US-China Foreign Language, ISSN 1539-8080 July 2011, Vol. 9, No.

7, 405-420

A Morphophonological Description of Kalasha as an Indo-Aryan Language With Greek Roots

Elizabeth Mela-Athanasopoulou
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece The research aims at giving a detailed description of the linguistic typology of Kalasha, an endangered language, spoken by about 3,000 Kalasha (The most recent demographic research documented 3,254 Kalasha speakers (Mela-Athanasopoulou & Taleem Khan, 2011)) in the valleys of Chitral, northwest of Pakistan. The papers aim is to show that this marginally studied language is Indo-Aryan, as it has Sanskrit and Ancient Greek influences on it (Masica, 1991; Trail, 1996). Particular attention will be given to the Inflectional Morphology of the language, e.g., case and number morphemes (Trail, 1996), as well as verbal inflections and their argument, participle and grammaticalization phenomena, etc., in order to show how much of classical Greek is still in use in Kalasha. It will be shown, for example, that Kalasha has the remnants of a full synthetic case-marking system of ancient Greek. Furthermore, the lexical morphology of the language will be briefly exhibited. The scope of this part of the study will show that despite the various influences on the language (e.g., Persian and Urdu), Kalasha seems to have sustained time and has retained Greek lexical items intact, e.g., Kalasha (K.) Oxus < Greek (Gr.) Axios: K. Birir < Gr. Veroia; K. Ayan < Gr. Aegae: K. Hadda < Sk. Hella < Gr. Hellas: K. Rtoa < Gr. Neos young, etc.. Keywords: primary data, documentation, morphophonological, case-marking, locatives, grammaticalization

Introduction
Kalasha is classified as an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic Chitral group, together with such Dardic groups as Pashai, Pech, Kohistani, Shina and Kashmiri. Morgenstierne (1932) also classified Kalasha as an Indo-Aryan1 language, closely related to Khowar: Probably the two languages belong to the first wave of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the south (p. 51). The authors position is that, historical, anthropological and linguistic records (as we shall see in this study) manifest a significant presence of Greeks in the North-West area of Pakistan and Afghanistan in Hellenistic times (G. H. Trail, 1996). On the other hand, the author would not exclude the Indo-Aryan origin documented by the Sanskrit etymology of certain words in Kalasha. In this study, the author will present linguistic evidence of the Greek influence on the morphophonology

Elizabeth Mela-Athanasopoulou, assistant professor of Department of Theoretical and Linguistics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. 1 According to Masica (1991, pp. 51-54) Indo-Aryan is divided linguistically into three stages: Old Indo-Aryan (1500-600 B.C.) including Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, Middle Indo-Aryan (600 B.C.-1000 A.D.) including Prakrit and Pali, and New Indo-Aryan (1000 A.D.-present) to which Kalasha belongs.

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

and the lexicon of the language, entirely based on primary data recordings2 of spontaneous dialogues, in the sense of Himmelmann (2006), or pre-planned semantically and grammatically oriented speech performed by native speaker families.

Previous Linguistic Research

The first published book on the Kalasha language is Griersons Specimens of the Dardic or Pisacha Languages (1919) in which Kalasha is presented in a Kafir Group of a Dardic sub-family of the Aryan languages. Another pioneering work of the phonology and grammar of Kalasha is Morgenstiernes volume The Kalasha Language (1973) which is the starting point for subsequent linguistic studies on the language: Elena Bashirs Ph.D. thesis Topics in Kalasha syntax (1988) and Jan Heegrd Petersens Ph.D. thesis Local Case-Marking in Kalasha (2007). In parallel line, we have the publication of Sir Ralph Turners (1966) A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. Thirty three years later, the publication of a Kalasha-English dictionary compiled by Ron Trail and Greg Cooper appears. Now, all the entries in this dictionary are compiled according to the following alphabetical order: a, , , , b, , , d, dz, e, , , , g, h, i, , , , , , k, l, l, m, n, , o, , , , p, r, s, , s, t, ts, t, u, , , , w, y, z, , z. Following the Trail and Coopers dictionary and the authors fieldwork data documentation, the author has come up with the following conclusion regarding the Kalasha alphabet and its sound system. She proposes that the Kalasha alphabet consist of 22 letters in Roman script (see Table 1). Letters, such as f, q, v and x, are non-existent.

Phonology: The Sounds of Kalasha

In this part, the author will present a brief framework of the Kalasha vowel and consonant sounds. The descriptions are based on her transcriptions of the video and tape recordings. The Kalasha Vowel Phonemes The Kalasha vowel phonemes are shown in Table 2. All the Kalasha vowel phonemes can also occur as retroflex, nasalized or both (see Tables 3-5). Interestingly, there is no contrastive distribution between short and long vowels. They may occur in any position. The Kalasha Consonant Phonemes The Kalasha consonant phonemes are shown in Table 6. Some Kalasha consonant phonemes can also occur as retroflex, some as aspirated and only three as both retroflex and aspirated, of which ch and dh can occur marginally, while lh has been documented once only (see Tables 7-9). One final comment is that intervocalic consonants are often dropped, e.g., asam aam. Also, voiced
2 In order to collect data, the author went to the valleys where the Kalasha people live, and lived with them for about three months. She was very lucky to have as her main language consultant Mr. Taleem Khan, who took her to the most remote villages of all the three valleys, Rumbur, Bumburet and Birir, to collect as much linguistic material as possible. The author also attempted a perilous trip to Urtsun and recorded the few Kalasha speakers only to find out that the language of the younger population was hardly comprehensible to the authors Kalasha language consultants. Only one video of a very old man documented the language but still with serious losses. To Taleem Khan and his group the author is deeply indebted.

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407

consonants in final position become voiceless, e.g., b p, etc. and word-final voiceless consonants may turn into voiced if a vowel is added, e.g., uk ug; uk water ug-ay in the water. Table 1 The Kalasha Alphabet
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Letter Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Ww Yy Zz Name of letter a ba tsa da e ga ha i dza ka la ma na o pa ra sa ta u wa ya za Example au baya cawmos dur ek gak homa im ju karim l mo ne ondrak parim re sat tron uk wawa yuru za Gloss bread; food brother winter festival house one cow our I come yoke I do salt dont no! egg I go path in the snow seven loom for weaving water grandfather vein; artery vegetables

Table 2 The Kalasha Vowel Phonemes (Letters: i, e, a, o, u).

Letter: Oral i e a o u IPA /i/ /e/ /a/ /o/ /u/ Example its ec awa onza uhuk Gloss bear eye grandmother fry pan owl

Table 3 Retroflex3 Marked With an Inverted Comma Next to It

Letter i e a o u IPA /ir / /er / /ar / /or / /ur / Example hia amea ai onga ughuik Gloss heart sheep duck cuff of shalwar to repair a millstone

See also Heegrd & Mrch (2004).

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

Table 4 Nasalized
Letter IPA // // // // // Example pachak kh hsh sskik gzi Gloss bird how? horse to sweep dented

Table 5 Both Retroflex and Nasalized

Letter IPA /r/ /r/ /r/ /r/ /r/ Example gawaak h mik sha p Gloss rabbit Ayon necklace dog the grape harvest

Table 6 The Kalasha Consonant Phonemes

Letter Bb Cc Dd Gg Hh Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Pp Rr Ss Tt Ww Yy Zz Phonemes b c d g h j k l m n p r s t w y z IPA /b/ /c/ /d/ /g/ /h/ /j/ /k/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /w/ /j/ /z/ Example baba cay dada gak hsh ja kuc lahas mos nas pay rat suri tari warash yuru za Gloss sister tea father cow horse wife stomach sick meat nose goat night sun star bird vein vegetable

Table 7 Retroflex
Letter c d j l s t z IPA /cr/ /dr/ /jr/ /lr/ /sr/ /tr/ /zr/ Example casa da janjer lawak susutr tong zar Gloss cheese wine chain fox female head cover pear quickly

KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS Table 8 Aspirated: All Consonants Can Be Aspirated Except From w and y
Letter bh ch dh gh jh kh lh mh nh ph rh sh th zh IPA /bh/ /ch/ /dh/ /gh/ /jh/ /kh/ /lh/ /mh/ /nh/ /ph/ /rh/ /sh/ /th/ /zh/ Example bhut chu dhan ghona jhaw khawa lhoyak mhal nhast phaw rhadidish shara thara zho Gloss shalwar, trousers daughter roasted corn big fence made of branches conical basket flat and smooth curse nose earth pine-cone mountain goat above, on Barley

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Table 9 Both Retroflex and Aspirated (Only Three: ch, dh and lh)
Letter ch dh lh IPA /chr/ /dhr/ /lhr/ Example chir dhok lhos Gloss milk high forests (marginally manifested) charcoal (only one item found)

The Morphology of Kalasha

Despite the various influences on the language over the centuries (e.g., Persian, Arabic, Urdu), Kalasha seems to have sustained time and has retained both Sanskrit and Greek lexical items intact. For example, the names of some place find their roots in Ancient Greek, e.g., Ka. (Kalasha) Kalasa, Gr. (Greek) Hellas < Hadda, Skt. (Sanskrit); Ka. Ashtoreh, Gr. Asterusia (Aster + usa); Ka. Nishei-grom, Gr. Nysa (Thrace); Ka. Ayun, Gr. Aegae; Ka. Oxus (river), Gr. Axios; Ka. Biriu/Birir, Gr. Beroia; Ka. Beo/Bio, Gr. Boeotia; Ka. Makkah, Gr. Makedonia. Moreover, for the Kalasha mythological names, bhut evil spirit (Coleman, 2007, p. 47), Dezau highest God, Jestak, Nhon a dragon living in a fountain, we have the equivalent Greek words vou- big; monstrous; vociferous (vous ox, voao to vociferate) (Georgopapadakos, 1964, p. 44) < bhu:ta, Dias, Estia, L. Vestia, Nereis, respectively. The Nouns in Kalasha: Some Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes Kalasha has lost the old classical gender4, in the sense that there is no distinction of grammatical gender. But, normally womens names end with {-i}, e.g., Siasatbibi, Hazarbhibi, Baguli, Danuli, etc., while mens names end with {-a}, e.g., Gada, Gashara, Zinatsha, Budha, Rota, Kalasha, etc.. This does not exclude the reverse, e.g., Gulnisa, Mazdana, and Kuri, Lingasi, Zhigili, for womens and mens names respectively. Lexical morphemes. Common noun stems end with: -a ama sheep < Gr. amnoa, amnos (Fragoulis, 2004, p. 53), amnis, amnas; Skt. mendha ram
4

Adjectives, also, have no gender distinction, e.g., ghona big; tall is identical in both ghona moc a big man and ghona istriza a big woman.

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS shula wood < Gr. ksylonsg, ksyl-apl; Skt. salaka sha dog < Gr. kyonNomSg, kyn-aAccSg; Skt. suna -i/-y athi bone < Gr. osteonNomSg, ostei-s, osti-sDatPl, o~a, ostakos, astakos, astris pay goat < Gr. epolion heard of goats, epolos shepherd -u chu daughter < Gr. yatyr Other common noun stems may end with various consonants such as: m, t, c, k and the diminutive -yak. -m grom village < Gr. agrosNom, agronAcc field, Skt. agras, L. ager krom work < Gr. erg- eirgasme; Skt vragami -t put boy; son < Gr. pais, Gen. pai-os -c kuc stomach < Gr. kyeoV be pregnant, kys-t-is cyst; Skt. kuksi -k dhak waist < Gr. ak-t-ylios ring shape spine bone (Liddell & Scott, 2001, p. 552). Inflectional morphemes indicating number, case and locatives. Now with regard to the number of

nouns Kalasha has retained a full productive plural formation especially in the oblique case. The majority of nouns, however, do not distinguish between singular and plural in the nominative case which is uninflected. Case marking, on the other hand, differentiates between animate and inanimate nouns. Inanimate nouns seem to have retained many of the archaic case endings, concerning the locative, ablative and temporal cases. All case morphs are unstressed with the exception of nominative plural -n and genitive plural -n. The Genitive Singular is {-a} for proper names and {-as} for common names < OIA (Old Indo-Aryan) -asya; Gr. {-ou}MSC/F/NTR, {-as/-is}F, {-os}MSC/F/NTR, e.g., moc-as chu the mans daughter, mastruk-as phrelik the moons light, Zama-a ja-as Zamas wife, tasa putr-as his/her son, tasa putr-asi his/her sons. Kalasha distinguishes case morphemes between animate (human beings, animals, etc.) and inanimate (objects, places, etc.) nouns (see Table 10). Table 10 Case-Suffixation of Common Nouns in Kalasha
Animate Singular Nominative Genitive/Oblique Dative Accusative Instrumental Locative Ablative Temporal Vocative -as, -a -as Plural , -an, -n -an, -nan, -n -an Singular -as -as -an -a, -una, -ai -ey, -en, -ani, -aw -ano, -asa Inanimate Plural -an -an,

-ow,

, -an?

The Kalasha language makes a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns, which affect both their number and case, exhibiting distinct inflectional case and number morphemes. The plurality morphemes are always marked in the Genitive/Oblique and Dative case which are identical and they are {-an} and {-anan}, with both animate and inanimate common nouns. However, those animate nouns ending with {-a} in the Nominative Singular, take {-on} in the Genitive plural, instead of {-an} and {-anan}, for example, am-a sheep, am-n, batya kid goat, baty-n, suda child, sud-n, sha dog, sh-n. Ishtrizha wooman,

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411

ishtrizh-n, etc., but, moc man, Gen.Pl. (Genitive Plural) moc-an, pay goat, Gen.Pl. pay-an, push flower, Gen.Pl. push-an, wazir minister, Gen.Pl. waziran, etc.. The Genitive plural {-n} is definitely the Greek plural suffix -on/-n. It is amazing that Morgenstierne did not give any etymological explanation of -on, while he suggested the Old Indo-Aryan -asya as the origin for the Genitive Singular -as (Morgenstierne, 1973, p. 207). Moreover, Heegrd Petersen gave no etymological information of {-on}, This I am unable to explain otherwise than referring to analogy: {-n} > {-n} (Heegrd Petersen, 2007, p. 61). Now consider the Gen.Pl. -n < Gr. -n functioning as the nominal complement in post position phrases: am-on hatya < Gr. - /amn-on eneken/ of the sheep for, for the sake of the sheep (Tzartzanos, 2006a/1960a, p. 150) (see Table 11). Table 11 The Genitive Plural With Post-Positions in Kalasha and Greek
Kalasha 1 nast-n dead-Gen.Pl. for (the sake of) the dead Ka. tasi PN 3rd Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Gr. Tout-on them They make food for them. hatya for Benef. hatya for (the sake of) Benef. heneken for (the sake of) nekr-n for (the sake of) the dead au food trofi food Greek , heneken for Benef. kar-in make-3rd Pl.Pr. pratoun make

Let us go back to case-marking of common nouns. The Nominative case is zero marked for the Singular (see Table 10) for both animate and inanimate nouns. Only few animate nouns show either unmarked or marked Nominative for the Plural, i.e., {-an}, {-n} or zero, e.g., ek moc iu day one man is coming; bo moc/mocan in day many people are coming. Interestingly, Morgenstierne, in the texts he recorded, cited one more nominative plural morpheme {-ai} or {-ei}, which the author documented in her recordings: may putrai zhe chulai aya ita aan My sons and daughters here they have come. So, apart from the Nominative, Genitive-Oblique Dative and Vocative, no other case is marked for the animate nouns, whereas, with the inanimate nouns all cases are marked, except for the nominative and vocative in Table 10. The dative case in Kalasha with ditransitive verbs. The Dative case is identical, in form with the Genitive case in both Singular and Plural in Table 10 (see Table 12). The dative case with post-/pre-position in Kalasha and Greek. The Dative case with post-/pre-position in Kalasha and Greek can be explained as follows (see Table 13). Current linguistic literature (Bashir, 1988; Trail, 1996; Heegrd Petersen, 2007) do not give any suggestions with regard to the origin of these case endings. For example, Morgenstierne said, I am unable to suggest any explanation of the Obl. Plural forms in -ana, -anu and -ani (Morgenstierne, 1973, p. 209). Here Morgenstierne talks of only one morpheme of the Ablative case. He does not mention -ey or -aw. Heegrd Petersen (2007) discussed quite extensively on the distributional and semantic parameters of

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

Locative and Ablative case endings, but nothing on their origin. What follows is an attempt to relate the Locative, Ablative, as well as the Instrumental and Temporal case endings with Greek correspondent morphemes. Case marking of inanimate nouns indicating location5, origin and instrument. This is documented in Table 14. Table 14 is exemplified in Table 15. Now consider some data from the authors recordings indicating the Locative case endings in Kalasha (see Table 16). Kalasha has also retained case marking in personal pronouns. Table 12 The Dative Case in Kalasha With Ditransitive Verbs
Se 1 He/she He/she gives food to the baby goat will give Gr. -- i-o-mi give-1st sg I give to somebody something Bo baya-si zhe bo baba-si ek gak Many brother-Dat. Benef. and many one cow sister-Dat. Benef. For many brothers and sisters there is one cow. Dat. Benef. Dat. Benef. Polis aalfis ke aelfes mia aelas esti tre may me-Dat.sg.Benef. (for) me three daughters were I had three daughters Greek: three asau is batyak-as baby goat-Dat au food del. give-3rd sg

t tini PN-Dat

t ti PN-Acc

chul-ai daughter-pl

asinyi. were-3rd pl

- a emi tris iater-es dat.sg.Ben three daughter-Pl.Nom. were-3rd pl. I had three daughters shhon hatya dog-Dat pl for au food

isan Gr. Dat.Pl. - Dat.Pl. tis kisi the Dat pl. dog-Dat pl. the dogs for for the dogs abaw could

pari 5 go-Imp

hari take-Imp

Go and take food for the dogs Fragulis, 2004, p. 451 Tasi To them-Dat. Pl. 6 bachohon cow-Dat. Pl. ne not aliphik follow

He could not follow (and catch) the cows. Gr. Dat.Sg. I follow sb epome tini

For a more detailed description of local case marking, see Heegrd Petersen (2007).

KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS Table 13 The Dative Case With Post-/Pre-position in Kalasha and Greek
Zam, dura ita, cai Zam home-to having come, tea Having come home and drunk tea, Zam with his wife Greek: ineki sin sin ineki with (his) wife Toa se bo kahari la, Then he/she very angry, Then he will be very angry with them Greek: tisi sin tasi som them-Dat.Pl with with them pay-an som goat-Dat sg with Greek: with the goat ei sin goat-Dat with Aya Here There is a watermill here with us Here we have a watermill. (Greek) hemin synsyn hemin pi having drunk jaas wife-Dat som with

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tasi som them-Dat.Pl.

hiu day become Pr.Cont.

wal watching

pariman ais go-Past Cont.

homa som usDat.Pl. with

zht water mill

shiau. is

Table 14 Case Marking Morphemes of Location, Origin and Instrument

Kalasha Locative: -a, -ai (-ay), -una meaning: at, in, on Ablative: -en, -ani, -aw, -ey meaning: from Instrumental: -an meaning: by means of Ancient Greek Locative: -a, -(as)i, -(is)i -i meaning: at, in, on Origin: -en meaning: from Instrumental (Dative case of inanimate nouns Sing/Pl. meaning: by means of

Table 15 Locative, Ablative and Instrumental Case Morphemes in Kalasha and Greek
Kalasha cases Locative -a ek awat-a at one place dur-a at the window; at home tasa dur-ay te moc prust his house in they people good In his house the people are good a and-ay caker aris I here walk did Here I had a walk Bra sukul-una Brun school at At Brun school -a -asi -isi -i -i Ancient Greek cases Locative Dative case Locative particles (stative) o- en ikia at home - en yr-a at the window en Plate-asi At Plateae en in-isi in Athens _o iki at home aftoi here ta tropaia ta te Marathoni the trophies those Marathon at the trophies at Marathon (Tzartzanos, 2006/1960, p. 70) (to be continued)

-ay -y, i

-una

-oni

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

Ablative (Origin) A uts-ani uk on-is I spring-from water bring-Past/1st I brought water from the spring Ama dur geh-aw in Sheep house side from will come The sheep will come from the side of the house auduawat-ani harawat-ani Bra aley away there from Brun aley from over there pay son-ani ita aan goats pasture from have come the goats have come from the pastures te shul,a dur-aw onin they wood houses from bring they bring wood from the houses Kalasha Instrumental (Dative) tay sig-anDat.pl.Instr. dyel you horns with beat it will beat you with its horns A tay gondik-an Instr.Dat.Pl. tyem I you sticks beat I will beat you with sticks Origin particle ikoen from the house amphoteroen from both sides pantaxoen from everywhere poen from where alli from over there - allei alli peran opposite, across, at the other side (Pantazidis, 1975, p. 518)

-en -ani -aw -ey

-en

-ani -aw

-an, -in
Dat/Abl.

Greek Instrumental (Dative) - tin enr-in Instr.Dat.pl. with two trees tin iran ti vaktiria Instr.Dat.Sg. ekruen the door the stick-Dat was beating he was beating the door with a stick (Moumtzakis, 1978, p. 41)

Table 16 The Locative Case Endings in Kalasha

1 A I I am waiting at home Al-ay There to There to the high pastures I go/I will go. Kaw-ey Where from Where are you from? Kaw-a maas day? Where at are you learning? Where are you learning? dur-a at the house son-ay the high pasture to walim day I am waiting paam go 1st Sg. Pr./Fut. Bra Brun from I am from Brun Bra Brun at At Brun school. sukul-una school at

Pronominal case marking in Kalasha and Ancient Greek. Pronominal case marking in Kalasha and Ancient Greek is shown in Table 17. Verbs Finite verb forms in Kalasha can be described as having Tense, Aspect and Modal affixes. The verb agrees with the subject in person and number and by the use of auxiliaries (to include aspect), in animacy. The verb asik to be (see Table 18) is essential for the formation of perfect/non-perfect forms. The Ancient Greek counterpart is juxtaposed. There are as many as eight conjugation classes in Kalasha (Bashir, 1988, p. 26). What is striking is that in all classes the inflectional suffixes indicating person have their roots in Greek. For example, the 2nd singular

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415

and the 3rd plural are identical. Also, the past tense with certain verbs is formed by a circumfix, as in Greek (see Table 19). Table 17 Pronominal Case Marking in Kalasha and Ancient Greek
Personal oronouns 1st person Singular Greek eo emu emi eme , , , 1st person plural Greek hemis hemon hemin hemas 6

Nominative Genitive/Oblique Dative Accusative

Kalasha a I may of me/me may to me may me

Kalasha abi we homa of us/our homa to us homa us

Table 18 Asik to be (Animate); Shiik be (Inanimate)

Kalasha as-am as-as as-au shi-au (inanimate) as-ik as-a as-an shi-an (inanimate) Present Greek - < - imi < esmi ei - esti - esmen - este -() isi(n) Sanskrit asmi asi asti smas stha santi -

Table 19 Verbal Inflectional Affixes in Kalasha (1st Singular, Present/Past)

matr-am speak 1st sg Pres I speak a-matr-is Past-speak-Past 1st sg I spoke pash-im see 1st sg Pres I see a-pash-is Past-see-Past 1st sg I saw

Due to the lack of space, the author shall not go into details as to tense formation. Tables 20-23 provide indicative examples of the verbs ik to come, parik7 to go, and hik to become. The verb ik = to come Greek root i- > ei I come ( Latin eo I come; iter itinerary) The verb h-ik = to become Gr. -- < Root -, -, -, i-n-ome < en-, on-, n- to become; also to happen (Georgopapadakos, 1964, p. 49). (L. gig-no Gr. root n- reduplicated i-n- ) (Georgopapadakos, 1964, p. 49).

The sign on top of stands for /h/ of hemis.(cf. Kalasha homa). It is called rough breathing and initially it was the letter h which, if word initially, turned into the sign. (Tzartzanos, 2006/1960, p. 13) 7 The infinitival suffix for all verbs is {-ik}/{-ek}.

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KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

Table 20 Present/Future of the Verb ik to Come

Kalasha im is iu ik eo in Present indicative Greek imi i isi imen ite iasi Gloss I come you come he comes we come you come they come Kalasha Sing. i Pl.eo Kalasha Present imperative Greek - ithi - ite Present/Past Participle Greek Greek derivatives - i-on - i-tis brave - i-teon must come'

Table 21 Present Simple/Future of the Verb Parik = to go

A Tu Se Abi Abi Te Kalasha par-im < par-is par-iu par-ik par-eo/par-a par-in Greek - par-imi - par-is - par-isi - par-imen - par-ite - par-iasi

Table 22 The Imperative and the Participle in Kalasha and Greek

Present imperative Kalasha ing.par-i Pl.par-a Greek - parithi - parite Kalasha pa-i Present/Past participle Greek - pari-on

Table 23 Present/Future of the Verb h-ik to Become

Present simple/future Kalasha A Tu Se Abi Abi Te h-im h-is h-iu h-ik h-ali h-in Greek Kalasha - in-ome h-awis - in-i - in-ete - in-omea - in-ese - in-onte Simple past Greek -/ eaos/eos having become

Consider now some verb roots observed in the data below (see Table 24). The Kalasha Participle Past participles in Kalasha can function freely as adjuncts in the sense that subject control is done by the matrix sentence. They may also occur as subject controlled absolute constructions (Ancient Greek absolute genitives). Consider the data in Table 25. The exact equivalent subject controlled as well as absolute past participle genitives are found in Ancient

KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS Greek, in Table 26, respectively. Table 24 Some Identical Verb Roots in Kalasha and Greek
Zam Zam 1 ustiu; get up-3rd sg usti get up-pp baza maza hand ningiu wash-3rd sg

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Zam gets up/will get up; ningiu < ningik to wash Greek Root -, -, ni-, nip- to wash Zam-a ja-as Zam-gen wife-gen

having got up, he washes/will wash his hands

au kai, food having made

dur mur the house

soskiu (she) sweep-3rd sg

Having made food, Zams wife sweeps/will sweep the house. soskiu < soskik to sweep Greek Root - sar- to sweep Phato Zam dura Then Dura house-to Zam ita, home-pp som with house-to au zui food eat-pp bo very cai mai tea koshan happy Then Zam comes/will come to his house.

iu come-3rd sg pi drink-pp thi, .. become-pp

Having come to his house, having eaten food and having drunk tea jaas wife-his

Having become very happy with his wife. iu < eo, ita < eo to come Greek Root -, to come > - i-men we come, - i-tis, - i-tamos pi-PP < piik drink (Georgopapadakos, 2010/1964, p. 68) Greek Root -, -, pi-, po-, to drink (Tzartzanos, 2006a/1960a, p. 181)

Table 25 Kalasha Past Participles as Absolute Constructions

1 Son-ay pa-i, High pasture to having gone, Having gone to the high pasture, I will bring cheese. 2 Cuti th-i-o, Holiday having passed, After the holiday has passed, what are you doing? 3 Zama ZamGen Zams 4 jaas wifeGen wife shula wood wood udriman inside inside Ata-i, atek-pp having brought Tha-i, thek-pp angar fire fire kariu make-3rd sg makes/will make kariu. Make-3rd sg tu kia kar-is day? you what are doing? casa on-im. cheese I will bring.

Having brought wood inside, Zams wife makes/will make fire. Angar fire Ka-i, make-pp cai tea thal. thek-3rd sg Cai tea au food

Having made fire, (she) will pour tea; having poured tea, (she) will make food.

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Table 26 Greek Past Participles as Absolute Constructions

anir kakopramon sinorisamenos lavon man ill-doer having bet-PP having taken-PP One vicious man having made a bet, (and) having taken-PP a sparrow. 1 skepasas having covered kai touto and this and then having covered it, he arrived at the holy place Aesops Tales, Kefalidis-Moumtzakis, 1994, p. 307. A Arastou-Gen.Sg. kai epi ivas Polinikous-Gen.Sg 2 Arastoss and Polinikess against Thebes strouion sparrow iken is to ieron arrived at the holy place

Stratefsanton-Gen.Pl.Absolute having attacked-PP

ke itientonGen.Pl.Absolute and having been defeated-PP

and Polinikis having attacked Thebae and (having) been beaten Lysias 7-9, Epitafios, Kefalidis-Moumtzakis, 1994, p. 307.

Deverbal Postpositions and Grammaticalization Phenomena8 The phenomenon of grammaticalization is very frequent in both Kalasha and Greek. In Kalasha, for example, past participles (pp) may function as postpositions: gr-ipp9 < griik to grasp, having grasped/with, th-ipp < hik to become, having become/together, ka-ipp < karik to do, having done/together, da-ipp < dek to give, having given/next to, by,, etc.. All these past participles, after undergoing morphologization, may work as postpositions, i.e., they lose their syntactic properties of the verbs they derive from and convert into postpositions. Apart from this morphophonological and syntactic erosion, they also suffer semantic bleaching, i.e., they lose completely the meaning of the verb they derive from. Consider the so-called unattached free adjunct constructions (which are not controlled by the matrix subject) in English (E) and in Modern Greek (MG) (see Examples 1a-1c). Example 1a. E: this done, given/granted; provided the chance Example 1b. MG: eomenis tis sovaris katastasis, oisis tis efkerias Example 1c. MG: prokimenou na/eomenu oti Examples 1a and 1b are subject controlled, whereas Example 1c has been reanalyzed and turned into conjunctions. Now consider the data in Kalasha (see Table 27).

Conclusions
The main scope of this research was to present an empirical morphophonological description of Kalasha with regard to its roots in the Greek of the 3rd cy BC. After exposing briefly the phonology and morphology of Kalasha, the author discussed thoroughly the inflectional system with regard to number and case, especially the oblique cases, juxtaposing the authors data with Greek. Then the author gave a sketchy view of the personal pronouns emphasizing those with the Greek
8 9

See Kortmann & Konig, 1992; Mela-Athanasopoulou, 2003. Morgenstierne callsi absolutive suffix (Morgenstierne, G. 1973, p. 236).

KALASHA AS AN INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE WITH GREEK ROOTS

419

counterparts, e.g., homa , etc.. Finally, from the verbal system, the author gave a brief description of the Past Participle and the Greek Absolute Genitive, as well as the phenomenon of grammaticalization and reanalysis of these participles used as postpositions. Table 27 Deverbal Postpositions in Kalasha
Sil-una bridge-loc. the bridge Dont go by the bridge. cay tea tea Take both tea and food! dai, give-pp next to, by zhe and and au food food mo dont dont ek kai one make-pp together dudai put to sleep-Imp ek thi, one become-pp together. parik go-1st pl par-i go-imper. go hari take Imp. take!

ek ka-i, one make-pp Put them to sleep together. A zhe tu I and you You and I will go

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