). V d, hy xem xt s khc bit gia hai phn khai bo sau y:

union
struct { char title[50]; char author[50]; union { float dollars; int yens; } price; } book;

union v danh
struct { char title[50]; char author[50]; union { float dollars; int yens; }; } book;

S khc bit duy nht gia hai on m ny l trong on m u tin chng ta t tn cho union (price) cn trong ci th hai th khng. Khi truy nhp vo cc phn t dollars v yens, trong trng hp th nht chng ta vit:
book.price.dollars book.price.yens

cn trong trng hp th hai:

book.dollars book.yens

Mt ln na ti nhc li rng v n l mt union, hai trng dollars v yens u chim cng mt ch trong b nh nn chng khng th gi hai gi tr khc nhau.

Kiu lit k (enum)

Kiu d liu lit k dng to ra cc kiu d liu cha mt ci g hi c bit mt cht, khng phi kiu s hay kiu k t hoc cc hng true v false. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
enum model_name { value1, value2, value3, . . } object_name;

V d, chng ta c th to ra mt kiu d liu mi c tn color lu tr cc mu vi phn khai bo nh sau:

enum colors_t {black, blue, green, cyan, red, purple, yellow, white};

Ch rng chng ta khng s dng bt k mt kiu d liu c bn no trong phn khai bo. Chng ta to ra mt kiu d liu mi m khng da trn bt k kiu d liu no c sn: kiu color_t, nhng gi tr c th ca kiu color_t c vit trong cp ngoc nhn {}. V d, sau khi khai bo kiu lit k, biu thc sau s l hp l:

colors_t mycolor; mycolor = blue; if (mycolor == green) mycolor = red;

Trn thc t kiu d liu lit k c dch l mt s nguyn v cc gi tr ca n l cc hng s nguyn c ch nh. Nu iu ny khng oc ch nh, gi tr nguyn tng ng vi phn t u tin l 0 v cc gi tr tip theo c th tng ln 1, V vy, trong kiu d liu colors_t m chng ta nh ngha trn, white tng ng vi 0, blue tng ng vi 1, green tng ng vi 2 v c tip tc nh th.

Nu chng ta ch nh mt gi tr nguyn cho mt gi tr no ca kiu d liu lit k (trong v d ny l phn t u tin) cc gi tr tip theo s l cc gi tr nguyn tip theo, v d:
enum months_t { january=1, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december} y2k; trong trng hp ny, bin y2k c kiu d liu lit k months_t c th cha mt

trong 12 gi tr t january n december v tng ng vi cc gi tr nguyn t 1 n 12, khng phi 0 n 11 v chng ta t january bng 1.
Bi 4.1

Cc lp
Lp l mt phng thc logic t chc d liu v cc hm trong cng mt cu trc. Chng c khai bo s dng t kho class, t ny c chc nng tng t vi t kho ca C struct nhng c kh nng gp thm cc hm thnh vin. Dng thc ca n nh sau:

class class_name { permission_label_1: member1; permission_label_2: member2; ... } object_name;

trong class_name l tn ca lp ( kiu ngi dng t nh ngha) v trng mc nh object_name l mt hay mt vi tn i tng hp l. Phn thn ca khai bo cha cc thnh vin ca lp, c th l d liu hay cc hm v c th l cc nhn cho php ( permission labels) l mt trong nhng t kho sau y: private:, public: hoc protected:.

8. Cc thnh vin private ca mt lp ch c th c truy xut t cc thnh vin khc ca lp

hoc t cc lp "bn b".

9. Cc thnh vin protected c th c truy xut t cc thnh vin trong cng mt lp v

cc lp bn b, thm vo l t cc thnh vin ca cc lp tha k

10. Cui cng, cc thnh vin public c th c truy xut t bt k ch no m lp nhn thy.

Nu chng ta khai bo cc thnh vin ca mt lp trc khi thm vo cc nhn cho php th cc thnh vin c coi l private. V d:

class CRectangle { int x, y; public: void set_values (int,int); int area (void); } rect;
Khai bo lp CRectangle v mt i tng c tn rect c kiu l lp CRectangle. Lp ny cha bn thnh vin: hai vin c kiu int (x v y) trong phn private (v private l s cho php mc nh) v hai hm trong phn public: set_values() v area(), y chng ta ch mi khai bo mu. Hy ch s khc bit gia tn lp v tn i i tng: Trong v d trc, CRectangle l tn lp cn rect l tn mt i tng c kiu CRectangle. Trong cc phn tip theo ca chng trnh chng ta c th truy xut n cc thnh vin public ca i tng rect nh l i vi cc hm hay cc bin thng thng bng cch t tn ca i tng ri sau l mt du chm v tn thnh vin ca lp (nh chng ta lm vi cc cu trc ca C). V d:

rect.set_value (3,4); myarea = rect.area();

nhng chng ta khng c kh nng truy xut n x hay y v chng l cc thnh vin private ca lp v chng ch c th c truy xut t cc thnh vin ca cng mt lp. Bi ri? y l v d y v lp CRectangle:

// classes example #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int x, y; public: void set_values (int,int); int area (void) {return (x*y);} }; void CRectangle::set_values (int a, int b) { x = a; y = b; } int main () { CRectangle rect; rect.set_values (3,4); cout << "area: " << rect.area(); }

area: 12

Mt iu mi trong on m ny l ton t phm vi :: c dng trong khai bo set_values(). N c s dng khai bo bn ngoi cc thnh vin ca mt lp. Ch rng chng ta nh ngha

y hm area() ngay bn trong lp trong khi hm set_values() mi ch c khai bo mu cn nh ngha ca n nm ngoi lp. Trong phn khai bo ngoi ny chng ta bt buc phi dng ton t ::. S khc bit duy nht gia vic khai bo y mt hm bn trong lp v vic ch khai bo mu l trong trng hp th nht hm s c t ng coi l inline bi trnh dch, cn trong trng hp th hai n s l mt hm thnh vin bnh thng. L do khin chng ta khai bo x v y l cc thnh vin private v chng ta nh ngha mt hm thtc vi chng (set_values()) v khng c l do g truy nhp trc tip n cc bin ny. C l trong v d rt n gin ny bn khng thy c mt tin ch ln khi bo v hai bin ny nhng trong cc d n ln hn n c th l rt quan trng khi m bo c rng cc gi tr khng b thay i mt cch khng mong mun. Mt ch li na ca lp l chng ta c th khai bo mt vi i tng khc nhau t n. V d, tip sau y l v d trc v lp CRectangle, ti ch thm phn khai bo thm i tng rectb.

// class example #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int x, y; public: void set_values (int,int); int area (void) {return (x*y);} }; void CRectangle::set_values (int a, int b) { x = a; y = b; } int main () { CRectangle rect, rectb; rect.set_values (3,4); rectb.set_values (5,6); cout << "rect area: " << rect.area() << endl; cout << "rectb area: " << rectb.area() << endl; }

rect area: 12 rectb area: 30

Ch rng li gi n rect.area() khng cho cng kt qu vi rectb.area() v mi i tng ca lp CRectangle c cc bin v cc hm ca ring n Trn y l nhng khi nim c bn v i tng v lp trnh hng i tng. Trong i tng cc d liu v cc hm l cc thuc tnh thay v trc y i tng l cc tham s ca hm trong lp trnh cu trc. Trong bi ny cc phn tip sau chng ta s ni n nhng li ch ca phng thc ny.

Constructors v destructors

Ni chung cc i tng cn phi khi to cc bin hoc cp pht b nh ng trong qu trnh to ra chng c th hot ng tt v trnh c vic tr v cc gi tr khng mong mun. V d, iu g s xy ra nu chng ta gi hm area() trc khi gi hm set_values?C l kt qu s l mt gi tr khng xc nh v cc thnh vin x v y cha c gn mt gi tr c th no. trnh iu ny, mt lp cn c mt hm c bit: mt constructor, hm ny c th c khai bo bng cch t tn trng vi tn ca lp. N s c gi t ng khi mt khai bo mt i tng mi hoc cp pht mt i tng c kiu l lp . Chng ta thm mt constructor vo lp CRectangle:

// classes example #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int width, height; public: CRectangle (int,int); int area (void) {return (width*height);} }; CRectangle::CRectangle (int a, int b) { width = a; height = b; } int main () { CRectangle rect (3,4); CRectangle rectb (5,6); cout << "rect area: " << rect.area() << endl; cout << "rectb area: " << rectb.area() << endl; }

rect area: 12 rectb area: 30

Nh bn c th thy, kt qu ca v d ny ging vi v d trc. Trong trng hp ny chng ta ch thay th hm set_values bng mt hm constructor. Hy ch cch m cc tham s c truyn cho constructor khi mt i tng c to ra:

CRectangle rect (3,4); CRectangle rectb (5,6);

Bn c th thy rng constructor khng c gi tr tr v, ngay c kiu void cng khng. iu ny lun lun phi nh vy. Destructor lm cc chc nng ngc li. N s c t ng gi khi mt i tng c gii phng khi b nh hay phm vi tn ti ca n kt thc (v d nh nu n c nh ngha l mt i tng cc b bn trong mt hm v khi hm kt thc th phm vi tn ti ca n cng ht) hoc n l mt i tng i tng c cp pht ng v s gii phng bi ton t delete. Destructor phi c cng tn vi tn lp vi du (~) ng trc v n khng c tr v gi tr no. Destructor c bit ph hp khi m mt i tng cp pht b nh ng trong qu trnh tn ti ca n v trong thi im b hu b chng ta mun gii phng b nh m n s dng.

// example on constructors and destructors #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int *width, *height; public: CRectangle (int,int); ~CRectangle (); int area (void) {return (*width * *height);} }; CRectangle::CRectangle (int a, int b) { width = new int; height = new int; *width = a; *height = b; } CRectangle::~CRectangle () { delete width; delete height; } int main () { CRectangle rect (3,4), rectb (5,6); cout << "rect area: " << rect.area() << endl; cout << "rectb area: " << rectb.area() << endl; return 0; }

rect area: 12 rectb area: 30

Qu ti cc Constructors
Nh bt k hm no khc, mt constructor c th c qu ti bi mt vi hm c cng tn nhng khc kiu hay khc s tham s. Nh rng mt thi im trnh dch ch thc hin mt hm ph hp (xem phn 2.3, Hm-II). Do vy ch mt hm constructor ph hp c gi vo thi im mt i tng lp c khai bo. Trong thc t, khi khai bo mt lp m chng ta khng ch nh mt hm constructor no th trnh dch s t ng to ra hai constructor qu ti ("constructor mc nh" v "copy constructor"). V d, i vi lp:

class CExample { public: int a,b,c; void multiply (int n, int m) { a=n; b=m; c=a*b; }; };
trnh dch s t ng cho rng lp c hai constructor sau:

Constructor rng y l mt constructor khng c tham s. N chng lm g c.

CExample::CExample () { };
Copy constructor y l mt constructor c mt tham s cng kiu vi lp. N thc hin mt vic l gn tt c cc bin thnh vin khng tnh (nonstatic) ca lp gi tr ca bin tng ng ca i tng tham s.

CExample::CExample (const CExample& rv) { a=rv.a; b=rv.b; c=rv.c; }

Cn phi nhn mnh rng cc constructor mc nh ny ch tn ti nu khng c constructor c khai bo. Tt nhin l bn c th qu ti constructor ca n cung cp cc constructor khc nhau cho cc mc ch khc nhau:

// overloading class constructors #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int width, height; public: CRectangle (); CRectangle (int,int); int area (void) {return (width*height);} }; CRectangle::CRectangle () { width = 5; height = 5; } CRectangle::CRectangle (int a, int b) { width = a; height = b; } int main () { CRectangle rect (3,4); CRectangle rectb; cout << "rect area: " << rect.area() << endl; cout << "rectb area: " << rectb.area() << endl; }

rect area: 12 rectb area: 25

Trong trng hp ny rectb c khai bo khng dng tham s, v vy n c khi to vi constructor khng c tham s, constructor ny t width v height bng 5.

Ch rng nu chng ta khai bo mt i tng mi v khng mun truyn tham s cho n th khng cn phi cp ngoc n ():

CRectangle rectb; // ng CRectangle rectb(); // sai!

Con tr ti lp
To con tr tr ti cc lp l hon ton hp l, c th lm vic ny chng ta hiu rng mt khi c khai bo, lp tr thnh mt kiu d liu hp l, v vy chng ta c dng tn lp l kiu cho con tr. V d:

CRectangle * prect;
l mt con tr tr ti mt i tng ca lp CRectangle. Tng t vi cu trc, tham chiu trc tip ti mt thnh vin ca mt i tng c tr bi mt con tr bn nn dng ton t ->. y l mt v d:

// pointer to classes example #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int width, height; public: void set_values (int, int); int area (void) {return (width * height);} }; void CRectangle::set_values (int a, int b) { width = a; height = b; } int main () { CRectangle a, *b, *c; CRectangle * d = new CRectangle[2]; b= new CRectangle; c= &a; a.set_values (1,2); b->set_values (3,4); d->set_values (5,6); d[1].set_values (7,8); cout << "a area: " << a.area() << endl; cout << "*b area: " << b->area() << endl; cout << "*c area: " << c->area() << endl; cout << "d[0] area: " << d[0].area() << endl;

a area: 2 *b area: 12 *c area: 2 d[0] area: 30 d[1] area: 56

cout << "d[1] area: " << d[1].area() << endl; return 0; }
Di y l l bng tm tt v cc chc nng ca cc ton t lp (*, &, ., ->, [ ]) v cc con tr lp xut hin trong v d trn:

*x c &x c x.y c (*x).y c x->y c ng vi x[0] c x[1] c x[n] c

th c c th c c th c c th c c th c c dng trn) th c c th c c th c c

l: l: l: l: l: l: l: l:

tr bi x a ch ca x thnh vin y ca i tng x thn vin y ca i tng c tr bi x thnh vin y ca i tng c tr bi x(tng i tng u tin c tr bi x i tng th hai c tr bi x i tng th (n+1)c tr bi x

Hy chc chn rng bn hiu tt c cc iu ny trc khi i tip. Nu c nghi ng g, hy c li cc bi "3.3, Con tr" and "3.5, Cc cu trc".

Cc lp c nh ngha bng t kho

struct

Ngn ng C++ m rng t kho struct ca C lm cho n cng c cc chc nng nh t kho class ngoi tr mt iu l cc thnh vin ca n mc nh l public thay v private. Tuy nhin, mc d c class v struct gn nh l tng ng trong C++, struct thng ch dng cc cu trc d liu cn class th dng cho cc lp c c cc th tc v hm thnh vin. Bi 4.2

Qu ti cc ton t
C++ cho php s dng cc ton t chun ca ngn ng gia cc lp ging nh vi cc kiu d liu c bn. V d:

int a, b, c; a = b + c;
l hon ton hp l v cc bin y u c kiu l cc kiu d liu c bn. Tuy nhin, vic chng ta c th thc hin thao tc sau y c v khng hin nhin lm (thc t l n khng hp l):

struct { char product [50]; float price; } a, b, c; a = b + c;

Php gn mt lp (hay mt cu trc) vi mt i tng cng kiu l c php (copy constructor mc nh). Nhng php cng s gy ra li v n c dng vi cc kiu d liu khng c bn.

Nhng cn phi cm n kh nng qu ti ton t ca C++, chng ta c th lm cho cc i tng kiu nh trn c th chp nhn cc ton t m khng lm thay i ngha ca n i vi cc kiu d liu c bn. Di y l danh sch tt c cc ton t c th c qu ti:

+ <<= ~

>>= &=

* == ^=

/ != |=

= <= &&

< >= ||

> ++ %=

+= -[]

-= % ()

*= & new

/= << ^ ! delete

>> |

lm qu ti mt ton t chng ta ch cn vit mt hm thnh vin ca lp c tn operator theo sau l ton t chng ta mun lm qu ti. Mu nh sau:

type operator sign (parameters);

Di y l v d v vic qu ti ton t +. Chng ta chun b tnh tng hai vector hai chiu a(3,1) v b(1,2). Php cng gia hai vector hai chiu ch n gin l cng hai to x ly to kt qu x , cng hai to y ly to kt qu y. Trong trng hp ny kt qu s l (3+1,1+2) =

(4,3). // vectors: v d v qu ti ton t #include <iostream.h> class CVector { public: int x,y; CVector () {}; CVector (int,int); CVector operator + (CVector); }; CVector::CVector (int a, int b) { x = a; y = b; } CVector CVector::operator+ (CVector param) { CVector temp; temp.x = x + param.x; temp.y = y + param.y; return (temp); } int main () { CVector a (3,1); CVector b (1,2); CVector c; c = a + b; cout << c.x << "," << c.y; return 0; }
Nu bn thy qu nhiu CVector hy rng mt s trong chng tham chiu n tn lp CVector cn s cn li l tn cc hm (constructor v destructor). ng ln ln

4,3

CVector (int, int);

// Hm c tn Vector (constructor)

CVector operator+ (CVector); // Hm operator+ tr v kiu CVector Hm operator+ ca lp CVector c dng qu ti ton t s hc +. Hm ny c th c gi
bng mt trong cc cch:

c = a + b; c = a.operator+ (b);
Hy ch rng chng ta thm vo constructor rng (khng c tham s) v chng ta nh ngha n vi mt khi lnh cng rng nt:

CVector () { };
iu ny l cn thit v cn c mt constructor khc,

CVector (int, int);

v v vy cc constructors mc nh khng tn ti trong CVector nu chng ta khng khai n mt cch r rng. Khai bo sau y s l khng hp l:

CVector c;
D th no chng na, ti cn phi cnh bo rng mt khi lnh rng khng nn to mt constructor v n khng tho mn chc nng ti thiu m mt constructor nn c, l vic khi to tt c cc bin trong lp. Trong trng hp ca chng ta constructor ny cc bin x v y l khng xc nh. V vy mt khai bo thch hp hn s l mt ci g ging nh th ny:

CVector () { x=0; y=0; };

cho n gin ti khng vit vo trong v d trn.

Cng vi vic to mt constructor rng v mt copy constructor, C++ cn mc nh nh ngha ton t gn (=) gia hai lp c cng mt kiu. N copy ton b ni dung ca cc thnh vin khng tnh (non-static) ca i tng bn phi php gn cho i tng bn tri. Tt nhin bn c th nh ngha li n thc hin chc nng khc m bn mun, v d nh ch copy mt s thnh vin no ca lp. Vic qu ti cc ton t khng bt buc hot ng ca n phi lin quan n ngha thng thng ca n mc d iu ny l nn lm. V d c v khng logic lm nu s dng ton t + tr hai lp hay ton t == in s 0 vo mt lp mc d iu l hon ton hp l. Mc d khai bo mu ca hm operator+ l kh hin nhin v n ly phn bn phi ca ton t lm tham s cho hm operator+, cc ton t khc khng phi ci no cng r rng nh th. y chng ta c mt bng tng kt v vic cc hm operator phi c khai bo nh th no (thay th @ bng cc ton t tng ng): Biu thc Ton t (@) Hm thnh vin Hm ton cc

@a

+ - * & ! ~ ++ --

A::operator@()

operator@(A)

a@

++ -+ - * / % ^ & | < > == != <= >= << >> && || , = += -= *= /= %= ^= &= |= <<= >>= [ ] () ->

A::operator@(int)

operator@(A, int)

a@b

A::operator@(B)

operator@(A, B)

a@b

A::operator@(B)

a(b, c...) a->b

A::operator()(B, C...) A::operator->()

* trong a l mt i tng ca lp A, b l mt i tng ca lp B v c l mt i tng ca lp C. Nh bn c th thy trong bng ny, c hai cch qu ti cc ton t ca lp: nh l mt hm thnh vin v nh l mt hm ton cc. Khc nhau gia chng khng r rng tuy nhin ti cn phi nhc li rng cc hm khng phi l thnh vin ca mt lp khng th truy xut n cc thnh vin l private hoc protected ca lp tr phi hm ton cc l bn ca lp (thut ng ny s c cp n bi sau).

T kho

this

T kho this bn trong mt lp i din cho i tng ca lp ang c thc hin trong b nh. N l mt con tr lun c gi tr l a ch ca i tng. N c th c dng kim tra xem tham s c truyn cho mt hm thnh vin c phi chnh bn thn i tng hay khng. V d:

// this #include <iostream.h> class CDummy { public: int isitme (CDummy& param); }; int CDummy::isitme (CDummy& param) { if (&param == this) return 1; else return 0; } int main () { CDummy a; CDummy* b = &a; if ( b->isitme(a) ) cout << "yes, &a is b"; return 0; }

yes, &a is b

N cng thng c dng trong hm thnh vin operator= m tr v a ch i tng (trnh vic s dng i tng tm thi). Tip theo v d v vector u bi chng ta c th vit mt hm operator= nh sau:

CVector& CVector::operator= (const CVector& param) { x=param.x; y=param.y; return *this; }

Trong thc t y chnh l on m c mc nh to ra nu chng ta khng vit hm thnh vin operator=.

Cc thnh vin tnh

Mt lp c th cha cc thnh vin tnh, c d liu v cc hm. Cc d liu tnh cn c gi l "bin ca lp" v ni dung ca chng khng ph thuc vo mt i tng no. Ch c mt gi tr duy nht cho tt c cc i tng trong cng mt lp. V d, n c th c trong trng hp bn mun c mt bin cha s i tng thuc lp c khai bo:

// static members in classes #include <iostream.h> class CDummy { public: static int n; CDummy () { n++; }; ~CDummy () { n--; }; }; int CDummy::n=0; int main () { CDummy a; CDummy b[5]; CDummy * c = new CDummy; cout << a.n << endl; delete c; cout << CDummy::n << endl; return 0; }

7 6

Trong thc t, cc thnh vin tnh c cng thuc tnh vi cc bin ton cc. V vy, trnh vic chng b khai bo nhiu ln, theo chun ANSI-C++ chng ta ch c vit phn khai bo mu trong phn khai bo ca lp. c th khi to mt thnh vin tnh chng ta phi vit mt nh ngha bn ngoi lp, ging nh trong v d trc. V n l mt bin duy nht cho tt c cc i tng thuc lp, n c th c tham chiu n nh l thnh vin ca bt k i tng no thuc lp hay thm ch chnh bn thn tn lp (tt nhin iu ny ch hp l vi cc thnh vin tnh):

cout << a.n; cout << CDummy::n;

Hai li gi trong v d trn u tham chiu n cng mt bin: bin tnh n trong lp CDummy. Mt ln na, ti phi nhc li rng n l mt bin ton cc (ngha l bn c th truy xut n t bt k u). S khc bit duy nht l bn phi dng n vi tn lp. Chng ta cng c th to ra cc hm tnh ging nh cc bin tnh. Chng cng c ngha nh i vi cc bin tnh: l cc hm ton cc c th c gi nh th l cc i tng ca mt lp. Chng ch c th truy xut n phn d liu tnh cng nh khng c php s dng t kho this v n to tham chiu n mt con tr i tng. Cc hm ny thc t khng phi l thnh vin ca bt k i tng no m thc cht l ca lp. Bi 4.3

Quan h gia cc lp Cc hm bn b (t kho

friend

Trong bi trc chng ta c bit rng c ba mc bo v khc nhau i vi cc thnh vin trong mt lp: public, protected v private. i vi cc thnh vin protected v private, chng khng th c truy xut bn ngoi lp m chng c khai bo. Tuy nhin ci g cng c ngoi l, bng cch s dng t kho friend trong mt lp chng ta c th cho php mt hm bn ngoi truy xut vo cc thnh vin protected v private trong mt lp. c th cho php mt hm bn ngoi truy xut vo cc thnh vin private v protected ca mt lp chng ta phi khai bo mu hm vi t kho friend bn trong phn khai bo ca lp. Trong v d sau chng ta khai bo hm bn b duplicate:

// friend functions #include <iostream.h> class CRectangle { int width, height; public: void set_values (int, int); int area (void) {return (width * height);} friend CRectangle duplicate (CRectangle); }; void CRectangle::set_values (int a, int b) { width = a; height = b; } CRectangle duplicate (CRectangle rectparam) {

24

CRectangle rectres; rectres.width = rectparam.width*2; rectres.height = rectparam.height*2; return (rectres);

int main () { CRectangle rect, rectb; rect.set_values (2,3); rectb = duplicate (rect); cout << rectb.area(); }
bn trong hm duplicate, chng ta c th truy xut vo cc thnh vin width v height ca cc i tng khc nhau thuc lp CRectangle. Hy ch rng duplicate() khng phi l thnh vin ca lp CRectangle. Ni chung vic s dng cc hm bn b khng nm trong phng thc lp trnh hng i tng, v vy tt hn l hy s dng cc thnh vin ca lp bt c khi no c th. Nh trong v d trc, chng ta hon ton c th tch hp duplicate() vo bn trong lp.

Cc lp bn b (friend)
Ngoi vic c th khai bo cc hm bn b, chng ta cng c th nh ngha mt lp l bn ca mt lp khc. Vic ny s cho php lp th hai c th truy xut vo cc thnh vin protected and private ca lp th nht:

// friend class #include <iostream.h> class CSquare; class CRectangle { int width, height; public: int area (void) {return (width * height);} void convert (CSquare a); }; class CSquare { private: int side; public: void set_side (int a) {side=a;} friend class CRectangle; }; void CRectangle::convert (CSquare a) { width = a.side; height = a.side; }

16

int main () { CSquare sqr; CRectangle rect; sqr.set_side(4); rect.convert(sqr); cout << rect.area(); return 0; }
Trong v d ny chng ta khai bo CRectangle l bn ca CSquare nn CRectangle c th truy xut vo cc thnh vin protected and private ca CSquare, c th hn l CSquare::side, bin nh ngha kch thc ca hnh vung. Bn c th thy mt iu mi l trong chng trnh, l phn khai bo mu rng ca lp CSquare, iu ny l cn thit v bn trong phn khai bo ca CRectangle chng ta tham chiu n CSquare (nh l mt tham s trong convert()). Phn nh ngha y ca CSquare c vit sau. Ch rng tnh bn gia hai lp c th khng nh nhau nu chng ta khng ch nh. Trong v d ny CRectangle c coi l bn ca CSquare nhng i vi CRectangle th khng. Bi vy CRectangle c th truy xut vo cc thnh vin protected v private ca CSquare nhng iu ngc li l khng ng. Tuy nhin chng c g cm on chng ta khai bo CSquare l bn ca CRectangle.

S tha k gia cc lp
Mt trong nhng tnh nng quan trng ca lp l s tha k. N cho php chng ta to mt i tng xut php t mt i tng khc. V d, gi s chng ta mun khai bo mt lot cc lp m t cc a gic nh l CRectangle hay CTriangle. C hai u c nhng c tnh chung, v d nh l chiu cao v y. iu ny c th c biu din bng lp CPolygon m t chng ta c th tha k hai lp, l CRectangle v CTriangle.

Lp CPolygon s cha cc thnh vin chung i vi mi a gic. Trong trng hp ca chng ta: chiu rng v chiu cao. Cc lp xut pht t cc lp khc c tha hng tt c cc thnh vin nhn thy c ca lp. iu ny c ngha l mt lp c s c thnh vin A v chng ta to thm mt lp xut pht t n vi mt thnh vin mi l B, lp c tha k s c c A v B. c th tha k mt lp t mt lp khc, chng ta s dng ton t : (du hai chm ) trong phn khai bo ca lp con:

class derived_class_name: public base_class_name;

trong derived_class_name l tn ca lp con (lp c tha k) v base_class_name l tn ca lp c s. public c th c thay th bi protected hoc private, n xc nh quyn truy xut i vi cc thnh vin c tha k nh chng ta s thy v d ny:

// derived classes #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b;} }; class CRectangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; rect.set_values (4,5); trgl.set_values (4,5); cout << rect.area() << endl; cout << trgl.area() << endl; return 0; }

20 10

Nh bn c th thy, cc i tng ca lp CRectangle v CTriangle cha tt c cc thnh vin ca CPolygon, l width, height v set_values(). T kho protected tng t vi private, s khc bit duy nht ch xy ra khi tha k cc lp. Khi chng ta tha k mt lp, cc thnh vin protected ca lp c s c th c dng bi cc thnh vin khc ca lp c tha k cn cc thnh vin private th khng. V chng ta mun rng width v height c th c tnh ton bi cc thnh vin ca cc lp c tha k CRectangle v CTriangle ch khng ch bi cc thnh vin ca CPolygon, chng ta s dng t kho protected thay v private. Chng ta c th tng kt li cc kiu truy xut khc nhau tu theo ai truy xut chng: Truy xut Cc thnh vin trong cng lp Cc thnh vin ca cc lp tha k

public protected private

c c c c c khng

Khng phi l thnh vin

khng

khng

trong "khng phi l thnh vin" i din cho bt k s tham chiu no t bn ngoi lp, v d nh l t main(), t mt lp khc hay t bt k hm no. Trong v d ca chng ta, cc thnh vin c tha k bi CRectangle v CTriangle cng tun theo cc quyn truy xut nh i vi lp c s CPolygon:

CPolygon::width CRectangle::width CPolygon::set_values() CRectangle::set_values()

// protected access // protected access // public access // public access

C iu ny v chng ta tha k mt lp t mt lp khc vi quyn truy xut public, hy nh:

class CRectangle: public CPolygon;

t kho public i din cho mc bo v ti thiu m cc thnh vin c tha k ca lp c s (CPolygon) phi c c trong lp mi (CRectangle). Mc ny i vi cc thnh vin c tha k c th c thay i nu thay v dng public chng ta s dng protected hay private, v d, gi s rng daughter l mt lp c tha k t mother, chng nh ngha nh th ny:

class daughter: protected mother;

iu ny s thit lp protected l mc truy xut ti thiu cho cc thnh vin ca daughter c tha k t lp c s. C ngha l tt c cc thnh vin public trong mother s tr thnh protected trong daughter. Tt nhin, iu ny khng cn tr daughter c th c cc thnh vin public ca ring n. Mc ti thiu ny ch p dng cho cc thnh vin c tha k t mother. Nu khng c mc truy xut no c ch nh, private c dng vi cc lp c to ra vi t kho class cn public c dng vi cc cu trc.

Nhng g c tha k t lp c s?
V nguyn tc tt c cc thnh vin ca lp u c tha k tr:

1. Constructor v destructor 2. Thnh vin operator=() 3. Bn b

Mc d constructor v destructor ca lp c s khng c tha k, constructor mc nh (constructor khng c tham s) v destructor ca lp c s lun lun c gi khi mt i tng ca lp c tha k c to lp hay ph hu. Nu lp c s khng c constructor mc nh hay bn mun mt constructor qu ti c gi khi mt i tng mi ca lp c tha k c to lp, bn c th ch nh n mi nh ngha ca constructor trong lp c tha k:

derived_class_name (parameters) : base_class_name (parameters) {}

V d:

// constructors and derivated classes #include <iostream.h> class mother { public: mother () { cout << "mother: no parameters\n"; } mother (int a) { cout << "mother: int parameter\n"; } }; class daughter : public mother { public: daughter (int a) { cout << "daughter: int parameter\n\n"; } }; class son : public mother { public: son (int a) : mother (a) { cout << "son: int parameter\n\n"; } }; int main () { daughter cynthia (1); son daniel(1); } return 0;

mother: no parameters daughter: int parameter mother: int parameter son: int parameter

Hy quan st s khc bit gia vic constructor ca mother c gi khi khi mt i tng daughter mi c to lp v khi mt i tng son c to lp. S d c s khc bit ny l do phn khai bo constructor ca daughter v son:

daughter (int a) nh son (int a) : mother (a)

// khng c g c ch nh: gi constructor mc // constructor c ch nh: gi ci ny

a tha k
Trong C++ chng ta c th to lp mt lp tha k cc trng v cc phng thc t nhiu hn mt lp. iu ny c th thc hin bng cch tch cc lp c s khc nhau bng du phy trong phn khai bo ca lp c tha k. V d, nu chng ta c mt lp dng in ra mn hnh (COutput) v chng ta mun cc lp ca chng ta CRectangle v CTriangle cng tha k cc thnh vin ca n cng vi cc thnh vin ca CPolygon, chng ta c th vit:

class CRectangle: public CPolygon, public COutput { class CTriangle: public CPolygon, public COutput {

y l v d y :

// a tha k #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b;} }; class COutput { public: void output (int i); }; void COutput::output (int i) { cout << i << endl; } class CRectangle: public CPolygon, public COutput { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon, public COutput { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; rect.set_values (4,5); trgl.set_values (4,5); rect.output (rect.area()); trgl.output (trgl.area()); return 0; }

20 10

Bi 4.4

Cc thnh vin o. a hnh.

c th hiu c phn ny bn cn hiu r v cch s dng con tr v tha k gia cc lp. Nu c vi biu thc no c v l lng vi bn, bn c th xem li cc phn sau:

int a::b(c) {}; // Cc lp (Bi 4.1) a->b // Con tr v i tng (Bi 4.2) class a: public b; // Quan h gia cc lp(Bi 4.3)

Con tr ti lp c s
Mt trong nhng li th ln ca vic tha k cc lp l mt con tr tr ti mt lp c tha k l tng thch v kiu vi mt con tr tr ti lp c s ca n. Bi ny s cp y n vic tn dng tnh nng mnh m ny ca C++. V d, chng ta s vit li chng trnh ca chng ta v hnh ch nht v hnh tam gic trong chng trc xem xt tnh nng ny:

// con tr ti lp c s #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b; } }; class CRectangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; CPolygon * ppoly1 = &rect; CPolygon * ppoly2 = &trgl; ppoly1->set_values (4,5); ppoly2->set_values (4,5); cout << rect.area() << endl; cout << sqre.area() << endl; return 0; }

20 10

Hm main to hai con tr tr ti hai i tng ca lp CPolygon, l *ppoly1 v *ppoly2. Chng c gn cho a ch ca rect v trgl, y l cc i tng thuc lp tha k t CPolygon nn l nhng php gn hp l. S hn ch duy nht khi s dng *ppoly1 v *ppoly2 thay v rect v trgl l c *ppoly1 v *ppoly2 u c kiu l CPolygon* v v vy chng ta ch c th tham chiu n cc thnh vin m

CRectangle v CTriangle c tha k t CPolygon. V nguyn nhn chng ta khng th gi n thnh vin area() khi dng *ppoly1 v *ppoly2.
cc con tr c th truy xut n area() nh l mt thnh vin hp l, cn phi khai bo thnh vin ny trong lp c s ch khng ch trong cc lp tha k.

Cc thnh vin o
Nu mun khai bo mt phn t trong mt lp m chng ta mun nh ngha li n trong cc lp tha k th chng ta phi t trc n t kho virtual vic s dng con tr ti cc i tng thuc lp ny l thch hp. Hy xem v d sau:

// cc thnh vin o #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b; } virtual int area (void) { return (0); } }; class CRectangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; CPolygon poly; CPolygon * ppoly1 = &rect; CPolygon * ppoly2 = &trgl; CPolygon * ppoly3 = &poly; ppoly1->set_values (4,5); ppoly2->set_values (4,5); ppoly3->set_values (4,5); cout << ppoly1->area() << endl; cout << ppoly2->area() << endl; cout << ppoly3->area() << endl; return 0;

20 10 0

}
By gi c ba lp (CPolygon, CRectangle v CTriangle) u c cng cc thnh vin: width, height, set_values() v area().

area() c nh ngha l virtual v n s c nh ngha li trong cc lp tha k. Bn c th kim tra li rng nu bn b t kho v thc hin chng trnh th kt qu s l 0 cho c 3 a gic thay v 20,10,0. Nguyn nhn l do thay v gi hm area() tng ng vi mi i tng (CRectangle::area(), CTriangle::area() v CPolygon::area()), CPolygon::area() s c gi cho tt c thng qua mt con tr ti CPolygon.

Tru tng ho lp c s
Cc lp tru trng l mt ci g rt ging vi lp lp CPolygon trong v d trc ca chng ta. S khc bit duy nht l trong v d chng ta nh ngha hm area() cho cc i tng thuc lp

CPolygon (ging nh i tng poly), trong khi trong mt lp tru tng c s chng ta c th b qua vic nh ngha hm ny bng cch thm =0(bng khng) vo phn khai bo hm.
Lp CPolygon c th c nh ngha nh sau:

// abstract class CPoligon class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b; } virtual int area (void) =0; }; Hy ch cch chng ta thm =0 vo virtual int area (void) thay v nh ngha y cho
hm. Kiu hm ny c tn l l pure virtual function (hm o thun tu) v tt c cc lp cha bt k mt hm o thun tu no u c coi l lp tru tng c s. S khc bit ln ca mt lp tru tng c s l khng th to c cc i tng thuc lp. Nhng chng ta c th to cc con tr tr n chng. V vy mt khai bo nh sau:

CPolygon poly;
s l khng hp l cho lp tru tng c s c khai bo trn. Tuy nhin con tr:

CPolygon * ppoly1; CPolygon * ppoly2

l hon ton hp l. C iu ny v hm tru tng thun tu m n c khng c nh ngha v khng th to c mt i tng nu nh cha nh ngha tt c cc thnh vin ca n. Tuy nhin mt con tr tr ti mt i tng thuc lp tha k m hm ny c nh ngha l hon ton hp l. Di y chng ta c mt v d y :

// cc thnh vin o. #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b; } virtual int area (void) =0; }; class CRectangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; CPolygon * ppoly1 = &rect; CPolygon * ppoly2 = &trgl; ppoly1->set_values (4,5); ppoly2->set_values (4,5); cout << ppoly1->area() << endl; cout << ppoly2->area() << endl; return 0; }

20 10

Nu bn xem li chng trnh bn s thy rng chng ta tham chiu n cc i tng thuc cc lp khc nhau nhng ch s dng mt kiu con tr duy nht. iu ny l cc k hu dng, by gi chng ta c th to mt hm thnh vin ca CPolygon c kh nng in ra mn hnh kt qu ca hm

area() m khng ph thuc vo lp c tha k l lp no. // ejemplo miembros virtuales #include <iostream.h> class CPolygon { protected: int width, height; public: void set_values (int a, int b) { width=a; height=b; } virtual int area (void) =0; void printarea (void) { cout << this->area() << endl; } }; 20 10

class CRectangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height); } }; class CTriangle: public CPolygon { public: int area (void) { return (width * height / 2); } }; int main () { CRectangle rect; CTriangle trgl; CPolygon * ppoly1 = &rect; CPolygon * ppoly2 = &trgl; ppoly1->set_values (4,5); ppoly2->set_values (4,5); ppoly1->printarea(); ppoly2->printarea(); return 0; }
Hy nh rng this biu din mt con tr tr n i tng ang c thc hin. Cc lp tru tng v cc thnh vin o cung cp cho C++ tnh nng a hnh khin cho vic lp trnh hng i tng tr thnh mt cng c hu dng. Tt nhin chng ta thy cch n gin nht s dng nhng tnh nng ny, nhng hy tng tng nu nhng tnh nng ny c p dng cho cc mng cc i tng hay cc i tng c cp pht thng qua b nh ng. Bi 5.1

Templates
Templates (mu) l mt tnh nng mi c gii thiu bi chun ANSI-C++. Nu bn s dng mt trnh bin dch C++ cha tng thch vi chun ny th bn khng th s dng mu.

Cc mu hm
Cc mu cho php to cc hm c th chp nhn bt k kiu d liu no lm tham s v tr v gi tr m khng phi lm qu ti hm vi tt c cc kiu d liu c th. Khai bo mu ca n c th l mt trong hai kiu sau:

template <class indetifier> function_declaration; template <typename indetifier> function_declaration;

s khc bit duy nht gia hai kiu khai bo mu ny l vic s dng t kho class hay typename, s khc nhau gia chng l khng r rng v c hai u c cng mt ngha v u cho mt kt qu nh nhau. V d, to mt hm mu tr v gi tr ln hn ca hai i tng chng ta c th s dng:

template <class GenericType> GenericType GetMax (GenericType a, GenericType b) { return (a>b?a:b); }

dng u tin, chng ta to mt mu cho mt kiu d liu tng qut vi tn GenericType. V vy trong hm sau , GenericType tr thnh mt kiu d liu hp l v n c s dng nh l mt kiu d liu cho hai tham s a, b v gi tr tr v ca hm GetMax.

GenericType thc s khng biu din mt kiu d liu c th no, chng ta c th gi hm vi bt

k kiu d liu hp l no. Kiu d liu ny s p ng nh l pattern(mu) v s thay th GenericType bn trong hm. Cch thc gi mt lp mu vi mt kiu d liu mu nh sau:

function <pattern> (parameters);

V d, gi hm GetMax v so snh hai gi tr nguyn kiu int chng ta c th vit:

int x,y; GetMax <int> (x,y);

Ok, di y l v d y :

// mu hm #include <iostream.h> template <class T> T GetMax (T a, T b) { T result; result = (a>b)? a : b; return (result); } int main () { int i=5, j=6, k; long l=10, m=5, n; k=GetMax<int>(i,j); n=GetMax<long>(l,m); cout << k << endl; cout << n << endl; return 0; }

6 10

(Trong trng hp ny chng ta gi kiu d liu tng qut l T thay v GenericType v n ngn hn, thm vo n l mt trong nhng tn ph bin nht c dng cho mu mc d chng ta c th s dng bt c tn hp l no).

 v d trn chng ta s dng cng mt hm GetMax() vi cc tham s kiu int v long ch vi mt phin bn duy nht ca hm. Nh vy c th ni chng ta vit mt mu hm v gi n bng hai kiu khc nhau. Nh bn c th thy, bn trong mu hm GetMax() kiu T c th c dng khai bo cc i tng mi:

T result;
Trong trng hp c th ny kiu d liu tng qut T c s dng nh l tham s chao hm GetMax, trnh bin dch c th t ng tm thy kiu d liu no phi truyn cho n m khng cn bn phi ch nh <int> hay <long>. Bi vy chng ta c th vit:

int i,j; GetMax (i,j);

Cch ny c s dng ph bin hn v cng cho kt qu nh vy:

// mu hm II #include <iostream.h> template <class T> T GetMax (T a, T b) { return (a>b?a:b); } int main () { int i=5, j=6, k; long l=10, m=5, n; k=GetMax(i,j); n=GetMax(l,m); cout << z << endl; cout << n << endl; return 0; }

6 10

Ch trong trng hp ny, bn trong hm main() chng ta gi hm mu GetMax() m khng ch nh r kiu d liu gia hai ngoc nhn <>. Trnh bin dch s t ng xc nh kiu d liu no l cn thit ch mi li gi. V hm mu ca chng ta ch dng mt kiu d liu (class T) v c hai tham s ca n u c cng mt kiu, chng ta khng th gi hm mu vi tham s l hai i tng c kiu khc nhau:

int i; long l; k = GetMax (i,l);

Chng ta cng c th khin cho hm cho hm mu chp nhn nhiu hn mt kiu d liu tng qut. V d:

template <class T, class U> T GetMin (T a, U b) { return (a<b?a:b);

Trong trng hp ny, hm mu GetMin() chp nhn hai tham s c kiu khc nhau v tr v mt i tng c cng kiu vi tham s u tin (T). V d, sau khi khai bo nh trn chng ta c th gi hm nh sau:

int i,j; long l; i = GetMin<int,long> (j,l);

hoc thm ch:

i = GetMin (j,l);

Cc lp mu
Chng ta cng c th vit cc lp mu, mt lp m c cc thnh vin da trn cc kiu d liu tng qut khng cn phi c nh ngha thi im to lp. V d

template <class T> class pair { T values [2]; public: pair (T first, T second) { values[0]=first; values[1]=second; } };
Lp m chng ta va nh ngha dng lu tr hai phn t c kiu bt k. V d, nu chng ta mun khai bo mt i tng thuc lp ny lu tr hai gi tr nguyn kiu int c gi tr l 115 and 36 chng ta c th vit:

pair<int> myobject (115, 36);

lp ny cng c th c dng lu tr bt k kiu d liu no khc:

pair<float> myfloats (3.0, 2.18);

Hm thnh vin duy nht c nh ngha inline bn trong nh ngha ca lp, tuy nhin nu chng ta nh ngha mt hm thnh vin bn ngoi lp chng ta lun phi t trc dng nh ngha tin t template <... >.

// mu lp #include <iostream.h> template <class T> class pair { T value1, value2; public: pair (T first, T second) {value1=first; value2=second;} T getmax (); };

100

template <class T> T pair<T>::getmax () { T retval; retval = value1>value2? value1 : value2; return retval; } int main () { pair <int> myobject (100, 75); cout << myobject.getmax(); return 0; }
ch cch bt u nh ngha hm getmax :

template <class T> T pair<T>::getmax ()

Tt c cc T xut hin u l cn thit. Mi khi bn khai bo mt hm thnh vin bn s phi theo mt khun mu tng t nh th.

Chuyn mn ho mu
Vic chuyn mn ho mu cho php mt mu to ra nhng bn thc thi c bit khi lm vic vi mt loi d liu xc nh no . V d, gi s rng lp mu pair c mt hm dng tr v phn d trong php chia gia hai trng trong, nhng chng ta ch mun n lm vic khi kiu d liu l int cn nhng kiu cn li th hm lun tr v 0. N c th c lm theo cch sau:

// Chuyn mn ho mu #include <iostream.h> template <class T> class pair { T value1, value2; public: pair (T first, T second) {value1=first; value2=second;} T module () {return 0;} }; template <> class pair <int> { int value1, value2; public: pair (int first, int second) {value1=first; value2=second;} int module (); }; template <> int pair<int>::module() {

25 0

return value1%value2; } int main () { pair <int> myints (100,75); pair <float> myfloats (100.0,75.0); cout << myints.module() << '\n'; cout << myfloats.module() << '\n'; return 0; }
Nh bn c th thy s chuyn mn ho c nh ngha theo cch sau:

template <> class class_name <type>

S chuyn mn ho ny l mt phn ca mt mu, v vy chng ta phi bt u phn khai bo vi template <>. V r rng rng l s chuyn mn ho cho mt kiu d liu c th nn chng ta khng th dng mt kiu d liu tng qut, cp ngoc nhn <> cng phi trng. Sau phn tn lp chng ta phi vit thm tn kiu d liu mun dng gia cp ngoc nhn <>. Khi chng ta chuyn bit ho mt kiu d liu cho mt mu chng ta cng phi nh ngha tt c cc thnh vin tng xng vi s chuyn mn ho (nu bn thy cha r lm, hy xem li v d trn trong chng ta phi vit li constructor cho chnh n mc d ci ny hon ton ging nh constructor trong lp tng qut. Nguyn nhn l do khng c thnh vin no c "tha k" t lp tng qut cho lp chuyn mn ho.

Cc gi tr tham s cho mu
Bn cnh cc tham s ca mu l kiu d liu (c ng trc bi t kho class hay typename), cc hm mu v cc lp mu cn c th c cc tham s khc khng phi l kiu m chng c th l cc gi tr hng. Trong v d di y lp mu c dng lu tr mng:

// array template #include <iostream.h> template <class T, int N> class array { T memblock [N]; public: setmember (int x, T value); T getmember (int x); }; template <class T, int N> array<T,N>::setmember (int x, T value) { memblock[x]=value; } template <class T, int N> T array<T,N>::getmember (int x) { return memblock[x];

100 3.1416

} int main () { array <int,5> myints; array <float,5> myfloats; myints.setmember (0,100); myfloats.setmember (3.0,3.1416); cout << myints.getmember(0) << '\n'; cout << myfloats.getmember(3) << '\n'; return 0; }
Chng ta cng c th thit lp cc gi tr mc nh cho bt k tham s mu no ging nh vi cc tham s ca hm bnh thng. V d:

template template template template template

<class T> <class T, class U> <class T, int N> <class T = char> <int Tfunc (int)>

// // // // //

Trng hp ph bin nht: mt tham s lp. Hai tham s lp. Mt lp v mt gi tr nguyn. Mt tham s lp vi gi tr mc nh. Tham s l mt hm.

Mu v cc d n
Theo quan im ca trnh bin dch, cc mu khng phi l cc hm hay lp thng thng. Chng c dch theo nhu cu. iu c ngha l m ca mt hm mu khng c dch cho n khi cn dng n. Vi cc trnh dch thi im thc hin bi vit, trnh dch s to ra t mu mt hm c th cho kiu d liu c yu cu. Khi cc d n pht trin ln, n thng chi m ca mt chng trnh thnh nhiu file khc nhau. Trong nhng trng hp , ni chng phn giao tip v phn thc hin l tch bit. Ly v d mt th vin hm no , phn giao tip thng gm tt c nhng khai bo mu ca cc hm c th c gi, chng thng c khai bo trong mt "header file"vi phn m rng .h, v phn thc hin (phn nh ngha c cc hm ) c t trong cc file m C++ ring. i vi mu, chng ta c mt iu bt buc khi thc hin cc d n nhiu file: phn thc hin (phn nh ngha) ca mt lp mu hay hm mu phi nm trong cng mt file vi phn khai bo. iu ny c ngha l chng ta khng th tch phn giao tip thnh mt file ring m phi gp c phn giao tip v phn thc thi vo bt k fiel no s dng mu. Tr li vi trng hp th vin hm, nu chng ta mun to mt th vin hm mu, thay v vic to mt header file (.h) chng ta nn to mt "template file" cha c phn giao tip v phn thc thi ca cc hm mu (khng c mt quy nh no v phn m rng ca nhng file ny, bn thch dng th no cng c hoc c l .h cho tin). Mt iu cui cng na l vic mt "template file" c dng nhiu ln trong mt d n s khng gy ra li lin kt v chng c dch theo nhu cu v nhng trnh bin dch h tr templates s bit phi lm th no khng sinh m lp trong cc trng hp . Bi 5.1

Namespaces
Namespaces cho php chng ta gp mt nhm cc lp, cc i tng ton cc v cc hm di mt ci tn. Ni mt cch c th hn, chng dng chia phm vi ton c thnh nhng phm vi nh hn vi tn gi namespaces. Khung mu s dng namespaces l:

namespace identifier { namespace-body }

Trong identifier l bt k mt tn hp l no v namespace-body l mt tp hp nhng lp, i tng v hm c gp trong namespace. V d:

namespace general { int a, b; }

Trong trng hp ny, a v b l nhng bin bnh thng c tch hp bn trong namespace general. c th truy xut vo cc bin ny t bn ngoi namespace chng ta phi s dng ton t ::. V d, truy xut vo cc bin chng ta vit:

general::a general::b
Namespace c bit hu dng trong trng hp c th c mt i tng ton cc hoc mt hm c cng tn vi mt ci khc, gy ra li nh ngha li. V d:

// namespaces #include <iostream.h> namespace first { int var = 5; } namespace second { double var = 3.1416; } int main () { cout << first::var << endl; cout << second::var << endl; return 0; }

5 3.1416

Trong v d ny c hai bin ton cc cng c tn var, mt c nh ngha trong namespace first v ci cn li nm trong second. Chng trnh vn chy ngon, cm n namespaces.

using namespace
Ch th using theo sau l namespace dng kt hp mc truy xut hin thi vi mt namespace c th cc i tng v hm thuc namespace c th c truy xut trc tip nh th chng c khai bo ton cc. Cch s dng nh sau:

using namespace identifier;

V d:

// using namespace example #include <iostream.h> namespace first { int var = 5; } namespace second { double var = 3.1416; } int main () { using namespace second; cout << var << endl; cout << (var*2) << endl; return 0; }

3.1416 6.2832

Trong trng hp ny chng ta c th s dng var m khng phi t trc n bt k ton t phm vi no. Bn phi mt iu rng cu lnh using namespace ch c tc dng trong khi lnh m n c khai bo hoc trong ton b chng trnh nu n c dng trong phm vi ton cc. V d, nu chng ta nh u tin s dng mt i tng thuc mt namespace v sau s dng mt i tng thuc mt namespace khc chng ta c th lm nh sau:

// using namespace example #include <iostream.h> namespace first { int var = 5; } namespace second { double var = 3.1416; } int main () { { using namespace first;

5 3.1416

cout << var << endl; } { using namespace second; cout << var << endl; } return 0; }

nh ngha b danh
Chng ta cng c th nh ngha nhng tn thay th cho cc namespaces c khai bo. Cch thc lm vic ny nh sau:

namespace new_name = current_name ;

Namespace std
Mt trong nhng v d tt nht m chng ta c th tm thy v namespaces chnh l bn thn th vin chun ca C++. Theo chun ANSI C++, tt c nh ngha ca cc lp, i tng v hm ca th vin chun u c nh ngha trong namespace std. Bn c th thy rng chng ta b qua lut ny trong sut tutorial ny. Ti quyt nh lm vy v lut ny cng mi nh chun ANSI (1997) v nhiu trnh bin dch c khng tng thch vi n. Hu ht cc trnh bin dch, thm ch c nhng ci tun theo chun ANSI, cho php s dng cc file header truyn thng (nh l iostream.h, stdlib.h), nhng ci m chng ta trong sut tutorial ny. Tuy nhin, chun ANSI hon ton thit k li nhng th vin ny tn dng li th ca tnh nng templates v tun theo lut phi khai bo tt c cc hm v bin trong namespace std. Chun ANSI ch nh nhng tn mi cho nhng file "header" ny, c bn l dng cng tn vi cc file ca chun C++ nhng khng c phn m rng .h. V d, iostream.h tr thnh iostream. Nu chng ta s dng cc file include ca chun ANSI-C++ chng ta phi lun nh rng tt c cc hm, lp v i tng s c khai bo trong std. V d:

// ANSI-C++ compliant hello world #include <iostream> int main () { std::cout << "Hello world in ANSI-C+ +\n"; return 0; }

Hello world in ANSI-C++

Mc d vy chng ta nn s dng using namespace khi phi vit ton t :: khi tam chiu n cc i tng chun:

// ANSI-C++ compliant hello world (II)

Hello world in ANSI-C++

#include <iostream> using namespace std; int main () { cout << "Hello world in ANSI-C++\n"; return 0; }
Tn ca cc file C cng c mt s thay i. Bn c th tm thm thng tin v tn mi ca cc file header chun trong ti liu Cc file header chun. Bi 5.1

Exception handling
Exception handling l mt tnh nng mi c gii thiu bi chun ANSI-C++. Nu bn s dng mt trnh bin dch C++ khng tng thch vi chun ANSI C++ th bn khng th s dng tnh nng ny. Trong sut qu trnh pht trin mt chng trnh, c th c mt s trng hp m mt s on m chy sai do truy xut n nhng ti nguyn khng tn ti hay vt ra ngoi khong mong mun... Nhng loi tnh hung bt thng ny c nm trong ci c gi l exceptions v C++ va tch hp ba ton t mi x l nhng tnh hung ny: try, throw v catch. Dng thc s dng nh sau:

try { // on m cn th throw exception; } catch (type exception) { // on c thc hin trong trng hp c li }
Nguyn tc hot ng: - on m nm trong khi try c thc hin mt cch bnh thng. Trong trng hp c li xy ra, on m ny phi s dng t kho throw v mt tham s bo li. Kiu tham s ny m t chi tit ho li v c th l bt k kiu hp l no. - Nu c li xy ra, nu lnh throw c thc hin bn trong khi try, khi catch s c thc hin v nhn tham s c truyn bi throw. V d:

// exceptions #include <iostream.h> int main () { char myarray[10]; try { for (int n=0; n<=10; n++)

Exception: Out of range

{ if (n>9) throw "Out of range"; myarray[n]='z'; } } catch (char * str) { cout << "Exception: " << str << endl; } return 0; }
Trong v d ny, nu bn trong vng lp m n ln hn 9 th mt li s c thng bo v myarray[n] trong trng hp c th tr n a ch nh khng tin cy. Khi throw c thc hin, khi try ngay lp tc kt thc v mi i tng c to bn trong khi try b ph hu. Sau , quyn iu khin c chuyn cho khi catch tng ng (ch c thc hin trong nhng tnh hung nh th ny). Cui cng chng trnh tip tc ngay sau khi, trong trng hp ny: return 0;. C php c s dng bi throw tng t vi return: Ch c mt tham s v khng cn t n nm trong cp ngoc n. Khi catch phi nm ngay sau khi try m khng c c on m no nm gia chng. Tham s m catch chp nhn c th l bt k kiu d liu hp l no. Hn na, catch c th c qu ti c th chp nhn nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau. Trong trng hp ny khi catch c thc hin l khi ph hp vi kiu ca tham s c gi n bi throw:

// exceptions: multiple catch blocks #include <iostream.h> int main () { try { char * mystring; mystring = new char [10]; if (mystring == NULL) throw "Allocation failure"; for (int n=0; n<=100; n++) { if (n>9) throw n; mystring[n]='z'; } } catch (int i) { cout << "Exception: "; cout << "index " << i << " is out of range" << endl; } catch (char * str) { cout << "Exception: " << str << endl;

Exception: index 10 is out of range

} return 0;

y c th c hai trng hp xy ra:

1. Khi d liu 10 k t khng th c cp pht (gn nh l chng bao gi xy ra nhng khng 2. Ch s cc i ca mystring b vt qu: li ny s b chn bi catch (int i), since
parameter is an integer number. Chng ta c th nh ngha mt khi catch chn tt c cc exceptions m khng ph thuc vo kiu c dng gi throw. lm vic ny chng ta phi vit du ba chm thay v kiu v tn s tham s: c ngha l khng th): li ny s b chn bi catch (to char * str).

try { // code here } catch (...) { cout << "Exception occurred"; }

Cn c th lng cc khi try-catch vo cc khi try khc. Trong trng hp ny, mt khi catch bn trong c th chuyn tip exception nhn c cho khi bn ngoi, lm vic ny chng ta s dng biu thc throw; khng c tham s. V d:

try { try { // code here } catch (int n) { throw; } } catch (...) { cout << "Exception occurred"; }

Exception khng b chn

Nu mt exception khng b chn bi bt k lnh catch no v khng c lnh no c kiu ph hp, hm c bit terminate s c gi. Hm ny c nh ngha sn chm dt chng trnh ngay lp tc v hin thc thng bo li "Abnormal termination". Dng thc ca n nh sau:

void terminate();

Nhng exceptions chun

Mt s hm thuc th vin C++ chun gi cc exceptions m chng ta c th chn nu chng ta s dng mt khi try. Nhng exceptions ny c gi i vi kiu tham s l mt lp tha k t std::exception. Lp ny (std::exception) c nh ngha trong file header C++ chun <exception> v c dng lm mu cho h thng phn cp cc exception chun:

exception bad_alloc bad_cast bad_exception bad_typeid logic_error domain_error invalid_argument length_error out_of_range runtime_error overflow_error range_error underflow_error ios_base::failure (gi bi ios::clear)
Bi v y l mt h thng phn lp c th bc, nu bn s dng mt khi catch chn bt k mt exception no nm trong h thng ny bng cch s dng tham s bin (thm mt du & vo pha trc tn ca tham s) bn s chn c tt c cc exception tha k (lut tha k trong C++) V d di y chn mt exception c kiu bad_typeid (c tha k t exception), li ny c to ra khi mun bit kiu ca mt con tr null.

(gi bi new) (gi bi dynamic_cast khi tht bi vi mt kiu tham chiu) (c gi khi mt exception khng ph hp vi lnh catch no) (gi bi typeid)

// Nhng exception chun #include <iostream.h> #include <exception> #include <typeinfo> class A {virtual f() {}; }; int main () { try { A * a = NULL; typeid (*a); } catch (std::exception& e) { cout << "Exception: " << e.what(); } return 0; }

Exception: Attempted typeid of NULL pointer

Bn c th s dng cc lp ca h thng phn cp cc exception chun ny bo nhng li ca mnh hoc tha k nhng lp mi t chng.