: AiTiLTican Associaiion ol Peiroieiim Geologists Bulletin V. 70, N o . TiJiily 1^86), P. K98-913, 19 Fi^s.

, 5 Tables

Deposition and Chemical Diagenesis of Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk OO Field, Iraq'

A. HAMID MAJID' and JAN VEIZER'

ABSTRACT The Tertiary carbonate rocks of the Kirkuk oil field in Iraq have been subdivided into 18 major lithologic facies. Their spatial relationships suggest that carbonate deposition proceeded in alternating carbonate ramp and carbonaterimmedshelf settings. Geochemically, these 18 facies can be grouped into three populations: namely, the nearshore (mud flat and bioherm), foreslope, and basinal populations. The nearshore population consists of mudstone, wackestone, packstone, and grainstone with bioclasts of miliolids, peneroplids, rotalids, red algae, corals, Nummulites, Lepidocyclina, and crinoids. The basinal population encompasses mudstone and wackestone with Globigerina, radiolarians, and tintinids. The foreslope population consists of packstone and grainstone with a mixture ot Nummulites, Lepidocyclina, and traces of corals and red algae. The nearshore and foreslope groups are characterized by severe recrystallization and contain abundant cements. The porosity is of primary (intergranular and intraskeletal) and secondary (dissolution and fracture) types and is associated mainly with the bioherm and foreslope facies. The nearshore population is characterized by low sodium and strontium contents and light S'^O and 5"C, whereas the basinal one has the opposite attributes. The foreslope group represents a mixture of these two end members, with nearshore components being dominant. Comparison of the approximate composition of diagenetic solutions responsible for deposition and/or mineralogic stabilization of carbonate constituents with present-day waters of various geologic environments led to the conclusion that the nearshore population was stabilized in a near-surface, meteoric, well-oxygenated aquifer.

In contrast, the basinal population was deposited and stabilized in waters of marine parentage. INTRODUCTION Carbonate rocks of the Kiri^uk area were chosen for the present study because they are hosts to one of the giant oil fields of the world and because they encompass a complete transition of facies from back reef to reef to fore reef to basin (Henson, 1950a, b). This geologic framework was believed particularly favorable for detailed chemical and textural studies of diagenesis. Diagenesis and its related concepts are of considerable importance to petroleum geologists who often deal with reservoirs that are the result of subsurface stabilization of primary carbonates. The important application of diagenetic studies, from the hydrocarbon exploration point of view, is their contribution toward recognition and prediction of porosity distribution in a given area or stratigraphic interval (Longman, 1981). Because carbonate reservoirs are usually characterized by secondary leached porosity or by intercrystalline porosity associated with later dolomitization, their evolution is commonly controlled by chemical diagenetic, rather than physical depositional processes. Combined tracer (elemental and isotopic) and textural studies are valuable tools for deciphering this postdepositional evolution toward a reservoir. Therefore, the principal aim of this study was quantification of diagenetic phenomena using the geochemical approach. As the study progressed, the complexity and interdigitations of the local stratigraphy became apparent. In order to obtain a clearer picture of the paleogeography and to be able to assign all samples to a particular facies, a partial reevaluation of the depositional history of the Kirkuk carbonate rocks appeared necessary. This revision, based on current concepts of carbonate sedimentology, resulted in some modification of the stratigraphic nomenclature of van Bellen et al (1959) and Buday (1980). These modifications form an integral and introductory part of the geochemical approach.

Copyright 1986. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. ^Manuscript received, June 3,1985; accepted, February 26,1986. ^Derry Laboratory, Department of Geology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5. Present address: Geological Consultant, Petrel Consultants Ltd., Suite 565,8006th Avenue Southwest, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P3G3. ^Derry Laboratory, Department of Geology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5. Publication 17-85 of the Ottawa-Carleton Centre for Geoscience Studies. This paper is based on part of the doctoral thesis of the senior writer. We acknowledge review of the thesis by 0. Dixon (University of Ottawa), N. P James (Memorial University), E. W. Mountjoy (McGill University), and A. J. Donaldson and K. Hooper (Carleton University). Constructive discussions with J. Packard and A. Legun are also acknowledged. The assistance of the geological staff at the Northern Petroleum Organization at Kirkuk is greatly appreciated. Financial support of the project was provided by the government of Iraq and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We acknowledge Petrel Consultant's support and in particular Laura Warren and Lucy Webb for their preparation of the manuscript.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY The Kirkuk oil field produces from reservons of late Paleocene to early Miocene age. Its carbonate host rocks were deposited as a complex biogenic buildup within a shallow marine shelf. The field is an example of an anticlinal trap and of the effect of fracturing and diagenesis on reser-

898

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer

899

10 km

Figure 1Geographic framework, tectonic setting, and location of Kirlculc oil field, Iraq (after Dunnington, 1958; Hemer and Pickford, 1984). X and y are locations of outcrops. Numbers 46 to 212 are wells as listed in Northern Petroleum Organization reports. Black dots in inset represent hydrocarbon fields.

voir performance. Geologically, Iraq is subdivided into three structural zones (Figure 1): a nappe zone, a folded zone, and an unfolded zone (Dunnington, 1958). These relate to the geosynclinal, unstable, and stable shelf zones of Buday (1980), respectively, with the Kirkuk oil field being within a subzone of the unstable shelf. These structural zones were differentiated during the Pliocene Alpine orogeny, which raised the high Zagros Mountains in the area adjacent to and beyond the northern frontiers of Iraq, and cast up the large and elongated anticlinal folds of the foothills and frontal ranges (Dunnington, 1958). The Kirkuk oil field is confined to a northwest-southeast-trending anticline, divided by two prominent saddles (Dibega and Amsha) into three major domes: the Khurmala, Avanaha, and Baba (Figure 1). The reservoir is highly fractured in a tensional stress environment. The fractures are generally perpendicular to bedding and at right angles to the axis of the structure. The reservoir is capped by evaporites of the lower Fars Formation (Miocene). Fades alignment (and thus porosity) in the area strikes west-northwest-east-southeast, that is, obliquely across the axis of the structure (Dunnington, 1958). The original stratigraphy and the reef concept for the Kirkuk oil field carbonates were established by Henson (1950a), and the subsequent intensive investigations of stra-

tigraphy and geology of the "main limestone" were published by Daniel (1954), Al-Naqib (1955), van Bellen (1956), Dunnington (1958), and Al-Qayim and Khaiwka (1980). Figure 2 shows a simplified stratigraphy of the Kirkuk area as proposed by van Bellen et al (1959, their Plate VI). Alternative interpretations, as summarized in Buday (1980), are noted in the caption to Figure 2. SUBDIVISION o r KIRKUK SEQUENCE INTO E^CIES To quantify the chemical attributes of host rock limestones, it was essential to assign all collected samples to a particular facies. The studied samples originated from 14 wells throughout the Kirkuk oil field and 2 outcrop sites (Figure 1). About 440 subsurface core samples and 70 surface samples were studied.'* For petrographic studies, thin sections of all samples were stained by standard staining techniques (Lindholm
''Appendix I contains graphic logs of all wells, Appendix II location of outcrop sites, Appendix III location (witfiin wells or outcrops) and petrography of the studied samples, and Appendix IV their chemical and isotopic composition. All appendices (l-IV) are available, at a nominal charge, from the Depository of Unpublished Data, CISTI, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0S2.

900

Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq

mation, we were not in a position to reconstruct paleogeographic distribution of facies and their spatial relationships. marine sandstones Upper Pars Formation For this reason, we attempted to correlate the delineated and siltstones facies only along the Kirkuk structure (Figures 4, 5). The marine anhydrite Lower Pars Pormation and sah section is oblique to facies lines, which run west-northwesteast-southeast in the Baba and Avanaha domes (Figure 1). Bajawan Formation' bacic reef-reef Kirkukensis Zone On this scale, the numerous interdigitations of facies are Delicata Zone difficult to reproduce. Note also the considerable upthrow Lepidocyciina Zone forereef Baba Formation Lepidocyciina/ of the tectonic block on which well 148 is situated (Figure 5). Nummulites Zone The foregoing difficulties notwithstanding, the resuhing Globigerina Zone basin Tarjil Formation ' schematic profiles (Figures 4, 5) give a reasonable appreciaShurau Formation Paucialveolata Zone tion of the repetitiveness of depositional cycles, as well as of DendrophyUum Zone the interrelationships and thicknesses of facies. The general Sheikh Alas Formation^ Nummulites Zone forereef impression gained from these profiles, augmented by inforPalani Formation" Globigerina Zone basin mation available in the literature, is of an initial homoclinal ramp evolving into a rimmed carbonate shelf in the sense of Gercus Formation Pila Spi Formation Read (1985). The facies change, probably fault controlled, Avanaha Formation shoal was situated in the vicinity of borehole K116 (Figure 4). Jaddala Formation basin Drowning of this shelf in the late early Eocene (van Bellen, Koiosh Formation flysch 1956, p. 238) initiated the middle to late Eocene deposiKhurmala Formation tional cycle with a carbonate ramp basinward from the pre3 Sinjar Foritution reef to shoal a. la basin Aahji Formation ceding cycle. Terminal Eocene regression caused subaerial exposure of the northwestern part of the Kirkuk structure Shiranish Formation basin (Avanaha bank), which lasted until the early Miocene (van Tanjero Formation flysch Bellen, 1956, p. 239). The evidence for continuation of this As_ emergence listed in van Bellen (1956) is confirmed also by Figure 2Rock units of Kirkuk oil field and their depositional environments. Interpretations are from van Bellen (1956) and the presence of resedimented Eocene Discocyclina in the van Bellen et al (1959). (1) Detmar et al (reported in Buday, 1980, Oligocene rock units in the southeast part of the Kirkuk p. 240) claimed that age of these formations is late Oligocene. structure (Majid, 1983, his Plate 21). The Oligocene deposi(2) According to Detmar et al (reported in Buday, 1980, p. 239), tion continued in the southeast part of the Kirkuk structure Palani Formation and parts of Tarjil and Sheikh Alas Forma- and is characterized by two basin-to-platform carbonate tions are of late Eocene age.
Age Rock Units

and Finkelman, 1972). Folk's (1959, 1965) and Dunham's (1962) terminologies were employed for microscopic and field classifications, respectively. Following petrographic examination of all samples, 279 were selected for traverse point counting (500 points) of 12 petrographic constituents. These constituents were: (1) micrite (lime mud), (2) neomorphic spar, (3) pore-filling spar, (4) miliolids and peneroplids, (5) rotaliids, (6) Nummulites, Lepidocyciina, and Discocyclina, (7) echinoderms, (8) corals and algae, (9) Globigerina and radiolaria, (10) other fossils (mostly ostracodes, brachiopods, and bivalves), (11) dolomite, and (12) pore space. The assignment of samples to facies is based on thek lithology, paleoecology of the recognized biota (following the concept of van Bellen, 1956, and summarized graphically in Figure 3), stratigraphic relationships, and petrography. The system used is that of "standard facies belts" of Wilson (1975, p. 351), with second-order modifications to his terminology. Following these studies, we were able to recognize 18 major facies (Table 1) in the sampled intervals of the studied boreholes. As is evident from Table 1, these facies do not entirely coincide with the formational terminology of the Northern Petroleum Organization (Iraq) and van Bellen et al (1959). Because the primary goal of this study is an evaluation of geochemical criteria as indicators of diagenetic evolution, we present only tabulated summaries of facies descriptions (Table 2). Because of the proprietary nature of most of the infor-

Table 1. Major Facies Recognized in Tertiary Rocks of Kirkuk Area

Facies Type Miliolid limestone II Coralgal bioherm II Lepidocyciina and NummulitesLepidocyciina Zone Benthic-pelagic zone II Globigerina IV Miliolid-peneroplid limestone Nummulitic-rotaliid limestone Coralgal bioherm I Nummulitic limestone Benthic-pelagic zone I Globigerina III Globigerina II Carbonates with large foraminiferans Fine-grained dolomidzed limestone Fine-grained dolostone Silty nummulidc limestone Globigerina I Calcareous sandstone Facies No. 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 U 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typical Part of Geologic Column Bajawan Formation Bajawan Formation Baba Formation Baba Formation Tarjil Formation Shurau Formation Part of Sheikh Alas Formation Shurau Formation Sheikh Alas Formation Sheikh Alas Formation Palani Formation Jaddala Formation Avanaha Formation Upper part of Khurmala Formation Lower part of Khurmala Formation Sinjar Formation Aaliji Formation Koiosh Formation

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer cycles (Figure 5), each terminated by drowning. The foregoing outline indicates that the southeast section of the structure was not exposed subaerially, except possibly marginally, until the late Oligocene. In contrast, the north-

901

west section was emergent from the late Eocene to Miocene, and possibly also between the early and middle Eocene, These observations constrain the possible diagenetic pathways for the respective geologic sections.

ojj o.

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'i^

Wilson s Facies ,Belts Organis Miliolids

8 Mud Flat Lagoon

6&5 Shelf-Edge Bioherm and Bank Margin

Foreslope

Toe of Slope

OpenMarine Basin

Basin

Rare Figure 3Relative abundance of fossil group in main facies of Kirkuk sequence.

l^ble 2. Summary of Petrograpliic Features of Studied Tertiary Facies Fades No. Lithology 1 Dense, hard, finegrained calcareous (in parts and dolomitized), stylolitic and pyritic siltstone and sandstone. 2, 7, 8,14 Dense, fractured, argillaceous lime mudstone or wackestone. Facies 7, 8 are cherty, glauconitic, pyritic, and rich in organic matter 4, 12 Facies 4 is laminated, silty, dense to porous, finegrained dolostone with detrital chert and voids after sulfates. Facies 12 is porous anhydritic packstonewackestone. 5,13,18 Facies 5 is massive, nonfossiliferous, porous, fractured, recrystallized, and dolomitized mudstone and wackestone. Facies 13, 18 are dense, porcelaneous mudstonewackestone. Pelletal in many places. 9,15 Slightly dolomitized, porous and permeable wackestone. Interbedding of Clobigerina lime mud with detritus of nummulitic wackestone. 10, 16 Porous, permeable, and dolomitized bioclastic grainstone and packstone. Frequent matrixselective dolomitization. 3, 11,17 Facies 3 is porous, leached, fractured, dolomitized, and silty nummulitic packstone-wackestone grainstone. Facies 11, 17 are soft, porous, and nonskeletal grainstonepackstone with coralline algae. Selectively dolomitized and silicified oil saturated. Veined with blue clay layers. Yellowish to brownish

o
lO

Dolomitized packstone to wackestone with large foraminifers. Upper part dense, lower part porous and more dolomitized.

2 o
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3. o>'

Color

Greenish gray to brown gray

Facies 2, 7 are dark to light gray; facies 8, 14 are white to grayish brown Sparse equant sparry calcite

Gray to dark gray

Brown to creamy white gray

Brown to gray

Brown, brownish gray

Buff, brownish gray to pinkish brown

en

Cement type

Equant mosaic, blady, and blocky

Mosaic and equant calcite in 5; vadose silt, isopach cement, blocky, syntaxial cements, and micrite envelopes for facies 13, 18 Neomorphic spar and micrite

Mosaic, equant, and isopach cement

Some equant cement

Equant, blocky, mosaic, and isopach cement

Equant, mosaic isopach cement, blady, blocky, and syntaxial

I
Q.

Matrix Skeletal components Miliolids Rotaliids Nummulites Discocyclina tLepidocyclina Algae and corals

Micrite

Micrite and neomorphic spar

Neomorphic spar and dolomite

Micrite and neomorphic spar

Micrite and neomorphic spar

Micrite and neomorphic spar

Table 2. Continued
Operculiiuds *Alveolma Echinoderms Globigerina Radiolaria Tintinids *Sponge spicules fBrachiopods tBryozoan tBivalves Nonskeletal components Proposed environment of deposition Wilson's standard facies belt Reasons for environmental interpretation Molasse (Buday, 1980); flysch (van Bellen et al, 1959) Open-marine shelf/basin Open sea shelf/ basin For PaleoceneEocene, the entirely pelagic biota and dark color with presence of pyrite indicating oxygendeficient basinal environment. Facies 7 contains interdigitations of shoal biota (Nummulites, Discocyclina, Lepidocyclina). Facies 8,14 are intermixing of benthic (Nummuliles, rotaliids, echinoids), and pelagic fauna. Lagoon Shelf lagoon Tidal flat/mud flat (Restricted) tidal flat For facies 5, it is pervasive dolomitization, unfossiliferous muddy texture, and stratigraphic position over facies 3. For facies 13 and 18, it is micritic lime, low diversity of organisms (peneroplids, miliolids). Frequent pellets, indications of subaerial exposure described by Daniel (1954) and lithostratigraphic position in the sequence. Bank margin or shoal Organic buildup and winnowed edge Presence of large skeletal fragments of foraminifera. secondary coarsegrained dolomitization of lower part of sequence. Toe of slope Deep shelf margin Foreslope Foreslope Shelf margin Organic buildup No fauna

>

1
Q.

Facies 4 is pervasively dolomitized with voids after sulfates. Presence of miliolids. Paleogeographic distribution of this facies on lee side of facies 3. For facies 12, it is micritic matrix, anhydrite presence, and embedded whole shells derived from facies 11.

Intermixing of pelagic fauna with detritus of Nummulltes and with rotaliid-bearing clasts.

Predominance of fragmented benthic biota. Lateral facies transitions to 9 and 11 or 15 and 17. For 16, lower part (with Nummulites and Lepidocyclina) is more dolomitized than upper part (Lepidocyclina only) of sequence.

High algal content and high frequency of mechanically pilet benthic fauna. Lateral distribution and interfingering of facies, with 3 flanked by 2 and 1.

S r
3

f
^

* Paleocene-Eocene facies only tOligocene facies only Abundant Rare

(D

904

Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq

Miocene 116 119 144 141 187 148 115 136 25 m 5 km

OLIGOCENE Name of Fm. Fades dense bank margin \^n y ^ l ^ ) L A T E EOCENE porous bank margin t.o. ;':; openmarine shelf/basin tidal fiat Khurmala

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EARLY
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IPALEOCENE
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'\^\^\^\^'dBmmmmB,could have provided the required skeletal debris for the bulk of these bioherms, they did not (except locally) provide framework. It is entirely possible that the lack of framework is due to an arrested development of Kirkuk "reef" evolution. Walker and Alberstadt (1975), studying reefs of Early Ordovician to Cretaceous ages, proposed four separate stages of reef growth: pioneer (stabilization), colonization, domination, and superimposed. It may be that the so-called Oligocene Kirkuk reefs were arrested in their pioneer stage and therefore consist mostly of a series of shoal accumulations of skeletal (forams, echinoderms, corals, and red algae) lime sands, many in a muddy matrix. These "reefs" may therefore be termed "half-reefs" or "incomplete reefs" in the sense of James (1984). DIAGENETIC PHENOMENA To understand the evolution of the chemical and isotopic signals in the rocks, as well as the economically important porosity, it is essential to summarize the diagenetic processes and products observed in this sequence. The early diagenetic evolution was characterized by micritization, submarine cementation, dissolution and min-

Figure 4Schematic cross section for late Paleocene-late Eocen? time interval. Well numbers are as in Figure 1. Formation names after van Bellen et al (1959). For Oligocene section, see Figure 5. Nature of Oligocene Buildups: Commentary The early stages of hydrocarbon exploration were restricted to the Baba dome of the Kirkuk structure (Figure 1) and its Oligocene deposits (Figure 5). In all likelihood, it was this section that led Henson (1950a) to introduce the reef complex terminology and van Bellen (1956) to formulate his concept of reef formation. In the present subsurface study, we failed to recognize any transported blocks of reef limestones (reef talus) or any colonial and/or red algae in the fore-reef fades of van Bellen (i.e., the Sheikh Alas and Baba Formations). These two formations are composed predominantly of nummulitic grainstones-packstones. Moreover, the back-reef to reef facies of van Bellen (i.e., the Shurau and Bajawan Formations) lack frame-building organisms (coral and/or algae) in their growth positions. The latter two formations consist of accumulations containing miliolid, rotaliid, peneroplid, echinoid, red algal, and coral fauna. They were bounded only by lime mud and by cementation processes during subsequent exposures. Therefore, the preferred nongeneric term for the Shurau (lower Oligocene) and the Bajawan (middle Oligocene) buildups (Figure 5) is "bioherm." Although organisms

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer

905

Figure SSchematic cross section for Oligocene time interval. Well numbers are as in Figure 1. Formation names after van Bellen et al (1959). eralogic stabilization of components, and early stages of dolomitization. The later diagenetic phenomena include cementation in the presence of meteoric solutions, dissolution and stylolitization, and Dorag-type dolomitization. Subsequently, the whole sequence has been extensively and pervasively fractured during the Pliocene Alpine orogeny (Baker and Henson, 1952; Daniel, 1954). These features, because of their importance for bulk rock chemistry, are discussed in some detail. The first generation of cements is represented by isopach cements of variable sizes (up to 50 /tm), foUovi'ed by a second generation of blocky (Figure 6), equant, and drusy (Figure 7) spars. Syntaxial overgrowth is common, particularly on crinoids. Possible meniscus cement (Figure 8) of arguably vadose origin (Dunham, 1971) has also been detected. The second-generation spar is ubiquitous in the shelf group of facies, and its bulk is probably of phreatic meteoric origin. Cements of this type commonly account for most of the intraskeletal and interskeletal space (Figures 9,10) and thus for the bulk of the related lithologies.

906

Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq

Figure 6Two generations of cements in biohermal facies. Figure 8Possible meniscus cement (arrow) in facies 18. From Arrows indicate isopach fine cement, and (B) blocky coarse Bajawan Formation, well 144, depth 680.2 m, plain-polarized cement. From Shurau Formation, well 144, depth 687.0 m, light. Width of photomicrograph is 0.23 cm. plain-polarized light, stained. Width of photomicrograph is 0.09 of aragonite, the original shapes and chamber walls are recognized only by their micritic envelopes (Figure 10). Alternatively, former shells, such as ghosts of Nummulites, have a uniform saccharoidal texture. Porcelaneous foraminiferans, such as miliolids and peneroplids, originally from high-magnesian calcite, are usually recrystallized to microspar. Two stages of pervasive dolomitization were recognized in the Kirkuk area (Majid, 1983). In limestones, disseminated dolomitization is matrix selective, involving aggrading neomorphism, and is characterized by discrete euhedral rhombs. The result of these primary and diagenetic factors is the present-day porosity of intraparticle, interparticle, burrowing, dissolution (molds, vugs, channels, and caverns), and fracture types. Dissolution affected particularly the Oligocene foreslope and bioherm facies and the Eocene bank-

This cementation is usually accompanied, or preceded, by solution phenomena. These include calcite-filled molds, secondary voids, and embayed margins. Most moUuscan and foraminiferan debris shows dark micritic rims enclosing the central zone of sparry calcite, the latter having voidfilling fabric (Figure 10). Analogy with similar features in Pleistocene carbonate sediments (Land, 1967, 1970) suggests that solution of the original, mostly aragonitic shells probably occurred after cementation had rendered the sediment somewhat rigid. Selective solution is pronounced in the foreslope and bioherm facies, causing an increase in porosity (Figure 11). In contrast, the basinal group of facies contains stylolites (stylonodules, stylolaminae, styloseams) as the most frequent solution phenomena. The diagenetic calcitization of original metastable mineralogic precursors, particularly of fossils, is expressed texturally in several modes. In wholesale dissolution, particularly

Figure 7Drusy and equant calcite cement coarsening toward center of pore space. From Shurau Formation, well 144, depth 683.0 m, plain-polarized light. Width of photomicrograph is 0.09 cm.

Figure 9Micritization (small arrows) in mud-flat facies. Note (large arrow) miliolids and (p) peneroplids and ubiquity of second-generation spar cement. From Bajawan Formation, well 141, depth 823.6 m, plain-polarized light, stained. Width of photomicrograph is 0.23 cm.

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer

907

Figure 10Shape of former metastable allochem preserved by micrite envelope (small arrow). Envelope is coated by fine crystalline equant isopacb cement (large arrow). In allochem, cavity rim is in sharp contact with coarse crystalline equant calcite (c). From Shnrau Formation, well 141, depth 825.0 m, plainpolarized light. Width of photomicrograph is 0.9 cm. margin facies, and it appears to have been a continuous event that has been active from early postdepositional to late eogenetic times (see also Choquette and Pray, 1970). The Oligocene bioherm and mud-flat facies are veined by blue clay (Daniel, 1954). The origin of this blue clay is uncertain, but could be related to solution and karstification of carbonates. Daniel (1954) believed that fissures containing this blue clay acted as channels for seepage of meteoric water into the underlying bioherm, foreslope, and toe-of-slope facies.

possibly a result of passage through phreatic and vadose meteoric zones (Table 2). Although most of these phenomena were likely related to early stages of postdepositional history, the prolonged subaerial exposure of the northwest part of the Kirkuk sequence was conducive to a prolonged continuous flow of large quantities of meteoric water through the sedimentary pile. The association of pervasive dolomitization with shelf facies of the same area (Majid, 1983) is consistent with this proposition. Such regional dolomitization may have been a prerequisite for significant hydrocarbon migration and ultimate production in the region. In contrast to the shelf group of facies, the basinal facies are relatively dense, with poorly interconnected intraskeletal porosity, abundant stylolites, and superimposed fracture porosity (Table 2). These attributes, and their presence mostly in the southeast part of the Kirkuk structure characterized by continuous subsidence (Figures 4, 5), suggest a restricted role of meteoric water in diagenetic stabilization of the basinal group of carbonates.

CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF LIMESTONE FACIES

Two hundred seventy-nine surface and subsurface samples, covering all facies, were selected for chemical analysis. At least 12 samples were selected from each studied formation. This number of samples was considered to be a minimal requirement for chemical characterization of the studied facies. Analytic techniques and equipment were as described by Veizer et al (1978) and Brand and Veizer (1980). The only difference is the use of 6% (V/V), instead of 8% (V/V), hydrogen chloride for digestion of samples. The relSynopsis of Diagenetic Phenomena ative percentage of present average accuracies and preciThe shelf group of facies contains extensive features of sions, as compared with recommended values for N.B.S. diagenetic dissolution, recrystallization, and cementation, (lb, 88a, 99a) and Z.G.I. (KH, TB) standard rocks (Flanagan, 1973; Abbey, 1975), were as follows: sodium (6.2; 8.8), iron (4.1; 3.1), manganese (9.1; 6.5), calcium (8.1; 7.5), aluminum (9.1; 4.2), and strontium (8.5; 3.9), respectively The average reproducibihty of gravimetric insoluble residue (I.R.) determinations was 5.2%. One hundred samples were selected for oxygen and carbon isotope determinations. Approximately 10 mg of each sample was prepared according to the standard procedure of McCrea (1950). Oxygen and carbon isotopes were measured on a V.G. Micromass 602 D Twin mass spectrometer at the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Waterloo. Their isotopic ratios are expressed in the usual 6 notation and given relative to PDB in per mill. Average accuracy and reproducibility, as compared to recommended values for the N.B.S. 20 (Solnhofen Limestone) standard rock (cf., Craig, 1957) were: oxygen (0.12; 0.15) and carbon (0.05; 0.05) %o, respectively The discussion of trace elements is based on data recalcuFigure 11Dissolution of metastable allochem resulting in lated on pure carbonate (insoluble residue-free) basis. For moldic porosity (M). Note micrite envelope (arrow) defining boundaries of allochem. Biohermal facies from Bajawan Forma- data handling, the SPSS package version 6 (Nie et al, 1975) tion, well 139, depth 620.0 m, plain-polarized light. Width of was used. Factor analyses were conducted at the University photomicrograph is 0.23 cm. of Ottawa by the PAl procedure with Varimax rotation.

908

Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq Evaluation of Chemical Data Table 3. Factor Analysis (Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix) of All Studied Samples (N = 279)
Log l.R. Aluminum Manganese Iron Sodium Strontium Magnesium Calcium % of variation explained Factor 1* 0.898 0.794 0.639 0.799 0.664 0.469 0.270 0.341 69.3 Factor 2** -0.136 0.190 0.218 0.226 0.217 -0.546 0.792 -0.921 30.7 Communality 0.825 0.666 0.456 0.688 0.488 0.518 0.700 0.965

Factor analysis of the studied trace elements for all samples shows that two factors account for most of the overall trace-element variations (Table 3). Factor 1, which controls the variance of l.R., aluminum, iron, manganese, and sodium, represents a difference in chemistry between basinal (toe-of-slope, open-marine shelf, and basinal fades of Wilson, 1975, p. 351) and shelf (mud-flat, bioherm, and foreslope) groups of fades. The reahty of differences in chemical composition between the two groups of fades are documented separately for each element in the subsequent text. In addition, this factor also represents leaching of aluminum, iron, manganese, and sodium from noncarbonate phases during laboratory digestion of the samples. The second factor is dolomitization (principally in the bioherm, bank, and foreslope facies), as exemplified by opposing signs of the magnesium and calcium loadings.

'Basinal vs. shelf group of facies and some laboratory leaching. Basinal group includes facies 2,7,8,9,14,15; the shelf group comprises facies 3,4,5, 6,10,11,12,13,16,17,18. Rules Indicate dominant factors. "Dolomitization; rules indicate dominant factors.

Sodium Figure 12 shows the distribution of sodium contents in the studied facies. The geometric means of the mud-flat, bioherm, foreslope, and basinal fades are 103,96,193, and 827 ppm, respectively. The sodium content in the foreslope facies is closer to that of the nearshore counterparts. This is supported by sedimentologic considerations, since the bulk of the sediments in the foreslope facies in any carbonate platform setting is usually derived from the shelf area (Wilson, 1975, chapter 2). Calculations show that the observed sodium content of the foreslope facies can result from mixing of components derived 86% from the nearshore (mud flat and bioherm) and 14% from the basinal environments. At first glance, and supported by high loadings of sodium, I.R., and aluminum, on the same factor (Table 3), it appears that the high sodium in the basinal population is due to laboratory digestion of samples. Since aluminum in the acid leach must have originated from the silicate fraction, sodium could have been extracted from the same source. However, extrapolations of the nearshore, foreslope, and basinal data into the low aluminum range indicate that these populations contain, in their carbonate fractions, approximately 70, 90, and 230 ppm sodium, respectively. The residual difference in sodium content between the basinal and the other two populations may, therefore, be a consequence of a lesser degree of diagenetic stabilization in meteoric waters for the basinal population. This point is discussed later in the text in conjunction with conclusions based on other trace elements and stable isotopes. Strontium Strontium substitutes mostly in the calcium positions of calcite and dolomite (Kinsman, 1969). This is supported by the strong antipathetic loadings of strontium and magnesium on factor 2 in Table 3. Figure 13 shows that the nearshore (mud-flat and bioherm) population has low strontium content with a geometric mean of 151 ppm,

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Figure 12Scatter diagram of sodium in studied facies. Explanations: triangles = Oligocene; black dots = Eocene, stars = Paleocene. Statistical evaluation (t-test) shows (hat geometric means for mud-flat and bioherm fades are not different at 95% confidence level for all chemical parameters with exception of l.R. and magnesium. Therefore, these two combined fades (mud flat and bioherm) are designated in text as nearshore population.

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Velzer

909
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whereas the basinal population has a high strontium content with a geometric n\ean of 575 ppm. The foreslope population has (in analogy to sodium) strontium concentrations closer to the nearshore population. Calculation shows again that the foreslope population derived its constituents 83% from the nearshore and 17% from the basinal environments. Manganese and Iron The geometric means of manganese concentrations in the nearshore, foreslope, and basinal populations are 33, 20, and41 ppm, respectively. For iron, they are 123,72, and 248 ppm. Manganese and iron leaching from the noncarbonate fraction (factor 1 in Table 3) is the reason for the differences in the average concentrations of these elements in different facies. Extrapolations to low aluminum range show little residual difference in the manganese and iron contents of the studied populations (30 10 ppm for manganese and 50 5 ppm for iron). Due to their lack of utihty in the present study, these two elements are discussed only marginally in the subsequent text. Magnesium The concentrations of magnesium in limestones are high in the bioherm and the foreslope facies. This concentration is corroborated by the observed patterns of dolomitization (Majid, 1983). The geometric mean concentrations for the nearshore, foreslope, and basinal populations are 4,380, 9,040, and 7,150 ppm, respectively. However, it is likely that a considerable portion of the magnesium is present as disseminated dolomite rhombs and not in the CaCOj lattice. For this reason, attempts to use the observed magnesium concentrations for inference concerning Mg/Ca ratios of the diagenetic solutions are unlikely to yield definitive results. Oxygen Isotopes The nearshore population is strongly depleted in 6'*0 with a mean d'^O of about - 7 . 0 %o PDB, if the three heavy Sinjar samples (bioherm) are excluded (Figure 14). In contrast, the basinal population contains 6**0 similar to that of the present-day marine carbonates with a mean of about - 1 . 0 %o PDB. The foreslope population again has intermediate 6'*0 values with a mean of -2.8 %o PDB. This mean could be a consequence of 60% and 40% nuxing of the nearshore and basinal counterparts, respectively. Carbon Isotopes Figure 15 shows the distributions of 8"C in the studied facies. This distribution is identical with that of the 6'*0, with the nearshore population depleted in 8"C (average - 5 . 8 "/oo PDB, if one Sinjar Formation sample is excluded). In contrast, the basinal population contains values somewhat lighter than those of the present-day marine carbonates (average -0.03 %o PDB). As in the previous

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Figure 13Scatter diagram of strontium in studied facies. Explanations as in Figure 12. cases, the 6"C for the foreslope population is intermediate, with an average of -1.6 %o PDB, and this average can be a consequence of the mixture of 52% and 48% derived from the nearshore and basinal environments, respectively DIAGENESIS AND CHEMICAL CONSTRAINTS The previous evaluation led to the conclusion that the nearshore population (mud flat and bioherm) is characterized by low sodium (70 ppm) and strontium (151 ppm), and by light 6'*0 (-7.0 %o PDB) and 5'^C (-5.8 %o PDB). In contrast, the basinal population has the opposite attributes, that is, sodium content of 230 ppm, strontium 575 ppm, 6'*0 - 1 . 0 % o PDB, and 6'^C + 0.03 %o PDB. The foreslope population represents an approximate 83%: 17% to 52%:48% mixture of these two end members and has intermediate petrographic, chemical, and diagenetic characteristics. For this reason, it is not discussed in the subsequent text.

910
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Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq and biolithites with miliolids, rotaliids, peneroplids, Nummulites, Discocyclina, LepidocycUna, red algae, coral, and echinoid grains. These fossils were mostly of metastable (high-magnesian calcite and subordinate aragonite) mineralogy (MiUiman, 1974, p. 80). In contrast, the basinal population contains a higher proportion of low-magnesian calcitic Globigerina and a considerable proportion of carbonate mud of uncertain origin. Petrographically and perhaps mineralogically, there is therefore a distinct difference between the two populations. Originally, the nearshore population has been mostly metastable aragonite and magnesian-calcite, whereas the basinal one contained a considerable proportion of the stable low-magnesian calcite. Thus, the diagenetic potential (see Schlanger and Douglas, 1974) of the nearshore population was considerably higher than that of the basinal one. Furthermore, the overall original as well as secondary porosity (manifested in the percentage of cements) was considerably higher in the nearshore population. As a result, this population has undergone far larger repartitioning of tracers, such as strontium, 5'*0, sodium, and 6'^C, than the basinal one (Figure 16). The loss of strontium in the basinal population is by a factor of 2 to 9, whereas for the nearshore population it is by a factor of 16 to 20. Thus, the postdepositional diagenetic alteration of the nearshore population was about seven times more pervasive than that of the basinal population, and this led to a reversal of strontium distributions in the stabilized counterparts (Figure 16). The foregoing discussion indicates that original mineralogy (diagenetic potential), as well as permeability and porosity, controlled the degree of diagenetic alteration (Matthews, 1%8; Enos, 1977). The role of secondary phenomena, such as permeability and porosity, is well illustrated by different facies in the basinal population (Table 4), where strontium content correlates inversely with these parameters. Because the porosities and permeabilities ofthe nearshore population were even larger than those typical of all basinal rocks, it is not surprising that their loss of strontium was of even greater magnitude (Figure 16). TYPE OF WATER INVOLVED IN DIAGENESIS OF KIRKUK CARBONATES Taking the observed carbonate-bound concentrations of trace elements (i.e., manganese, iron, strontium, magnesium, sodium, and calcium) for the nearshore and basinal populations of facies, it is possible to calculate the trace element to calcium ratios for waters from which these facies were deposited and/or diagenetically stabilized (for details, see Veizer, 1983a, b). The data and calculations are given in Tables. The geometric means of trace element to calcium ratios for representative present-day natural waters are presented in Figure 17 for comparison. Detailed documentation and histograms are provided by Majid (1983; reproduced in Veizer, 1983a). The ground (shallow subsurface) waters, which are the most common diagenetic solutions, are similar to meteoric surface waters in their overall chemistry Accepting the foregoing average values for present-day nat-

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A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer

911

ural waters as the first-order approximations to the composition of I he Tertiary diagenetic waters in the Kirkuk area, we can use these estimates for an attempt to further quantify diagenetic histories of the studied limestones. Compositionally, the theoretical nearshore Kirkuk water (represented by the 1:1 line in Figure 18) falls between meteoric water and seawater. It, therefore, represents a mixture of these two water types. The strontium, sodium, and magnesium parameters demand a strong meteoric contribution, whereas iron and manganese suggest that seawater was an important component in the diagenetic solution. Because, in the present study, strontium, sodium, and magnesium were shown to be more reliable indicators of the chemistry of the postulated diagenetic solution than were manganese and iron, it is likely that the diagenetic water of the nearshore population of the Kirkuk reservoir was mostly of a shallow subsurface type. This conclusion is supported by the highly negative 6 *0 (-7.0 /oo PDB). An alternative explanation, that this light 6"*0 is due to calcite precipitation from warm water during deep burial is not in accord with the foregoing chemical data. Warm basinal waters are usually saline and manganese- and iron-rich (because of low oxygen levels) and are thus unlikely to precipitate calcites of the observed 5'0 (PDBo/oo) chemistry. Because of the observed very low manganese and iron concentrations, it is likely that the aquifer was Figure 16Assumed original strontium and i5'*0 contents of highly oxygenated. In addition, the carbon dioxide nearshore and basinal populations (shaded squares) compared to their diagenetically stabilized Kirkuk counterparts (black involved in the production of the dissolved bicarbonate was derived partially from oxidation of organic carbon, squares). because only such a source could account for the 6'^C value of - 5 . 8 % o P D B . In contrast, the chemistry of the theoretical water that Table 4. Porosity and Permeability Versus Strontium Content in was a source for the basinal population of limestones Different Rock Units of Basinal Population of Facies* approximates, to a considerable degree, that of seawater (see 1:1 line in Figure 19). This would suggest that (a) diaPermeability Porosity Mean Sr genetic recrystallization of the original marine carbonate (md) (ppm) (%) Unit assemblage was relatively minor if meteoric waters were Middle Oligocene 360 100-200 18 involved in this process, or (b) diagenetic solutions were of Late Oligocene 700 20-30 marine parentage and the limestones were therefore stabiEocene 775 0-10 lized in solutions not vasdy different in chemistry from seaApproximate porosity and permeability data are from Al-Jawadi (1978, perwater. In either case, the observed diagenetic chemical sonal communication).

Table 5. Carbonate-Bound Trace-Element Concentrations (in ppm) in Limestones of Nearshore and Basinal Populations of Facies
Nearshore Population Elemental Concentration Calculated in Calcite (ppm) fMerCa), 15 20 0.14 0.03 0.06 0.013 2 X 10'' 3 X 10"' 20 50 151 4,383 75 351,700 2.7 5.1 1.4 3.9 3.4 15.9 185.4 122.5 X 10"* X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' Basinal Population Elemental Calculated Concentration in Calcite (ppm) ("'Me/'"Ca) 14 46 572 7,150 230 340,720 2.0 4.2 5.5 2.6 5.8 26.6 587.0 391.3 X 10"* X 10"* X 10"' X 10"^ X 10"' X 10"' X 10"' X 10"'

Element Manganese Iron Strontium Magnesium Sodium Calcium

The concentrations of Mn, Fe, and Na are those extrapolated to low Al values. The corresponding ("'Me/'^Ca) values of theoretical Kirkuk waters were derived from the following formula: ("^IVIe/'^CaV = ('"Me/Ca)(,g|c|,g/D^j,f;,i,g, where the superscript "m" represents molar concentration.

912
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Tertiary Carbonates, Kirkuk Oil Field, Iraq

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Figure 17Average ""Me/^Ca ratio of present-day natural waters.

signal is not pronounced. It is difficult to differentiate between these two alternatives, and in all hkelihood, both might have been involved. The "marine" nature of the 5'*0 and 5''C signals (-1.0 and 0.0 /oo PDB, respectively) is also consistent with both interpretations. However, the depletions in magnesium and strontium (by a factor of 2, if compared to their possible precursor sediments) (Figure 16) suggest considerable recrystallization (dissolution-reprecipitation) if the diagenetic waters were of marine parentage. Alternatively, they may indicate a less pronounced involvement of isotopically heavy (hence different from the nearshore) meteoric waters in diagenetic stabilization of these carbonates. Geologic considerations show that the southeast part of the Kirkuk structure, containing the basinal facies populations, was not subaerially exposed until the late Oligocene. Geologically, therefore, submarine diagenetic recrystallization is more probable.

CONCLUSIONS Consideration of lithostratigraphy, paleoecology, and petrography of the Tertiary carbonate rocks of the Kirkuk area enabled delineation of 18 facies types. Correlation of these facies in 14 studied wells permitted delineation of two types of depositional systems (carbonate ramp and carbonate shelf), which alternated in time. The mostly clastic early Tertiary sequence was deposited over the Cretaceous basinal unit. This clastic ramp (Kolosh and Aaliji Formations) evolved into a rimmed carbonate shelf and the resulting paleogeography caused the deposition of the restricted lagoonal facies (Khurmala Formation) in the northwest part of the Kirkuk structure behind the Sinjar bioherm. Subsequently, the whole shelf has been overlain by tidal-flat carbonates. The drowning of the whole sequence by the late early Eocene transgression led to a renewed development of the carbonate ramp during the middle and late Eocene. The Eocene sedimentation was terminated due to Ohgocene

regression, which in the northwest (the Avanaha and Khurmala domes) persisted until the early Miocene. The Oligocene sedimentation has been restricted to the southeastern, Baba-Tarjil, area of the Kirkuk structure. Two main depositional cycles, the early and middle Oligocene, can be deciphered in this area, and they both represent repetition of faunal and sedimentologic events in a predominantly shallow, open-marine shelf setting. In each cycle, the open-marine lime mud facies passes shoreward into the toe-of-slope, foreslope, bioherm, and mud-flat facies. The two cycles are separated by a short hiatus. It is believed that no true reef structures are present in these two cycles. However, local patch reefs (bioherms) have been recognized along the shelf edge. Extensive subaerial exposure of the Kirkuk sequence at the end of the Eocene (in the northwest) and the end of the middle Oligocene (in the southeast) has been responsible for invasion of fresh water into the topographically higher and more permeable carbonate pile. This resulted in the development of solution porosity, recrystallization, cementation, dolomitization, and other diagenetic phenomena. Geochemical study shows that the trace-element and stable-isotope distributions in the limestones of the Kirkuk reservoir are, in part, facies controlled. The nearshore (mud-flat and bioherm) facies populations have low sodium and strontium contents as well as light 6'*0 and 5'^C. In contrast, the basinal facies have opposite attributes. The foreslope facies represents a mixture of these two end members with the nearshore contribution being predominant. Use of determined concentrations of trace elements in the limestones of the Kirkuk oil field host rocks, and the oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios for calculation of approximate compositions of the diagenetic solutions shows that these , solutions were of subsurface meteoric type for the nearshore population of facies. In addition, the meteoric aquifer was likely well oxygenated and derived its bicarbonate partly from oxidation of organic carbon. In contrast, the basinal population of facies either retained a considerable portion of the unaltered original low-magnesian calcitic components or the diagenetic waters were of a somewhat modified marine parentage. A combination of these two alternatives with a small amount of meteoric water influx appears to have been the most likely possibility.
REFERENCES CITED Abbey, S., 1975, Studies in "standard samples" of silicate rocks and minerals, part A; 1974 edition of "usable" values: Canada Geological Survey Paper 74-41,23 p. Al-Naqib, K. M., 1955, Geology of theKirkuk oil fields: Ankara, CoUoque Geologique Applique de Procheorient, p. 198-212. Al-Qayim, B. A., and M. Khaiwka, 1980, Depositional environment and diagenesis of the Oligocene reef cycles, Kirlcuk oil field, northern Iraq: Modern Geology, v. 7, p. 177-190. Baker, N. E., andF. R. S. Henson, 1952, Geological conditions of oil occurrence in Middle East fields: AAPG Bulletin, v. 36, p. 1885-1901. Brand, U., and J. Veizer, 1980, Chemical diagenesis of a multi-component carbonate system1, trace elements: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 1219-1236. Buday, T, 1980, The regional geology of Iraq: stratigraphy and paleogeography: Baghdad, Dar Al-Kutib Publishing House, v. 1,445 p.

A. Hamid Majid and Jan Veizer

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Figure 18Plot of ("Me/^Ca)^ ratios of present-day natural waters versus theoretical ('"Me/'"Ca) for Kirkuk nearsliore population of limestone facies.

PRESENT DAY

Choquette, P. W., and L. C. Pray, 1970, Geologic nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates: AAPG Bulletin, v 54 p. 207-250. Craig, H., 1957, Isotopic standards for carbon and oxygen and correction factors for mass spectrometric analysis of carbon dioxide: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, V. 12, p. 133-149. Daniel, E. J., 1954, Fractured reservoirs of Middle East: AAPG Bulletin v 38, p. 774-815. Dunham, R. J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture, in W. E. Ham, ed.. Classification of carbonate rocks: AAPG Memoir 1, p. 108-121. 1971, Meniscus cement, in O. P. Bricker, ed., Carbonate cements: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 297-300. Dunnington, H. V, 1958, Generation, migration, accumulation, and dissipation of oil in northern Iraq, in L. G. Weeks, ed., Habitat of oilAAPG, p. 1194-1251. Enos, R, 1977, Holocene sediment accumulations of the South Florida shelf margin, in Quaternary sedimentation in South Florida: GSA Memoir 147, part 1, p. 1-130. Flanagan, E J., 1973, 1972 values of international geochemical reference samples: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 37, p. 1189-1200. Folk, R. L., 1959, Practical petrographic dassification of limestones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 43, p. 1-38. 1965, Some aspeds of recrystallization in ancient hmestones, in L. C. Pray and R. C. Murray, eds., Dolomitization and hmestone diagenesis; SEPM Special Publication 13, p. 14-48. Henson, F. R. S., 1950a, Cretaceous and Tertiary reef formations and assodated sediments in Middle East: AAPG Bulletin, v. 34, p. 215-238. 1950b, The stratigraphy of the main producing limestone of the Kirkuk oil field (abs.): Proceedings of the 18th International Geological Congress, part 6, p. 34, (discussion, p. 68-73). Hemer, D. O., and R J. Pickford, 1984, Oil and gas development in Middle East in 1983: AAPG BuUetin, v. 68, p. 1413-1429. James, N. R, 1984, Reefs, in R. Walker, ed.. Fades modds: Geosdence Canada Reprint Series 1, p. 229-244. Kinsman, D. J. J., 1969, Interpretation of Sr+^ concentrations in carbonate minerals and rocks: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 39, p. 486508. Land, L. S., 1967, Diagenesis of skeletal carbonates: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 37, p. 914-930. 1970, Phreatic versus vadose meteoric diagenesis of limestones: evidence from a fossil water table: Sedimentology, v. 14, p. 175-185. Lindholm, R. C , and R, B, Finkdman, 1972, Calcite staining: semiquantitative determination of ferrous iron: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, V. 42, p. 239-242.

Figure 19Plot of ("Me/"'Ca) ratios of present-day natural waters versus theoretical ("'Me/'"Ca) for Ku-kuk basinal population of limestone facies.

Longman, M. W., 1981, Carbonate diagenesis as a control on stratigraphic traps: AAPG Continuing Education Course Note Series 21, 159 p. Majid, A. H., 1983, Lithofacies, chemical diagenesis and dolomitization of the Tertiary carbonates of the Ku-kuk oil field, Iraq: PhD thesis. University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 270 p. Matthews, R. K., 1968, Carbonate diagenesis: equilibration of sedimentary mineralogy to the subaerial environments, Coral Cap of Barbados, West Indies: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 38, p. 1110-1119. McCrea, J. M., 1950, On the isotope chemistry of carbonates and a paleotemperature scale: Journal of Chemical Physics, v. 18, p. 844-857. Milliman, J. D., 1974, Marine carbonates: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 375 p. Nie, N. H., C. H. Hull, J. G. Jenkins, K. Stdnbrenner, and D. H. Bent, 1975, Statistical package for the social sciences (2nd edition): New York, McGraw-Hill, 675 p. Read, J. E, 1985, Carbonate platform fades models: AAPG Bulletin, v. 69, p. 1-21. Schlanger, S. O., and R. G. Douglas, 1974, The pelagic ooze-chalk transition and its implications for marine stratigraphy, / K. J. Hsii and H. C. Jenkyns, eds.. Pelagic sediments: on land and under the sea: International Association of Sedimentologists Special PubUcation 1, p. 117148. van Bellen, R. C , 1956, The stratigraphy of the "main limestone" of the Kirkuk, Bai Hassan, and Qara Chaug Dagh structures in northern Iraq: Journal of the Institute of Petroleum, v. 42, p. 223-263. H. V Dunnington, R. Weltzd, and D. M. Morten, 1959, Lexique stratigraphique international, v. 3: International Geological Congress Commission on Stratigraphy, part 10a, 333 p. Veizer, J., 1983a, Chemical diagenesis of carbonates: theory and application of trace element technique: SEPM Short Course Notes 10,p.111/1 to 111/100. 1983b, Trace elements and isotopes in sedimentary carbonates: Review of Mineralogy, v. 11, p. 265-299. J. Lemieux, B. Jones, M. R. Gibling, and J. Savelle, 1978, Paleosalinity and dolomitization of a lower Paleozoic carbonate sequence, Somerset and Prince of Wales Island, Arctic Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v, 15, p. 1448-1461. Walker, K. R., and L. P. Alberstadt, 1975, Ecological succession as an aspect of structure in fossil communities: Paleobiology, v. 1, p. 238-257. Wilson, J. L., 1975, Carbonate fades in geologic history: New York, Springer-Verlag, 471 p.