FS IV: The theory of approximate reasoning In 1979 Zadeh introduced the theory of approximate reasoning.

This theory provides a powerful framework for reasoning in the face of imprecise and uncertain information. Central to this theory is the representation of propositions as statements assigning fuzzy sets as values to variables. Suppose we have two interactive variables x X and y Y and the causal relationship between x and y is completely known. Namely, we know that y is a function of x y = f(x) Then we can make inferences easily
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x y y=f(x) y=f(x) x=x'

premise y = f(x) fact x = x_ consequence y = f(x_) This inference rule says that if we have y = f(x), x X and we observe that x = x_ then y takes the value f(x_). Simple crisp inference. More often than not we do not know the complete

causal link f between x and y, only we now the values of f(x) for some particular values of x
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_1 : If x = x1 then y = y1
also _2 : If x = x2 then y = y2 also ... also _n : If x = xn then y = yn Suppose that we are given an x_ X and want to find an y_ Y which correponds to x_ under the rule-base.
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_1 : If x = x1 then y = y1
also _2 : If x = x2 then y = y2 also ...... also _n : If x = xn then y = yn fact: x = x_ consequence: y = y_ This problem is frequently quoted as interpolation. Let x and y be linguistic variables, e.g. x is high and y is small. The basic problem of approximate reasoning is to

find the membership function of the consequence C

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from the rule-base {_1, . . . ,_n} and the fact A. _1 : if x is A1 then y is C1, _2 : if x is A2 then y is C2,

_n : if x is An then y is Cn
fact: x is A consequence: y is C Zadeh introduced a number of translation rules which allow us to represent some common linguistic statements in terms of propositions in our language. In the following we describe some of these translation rules. Definition 1. Entailment rule: x is A A B x is B Mary is very young very young young Mary is young
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Definition 2. Conjuction rule: x is A x is B x is A B

pressure is not very high pressure is not very low pressure is not very high and not very low Definition 3. Disjunction rule: x is A or x is B x is A B pressure is not very high vspace4pt or pressure is not very low pressure is not very high or not very low
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Definition 4. Projection rule: (x, y) have relation R x is X(R) (x, y) have relation R y is Y (R) (x, y) is close to (3, 2) x is close to 3 (x, y) is close to (3, 2) y is close to 2 Definition 5. Negation rule: not (x is A) x is A not (x is high) x is not high In fuzzy logic and approximate reasoning, the most

important fuzzy implication inference rule is the Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP). The classical Modus Ponens inference rule says:
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premise if p then q fact p consequence q This inference rule can be interpreted as: If p is true and p q is true then q is true. The fuzzy implication inference is based on the compositional rule of inference for approximate reasoning suggested by Zadeh. Definition 6. (compositional rule of inference) premise if x is A then y is B fact x is A_ consequence: y is B_ where the consequence B_ is determined as a composition of the fact and the fuzzy implication opera8

tor B_ = A_ (A B) that is, B_(v) = sup

uU

min{A_(u), (A B)(u, v)}, v V.

The consequence B_ is nothing else but the shadow of A B on A_. The Generalized Modus Ponens, which reduces to calssical modus ponens when A_ = A and B_ = B, is closely related to the forward data-driven inference which is particularly useful in the Fuzzy Logic Control. The classical Modus Tollens inference rule says: If p q is true and q is false then p is false. The Generalized Modus Tollens,
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premise if x is A then y is B fact y is B_ consequence: x is A_ which reduces to Modus Tollens when B = B and A_ = A, is closely related to the backward goal-driven inference which is commonly used in expert systems, especially in the realm of medical diagnosis.
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y AxB

A(x)
min{A(x), B(y)} B'(y) = B(y) B(y)

A A B = B. Suppose that A, B and A_ are fuzzy numbers. The Generalized Modus Ponens should satisfy some rational properties

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A' = A B'= B

Property 1. Basic property: if x is A then y is B x is A y is B if pressure is big then volume is small pressure is big volume is small Basic property.
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B B' A A'

Property 2. Total indeterminance: if x is A then y is B x is A y is unknown if pres. is big then volume is small pres. is not big volume is unknown Total indeterminance.
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A A' B' = B

Property 3. Subset: if x is A then y is B x is A_ A y is B

if pressure is big then volume is small pressure is very big volume is small Subset property.
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A A' B B'

Property 4. Superset: if x is A then y is B x is A_ y is B_ B Superset property. Suppose that A, B and A_ are fuzzy numbers. We show that the Generalized Modus Ponens with Mamdanis implication operator does not satisfy all the four properties listed above. Example 1. (The GMP with Mamdani implication)
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if x is A then y is B x is A_ y is B_ where the membership function of the consequence B_ is defined by B_(y) = sup{A_(x) A(x) B(y)|x R}, y R. Basic property. Let A_ = A and let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup

min{A(x), min{A(x),B(y)} = sup

x

min{A(x),B(y)} = min{B(y), sup

x

A(x)} = min{B(y), 1} = B(y). So the basic property is satisfied. Total indeterminance. Let A_ = A = 1 A and
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let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup

x

min{1 A(x), min{A(x),B(y)} = sup

x

min{A(x), 1 A(x),B(y)} = min{B(y), sup

x

min{A(x), 1 A(x)}} = min{B(y), 1/2} = 1/2B(y) < 1 this means that the total indeterminance property is not satisfied. Subset. Let A_ A and let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup
x

min{A_(x), min{A(x),B(y)} = sup

x

min{A(x),A_(x),B(y)} = min{B(y), sup

x

A_(x)} = min{B(y), 1} = B(y) So the subset property is satisfied.

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AB x A(x) B'

Superset. Let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup

x

min{A_(x), min{A(x),B(y)} = sup

x

min{A(x),A_(x),B(y)} B(y). So the superset property of GMP is not satisfied by Mamdanis implication operator. The GMP with Mamdanis implication operator. Example 2. (The GMP with Larsens product implication) if x is A then y is B x is A_ y is B_
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where the membership function of the consequence B_ is defined by B_(y) = sup min{A_(x),A(x)B(y)|x R}, y R. Basic property. Let A_ = A and let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup
x

min{A(x),A(x)B(y)} = B(y). So the basic property is satisfied. Total indeterminance. Let A_ = A = 1 A and let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup
x

min{1 A(x),A(x)B(y)} = B(y) 1 + B(y) <1 this means that the total indeterminance property is not satisfied. Subset. Let A_ A and let y R be arbitrarily
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AB x B' A'

fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup

x

min{A_(x),A(x)B(y)} = sup
x

min{A(x),A_(x)B(y)} = B(y) So the subset property is satisfied. Superset. Let y R be arbitrarily fixed. Then we have B_(y) = sup
x

min{A_(x),A(x)B(y)} B(y). So, the superset property is not satisfied. The GMP with Larsens implication operator.
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