Topic 1 - Measurement

1.1 Standards of measurement

1.1.1
Fundamental units are, in general those which can't be expressed in terms of others (there are exceptions). Seven base units: Mass in kilograms (kg), length in meters (m), time in seconds (s), electric current inamperes (A) (this is defined in terms of force between wires, but is fundamental in terms of electric circuits), thermodynamic temperature in kelvin (K), amount of substance in moles (mol) and luminosity intensity, or amount of light in candelas (cd). The newton is a derived unit, because it is defined as the force required to -2 force mass accelerate 1kg at 1 ms . Other derived units include Power (work*time), Pressure ( /unit area), density ( /unit volume).

1.1.2
Kilogram: A measure of mass, defined by a platinum-iridium cylinder kept in Sevres, France (Though I really can't imagine the IB exam asking that) Meter: Unit of distance, defined as the distance traveled by light in /csec, where c = the speed of light (about 3 x 8 10 m/sec). Second: Unit of time, based on time taken the number of vibrations in a cesium atom (9.1 x 10 ).
9 1

1.2 Vectors and scalars

1.2.1
Vector quantities have both a magnitude, and a direction. Scalar quantities have only a magnitude. Vector quantities are those such as displacement, velocity, acceleration. Scalar quantities are distance, speed, work and energy (those last two are important apparently)

1.2.2
Vectors can be represented as lines, where the length is the magnitude and the direction is the direction on the paper. Vectors can be added by using a scale diagram. The first vector is drawn, then the second from the end of the first, and so on. The resultant vector goes from the beginning of the first to the end of the last (in that direction, not the other way).

1.2.3
Multiplying or dividing a vector by a scalar only affects the magnitude, not the direction. This works just like normal multiplication / division.

1.2.4
Place the vector as a diagonal of a rectangle. This allows the vertical and horizontal components to be calculated via Pythagorus' theorem and basic trigonometry. The sum of all the vertical components = the vertical component of the resultant vector and so for the horizontal.

1.4 Uncertainties and errors

1.4.1
Uncertainties: are due to lack of precision in measuring equipment Errors: are actual inaccuracies i.e. equipment being mis-used, or mis-measurements. Uncertainties could come from the fact that a ruler is only marked down to 1 mm, Errors could come if you missread 15 on the ruler as 14. Uncertainties cause uncertainty bars, errors usually result in the particular piece of data being discarded.

1.4.2

Random uncertainties result from the magical randomness of measuring equipment...sometimes The jaws of a micrometer will close one way, sometimes another. They're random, and you can't do anything about them. Systematic errors are those built into the equipment.

1.4.3
Record uncertainty along with data. The minimum uncertainty is half the limit of the reading. i.e. if the measurement is 3.64g, then the uncertainty is 0.05g.

1.4.4
Random uncertainties are found by measuring the greatest difference from the arithmetic mean of the values. This decreases, at first rapidly and then more slowly as more data is collected. By using graphs we can obtain a line of best fit which fits within all the uncertainties.

1.4.5
When adding or subtracting, the uncertainty is the sum of the absolute uncertainties for each term. When multiplying or dividing, the uncertainty is the sum of the relative uncertainties (ie uncertainty/value). This can result in large uncertainties being created by performing operations on data with small uncertainties.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1.1
Define displacement, velocity, speed, and acceleration. Displacement: A vector quantity that describes a position of a particle in reference to an origin. It has both magnitude and direction. Velocity: The total speed of a particle in a given direction. Speed: The rate of change in position without regard to direction. Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity.

2.1.2
Define and explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed, velocity, and acceleration. An instantaneous value is a value taken at an instant. An average value is taken over a period of time.

2.1.3
Describe an objects motion from more than one frame of reference. If one car, travelling at 30 ms-1, overtakes another travelling at 25 ms-1, then according to the driver of the slower car, the relative velocity of the faster car is 5 ms-1. This is moving from one frame of reference to another. The velocities of 30 ms-1 and 25 ms-1 were from the position of a stationary observer. We moved from this frame of reference into that of one of the drivers.

2.1.4

Draw and analyse distance-time graphs, displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs. Displacement-time graphs:

Gradient = velocity Area under the graph = nothing significant

Velocity-time graphs:

Gradient = acceleration Area under the graph = displacement

Acceleration-time graphs:

Gradient = Change in Acceleration Area under the graph = speed

2.1.5
Analyse and calculate the slopes of displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs, and the areas under velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs. Relate these to the relevant kinematic quantity. See previous pages.

2.1.6
Determine the velocity and acceleration from simple timing situations. Velocity = Displacement/Time Acceleration = Velocity/Time

2.1.7
Derive the equations for uniformly accelerated motion. Let

t a u v s

be be be be be

time for the body accelerates acceleration the initial speed the final speed the distance travelled by object in time t

First Formula v = u+at As the change of velocity, plus the initial equals to the final velocity. Second Formula s=ut+1/2at2 As the displacement is the area under the velocity-time graph. Image:V-t.jpg Third Formula v =u +2as
2 2

From the first equation we can derived it as t=v-u/a. Substituting it to the second equation we get s=uv-u/a+1/2a(v-u/a)2 Expanding it we see the third formula.

2.1.8
Describe the vertical motion of an object in a uniform gravitational field. An example of uniformly accelerated motion is the vertical motion of an object in a uniform gravitational field. If we ignore the effects of air resistance, this is known as free-fall. In the absence of air resistance, all falling objects have the same acceleration of free-fall, independent of their mass.

2.1.9
Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects. As the object's velocity increases, the force of air resistance, which is opposite in direction to the movement of the object, becomes greater and greater until it reaches a value equal to the value of the force of gravity. This eliminates a net force put upon the object, which causes it to fall at a constant velocity, no longer accelerating. This is called terminal velocity.

2.2.1
Describe force as the cause of deformation or velocity change. A force is recognised by the effect it produces, and can cause an object to deform (change shape), speed up, slow down, and change direction.

2.2.2
Identify the forces acting on an object and draw free-body diagrams representing the forces acting. Forces should be labeled with a name or symbol for example, weight, normal reaction, friction, etc. Vectors should have lengths approximately proportional to their magnitudes. Free-body diagrams are just a simple diagram of one object, for example, a book or a person, and all of the forces acting must make contact with the object somewhere and must be named. Image:Freebodydiagram.png

2.2.3
Resolve forces into components. A straight vertical or horizontal force do not have components. Diagonal forces, however, do. A 4N force in a NW direction will have both a horizontal and vertical component. An angle should be given, so use this in trigonometry to work out the sides (which are the components). Example Two forces act on particle P. Find the magnitude of the net force acting in the horizontal direction and the magnitude of the net force acting in the vertical direction and hence find the resultant force acting on P.

2.2.4

Determine the resultant force in different situations. Adding of vectors is usually needed here. To find the resultant vector, join the beginning of the first onto the end of the last. See 1.4.4 for subtracting (although all you need to do is reverse the vector to be subtracted and add it to the other). The resultant vector may need to be worked out through trigonometry but sometimes even just Pythagoras can be used.

2.2.5
Describe the behaviour of a linear spring and solve related problems. When a force is applied to a spring (through the addition of a mass or simply pulling it) a tension force is produced. The spring increases in length. The difference between the natural length and stretched length is called the extension of a spring. As you pull the spring, the further you extend it, the greater the force you have to exert in order to extend it even further. Hookes Law, after Robert Hooke, states that up to the elastic limit [region of proportionality] the extension of a spring is equal to the tension force, F. The constant of proportionality k is called the spring constant. The SI units for the spring constant [k] are Nm-1. F = kx Up to the elastic limit, the force is proportional to extension, but beyond this point proportionality is lost. If this point is passed, the spring can become permanently deformed in such a way that when weights are removed the spring cannot go back to its original length.

2.2.6
State Newtons first law of motion. An object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.

2.2.7
Describe examples of Newtons first law. Examples of Newton's First Law:

A parachutist in free-fall (if the force of weight is larger than air friction the parachutist accelerates downwards; as they get faster, air friction increases until weight = friction. Then the parachutist is at constant velocity the acceleration is zero resultant force is zero)

A car traveling (if air resistance equals the force forwards due to engine, then the car is at constant velocity no resulting force. If either force is larger than the other, then there is a resultant force, and the car accelerates)

A book at rest on a table (acceleration = zero; resultant force = zero; thus it is at rest (no resultant force) Lifting a heavy suitcase (if the suitcase is too heavy to lift, it is not moving therefore acceleration = zero. Thus the pull from the person plus the reaction from ground is equal to the weight of the suitcase)

2.2.8

State the conditions for translational equilibrium. If the resultant force on an object is zero then it is said to be in translational equilibrium, or just equilibrium. To be in translational equilibrium, an object must be constantly at rest or moving with uniform velocity in a straight line. There are essentially two types of [translational] equilibrium. Static equilibrium: Static equilibrium exists when an object is at rest. Take the example of the book on the table. Dynamic equilibrium: Dynamic equilibrium exists when an object is moving at constant velocity in a straight line. Take the example of the car traveling.

2.2.9
Solve problems involving translational equilibrium. Basically, when an object is in translational equilibrium, it means that the forces that are acting on the object cancel each other out. They are still acting, but are equal to each other the net force, or resultant vector, is zero. So when a car moves at constant speed, the force pushing it forward by the engine is equal to that of air resistance pushing it back. The weight of the book is equal to the normal reaction from the surface of the table.

2.2.10
State Newtons second law of motion. Acceleration is directly proportional to the force acting and is in the same direction as the applied force. F = ma But because sometimes mass of a system doesnt remain constant (like a firework rocket, sand falling onto a conveyer belt etc) it can be helpful to express the law in a more general form: F=
(mv)

/t

Because p = mv, F = p/t Thus, Force = Change of momentum over Change in time.

2.2.11
Solve problems involving Newtons second law. Example Problems:

The diagram shows a block of wood of mass 1kg attached via a pulley to a hanging weight of mass .5 kg. Assuming that there is no friction between the block and the bench and taking g to be 10 ms-2, calculate the acceleration of the system.

The force acting on the system is the weight of the hanging mass which is 0.5g = 5N. Using Newtons second law F = ma, we have 5 = (1.5)a a = 3.3 Hence, the acceleration is 3.3 ms-2

A person of mass 70kg is strapped into the front seat of a car, which is travelling at a speed of 30ms1. The car brakes and comes to rest after travelling a distance of 180m. Estimate the average force exerted on the person during the braking process.

2.2.12
State Newtons third law of motion. To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction KEY POINTS ABOUT THIS LAW:

The two forces in the pair act on different objects this means that equal and opposite forces that act on the same object are NOT Newtons third law pairs. *Not only are the forces equal and opposite, but they must be of the same type. In other words, if the force that A exerts on B is a gravitational force, then the equal and opposite force exerted by B on A is also a gravitational force.

2.2.13
Discuss examples of Newtons third law. Examples of Newton's Third Law

Forces between roller skaters (if one pushes off another, they both feel a force, equal and opposite, but their acceleration will be different due to mass)

A roller skater pushes off from a wall (the force on the girl by the wall causes the girl to accelerate backwards. The mass of the wall (and earth) is so large that the force on it does not cause any acceleration)

A rocket in space propels gasses at high velocity in one direction, establishing a force. This causes the rocket to move in the opposite direction with a force of equal magnitude that the gasses have.

2.3.3
Discuss the concept of weight. Weight is a force. The weight of an object is a force (N). Mass and weight are often confused. Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object, whereas weight is a force acting on the object. However, there is ambiguity as to the definition of weight even to physicists. It is generally defined in two ways:

(a) the gravitational force on an object, mg (b) the reading on a supporting scale (ie, scales to weigh yourself)

Although these two definitions are the same if the object is in equilibrium, they are different in non-equilibrium situations. For example: if both the object and the scale were put into a lift and the lift accelerated upwards then the definitions would give different values. It is safer to use gravitational force instead of weight.

Gravitational force = mg On the surface of the Earth, g is approximately 9.81 ms , so to work out weight or gravitational force you multiply mass in kg by 9.81 ms .
-2 -2

2.3.4
Distinguish between mass and weight. Mass is generally defined as the amount of matter contained in a body, although this is difficult, because what is matter, and how do we quantify it? Weight is also ambiguous, although it is agreed that it is a force. Mass is measured in kg, for example a 7 kg block, and weight is a force, for example, a weight of 10 N. If an object were taken to the moon, its mass would be the same, but its weight would be less because the gravitational forces on the moon are less than on Earth. On Earth the two terms are muddled because they are proportional. For example, double the mass and you double the weight. People talk about losing weight when they really want to do is lose mass.

2.4.1
Define linear momentum and impulse. Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity. P = mv. Momentum is a vector, and the units are kg ms -1. Impulse is the change in momentum, in any situation, particularly if it happens quickly. (p = F t).

2.4.2
State the law of conservation of linear momentum. The law of conservation of linear momentum states that The total linear momentum of a system of interacting particles remains constant provided there is no resultant external force.

2.4.3
Derive the law of conservation of momentum for an isolated system consisting of two interacting particles.

2.4.4
Solve problems involving momentum and impulse.

Momentum is a vector quantity. The outcome of a collision depends on the mass of each particle, their initial velocities, and how much energy is lost in the collision. But whatever, the outcome, momentum is always conserved. Any predicted outcome which violates the conservation of linear momentum will not be accepted. Example Problems

A railway truck, B, of mass 2000kg is at rest on a horizontal track. Another truck, A, of the same mass moving with a speed of 5 ms-1 collides with the stationary truck and they link up and move off together. Find the speed with which the two trucks move off and also the loss of kinetic energy on the collision.

Suppose that in the previous example that after the collision truck A and truck B do not link and that after the collision, truck A is moving with a speed of 1ms-1 and in the same direction as prior to the collusion. Find the speed of truck B after the collision as well as the kinetic energy lost on collision.

Elastic and inelastic collisions.

Inelastic collisions are when mechanical energy is lost when two objects collide but momentum is conserved. Elastic Collisions happen when there is no mechanical energy lost or momentum lost in a collision. In the real world mechanical energy is always lost during a collision. But some do approximate quite well to being elastic. The collision of two pool balls is almost elastic, as is that between two steel ball bearings. Example A car of mass 1000 kg is parked on a level road with its handbrake on. Another car of mass 1500kg travelling at 10ms-1 collides with the back of the stationary car. The two cars move together after collision in the same straight line. They travel 25m before finally coming to rest. Find the average frictional force exerted on the cars as they come to rest.

2.5.1
Define work. Work is done when a force moves its point of application in the direction of the force. If the force moves at right angles to the direction of the force, then no work has been done. Work usually involves a transfer of energy from one form to another (ie kinetic to gravitational). The amount of energy transferred is equal to the work done. Work has been done against a force. Work is equal to the force multiplied by the distance moved OR work is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the displacement in the direction of the force. W=Fs Work is a scalar in Nm or Joules; work done by a system is positive; work done on a system is negative.

2.5.2
Determine the work done by a non-constant force by interpreting a force-displacement graph.

A force-displacement graph in this regard will probably be one about applying a force to a spring. The area under the graph is the work done, which is then Fs. But in this case F = ks, which means that the work done is X (ks) X s = ks2. The work that has been done is stored in the spring as elastic potential energy, Eelas. So, Eelas is ks2. This idea can be extended to find the work done by any non-constant force. If we know how the force depends on displacement then to find the work done by the non-constant force we just calculate the area under the force-displacement graph.

2.5.3
Solve problems involving the work done on a body by a force. Remember to use W = force X distance (this is essentially it) Example Problems: A force of 100 N pulls a box of weight 200 N along a smooth horizontal surface as shown below. Calculate the work done by the force (a) in moving the box a distance of 25 m along the horizontal and (b) against gravity.

2.5.4
Define kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion. The formula is mv2 the kinetic energy a body tells us how much work the body is capable of doing.

2.5.5
Describe the concepts of gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. If an object of mass m is lifted to a certain height h above the surface of the earth then the work done is mgh and the object now has a potential energy equal to the work done mgh (force = mg, displacement = h). For example, if you place an object at rest on top of a wall it has potential to do work, because if it falls off the wall onto a nail sticking out of a piece of wood then it could drive the nail further into the wood. Work is needed to lift the object on to the top of the wall and we can think of this work as being stored as potential energy in the object. The object has gravitational potential energy by virtue of its position in the Earth's gravitational field Ep = mg h. No matter where an object is placed in the Universe it will be attracted by the gravitational force of Earth. When an object is moved a distance h in the Earths gravitational field and in the direction of the field, its change in gravitational potential energy is mgh (provided that g is constant). Elastic potential energy is similar. Work must be done to stretch a spring or similar object, and this work done is stored in the spring as elastic potential energy if you let it go or remove the mass, it will spring back, converting this elastic potential energy into kinetic energy. Eelas = ks2.

2.5.6
State the principle of conservation of energy. There are several ways of stating this principle:

Overall the total energy of any closed system must be constant. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it just changes form. There is no change in the total energy of the Universe.

2.5.7
List different forms of energy and describe examples of the transformation of energy from one form into another.

Thermal energy

Can be used to boil water and produce steam. The kinetic energy of the molecules of steam (thermal energy) can be used to rotate magnets and this rotation generates an electric current. The electric current transfers the energy to consumers where it is transformed into, for example, thermal and light energy (filament lamps) and kinetic energy (electric motors).

Chemical energy

This is associated with the electronic structure of atoms and therefore with the electromagnetic force. An example of its transformation is in combustion in which carbon combines with oxygen to release thermal energy, light energy, and sound energy.

Nuclear energy

An example of this is the splitting of nuclei of uranium by neutrons to produce energy.

Electrical Energy Solar Energy

Different forms of energy all fall into the category of either potential or kinetic energy and are all associated with one or other of the fundamental forces.

2.5.8
Define power. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred. This is the same as the rate at which work is done. The unit for power is Js-1 or Watt. 1W = 1 Js-1. Power = energy transferred/Time = work done/Time If something is moving at a constant velocity v against a constant frictional force F, the power P needed is P = Fv

2.5.9
Define and apply the concept of efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy to the total energy transferred. The easiest equation for this is Efficiency = W u\Wa Wu = mgh = Useful Work W a = Fs = Actual Work

Depending on the situation, we can categorize the energy transferred (aka work done) as useful or not. In a light bulb, the useful energy would be light energy; the wasted energy would be thermal energy (and non visible forms of radiant energy). Since it is a ratio it has no units. Often it is expressed as a percentage.

2.5.10
Solve work, energy, and power problems. See following attached pages. Formulas in formula booklet are:

W = Fscos Power = work / time = Fv

Efficiency is not in there.

2.6.1
Draw a vector diagram to show that the acceleration of a particle moving with uniform speed in a circle is directed toward the centre of the circle. Velocity changes from VA to VB; the magnitude of the velocity stays the same, but the direction changes thus, the particle is experiencing acceleration.

2.6.2
State the expression for centripetal acceleration. The expression for centripetal acceleration is ac = v2/r

2.6.3
Identify the force producing circular motion in various situations. We can find the expression for the centripetal force F by using Newtons second law, F = ma, so that, with ac = v /r we have: F = mv /r where m is the mass of the particle. In order for the particle to move in a circle a force must act at right angles to the velocity vector of the particle and the speed of the particle must remain constant. This means that the force must also remain constant.
2 2

The effect of the centripetal force is to produce acceleration towards the centre of the circle. The magnitude of the particles linear velocity and the magnitude of the force acting on it will determine the circular path that a particular particle describes.

Topic 3 - Thermal physics

3.1 The atomic model of matter and states of matter
3.1.1
There are 4 states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma Solid : Rigid shape and constant volume. The forces between molecules far outweigh the thermal energy held by the molecules, and so the molecules form a rigid lattice (in which they vibrate). Liquid : Constant volume, (over a short term; eventually evaporation occurs) but takes on the shape of it's container. The thermal energy possessed by the molecules is more significant, but, still not enough to allow them to completely overcome the forces between them. As a result, the molecules are free to move within the liquid but only exceptionally fast molecules can actually escape. Gas : Fills any container that it is placed in - it has no constant volume or shape. The thermal energy between the molecules far outweighs the intermolecular forces, and so they move randomly, with minimal interactions between molecules. Plasma : If a gas is heated enough, then the molecules lose their electrons, and the ions and atoms form something similar to a gas, with random particle movement. Most of the matter in the universe is plasma (that's what you make stars from) but most of the matter on earth is solid/liquid/gas.

3.1.2
As temperature increases, thermal energy increases. Thus, as a solid gets hotter, the vibrations of the molecules become larger and larger, to the point where they break out of their rigid lattice and are free to move around randomly. As liquids are heated, more and more molecules have sufficient energy to completely overcome the intermolecular forces between them, and break away. Eventually all the molecules are moving randomly with no significant forces between them.

As a gas is heated, the electrons of the molecule/atoms are excited by the increased energy, to the point where, eventually, the electrons are excited enough to completely escape the molecule/atom and move independently, thus creating a plasma. In each case the reverse is true, as thermal energy decreases, the forces between particles pull them back from plasma to gas to liquid to solid.

3.2 Thermal concepts

3.2.1
Temperature is considered to be the hotness or coldness of an object as measured by a thermometer. If two objects are of the same temperature, then there will be no net energy transfer between the two. On a microscopic level, temperature is the average kinetic energy per molecule of the molecules in the substance. Heat is the energy transferred between objects when they change temperature, and moves from areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature. i.e. the lower temperature object is heated. Internal energy is the total energy related to the thermal motion of the molecules in a substance. This includes both vibrational and translational motion, and is comprised of both the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.

3.3 Specific heat capacity, specific latent heat and 'heat transmission'
3.3.1
Specific heat capacity is a property of a substance in general, while heat capacity is the property of a particular body, otherwise they are identical. Their purpose is to relate internal energy change to temperature change, as different amounts of energy will be required to cause a given change in temperature in the same mass of different substances Q = m x C x T ( i.e. change in internal energy = mass x heat capacity x change in temp ).

3.3.2
A given mass of different substances may contain different numbers of molecules, of different masses and types. If the same amount of energy is added to two different substances, it will be distributed among the molecules, but the average energy Ek of these molecules will be different. Thus, the change in temperature will be different, and so different heat capacities are necessary.

3.3.3
Determining heat capacities

There are basically two ways to do this, either by adding a certain amount of energy to a substance and measuring the temperature change (Direct), or by mixing two substances at different temperatures, one of which has a known heat capacity, allowing the other to be calculated (Mixtures). Direct : Energy is applied to the substance using an electrical current. For a liquid, this is in the form of a heating element being placed in the liquid, and for a solid, holes are cut in the block for an electric heater and thermometer. The total amount of energy supplied by such an electric heater is VIt, where V = the potential difference across the heater, I = the current running through it and t = the time the heater is on for (in seconds). Therefore, VIt = m x C x T, and the only unknown is C. Mixtures : Water has a heat capacity of 4800 ( /kg deg-c). If 250 g of water (250 ml) at 25c has placed into it a metal block of unknown heat capacity at 30c, then the temperature of the resulting mixture can be measured once it reaches equilibrium. The amount of heat gained by the water can then be calculated, by Q = 0.250 x 4800 c T. Since heat gained = heat lost, the Q can then be substituted into the equation for the block ( Nb, it, and T must both be negated, though these cancel out and can be ignored ). From there, the C value for the block can be found.
J

3.3.4
Describe transformations between states in macroscopic and microscopic terms. (Sounds just like 3.1.2 to me)

Melting/Freezing
(Transfer between solid and liquid) Solids have a rigid shape and constant volume whereas liquids have a constant volume and a shape determined by container. Solid -> liquid : Molecules vibrate faster and faster eventually reaching the point where they break away from their lattice structure and are able to move freely through the substance, thus becoming a liquid. Liquid -> solid : Molecules are slowed by the removal of energy, eventually the intermolecular forces are dominant enough to pull them into a lattice, creating a solid.

Vaporisation/Condensation
(Transfer between liquid and gas) Liquids have a constant volume and a shape determined by container whereas gases have no fixed volume and will fill any container. Liquid -> Gas : Molecules require a certain Ek to completely escape from the surface of the liquid, as temp increases, more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy and can escape. Eventually all the molecules escape, forming a gas. Gas -> Liquid : As energy is removed, molecules slow down, eventually the intermolecular forces become dominant enough to hold the molecules together in a liquid.

Sublimation

(Direct transfer between from a Solid to a gas) Solids have a rigid shape and constant volume whereas gases have no fixed volume and will fill any container. Solid -> Gas : At low pressures, when the molecules in a solid gain enough energy to escape the lattice, they already have sufficient energy to completely escape the other molecules (because the low pressure dictates very few molecule - molecule interaction). As a result, the solid changes directly to a gas. (This is why dry ice doesn't turn into a liquid)

3.3.5
When substances change state, there is a period where energy is added, but no change in temperature occurs (called latent heat of fusion/vaporisation). This is because, during this period, the energy goes towards increasing the potential energies of the molecules as they move away from each other rather than kinetic energy, and so the temperature remains constant.

3.3.6
Solving problems with specific heat capacity and specific latent heat. This is normally done by breaking the calculation up into a series of steps. If heat is being added, the solid (ice for example) is heated up to 0c, then energy is required for the latent heat of fusion, then the resulting water is heated. When the water is hot enough, the energy for the latent heat of vaporisation is required and finally then water vapour is heated. In each case, different states of water (or anything else) will have different specific heat capacities, so this must be accounted for.

3.3.7
Conduction : Heat is transferred through solids, liquids, or gasses. For example, when heat is applied to one end of a metal bar, this heat will slowly travel through it to reach the other end. On a molecular level, when the atoms at one end are heated, they vibrate more. These vibrations cause the molecules next to them to vibrate more, and so on through the material. In this way the heat (and thus an increase in temperature) is propagated through the medium. Convection : This is where heat is transferred through a liquid (or a gas, but this example uses a liquid) which is being heated at the bottom. The heated water at the bottom rises to the top and pushes cold water down. This water is then heated while the water at the top cools. This sets up a continual circulation motion while the water heats. On a molecular level, as the water at the bottom heats, the molecules move faster. This creates more space between them, and thus lower density water. This hot, less dense water is thus pushed to the top, and the colder, more dense water is heated at the bottom. Radiation : Radiation is the transfer of heat when there is no medium (molecules) for it to travel through. It travels in the form of electromagnetic radiation, and no molecule interactions are necessary. For example, a bonfire primarily radiates infrared rays.

3.4 Thermal properties of gases

3.4.1
Experiments to find the relationship between pressure, volume and temp Pressure and volume : Temperature must be kept constant. This can be done by measuring the displacement in a movable tube manometer. The displacement adjusts the volume, and moves the mercury allowing the pressure to be measured (in cm of Hg) and then added to the air pressure (measured with a barometer). Thus allows values for both pressure and temperature to be found with no significant change in temperature. This relationship can then be graphed, and pressure will be inversely proportional to volume. A graph of pressure vs /volume should be a straight line through the origin. Pressure and temperature : An enclosed glass 'bulb' of air should be connected to a manometer, and placed into a beaker. as the water in the beaker is heated, readings of both temperature, and pressure (as read from the manometer and a manometer). This gives data for a graph of temperature vs pressure, which should be a straight line through the origin. Volume and temperature : A capillary tube, sealed at one end, and bent upwards at the other, with a movable block of some kind (mercury) in the center. With the open end pointing up out of the water, dip the rest of the tube in a bath of hot water. Measure the position of the block, then cool the water with cold water, and then ice, measuring the temperature and volume at various points. This can then be graphed, giving a directly proportional relationship between volume and temperature (straight line through the origin, intercept at -273c or 0 kelvin). All these relationships fit PV = nRT if the appropriate variable is assumed to be constant.
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3.4.2
P V 1 1/T1

= P2V2/T2

This relationship says that PV/T is constant for a given number of molecules of an ideal gas. This is obviously related to PV = nRT.

3.4.3
As can be seen in the pressure vs. temperature, and volume vs. temperature graphs, the intercept on the temp axis is -273c. An ideal gas would be one which had no forces between the molecules, and in which the molecules had no volume. This would mean that that the gas would be compressible down to a point where pressure, or volume is zero. This point is the absolute zero for temperaturem, which is -273c, or 0 kelvin.

3.4.4
PV = nRT Pressure (Pa) x Volume (m ) = number of molecules (mols) x R (a constant equalling 8.31, which is in data book) x Temperature (in Kelvin). Obviously you can substitute in values and solve for unknowns.
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