Further Investigations of Leonardo's "Leda and the Swan" at Rotterdam Author(s): Monica Marchesi Reviewed work(s): Source: Master

Drawings, Vol. 43, No. 3, Sixteenth-Century Florentine Drawings (Fall, 2005), pp. 349-355 Published by: Master Drawings Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20444416 . Accessed: 29/02/2012 21:05
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Further the Swan

Investigations at Rotterdam

of Leonardo's

Leda

and

MONICA MARCHESI

During

the lasthundred years, the drawing of Leda

out in subtle strokesof the pen. Leonardo used bold

SwanbyLeonardodaVinci (1452-1519)in and vigorous lines to render the vegetation, prefer and the the Museum Boijmans Beuningen, Van Rotterdam ring much finer hatching thefigures. Leda for Both (Fig. hasbeen 1),1 widely openan older and the swan are modeled with curved parallel published.To to catalogue monograph or devoted theartist's draw hatching. In some areas, such as Leda's extended ings compare photomechanical and the reproductionright arm, her torso, the swan's body, and his neck,
of the Leda with the appearance of the drawing in its present damaged state is a troublesome experience. In the pen lines are so dense that itbecomes difficultto discern thewhite ground of the paper underneath. The contrast between the white paper and the brown ink is softened by the presence of the black

olderreproductions Fig.4), the (see woman'sface and

hair show an extreme darity, the hatching isneat and uncluttered,and the transitions fromdark to lightare composed and clean.All of this is absent in the orig

chalk underdrawing.
The sheet has suffered damage in several places, especially Leda's mouth, the area around her cheeks, her breasts,and the swan's body,which show traces of abrasion aswell as a severe flakingof the ink,and the area around Leda's leftknee reveals a more seri ous problem. This damage seems to indicate that Leonardo used iron gall ink. Since ancient times,

inaldrawing. Here thecomposition blurred is and

vague. The hatching is so dense that the volumes appear almost indistinct. Leda's face is covered by a hazy halo thatobscures her distinctivefeatures(Fig.2). The purpose of this article is to explore the reasons why the current appearance of the Leda seems so at

odds withearlier to published images tangentially, iron gall ink has been widely used inWestern and, address allegations itspresent that condition the Europe and praised for its quality forwriting and is result conservation of findings treatment.2The under drawing; it is equally renowned for its complex score not only the degree towhich photography can chemical and corrosive composition its behavior.4 interfere with our perception of awork of art, but also To support conclusion Leonardoused the that the need for caution when relying reproductions on iron gall ink for the Rotterdam Leda, the sheet to make qualitative judgments. was photographed using False Color Infrared The Leda is drawn in pen and a soft,golden This non-destructive form Reflectography (FCIR).5
brown ink,over strokesof a powdery medium, pre sumably black chalk.3The drawing isbuilt up in two phases: the underdrawing in black chalk of a soft blue tone defines the volumes aswell as the general of optical analysis is a valuable tool for distinguish

ing between browninks the most frequently in used

old master drawings.6 Iron gall ink turns red with

FCIR, indeedbolstering view that the Leonardo

employed this medium for the Leda and theSwan

composition, while thefinal representation iscarried

349

(Fig. 3). The adverse effectsof the iron gall ink on the drawing are visible, though it is clear that only some passages show losses in the ink and paper sur face, while others areas of the drawing remain intact. The brittle appearance of the paper in the present drawing seems to indicate an excess of tannin,one Tannin can of themain ingredientsof iron gall ink. lead to a weakening of the paper structure, leaving

r'

-~~~ 4

behind an abraded surface.7 The

deterioration has

in sections occurred those with thefinest hatching and extensive underdrawing. combination This of
factorsprobably accounts for the nature of the dam age.The areas of densest hatching would have con tained higher amounts of corrosive ink and under

gone greater alteration.8 underdrawing, the The on

other hand, created a layerbetween the paper sup port and the final composition, preventing the ink

fromthoroughly penetrating paper (and later the

eating through it) but causing the ink particles to flake more easily from the surface. It is impossible to pinpoint when the ink began to deteriorate, since the present stateof the drawing was not accurately recorded until the late 1950s, when itwas first photographed with panchromatic

film.9 is,however, It possibleto determine when

Leonardo's sheet appears altered for the firsttime. The Leda and the Swan entered the museum in 1936 with other drawings from the collection of together Franz Koenigs."' The photographer A. Frequin, who worked for themuseum duringWorld War 1 Fkqurc
LEONARDO DA VINCI Leda and the Swan Rotterda,n1, Miieusciii: Boijlmatis Van Beimi,igen

from 1928 until his death a glass negative of the

II,made

sheet, probably sometime between 1936 and 1945 (Fig. 4).The first known photograph to show varia appearance was made tions in the drawing's

between 1959 and 1960 for theGernsheim Corpus Photographicum of Drawings." themuseum It is important to note thatFrequin's image continued to be used by for a long time, since the Gernsheim photograph was never intended for reproduction. In

2 Fn.yiure

Robert Wallace's book on Leonardo, published in 1966, for instance, the image reproduced is credited toA. Frequin, thereforeusing a photo taken at least twenty years earlier.'2The Gernsheim firstphotographs made for reproduction to show the alterations seen in the image were taken by Frequin's son in

LEONAR1O0
DA VINCI Detail of Fig. 1 Muisewcin Rotterdam1,, Bo!jm1a)s Van_

mod 1966 and 1968.'3Itwas onlyafter 1968 that

350

ern photos were supplied forpublication instead of

prolonged use prints A. Frequin's from negative.The

con of the older image may explain why the first

emerged only cerns about thedrawing's condition

in the early 1970s.'4

Photography suffers translation as other in just

media do.'5 Despite the fact that the conversion is
Figure 3

less visible, owing to its greater accuracy, photogra

phy reproduces, through a narrow range of grays, a

mere reflection of whatwe callreality.A photograph

isnothing more than an imperfectduplication of an

.,.^

, . LEONARDO
I 'Nunder I Fig. I photographed False Color

image. Photomechanical reproductions even stray farther the from original, since(historically) are they
the second step in the translation from original via photograph to etched plate." The conversion to a
_ _

Infrared Reflectography (FCIR)

Rotterdani,MusCeium0 Boijmans Vaui ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~BeuuititeuR

should regarded be photomechanical reproduction

as a process of simplification of the original image.

reproductions of Looking at old photomechanical

Leonardo's sheet, it is clear that the complexity of the drawing, with its dense hatching, subtle varia tions in media, and refined chiaroscuro, is at best only partially imitated rather than replicated.'7 It is likely that most matic film.Ix The old photographs of

usingorthochro Leonardo'sdrawing were taken

use of this particular film has a the appearance of the photo
I~F(gure I n 4 ILEONARDO

twofold effect on

graphic image and thus on any photomechanical

it. reproduction made from Firstly, orthochromatic

film cannot capture red and so is unable to record the red elements present in brown ink.This has a direct impact on the intensityof the photographic image. Any passage with red appears clear in the negative and thus black in the photographic print, so in old photographs the ink lines are deeper and the contrast between the darks and the highlights are sharper than in the actual drawing. The second important aspect that affects the <.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ CA ~~the iixile ~ ~ ~

DA VINCI
Si Orthochromiatic photograph of Fig. 1 printed fromiglass negative miade by

mius:m

A.

Feunc.1936-45 Rotra,Muiseumii

of appearance of the image is the spectral sensitivity This is sensitive to green and orthochromatic film.

Pi.MhI!!
_ . Bojta+

blue light,as well as inmost cases ultraviolet light, which is invisible to the naked eye.The ability to capture ultraviolet profoundly alters how drawings executed in iron gall ink appear in reproduction." Iron gall ink absorbs ultraviolet radiation, hence looks darker.The enhanced contrast between the

easierto read, paperand ink makes thedrawnlines

351

even when most of the ink particles are depleted.2"

sheet underultraviolet Figure5 showsthepresent

light.While the damages are clearly evident,what is

imageis its uncanny resemblance striking aboutthis

to the old photograph (Fig. 4). Even those passages where the ink is severely flaked-such
Figure.

as Leda's left

eye (and the linesdeparting from it),hermouth, and the hatching in her body and thatof the swan-are Another discernible with the same degree of clarity. between the two images is the subdued simnilarity appearance of the black chalk.Unlike iron gall ink, Having chalk ispoorly enhanced by ultraviolet light. almost the same degree of fluorescence as the paper, LEONARDO
DA VINCI Fig. 1 photographed under ultraviolet gligt Rotterdam,Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen

it becomes almost indistinguishable. absence Its

gives both images a clean and orderly look that is

different fromthesmudged appearance altogether

of the actual drawing. The Leda and theSwan was also photographed under near infrared light (Fig. 6), and these images reveal additional hidden aspects of the drawing.2" In thisarea of the spectrum, the twomedia used in the drawing behave in exactly the opposite way: the iron gall ink is almost invisiblewhile the black chalk

is discernible. The infrared underdrawing clearly clarity physical the image shows with extraordinary
condition of sheet of paper, revealing the areas of
Figure 6

greatest degradation. This view also enables us to filly appreciate the underdrawing beneath the pen drawing. It demonstrates how extensively Leonardo drew with the chalk before reworking the subject in pen He and ink, confirming the "brainstorming" approach thathas been described by art historians.22 used the underdrawing not only to define the contours and volumes but also to explore different

LEONARDO
DA VINCI Fig. 1 photographed under near infred

light
Rotterdam,Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen

for alternative compositional possibilities, instance

poses for the limbs.23Leonardo tried out several is a further left leg positions for Leda's right arm, before using ink to reinforce his final choice. There Her change in the arrangement of her legs.

was probably less bent, as is suggested by an earlier position for her left foot.This was initiallyplaced lower down, closer to the bottom edge of the sheet. The position of thisfoot in theunderdrawing is closer to the arrangement of the figure in the related drawing of the same subject in theRoyal Library at Windsor Castle.24Leonardo's tendency to rework his

352

contours even Marchesi an art is and paper conser is more evident the in densetangle Monica historian the of lines that Museum Boimans Van Beuningen, makes up the swan.Other modifications are vatorat the visible in the treatment of the vegetation: in the Rotterdam, in conservation master specializing the ofold in collection. underdrawing the plants are outlined with just a few drauwngsthe
strokesand restrictedto the leftside of the drawing. In the ink version the plants are carefilly drawn and new ones were added to the lower and right sections, creating a lush settingfor the protagonists. In lightof these findings,itwould be useful to examine other I am indebted to Hans Scholten ofArt Innovation forhis invaluable help in taking the photographs for

Author's note:

with infrared me use his multispectral drawings Leonardo by photography/this research and in letting inordertostudy how their reflectography composi camera CArtist. Iwish also to thank Louis Damen
tions evolved and to gain a better understanding of his drawn oeuvre.An infrared Windsor analysisof the of particular interestfor the Leda group. The technical examination of the physical state Notes: and
1. Inv. no. I 466. Pen and brown ink, over black chalk; 126 x 109 mm; see Francis Ames-Lewis, Evolution "Leonardo da Vinci's Kneeling Leda: The of an Expressive

for his support and technical help, and Carmen

Bambach, HohmBevers, MatthijsIlsink their and for extensive criticism advice. drawing, with its would and underdrawing, be helpful

of the Leda and theSwan was undertaken in order to gain a better understanding of precisely when how the damages now visible on the drawing

sinceit widelyallegedthat occurred, especially was

theywere the resultof some earlier treatment.25 To reconstruct the origin and reasons for such deterio ration is always a complicated matter, but it now seems clear that the damaged stateof theRotterdam sheet is the resultof the intrinsicnature of the orig inal drawing, namely,Leonardo's choice of iron gall ink, which has led to the flakingof the ink particles and to an abrasion of the paper surface.

Composition," Drawing, Carmen C. Bambach,

Figure 11, no. 4, 1989, pp. 73-76, and ed., Leonardo da Vinci: Master

of Draftsman, exh. cat., New York, Metropolitan Museum draw Art, 2003, pp. 530-36 (with previous bibliog.).The ing, dating from about 1506-8, is one of a group of sur viving studies for Leonardo s lost painting of the subject, which is otherwise known only from painted copies and written descriptions. Other related drawings are preserved in theRoyal Library at Windsor Casde (inv.no. 12337) and in the collection of theDuke ofDevonshire at Chatsworth (inv. no. 717). The Rotterdam drawing represents one of the final stages for the so-called Kneeling Leda composition. 2. In recent years, the state of preservation of theRotterdam sheet has been amatter of disappointment and distress. See Carlo in Restoration," Pedretti, "Drawings Ruined Achademia Leonardo da Vinci,Journal ofLeonardo Studies, 10, a shorter version of the same article 1997, pp. 258-59; appeared as "La Leda messa in ginocchio Corriere della Sera, 25 August 2001. 3. da un restauro," Il

In thecourse this of it was investigation, possible todetermine when thealterations photographi were
cally recorded for the firsttime,but, aswe have now

seen, photographic evidence notalways is whollyreli

able.Each of the many photographic and reproductive "versions" of the Rotterdam Leda showsminor varia tions in tone,gray values, and contrast.These changes are the result a combination of factors,including of dif ferenttechniques, films, and personal choices made by the photographer and the lithographer(forphotome

For the use of chalks and pastels in Leonardo's drawing see Burns, "Distinguishing between Chalk and Pastel in

chanicalreproductions). use of photographic The

enhancement can, however,play a positive role,allow ingus to studyelementsofthe drawing thatarenot vis ible to the naked eye. Ultraviolet pictures revealedpen lines thought to have disappeared,and thenear infrared showed the accuracy of theblack chalk underdrawing. All of thisleads to a betterunderstandingof Leonardo's
4.

in The Broad Spectrum: Studies in the Early Drawings," Color on Paper, ed. by Materials,Techniques, and Conservation of H. K. Stratis and B. Salvesen, London, 2002, pp. 12-16. For a description of the recipes and the use of iron gall ink, see James Old Master Drawings, London, Watrous, The Craft of the vast problem of iron gall 1957, pp. 69-74. Concerning see Iron-Gall Ink Corrosion: Proceedings European Workshop on Iron-Gall Ink, Rotterdam, Museum ink corrosion, and Boijmans Van Beuningen, 16-17 June 1997, Rotterdam Amsterdam, 1997 .There is also awebsite devoted to iron gall ink corrosion: www.knaw.nl/ecpa/ink/html/init8.htm.

creative process.

353

5.

is a combination of InfraredReflectography an infrared image with visible information. The multispec tral camera used for the investigation on the Leda and the Swan is?Artist, Multi-Spectral Art Imaging System by Art False Colour Innovation.The 400-500 white camera specifications are:RGB colour (B: nm, G: 500-600 nm, R: 600-700 nm); black and

emulsions with monochromatic it remains remains

The specific spectral sensitivity. emulsion does not have any sensitizers, so sensitive to blue, violet, and ultraviolet.

their own

Orthochromatic

film is receptive also to greens, but it incapable of capturing red. The panchromatic emulsion, on the other hand, can seize all the colors pres

luminance (400-700 nm); ultraviolet reflection (365 nm); ultraviolet fluorescence (B: 400-500 nm, G: 500-600, R: 600-700 nm); near infrared 1 (700-1000 nm); near infrared 2 (1000-1200 nm); false colour infrared 1 (G,R, detailed Nil); (G,R, NI2). More are published to J. in the appendix specifications et al., "Non-Destructive Havermans Detection of Iron Inks by Means of Multispectral Imaging, Part 1: of theDetection System," Restaurator, 24, no. Development Gall works Inks 1, 2003, pp. 55-60. For an explanation of how the system see idem,"Non-Destructive Detection of Iron Gall 11. false colour infrared 2

ent in the visible spectrum. See L. Nadeau, Encyclopaedia of Printing, Photographic, and Photomechanical Processes: A to Reproduction Technologies, Comprehensive Reference Containing Fredericton, 10. Invaluable Information on over 1500 Processes, 1989.

For the history of the Franz Koenigs collection, see Ger M. Meij, Van Pisanello tot and A.W F. Cezanne, exh. Luijten cat.,Rotterdam, Museum pp. 6-16. after Drawings that entered in the collection atRotterdam 1961 are not included in the Gernsheim Corpus. It seems likely, therefore, that the drawings were photographed before that date.Moreover, Dr. Hans Hoetink, former head of the print room, has confirmed that theGernsheim pho tographs were taken when he was at the museum, where he began working in 1959. Dr. Jutta Gernsheim has con firmed that the Gernsheim photograph of Leda (no. 30 was taken with Pan FF? film (a panchromatic 432) Agfa film) and printed on Agfa Brovira? paper. Boijmans Van Beuningen, 1990,

of Multispectral by Means Imaging, Part 2: on Original Objects Affected with Iron Gall Application Ink Corrosion," Restaurator, 24, no. 2,2003, 6. On the identification of brown pp. 88-94.

inks see J. Colburne, "A in the Technical Examination of Methods Used Survey and Analysis of Brown Inks," in Brown (ed.) 2001, pp.

37^17. 7. This has been observed on other drawings phenomenon but unfortunately is not yet extensively described in the specialist literature. Brief references can be found in G.

12.

Robert Wallace, York,

Banik,

"Decay Caused by Iron-Gall Ink," in Rotterdam 1997, pp. 21-26. See also Carlo James, "The Evolution of Iron Gall Ink and ItsAesthetical Consequences," in The Postprints of theIron Gall InkMeeting, ed. by A.J. E. Brown, uponlyne, 2001, pp. 13-22. The excess of tan nin might also explain why Leonardo's sheet does not pres ent the typical corrosion caused by iron oxidation, such as dark brown discoloration on the verso, mechanical dam ages, and, in theworst cases, severe losses to the paper. The high concentration of tannin, in the form of tannic acid, together with gum arabic, apparently slows the process of Havermans degradation induced by an excess of iron. See J. to Iron-Gall Ink et al., "Preventive Conservation Related

The World ofLeonardo (1452-1519), New 1966, pp. 160 (repr.) and 188 (picture credits).

13.

F. Frequin followed in the profession of his father and worked as a photographer for themuseum until his death in 1988. wor Carlo Pedretti (see Pedretti 1997) affirms that his first ries about the drawing's physical condition arose around 1973, during the compilation of his book Leonardo: A Study inChronology and Style, London, 1973.

Newcastle

14.

15.

E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion:A Study in the Psychology of PictorialRepresentation, London, 1960, 5th ed., 1977, p. 30. of the different photomechanical repro A Handbook of Graphic Teufen, 1962, and F van der Linden, Reproduction Processes, De grafische technieken,De But, 1970. ductions, see F. Brunner, Different photo and photomechanical reproductions of their varying the Rotterdam Leda and the Swan with For an overview

16.

Deterioration,"

Preprints Symposium Intkvraat: Enschede, Twenthe: 27 March 2003, pp. 1?11. Rijksmuseum 17.

8.

For the apparent direct correlation between the thickness of the lines and the extent of the ink corrosion, see J.G. Neevel, "Stabilisering van papier tegen inkvraat, veroor zaakt door ijzergallusinkten," in Enschede 2003, pp. 12-17.

degrees of accuracy can be found in the following: H. von alter Ritgen, F?nfzig Photographien nach Handzeichnungen Meister, 1865, no. 32 (albumen print); Osvald Siren, Leonard de Vinci: L'Artiste et l'homme,Paris, 1928, vol. 3, pi. 156 (col Munich, E. Popp, Leonardo da Vinci: Zeichnungen, 1928, p. 61 (half-tone engraving); A. E. Popham, The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, London, 1946, p. 208 lotype); Anny

9.

The

from how

ability to recognize colors differsmarkedly the silver salts used in photography capture them. Silver salts have a farmore restricted sensitivity to human

colors, being able to depict just blue, violet, and ultraviolet. To increase the correspondence between the human visu al impression and the gray values expressed in the picture, certain optical sensitizers are added. The addition of these chemical substances produces three different photographic

(photogravure); Ludwig Goldscheider, Leonardo da Vinci, 1948, pi. 56 (photogravure); Egbert Haverkamp Begemann, Vijf eeuwen tekenkunst: Tekeningen van Europese London,

354

meesters in hetMuseum Rotterdam, Museum Wallace vure); and 18. The date

Boymans

teRotterdam, exh. cat., 1957, pi. 40 (photogra

nanometers. For itsuse in general, see David

Bomford, ed.,

Boymans, 1966, p. 160 (offset).

Underdrawings inRenaissance Paintings, exh. cat., London, National Gallery, 2002. The use of infrared and ultraviolet on ink drawings is described by K.A. Baker, "Comparison Inks Using Ultraviolet of Drawing and Infrared Light, Examination in Application of Science in Techniques," Examination Art, ed. by P. A. Erglander and L. ofWorks of van Zeist, Boston, 1985, pp. 159-63. On the use of infrared reflectography in drawings by Leonardo, see P Spezzani, "La riflettoscopia in infrarosso e i disegni di Leonardo alle Gallerie dell'Accademia di Venezia," Scir? and Pietro C. Marani, in Giovanna Nepi Leonardo e Venezia, exh. eds.,

first conclusive to 1873, but

experiments with optical sensitizers it was only fifteen years later that reached the market. In 1906

orthochromatic

emulsion

was introduced. Slowly it replaced panchromatic emulsion the older films. Itwas not until 1945, however, that the was panchromatic version The orthochromatic tory. completely satisfac since it produced a very type, high contrast image, continued to be regularly used in preparing photographic positives for photomechanical reproduction until the end of the 1960s. The blackening curve of orthochromatic film is very steep, as a direct con sequence of which most of the gray values are not 23. image thus shows a sharp expressed. The photographed transition from black towhite. This rapid shift is considered an advantage in reproductions inwhich the predominant colors are black and white, since it reduces the difficulties of rendering gray shades. 19. same phenomenon was observed of older reproduc see Jane atWindsor; tions of drawings by Leonardo and Carlo Pedretti, "Drawings by Leonardo da Roberts The Vinci Newly Revealed by Ultra-Violet Light," no. 890,1977, pp. 396-408. Magazine, 119, Burlington type of image enhancement has been widely used, often to read palimpsests.The best-known recent case is the at Windsor 24. 25. 22. considered

cat.,Venice, Palazzo Grassi, 1992, pp. 179-86. See Carmen C. Bambach, "Introduction to Leonardo and

His Drawings,"

inNew York 2003, p. 22. "Leonardo's Method for Working out Art of the and Form: Sudies in the 1966, pp. 58-63.

See E. H. Gombrich, Compositions," Renaissance, London, See note 1 above.

inNorm

ment was

suggested that a senseless conservation treat the origin of all Ledas woes. Pedretti in his arti cles (1997, 2001) tends to assume that the damage occurred from immersing the drawing in a solution of dis It has been tilledwater and alcohol

20.

This

to remove its old mount. His sup however, are unconvincing in terms of both the positions, treatment. and the presumed proposed chronology Bambach 1962 and (NewYork 2003) dates the treatment to between 1970 and suggests that the drawing was

Archimedes

Palimpsest (see A. Quandt, "The Archimedes Imaging, and Palimpsest: Conservation Treatment, Digital inWorks Transcription of a Rare MecUaevel Manuscript," Art on Paper, Books, Documents, and Photographs:Techniques of and Conservation: Baltimore Congress, International Institute for Conservation ofHistoric and Artistic Works, 2-6 September 2002, 165-70. ed. by Vincent Daniels et al., London, 2002, pp.

immersed in a watery solution in order to clean it rather than remove itfrom its backing. A full immersion or even a local treatmentwith have washed would out a watery solution would, however, the iron gall ink, and the pen strokes have bled significandy. In 1995 theRotterdam sheet

21.

Near

infrared defines the spectrum between

700 and 1150

was According to the conservation report, this by mechanical means alone.

underwent a careful intervention to remove the old lining. carried out

355