Brycen Waters Professor Anthony Daly European Empires Research Paper March 9, 2012

Origins of German Imperialism and its impact on the African Colonies Research Question: What were the origins of German Imperialism and what impact did it have in the African colonies.

Page 1 of 25

The German Colonial Empire was one of the most short-lived colonial experiences the African Continent had ever experienced. With its sudden and abrupt start in 1884, to its end in 1919, the German Empire would come to have a lasting legacy on her colonies and the entire European continent. Due to Germanys late arrival unto the colonial scene in Africa, they were met with many complications and challenges to their colonial rule. These challenges, it can be argued, were only faced due German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarcks late push for a colonial empire. Considering their late push for an empire, the Germans would come to leave a lasting legacy on her African colonies. As a late colonial power, the German Empire had an incredible disadvantage in acquiring colonies due to the other European countries having already made land claims on the African continent. Initially, Germany had little to no interest in expanding out of their European landholdings; however, as time went on, their desires and motives would be shifted. The efforts made by Wilhelm II for Germany to gain world domination through their colonial acquisitions should also be noted in leading to the many conflicts that were to emerge for Germany. In an effort to maintain order, many inhumane practices, including governmental corruption, citizen brutalities, and genocide of many indigenous ethnic groups, were put into effect. It can even be argued that this form of brutality would eventually set the stage as an influence for the Nazis in future decades. Despite these economic and political setbacks, the German government was able to institute a colonial government overhaul and regain order in her African colonies. These changes paved the way for growth and prosperity to occur and a lasting legacy of effective and efficient colonial rule to be established by the German Government, only to be stifled by the outcome of World War I. In this research paper, a close look will be taken at how the origins and rise of the German Colonial Empire under Bismarck laid the foundation for the many challenges and outcomes the colonial government would soon face. Also, how the

Page 2 of 25

actions of Bismarcks successors would change German colonial involvement. Finally, how the governments actions influenced the legacy of the rule of the Germans over the African Colonies will be explored. In order to understand why the Germans came into the colonial world so late, one must have an understanding of the political atmosphere in Germany in the early nineteenth century. Before the year 1871, there was no actual unified German country, instead it was made up of individual states that maintained their own separate identity. Each of the individual sovereign states had maintained a separate political structure from each other which for hundreds of years served as an obstacle to unification of a single German state. Also each maintained their own individual goals and principles which further challenged this idea of German unification. They were also lacking in the areas of creating and developing a naval system due to their lack of unity which left them trailing behind the leading countries of the day. Therefore, at a time when the rest of Europe had been exploring the oceans and staking claims in overseas territories, the Germans were focused more on solving the age old German question of securing their interests on the European continent. Not until North German Chancellor, Otto Von Bismarck had unified Germany under Prussian leadership, did the Germans come to play a major role in European and world politics. Friedrich Fabri, a representative German propagandist for Imperialism in the 1870s supports this claim with, In any case, it would be wise for us Germans to learn about colonial skills from out Anglo-Saxon cousins and begin a friendly competition with them. When the German Reich centuries ago stood at the pinnacle of the states of Europe, it was the Number One trade and sea power. If the New Germany wants to protect its newly won position of power for a long time, it

Page 3 of 25

must heed its Kultur-mission and, above all, delay no longer in the task of renewing the call for colonies.1 Fabris quote emphasizes the push for colonies that was made by the German people at this point in history. Fabri also attempts to show what colonies could do for the German Empire in relation to their position in the competitive world and European markets. Germany soon entered a period of rapid industrialization in which they became a leading power in the European concert upsetting the balance of power that had been established. Germany was now seen as a real contender in European politics for the first time. This soon brought up the question of colonization to the German government and what role they would play in the world market system. The rise of the German Colonial Empire as mentioned began a substantial amount of time after the rest of Europe had begun their expansion. The reason for this was because of Bismarcks, opposition to the very idea of colonialism. Bismarck is even quoted in saying, As long as I am Reichskanzler, we shall not pursue a colonial policy.2 He did not feel it a wise move or a necessary move for an empire to expand overseas merely for the purpose of acquiring square miles of territory. He was more concerned with promoting economic prosperity at home in Germany, than being bothered or burdened by the many trials and tribulations that come along with being a colonial ruler. This very mentality is what allowed Germany to grow and prosper in the decades following its unification. Bismarcks drive and determination to make Germany a unified power in Europe was the driving force behind Germanys rapid industrialization and accumulation of power. Considering this; however, he was eventually convinced otherwise and minimally supported the notion of the acquisition of German colonies.
1

Friedrich Fabri, "Friedrich Fabri Urges Imperialism on Germany "If She Would Live," 1879," The Imperialism Reader, ed. Richard M. Brace (Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1962), 115. 2 Hans-Ulrich Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," Past and Present, 48, no. 1 (1970): 124.

Page 4 of 25

It has been argued by many historians what the exact reason for Bismarcks sudden change of heart about the idea of imperialism. However, a valid argument made by Hans-Ulrich Wehler supports the notion that there are two fundamental reasons for the Chancellors overseas interest; a possible solution to the uneven economic growth in Germany, and the need for an authoritarian system to legitimize and strengthen the Germany government.3 First, Bismarck had noticed from the example set by the other European powers that colonialism had a lot to offer in terms of economic growth and expansion. As mentioned, at this time in history, Germany was industrializing very rapidly and Bismarck soon realized the need for an abundance of raw materials to allow for this growth to continue was of vital importance. Despite this need, Bismarck held firm to his conviction that the costs and expenditures of colonial expansion most often outweighed its usefulness. The colonies were basically seen as nothing more than a political burden to Bismarck.4 Having them would do little good for Germany at home, not to mention strain their economic situation in the world market. However, in Germany in 1882, as elsewhere in the world, a new period of economic depression began setting in, which would question Bismarcks Imperialist policy for a final time. Hans-ulrich Wehler has described the German drive for colonial acquisition in 18831885 as the result of an increasingly clear ideological consensus in the 1870s and 1880s about how Germany should react to the depression following the economic crash of 1873.5 As the need for state assisted programs began increasing due to this woes of the economy, Bismarck realized that overseas expansion might be inevitable if he was to satisfy the many needs of his people, his Empire, and his economy. The acquisition of colonies; Bismarck hoped, would hopefully aid the economy in this very desperate and difficult time.
3 4

Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 124. Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 128. 5 Woodruff D. Smith, "The Ideology of German Colonialism, 1840-1906," The Journal of Modern History, 46, no. 4 (1974): 645.

Page 5 of 25

Initially Bismarck was open to the idea of informal colonial rule, in which the colonies would be used solely for the purpose of spreading unrestricted trade and not as territorial expansion of the German Empire.6 His support was very limited in the sense that it held those who wanted and benefited by his colonial acquisitions, responsible for running them.7 This removed any chance of them becoming economic burdens of the state. This is also true because in a sense the colonies would not even be controlled by the state through this informal rule. They would be controlled by private groups, which therefore furthered the belief that they would not be a burden of the state. However, as time passed, the weakness and reluctance of trading interests along with facing challenges due to rivalries between the European colonial greatpowers and the indigenous colonized people began to show that this informal rule was not really giving the economic boost that Bismarck was hoping for. As the economy worsened and industrialization continued, one key realization was made; that the liberal-capitalist economy, based on its continuous but spasmodic growth, was fundamentally dependent on the extension of the market beyond national boundaries, and thus required a kind of assistance that only the power of the state could provide.8 Realizing that the only way to improve Germanys economic conditions; Bismarck was now pushing for a state run colonial system that would hopefully help with the economic crisis and continue the growth of industrialization in Germany. Thus he began concentrating on the promotion of foreign trade run by the state; instead of informal colonial rule, resulting from the pressures and demands of the industrial growth. The second reason for Germanys overseas expansion was due to a need for an authoritarian system to legitimize and strengthen the German government. Traditionally in
6 7

Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 127. D.L. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey From the Eighteenth Century, (New York: Delacorte Press, 1966), 365. 8 Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 132.

Page 6 of 25

German history, the charismatic nature of a leader was enough to carry and support a leader and drive the German states with no actual legitimacy as a leader required.9 What this means is typically if a German ruler had the power to inspire optimism and excite the masses, but lacked in any form of effective leadership, it was acceptable for that person to be a leader. As the Germany Empire became unified; however, this was no longer the case. More substance and legitimacy was needed in the newly formed state. As the old political traditions began to crumble away and the charismatic authority and nature of the Chancellor came under attack, the need for economic expansion for economic growth was necessary whereby the governmental authority could be legitimized.10 As it became clear that Germany was struggling with other political difficulties, a need for an effective leader to fix these problems was desperately needed. Due to the overwhelming support for overseas expansion, successful imperialist policy became of vital importance in order to help steer the public opinion of the German Government in a way that was in favor of Bismarcks rule. Germanys undertaking in Imperialism was driven by the fact: That imperialism stifled discontent about the political structure of the Reich and helped to conceal the latent gulf between the parties and the state; it became, as it were, as substitute area for otherwise inhibited political activity; it was, in addition, able to neutralize class tensions and conflicts. Imperialism was the field within which the adaptation of the bourgeois parties to the reality of the state, its structure and its needs was accomplished.11 Thus from the very beginning, Imperialism acted in a sense, for the German Government, as a authoritarian cloak to the actual problems of the sharp class division and relatively weak political force that were consuming Germany at this time. Imperialism, once again seemed inevitable, but now, for the first time, it also seemed beneficial to Bismarck and especially to his successors.12 In this sense, German Imperialism is seen to be the result of endogenous socio-economic and
9

Burt Estes Howard, The German Empire, (New York: AMS Press, 1969), 3. Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 139. 11 Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 143. 12 Mary Evelyn Townsend, The Rise and Fall of German'ys Colonial Empire 1884-1918, (New York: Howard Fertig, 1966), 250.
10

Page 7 of 25

political forces, and not as a reaction to the exogenous pressure, nor as a means of defending traditional foreign interests.13 Germany began its brief stint in formal rule; initially, for practical reasons to provide for the German people and increase the countrys wealth and power. Therefore, instead of persisting with the less productive and more lucrative practice of informal empire; Germany, reacting to the pressures of irregular economic growth, of world-wide competition, and the ideas of social imperialism, decided to join the rest of the modernized European continent and resorted to formal colonial rule.14 As formal colonial rule was established, Germany eventually met many major problems and challenges with dealing with her new colonies. These challenges can be argued to have arisen entirely because of the Germans late arrival into the colonial world. As mentioned; however a major point to understand, is that while Germany evidently became a formal rule colonial force in Africa, this was not what Bismarck had every really wanted. As mentioned he eventually was in favor of informal rule with the state not receiving any of the burdens. Most of the push for state run formal rule was made under Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was in power after Bismarck was dismissed in 1890. Germany was then left in a position that he had tried to avoid, with a dependant empire that must be organized and paid for.15 Wilhelm II differed in the ideas colonialism from Bismarck. He viewed this more as the German peoples Place in the Sun. In spite of the fact that we have no such fleet as we should have, we have conquered for ourselves a place in the sun. It will now be my task to see to it that this palace in the sun shall remain our undisputed possession, in order that the suns rays may fall fruitfully upon our activity and trade in foreign parts, that our industry and agriculture may develop within the state
13 14

Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 124. Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialsim, 1862-1890," 150. 15 Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, 366.

Page 8 of 25

and our sailing sports upon the water, for our future lies upon the water. The more Germans go out upon the waters, whether it be in races or regattas, whether it be in journeys across the ocean, or in the service of the battle flag, so much the better it will be for us.16 Wilhelm saw this as Germanys opportunity to compete with the rest of Europe in the colonial world. Colonialism was no longer seen as a means to increase economic activity for the German economy, it was instead seen as a way of acquiring world power. At a time in history where Germanys rapid growth and industrialization made them a contender in the Europe court, Wilhelm was pushing for more and more power. Therefore, the colonies; no longer seen as an asset but more of a liability, needed to be occupied and pacified.17 This shift in attitudes over the ruling government of the German Colonies can also be argued to be a leading cause for the challenges the Germans were soon to face including corruption and brutality. As this occurred, more and more challenges were faced and had to be dealt with; and thus Germany was given the bad reputation that it was destined to posses. A first major series of conflicts that the Germans encountered due to their colonial expansion was conflicts with other European powers. As mentioned, Germany came into the colonial game very late, at a time when the former colonial powers; England and France, had been dominating the seas and colonies for centuries. However, Germanys work to acquire colonies and in Wilhelm IIs idea of Weltpolitik (World Politics) or world domination, compete against the other powers was basically the collection of one years work of expansion.18 Its rapid expansion of its overseas territories pushed them further towards becoming a world power as Wilhelm II had envisioned. Due to this, Germany became the third largest colonial power in Africa in a very short time.
16 17

Kaiser Wilhelm II, "A Place in the Sun," Modern History Sourcebook(1901), 1. Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, 367. 18 A.J.P Taylor, German'ys First Bid For Colonies 1884-1885: A Movie In Bismarck's European Policy, (New York: MacMilan and Co., 1967), 3.

Page 9 of 25

In order to understand Germanys new position on the world scale and the complications that it would soon cause one must gain a better understanding of the Berlin Conference. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, set the rules for colonial expansion in African by the European Powers and its influence was designed to keep a balance of power between the countries as they took part in the Scramble for African Colonies. All of the major European powers of the time met in Berlin to divvy up the territorial claims in Africa. Years after the conclusion of the Berlin Conference Germany; under Wilhelm II, having recently acquired a large territorial claim in Africa, was looking to test the solidity of the influence of the Berlin Conference. By expanding their colonial gains, they would gain access to more raw materials, a larger empire, and thus more power.19Therefore they attempted to challenge the Berlin Conference and in 1905 they challenged the French influence in the disputed territory of Morocco. At this point in history Germany was doing a tremendous amount of trade with Morocco, and it seemed logical to them to take over the territory all together. In 1911 the total value of German trade with Morocco had reached 25,289,042 francs as compared with 80,745,476 francs for France and 44,965,310 francs for England. If the trade through Algeria were omitted from the calculation, the value of exports sent from Morocco to Germany in 1911 surpassed that sent to France by approximately 2,000,000 francs.20 Hoping to spark a revolt that would lead to Moroccan Independence from the French, in hopes for eventual German conquering of the territory, Wilhelm II visited and made speeches to the Moroccan people. This was done to hopefully spark the flame of revolution in the Moroccan people and possibly gain the upper hand on trade in the area.21

19 20

Bernard Augustin, "German'ys Colonial Aims," Journal of Royal African Society, 16, no. 64 (1917): 309. Ima Christina Barlow, The Agadir Crisis, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 41. 21 Douglas Porch, The Conquest of Morocco, (New York: International Publishing Company, 1986), 45.

Page 10 of 25

Angered by this, the French demanded a conference to settle the differences between the countries and to reestablish their dominance in the area. As both countries prepared for the conference, they began building up their arms and militaries in order to prepare for what was likely to be a war. Realizing very early on that Germany lacked in support (they only had Austria-Hungary supporting them) compared to that of France (they had Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States supporting them), Germany agreed to the Frances demands and in 1906 stopped their efforts to have an influence in Morocco.22 The crises of 1905 and 1911 were to test the full strength of this agreement (alliance between France and Britain). In fact, Sir Edward Grey went so far as to state to the German ambassador that, according to his personal opinion, if France were attacked by Germany because of Morocco, public opinion would not permit England to remain neutral.23 This angered the Germans who soon attempted to take on more menacing attitude towards the British-French relationship. Germany became more and more suspicious of the encirclement policy of her rivals and strove to defeat their program.24 Realizing that Englands assistance and support in the Moroccan situation was a major reason for their failure, Germany attempted to tarnish their relationship by making France think that Britain was not a reliable ally.25 Germany aimed at destroying the Anglo-French entente by showing France that England would not help in another crisis. This however was not the case as supported by the quote from above and the plan backfired when five years later Germany once again was on the move to have a political and colonial stance in Morocco. By stationing a Germany gunboat by the name Panther in a Moroccan port, it appeared that Germany was trying to create a naval base on the Atlantic coast. This proved to be a failure again when the British navy, which at this time was

22 23

Raymond James Sontag, European Diplomatic History, (NewYork: Appleton Century-Crofts, 1961), .17. Barlow, The Agadir Crisis, 37. 24 Barlow, The Agadir Crisis, 46. 25 Sontag, European Diplomatic History, 18.

Page 11 of 25

exceptionally larger than Germanys and considered to be the most powerful in the world, forced them out of the port.26 Germany was once again forced into a conference where they had to accept Frances position in Morocco and Britain and Frances bond was strengthened once again. Another major situation reflecting the challenges faced by the German Government was with the Herero tribe of South West Africa. The Whitaker Report confirmed in the mid1980s already such conclusion by listing the German war against the Herero as the first genocide of the 20th century.27 In what became known as the German-Namibian war, around eighty percent of the Herero population was killed off.28 As seen by this staggering figure, clearly a massive revolt occurred under German rule. South West Africa was Germanys first colony and was second in size to the German East African Colony. This colony proved to be the most difficult to pacify and organize for many reasons.29 First, it was so difficult to organize for the simple fact that it was not the best land for colonizing. Of the available land in Africa that was not already colonized by other Europeans, this was the one of the only remaining portions that was seen remotely suitable for white colonization.30 It also proved to be so difficult due to the constant turmoil that native indigenous people were causing. Each of the colonial powers had little wars in which occupation of the conquered people occurred. This was brought about to quell the constant fighting; however, Germany took these wars to an entirely new level.31 In the early twentieth century, the Herero tribe revolted against the German Government. This was due to a number of reasons. First, they revolted due to issues over land rights with the
26 27

Sontag, European Diplomatic History, 16. Henning Melber, "How to Come to Terms with the Past: Re-Visiting the German Colonial Genocide in Namibia,"Africa Spectrum, 40, no. 1 (2005): 140. 28 Tilman Dedering, "The German-Herero War of 1904: Revisionism of Genocide or Imaginary Historiography?," Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, no. 1 (1993): 80. 29 Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire 1884-1918, 130. 30 Smith, "The Ideology of German Colonialism," 58. 31 Sontag, European Diplomatic History, 17.

Page 12 of 25

Germans.32 The Hereros had ceded a large portion of their land to the German people in order to help promote settlement by the white Europeans and to create the Otavi railroad line that was to connect the African coast with the inland German settlements.33 The German Government did not feel; however, that they were sharing the land with the Herero peoples. They felt that had sole ownership of the land. This is supported by the notion that some German colonizers had even considered creating native land reserves for the Herero people to be contained to so as to further colonize their land.34 Many Germans also felt racially superior to the lowly Africans and saw them merely as a source of cheap labour. In a colonial situation as it prevailed in Namibia in the early 20th century, the denial of human value to the uncivilized natives is predicated in the structurally racist set-up of colonialism.35 Some even shockingly welcomed the idea of possibly exterminating the entire race in order to get what they desired.36 Another reason for the uprising was due to debt collection. Over the years of German colonization, the Herero people had become victims of a lending money system in which they had no means to repay the debts. The German colonial government realized this to be a growing problem with no foreseeable solution and declared; with good intentions that all debt not repaid in a years time was voided.37 The German people took advantage of this opportunity and would seize whatever they could get their hands on, including cattle, land, or anything to repay their debts.38 This angered the Herero people because they rightfully felt that this was their property and the Germans had no right to take their belongings. This along with the idea of concentrated land reservations exacerbated the situation and in 1904, the Herero people revolted.
32 33

William L Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 215. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 220. 34 Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 216. 35 Melber, "How to Come to Terms with the Past, 145. 36 Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 216. 37 Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 220. 38 Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 220.

Page 13 of 25

As mentioned, many of the European Colonizers encountered resistance from the colonized peoples and little wars ensued. What makes the German situation different is that this little war with the Herero people turned into an attempted complete extermination of an entire populations of people. In the beginning of the conflict the Herero people primarily relied heavily on guerilla warfare as a means of revolting against the colonial power.39 After asking them to surrender their arms, it seemed as if the Germans had finally gained the upper hand and would regain control over their colony. However, they were soon proved wrong when the capital city of the German Colony was surrounded. Backup was soon requested and upon the appointment of Lieutenant-General Lothar von Trotha as Supreme Commander of South-West Africa, the struggle to maintain order in the German Colony took a disturbing turn. Trotha had plans to destroy and crush the native resistance through a massive military operation that eventually lead to what had been considered the first genocide of the twentieth century.40At the Battle of Waterberg, 3,000 to 5,000 Herero warriors were defeated. As they were pushed back from their earlier advancements towards the capital city, they were driven into the dessert where they eventually collapsed and gave up their once promising efforts. It is important to keep in mind, though, that the concentration of approximately 50,000 60,000 Hereo in the Waterberg area was not a normal migration of semi-nomadic herders, but an enforced one by the German troops which initiated a forward push in search of the decisive battle.41

39 40

Rayford W. German Acquisition of Southwest Africa, p. 120. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, p. 213. 41 Tilman Dedering, "The German-Herero War of 1904: Revisionism of Genocide or Imaginary Historiography?," Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, no. 1 (1993): 82.

Page 14 of 25

The German soldiers were then ordered to kill everyone, including men, women and children in order to prevent them from escaping and possibly returning to the capital.42 They sealed off all access to war and made it virtually impossible for any of the Herero people to leave the dessert.Prisoners stated under interrogation that the exhausted Herero were ready to surrender, but the Germans did not want a cease-fire: It was clear: the enemy had given up, he had been thrown deep into the waterless Sandveld and faced a horrible fate.43 This form of genocide took the form of starvation and poisoning of well water of the desert that the Herero people were forced into. Trotha took this war to an entirely new extreme and this quote from a piece of work by Tilman Dedering shows this. General v. Trotha did not believe that the time had come [for negotiations with the Herero]. In a report to the chief of the general staff of the army, he pointed out that negotiations with the Herero were impossible, because the headmen were all dead or had fled from the area, or because their crimes during the uprising had rendered any negotiations with the German government impossible. He also thought the acceptance of a more or less voluntary surrender to be the biggest political mistake, because a reconstruction of the old tribal organization would lead to renewed bloodshed sooner or later. He understood the uprising as the first sign of a race war which would confront all European colonial powers in Africa. Therefore, any complacence on the part of the Germans would further the idea of the Ethiopian movement that Africa belongs only to the Africans. The fight had to continue as long as there was the danger of a renewed resistance of the Herero.44 German soldiers regularly raped women before they killed them in the dessert and Trotha argued that all of their actions were necessary because he felt that if water was made available for them, then certain anarchy would have occurred and the natives would overrun the Colonial

42 43

Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 231. Tilman Dedering, "The German-Herero War of 1904: Revisionism of Genocide or Imaginary Historiography?," Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, no. 1 (1993): 84. 44 Dedering, "The German-Herero War of 1904," 83.

Page 15 of 25

Government.45 As the Herero people were driven into the dessert approximately 14,000 starved, the government appropriated their land for further German settlement.46 Finally, another major conflict that the Germans faced was through the resistance effort and war with the Maji Maji people of East Africa. The Maji Maji rebellion is summed up nicely in this quote by Dr. Heinrich Schnee in which he states,[] the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika (German East Africa) was due to hatred of the natives, induced by the hut tax and by forced labour upon the European plantations.47 The rebellion took place from 1905 to 1907 and it is approximated that around 300,000 Africans died at the hand of the German colonizers.48 This rebellion had one of the most destructive outcomes in German colonial history as seen through the quote bellow. Maji Maji was much more than a rebellion that was spread to the southern highlands by the hongo messengers from the east. As oral testimonies of surviving elders of the kilombero valley have suggested, Maji Maji represents a larger complex of political relationships, tensions and grievances that spanned the late pre-colonial and early colonial periods. This complex was characterized by shifting alliances and identities, the gendered experience of war and conflict, and the devastation of agricultural and environmental resources in affected areas.49 In order to understand this destructive revolt, one must first understand the background to the entire colonial process in this area. The German Colony of East Africa was founded by German Colonization Society under the leadership of Karl Peters. Initially, Bismarck was not in favor of the establishment of this colony due to fear of the poor relations that were in persistent between Britain and Germany. After another failed attempt to create a colony, Peters ended up blackmailing Bismarck into allowing this colony to be established under German rule. Just as in
45 46

Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902, 260. Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire 1884-1918, p. 235. 47 Heinrich Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future: The Truth About the German Colonies, (London: George Allen & Unwin LTD., 1926), 116. 48 John Iliffe, "The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion," The Journal of African History, 8, no. 3 (1967): 495. 49 Jamie Monson, "Relocating Maji Maji: the Politics of Alliance and Authority in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, 1870-1918," The Journal of African Hisotry, 39, no. 1 (1998): 96.

Page 16 of 25

German South West Africa, as mentioned, genocide was seen as the solution to the problems of the tribal people, in East Africa, extreme violence was used to maintain order and kill off large segments of the population. The natives were also subject to high taxation and forced labor during this time period and it lasted up to the Maji Maji Rebellion. Eventually the natives had had enough of the poor treatment, and along with a massive drought in 1905, open rebellion started against the German Government. Some argue that the Maji Maji rebellion began when the Marumbi rebels sacked the cotton plantations near Kibata, northwest of Kilwa, on 28 Jul 1905; thus the fighting began.50 Local religious groups were some of the leading forces driving the opposition movement against the Germans. They believed that their spirit leader Bokero had the power to turn enemys bullets into water and therefore marched onto the German garrisons unafraid of what could happen to them.51 Initially they had only destroyed major cotton plantations and trading posts, but then they moved on to actually attack the German garrisons. Armed with spears and arrows, they were forced to retreat with-in a quarter of an hour due to the Germans far superior weaponry including machine guns. Now on the offensive, the Germans moved towards the rebellious South were the rebels had come from, in attempt to put an end to the uprisings. Their solution was to destroy all villages they had passed through, along with crops and the food sources of the rebels. A nasty guerrilla war ensued and brought with it a devastating famine for the native people. The famine was a partially planned tactic because the Germans saw this as a means to an end solution to the

50

Felicitas Becker, "Traders, 'Big Men' and Prophets: Political Continuity and Crisis in the Maji Maji Rebellion in Southeast Tanzania," The Journal of African History, 45, no. 1 (2004): 14. 51 Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire, 366.

Page 17 of 25

fighting.52 As a result, approximately 100,000- 300,000 people died from starvation and famine.53 To put down the Maji-Maji rebels involved a mere 500 German troops and added a mere 2 million to the colonial deficit- a fraction of the 17,000 German troops and the 20 million which it took to crush the rebels in South-West Africa. But this rebellion, too, brought to light serious abuses of power. It also raised the fundamental question of how to govern the overseas Reich, a question which the opposition in the Reichstag could not fail to exploit.54 One can make the argument that all of the challenges that occurred in the German Empire, was brought about due Germanys late push for a colonial empire. Their late push brought them into conflict with other Europeans. In order to satisfy Wilhelms desire for world power, more land needed to be brought under the German influence, and thus conflict met with the other colonial powers. In an effort to maintain order in their colonies, other conflicts were met by the Germans. Mass revolts of the colonized people along with mass slaughters and brutality were directly brought about due to the Germans late push for a Colonial Empire. Despite these complications, the Germans were about to enter into an age of colonial prosperity. News that some of the atrocities had been occurring in the German colonies had eventually gotten back to the German people in Europe. Soon enough an anti-colonial wave of emotions began sweeping through the German citizens.55 This would eventually even make its way to the polls and a large voter turnout occurred due to the strong opposition to the way that the Imperial Government had been operating. With this, the newly elected Reichstag imposed a complete colonial overhaul upon the colonies.56 It was designed to eliminate any of the corruption that was in existence in the Colonial Government. The former incompetent leaders
52 53

Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire, 367. Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire, 367. 54 Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912, (New York: Harper Collins, 1992), 622. 55 Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire, 328. 56 Townsend, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire, 328.

Page 18 of 25

where then screened out and removed from office to allow for new efficient and humane officers to take the offices and a dramatic shift in the Colonial Governments operations occurred. Due to this colonial overhaul, the German Imperial Government saw the rise of their most promising stage of imperialism. Many improvements were made that would set the example for the future of Imperialism and Imperialist Governments. First, the Germans removed the practice of forced labor.57 It was now seen as a criminal offense and was banned by laws in the territories. There grew out of this a greater emphasis on the importance of the colonial people. This was largely because the Germans realized that the effective running of the colonies was reliant on the native people and their support was necessary for it to grow and prosper.58 The indigenous people were even encouraged to have native agriculture holdings. It was recommended that the colonized take their fair share in the commerce and prosperity of the German Empire. This was a unique attitude for the time period and served as a driving force or engine in modernization for the future of the 20th Century. Growth was occurring in the German Colonial Empire in its final days and would come to have a lasting effect on the colonized. An internal railroad system was established that helped to encourage European settlement on the interior of the colonies.59 Wherever the traveler turned, whether to Tsing-tao in China, to Dar-es-Salam in German East Africa, or to any of the other neat and orderly seaports in the German colonies, there he was sure to find fine, well-planned and well-build towns which more than held their own with similar towns in alien colonies. The same may be said of the German railways and arrangements for traffic, of the plantations, and of the entire German colonial administration.60

57

Steinmetz George, "The Colonial State as a Social Field: Ethnographic Capital and Native Policy in the German Overseas Empire before 1914,"American Sociological Association, 73, no. 4 (2008): 611. 58 George, "The Colonial State as a Social Field," 612. 59 George, "The Colonial State as a Social Field," 612. 60 Heinrich Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future: The Truth About the German Colonies, (London: George Allen & Unwin LTD., 1926). 148.

Page 19 of 25

Every single one of the German colonies had established the beginnings of a public school system and even encouraged education and development in this area.61 This support for education encouraged advances in the fields of medicine to occur in the German Colonies and thousands of Africans were vaccinated against small pox. Quite possibly the greatest claim to fame for the German colonies was the advances that were being made in medicine and science.62 Progress has been made in scientific work, both in the way of exploration and medical, botanical, and geological research. It may be confidently hoped that the results of the inquiries now zealously conducted in the German colonial establishments will be to add to the worlds knowledge as to the hygienic conditions of life in tropical climates and the method of cultivation of tropical plants.63 Many scientific and medical discoveries and advances were made in the German colonies that laid the foundation for the legacy of the German rule. It was the great German scientist Robert Koch who, in the course of repeated sojourns in British and German colonies, made such epoch-making discoveries and laid the foundations for the extirpation of various scourges. The blessings which this man and other German scientists and doctors after him have conferred on the tropical colonies-and by no means only German colonies-by their successful methods of combating disease are beyond calculation.64 The new system of ruling the colonies proved to be an effective and efficient way to rule and would come to set an example and model for future colonizers. A final quote sums-up the influence of the German Empire in Africa by stating, The enormous development of the German colonies during the short period of thirty years which elapsed between their acquisition and the outbreak of the war had impressed and astonished every traveler and scientist who had the opportunity of visiting them. Where there was formerly nothing but wilderness, interrupted merely by thinly populated native settlements,

61 62

George, "The Colonial State as a Social Field," 612. Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future, 145. 63 Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future, 145. 64 Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future, 145.

Page 20 of 25

flourishing plantations had arisen producing, under European supervision, important values for the markets of the world.65 The German Colonial Empire, being one of the most short-lived colonial experiences, left a lasting legacy on the African continent and its people. Due to Germanys late arrival unto the colonial scene in Africa, they were met with many complications and challenges to their colonial rule. These challenges, it can be argued, were only faced due to their late push for a colonial empire. German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarcks late push for a colonial empire also can be seen as a catalyst for the challenges the German Empire faced. Considering this; however, their late push for an empire, the Germans would come to leave a lasting legacy on her African colonies. These challenges have shown to have impacted the way in which the German people ruled there colonies. From extreme brutality and corruption to an attempted mass extermination of an entire populous of people, the Germans brought colonialism to an entirely new extreme with Wilhelm IIs late push for world domination. This paper has argued that the challenges presented by being one of the last colonizers to take stake in the African continent set the stage for the events that occurred under German rule. In an effort to maintain order, many inhumane practices; including governmental corruption, citizen brutality, and genocide of many indigenous ethnic groups, were put into effect and required the German Government to overhaul their colonial system of rule. The relationships between the Germans and the other European settlers, the results of the Herero tribes uprising and genocide, and the impact of the Maji Maji Rebellion and their forced labor practices help to prove this thesis.

65

Heinrich Schnee, German Colonization Past and Future: The Truth About the German Colonies, (London: George Allen & Unwin LTD., 1926), 145.

Page 21 of 25

Bibliography Primary Sources: Avdelotte, William Osgood. The First German Colony and Its Diplomatic Consequences, Cambridge Historical Journal (1937): 291-313. Accessed February 20, 2012. Vol. 5, No. 3. Bernard, Augustin. Germanys Colonial Aims, Journal of the Royal African Society (1917): 306-313. Accessed February 20, 2012. Vol.16, No. 64. Fabri, Friedrich . Friedrich Fabri Urges Imperialism on Germany "If She Would Live," 1879. The Imperialism Reader. Edited by Richard M. Brace. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1962. Freensen, Gustave. In the German South African Army, 1903-1904, Modern History Sourcebook (1903), accessed March 8th, 2012, Kaiser Wilhelm II, A Place in the Sun, 1901,Modern History Sourcebook (1901), accessed March 8th, 2012. Logan, Rayford W. German Acquisition of Southwest Africa, The Journal of Negro History 18(1933): 369-395. Accessed February 20, 2012. Otto Furst von Bismarck. The Kaiser vs. Bismarck; suppressed letters by the Kaiser and new chapters from the autobiography of the Iron Chancellor. New York: AMS Press, 1971. Otto Furst von Bismarck. The Memoirs, being the reflections and reminiscences of Otto, Prinec von Bismarck Vol.1. New York: H. Fertig, 1966. Otto Furst von Bismarck. The Memoirs, being the reflections and reminiscences of Otto, Prinec von Bismarck Vol.2. New York: H. Fertig, 1966. Secondary Sources: Books: *Friedrich Fabri, Bedarf Deutschland der Kolonien? (Gotha, 1879), pp. 110-112. Translated by the editor. Barlow, Ima Christina. The Agadir Crisis. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1971. Page 22 of 25

Bidwell, Robin. Morocco under Colonial Rule: French Administration of Tribal Areas 19121956. London: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1973. Fieldhouse, D.L., The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey From the Eighteenth Century. New York: Delacorte Press, 1966. Howard Burt Estes, The German Empire. New York: AMS Press, 1969. Langer, William L., The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972. Limb, Peter, Norman Etherington, and Peter Midgley, Grappling with the Beast: Indigenous Southern African response to Colonialism, 1840-1930 (Boston: Brill, 2010), MCLA ebrary. Medlicott, W.N., Bismarck, Gladstone, and the Concert of Europe. New York: Greenwood Press, 1969. Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. Porch, Douglas. The Conquest of Morocco. New York: International Publishing Company, 1986. Quoted ub E.d. Morel, The Black Mans Burden (London, 1920), p.66. Native Hereros Rebel in German South-West Africa, 1901-1906. 255. Schnee, Heinrich. German Colonization Past and Future: The Truth About the German Colonies. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD., 1926. Sontag, Raymond James, European Diplomatic History, 1871-1932. New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts, 1961. Taylor, A.J.P. German'ys First Bid For Colonies 1884-1885: A Movie In Bismarck's European Policy. New York: MacMilan and Co., 1967. Townsend, Mary Evelyn, Origins of Modern German Colonialism.1871-1885. New York: Columbia University, 1921. Townsend, Mary Evelyn, The Rise and Fall of Germanys Colonial Empire 1884-1918. New York: Howard Fertig, 1966.

Journal Aritcles:

Page 23 of 25

Becker, Felicitas. "Traders, 'Big Men' and Prophets: Political Continuity and Crisis in the Maji Maji Rebellion in Southeast Tanzania." The Journal of African History. 45. no. 1 (2004): 1-22, accessed April 5th, 2012. George, Steinmetz. "The Colonial State as a Social Field: Ethnographic Capital and Native Policy in the German Overseas Empire before 1914." American Sociological Association. 73. no. 4 (2008): 589-612. Henning Melber, "How to Come to Terms with the Past: re-Visiting the German Colonial Genocide in Namibia,"Africa Spectrum, 40, no. 1 (2005): 139-148, accessed April 5th, 2012. Iliffe, John. "The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion."The Journal of African History. 8. no. 3 (1967): 495-512, accessed April 5th, 2012. Lawrance, Benjamin Nicholas. Most Obedient Servants: The Politics of Language in German Colonial Togo, Cahiers dEtudes Africaines 40 (2000): 489-524. Accessed February 21, 2012. Lee, Marshall M. The German Colonial Empire by Woodruff D. Smith, German Studies Association (1979): 242-243. Accessed February 21, 2012. Melber, Henning. "How to Come to Terms with the Past: re-Visiting the German Colonial Genocide in Namibia."Africa Spectrum. 40. no. 1 (2005): 139-148, accessed April 5th, 2012. Meritt, Herbert Paul. Bismarck and the First Partition of East Africa, The English Historical Revue 91 (1976): 585-597. Accessed March 8th, 2012. Monson, Jamie. "Relocating Maji maji: the Politics of Alliance and Authority in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, 1870-1918." The Journal of African Hisotry. 39. no. 1 (1998): 95-120, accessed April 5th, 2012. Moore, Bob. Unwanted Guests in Troubled Times: German Prisoners of War in the Union of South Africa, 1942-1943, Society for Military History (2006): 63-90. Accessed February 20, 2012. Vol. 70, No. 1. Smith, Woodruff D. "The Ideology of German Colonialism, 1840-1906." The Journal of Modern History. 46. no. 4 (1974): 641-662, accessed April 5th, 2012. Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge von. Domestic Origins of Germanys Colonial Expansion under Bismarck, Past & Present (1969): 140-159. Accessed February 21, 2012. Townsend, Mary E. Bismarck and British Colonial Policy: The Problem of South West Africa, 1883-1885 by William Osgood Avdelotte, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (1938): 859-860. Accessed February 21, 2012. Vol. 43, No. 4. Page 24 of 25

Townsend, Mary E. The German Colonies and the Third Reich, The Academy of Political Science (1938): 186-206. Accessed February 21, 2012. Vol. 53, No. 2. Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. Bismarcks Imperialism 1862-1890, Past & Present (1970): 119-155. Accessed March 8th, 2012.

Page 25 of 25