INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

A REPORT ON

PLC AND VFD

Industry Guide: Mr. R K Himanshu

Submitted By: Abu Zohad A2305108173 B.Tech (E&CE)

Trainer: Mr. Robin Khosla

Amity University

AMITY SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and TECHNOLOGY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The truth that no man or woman is an island certainly holds true here. This report would not have been possible without the help of numerous analyses from my well wishers who took out their valuable time so as to help me with this project. So we would like to acknowledge the help of following individuals without whom this Industrial Training Report couldnt have been successfully completed. I would like to thank my training mentors Ms. Gayatri Gupta and Ms. Shalini Sah for moral support, contribution of time for the successful going of our In-plant Training. I would also like to express my gratitude to our respected DG Dr. Balwinder Shukla for her encouragement to the internship program. Fore mostly, my industry guide, Mr. R K Himanshu, I/C Electrical/Electronics and my trainer, Mr. Robin Khosla, Assistant Technologist, ITC Ltd., who had provided me with the topic, and guided me into the noble rendition of the ideas in my mind into this project. A debt of gratitude to ITC Ltd, Basdeovpur, Munger and HR Manager, Mr. Asha Manke, for giving me the permission to commence this Industrial Training, to do the necessary research work and provide me with appreciable facilities and resources. To ITC Ltd., and all its staffs, for being a source of information on countless topics and allowing us to freely use the departmental data. Finally, to our parents, whose patient love and support enabled us to strive for the best results. Thanks to all those who have been a part of our work, for their help, support, interest and valuable hints.

ABU ZOHAD B. Tech (Electronics and Communication), ASET, Noida

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that ABU ZOHAD, a student of B.Tech (Electronics and Communication Engg.) from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh has worked on the summer training project entitled Study of PLCs and VFDs from 23rd May 2011 to 4th July 2011 under the guidance of the mentor, Ms.Gaytri Gupta.

The work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision is best to our knowledge. His overall performance during the project was excellent. We wish him all success in his career.

Ms. Gaytri Gupta Faculty Guide

ABSTRACT

This project deals with the detailed study of PLCs and VFDs used in the industry. Industries involved in machining, packaging, processing material are using them. Almost any application that needs some type of electrical control has a need for a PLC. Every aspect of industry, from power generation to automobile painting to food packaging, uses programmable controllers to expand and enhance production. In commercial, industrial and utility applications electric motors are used as a part of a fan or a pump or they may be connected to some other form of mechanical equipment such as conveyor or mixer. It is necessary to control the speed of the system by controlling the speed of motor using some type of electronic device called Variable Frequency Drive (VFD). First some programming techniques for PLC are discussed and then a program is made to operate a motor through PLC and VFD. In this report, you will learn about all aspects of these powerful and versatile tools. This project report will introduce you to the basics of Programmable Logic Controllers and Variable Frequency Drives, from their operation to their vast range of applications.

COMPANY PROFILE
ITC was incorporated on August 24, 1910 under the name Imperial Tobacco Company of India Limited. As the Company's ownership progressively Indianised, the name of the Company was changed from Imperial Tobacco Company of India Limited to India Tobacco Company Limited in 1970 and then toI.T.C. Limited in 1974. In recognition of the Company's multi-business portfolio encompassing a wide range of businesses Cigarettes & Tobacco, Hotels, Information Technology, Packaging, Paperboards & Specialty Papers, Agri-business, Foods, Lifestyle Retailing, Education & Stationery and Personal Care - the full stops in the Company's name were removed effective September 18, 2001. The Company now stands rechristened 'ITC Limited'.

ITC's Packaging & Printing Business was set up in 1925 as a strategic backward integration for ITC's Cigarettes business. It is today India's most sophisticated packaging house. In 1975 the Company launched its Hotels business with the acquisition of a hotel in Chennai which was rechristened 'ITC-Welcomgroup Hotel Chola'. The objective of ITC's entry into the hotels business was rooted in the concept of creating value for the nation. ITC chose the hotels business for its potential to earn high levels of foreign exchange, create tourism infrastructure and generate large scale direct and indirect employment. Since then ITC's Hotels business has grown to occupy a position of leadership, with over 100 owned and managed properties spread across India.

Also in 1990, leveraging its agri-sourcing competency, ITC set up the Agri Business Division for export of agri-commodities. The Division is today one of India's largest exporters. ITC's unique and now widely acknowledged e-Choupal initiative began in 2000 with soya farmers in Madhya Pradesh. Now it extends to 10 states covering over 4 million farmers. ITC's first rural mall, christened 'Choupal Saagar' was inaugurated in August 2004 at Sehore. On the rural retail front, 24 'Choupal Saagars' are now operational in the 3 states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. In 2000, ITC forayed into the Greeting, Gifting and Stationery products business with the launch of Expressions range of greeting cards. A line of premium range of notebooks under brand Paperkraftwas launched in 2002. To augment its offering and to reach a wider student population, the popular range of notebooks was launched under brand Classmate in 2003. Classmate over the years has grown to become Indias largest notebook brand and has also increased its portfolio to occupy a greater share of the school bag. Years 2007- 2009 saw the launch of Children Books, Slam Books, Geometry Boxes, Pens and Pencils under the Classmate brand. In 2008, ITC repositioned the business as the Education and Stationery Products Business and launched India's first environment friendly premium business paper under the Paperkraft Brand. Paperkraft offers a diverse portfolio in the premium executive stationery and office consumables segment. Paperkraft entered new categories in the office consumable segment with the launch of Textliners, Permanent Ink Markers and White Board Markers in 2009. ITC also entered the Lifestyle Retailing business with the Wills Sport range of international quality relaxed wear for men and women in 2000. The Wills Lifestyle chain of exclusive stores later expanded its range to include Wills Classic formal wear (2002) and Wills Clublife evening wear (2003). ITC also initiated a foray into the popular segment with its men's wear brand, John Players, in 2002. In 2006, Wills Lifestyle became title partner of the country's most premier fashion event - Wills Lifestyle India Fashion Week - that has gained recognition from buyers and retailers as the single

largest B-2-B platform for the Fashion Design industry. To mark the occasion, ITC launched a special 'Celebration Series', taking the event forward to consumers. In 2000, ITC spun off its information technology business into a wholly owned subsidiary, ITC Infotech India Limited, to more aggressively pursue emerging opportunities in this area. Today ITC Infotech is one of Indias fastest growing global IT and IT-enabled services companies and has established itself as a key player in offshore outsourcing, providing outsourced IT solutions and services to leading global customers across key focus verticals - Manufacturing, BFSI (Banking, Financial Services & Insurance), CPG&R (Consumer Packaged Goods & Retail), THT (Travel, Hospitality and Transportation) and Media & Entertainment. In 2002, ITC's philosophy of contributing to enhancing the competitiveness of the entire value chain found yet another expression in the Safety Matches initiative. ITC now markets popular safety matchesbrands like iKno, Mangaldeep, Aim, Aim

Mega and Aim Metro. ITC introduced Essenza Di Wills, an exclusive range of fine fragrances and bath & body care products for men and women in July 2005. Inizio, the signature range under Essenza Di Wills provides a comprehensive grooming regimen with distinct lines for men (Inizio Homme) and women (Inizio Femme). Continuing with its tradition of bringing world class products to Indian consumers the Company launched 'Fiama Di Wills', a premium range of Shampoos, Shower Gels and Soaps in September, October and December 2007 respectively. The Company also launched the 'Superia' range of Soaps and Shampoos in the mass-market segment at select markets in October 2007 and Vivel De Wills & Vivelrange of soaps in February and Vivel range of shampoos in June 2008.

INDEX
Topic
CERTIFICATE OF COMPANY ACKNOWLEDGMENT ABSTRACT CIRTFICATE OF INSTITUTE COMPANY PROFILE TABLE OF CONTENT

Page No.
I II III IV V VI

1. INTRODUCTION 2. A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 2.1.PLC 2.1.1. The First Programmable Controller 2.1.2. The Conceptual Design Of The PLC 2.1.3. Todays Programmable Controllers 2.1.4. Programmable Controllers And The Future 2.2.VFD 2.2.1. History of Brush type DC Drives 2.2.2.

1 2-10

History of AC Variable Frequency

2.2.3. History of the AC Vector Drive 2.2.4. History of Brushless D.C. 3. LITERATURE SURVEY 3.1.PLC 3.1.1. The Guts Inside 3.1.2. PLC Operation 3.1.3. Response Time 3.1.4. Response Time Concerns 3.1.5. Relays 11-27

3.1.6. Basic Instructions 3.1.7. Process Scan 3.2.VFD 3.2.1. VFD Types 3.2.2. VFD System Description 3.2.3. VFD Operation 4. EXPERIMENTS 5. CONCLUSION 28-30 31

INTRODUCTION
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing industry. Programmable logic controllers were initially adopted by the automotive industry where software revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels when production models changed. Programmable logic controllers, also called programmable controllers or PLCs, are solid-state members of the computer family, using integrated circuits instead of electromechanical devices to implement control functions. They are capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing, counting, arithmetic, data manipulation, and communication, to control industrial machines and processes. Programmable controllers have many definitions. However, PLCs can be thought of in simple terms as industrial computers with specially designed architecture in both their central units (the PLC itself) and their interfacing circuitry to field devices (input/output connections to the real world). Variable frequency drive (VFD) usage has increased dramatically in HVAC applications. The VFDs are now commonly applied to air handlers, pumps, chillers and tower fans. A better understanding of VFDs will lead to improved application and selection of both equipment and HVAC systems. This paper is intended to provide a basic understanding of common VFD terms, VFD operation, and VFD benefits. In addition this paper will discuss some basic application of Programmable Controllers for operating Variable Frequency Drive with respect to industry standards.

A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
2.1) PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was accomplished using hundreds or thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire each and every relay. Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were soon applied to control of industrial processes. Early computers required specialist programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a general-purpose computer for process control required protecting the computer from the plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bitform) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored. The response time of any computer system must be fast enough to be useful for control; the required speed varying according to the nature of the process. The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors Corporation specified the design criteria for the first programmable controller in 1968. Their primary goal was to eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible, relay controlled systems. The specifications required a solid-state system with computer flexibility able to (1) survive in an industrial environment, (2) be easily programmed and maintained by plant engineers and technicians, and (3) be reusable. Such a control system would reduce machine downtime and provide expandability for the future. Some of the initial specifications included the following: The new control system had to be price competitive with the use of relay systems. The system had to be capable of sustaining an industrial environment.

The input and output interfaces had to be easily replaceable. The controller had to be designed in modular form, so that subassemblies could be removed easily for replacement or repair. The control system needed the capability to pass data collection to a central system. The system had to be reusable. The method used to program the controller had to be simple, so that it could be easily understood by plant personnel.

2.1.1)THE FIRST PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER

The product implementation to satisfy Hydramatics specifications was underway in 1968; and by 1969, the programmable controller had its first product offsprings. These early controllers met the original specifications and opened the door to the development of a new control technology. The first PLCs offered relay functionality, thus replacing the original hardwired relay logic, which used electrically operated devices to mechanically switch electrical circuits. They met the requirements of modularity, expandability, programmability, and ease of use in an industrial environment. These controllers were easily installed, used less space, and were reusable. The controller programming, although a little tedious, had a recognizable plant standard: the ladder diagram format. In a short period, programmable controller use started to spread to other industries. By 1971, PLCs were being used to provide relay replacement as the first steps toward control automation in other industries, such as food and beverage, metals, manufacturing, and pulp and paper.

2.1.2) THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF THE PLC

The first programmable controllers were more or less just relay replacers. Their primary function was to perform the sequential operations that were previously implemented with relays. These operations included ON/OFF control of machines and processes that required repetitive operations, such as transfer lines and grinding and boring machines.

However, these programmable controllers were a vast improvement over relays. They were easily installed, used considerably less space and energy, had diagnostic indicators that aided troubleshooting, and unlike relays, were reusable if a project was scrapped. Programmable controllers can be considered newcomers when they are compared to their elder predecessors in traditional control equipment technology, such as old hardwired relay systems, analog instrumentation, and other types of early solid-state logic. Although PLC functions, such as speed of operation, types of interfaces, and data-processing capabilities, have improved throughout the years, their specifications still hold to the designers original intentionsthey are simple to use and maintain.

2.1.3) TODAYS PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS

Many technological advances in the programmable controller industry continue today. These advances not only affect programmable controller design, but also the philosophical approach to control system architecture. Changes include both hardware (physical components) and software (control program) upgrades. The following list describes some recent PLC hardware enhancements:

Faster scan times are being achieved using new, advanced microprocessor and electronic technology. Small, low-cost PLCs (see Figure 1-2), which can replace four to ten relays, now have more power than their predecessor, the simple relay replacer.

High-density input/output (I/O) systems (see Figure 1-3) provide space-efficient interfaces at low cost. Intelligent, microprocessor-based I/O interfaces have expanded distributed processing. Typical interfaces include PID (proportional integral-derivative), network, CANbus, fieldbus, ASCII communication, positioning, host computer, and language modules (e.g., BASIC, Pascal).

Mechanical design improvements have included rugged input/output enclosures and input/output systems that have made the terminal an

integral unit. Special interfaces have allowed certain devices to be connected directly to the controller. Typical interfaces include thermocouples, strain gauges, and fast-response inputs. Peripheral equipment has improved operator interface techniques, and system documentation is now a standard part of the system.

All of these hardware enhancements have led to the development of programmable controller families like the one shown in Figure 1-4. These families consist of a product line that ranges from very small microcontrollers, with as few as 10 I/O points, to very large and sophisticated PLCs, with as many as 8,000 I/O points and 128,000 words of memory. These family members, using common I/O systems and programming peripherals, can interface to a local communication network. The family concept is an important cost-saving development for users. Like hardware advances, software advances, such as the ones listed below, have led to more powerful PLCs:

PLCs have incorporated object-oriented programming tools and multiple languages based on the IEC 1131-3 standard. Small PLCs have been provided with powerful instructions, which extend the area of application for these small controllers. High-level languages, such as BASIC and C, have been implemented in some controllers modules to provide greater programming flexibility when communicating with peripheral devices and manipulating data.

Advanced functional block instructions have been implemented for ladder diagram instruction sets to provide enhanced software capability using simple programming commands.

Diagnostics and fault detection have been expanded from simple system diagnostics, which diagnose controller malfunctions, to include machine diagnostics, which diagnose failures or malfunctions of the controlled machine or process.

Floating-point math has made it possible to perform complex calculations in control applications that require gauging, balancing, and statistical computation. Data handling and manipulation instructions have been improved and simplified to accommodate complex control and data acquisition applications that involve storage, tracking, and retrieval of large amounts of data.

Programmable controllers are now mature control systems offering many more capabilities than were ever anticipated. They are capable of communicating with other control systems, providing production reports, scheduling production, and diagnosing their own failures and those of the machine or process. These enhancements have made programmable controllers important contributors in meeting todays demands for higher quality and productivity. Despite the fact that programmable controllers have become much more sophisticated, they still retain the simplicity and ease of operation that was intended in their original design.

2.1.4) PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS AND THE FUTURE The future of programmable controllers relies not only on the continuation of new product developments, but also on the integration of PLCs with other control and factory management equipment. PLCs are being incorporated, through networks, into computerintegrated manufacturing (CIM) systems, combining their power and resources with numerical controls, robots, CAD/ CAM systems, personal computers, management information systems, and hierarchical computer-based systems. There is no doubt that programmable controllers will play a substantial role in the factory of the future. New advances in PLC technology include features such as better operator interfaces, graphic user interfaces (GUIs), and more human-oriented man/machine interfaces (such as voice modules). They also include the development of interfaces that allow communication with equipment, hardware, and software that supports artificial intelligence, such as fuzzy logic I/O systems. Software advances provide better connections between different types of equipment, using communication standards through widely used networks. New PLC instructions are developed out of the need to add intelligence to a controller. Knowledge-based and

process learningtype instructions may be introduced to enhance the capabilities of a system. The users concept of the flexible manufacturing system (FMS) will determine the control philosophy of the future. The future will almost certainly continue to cast programmable controllers as an important player in the factory. Control strategies will be distributed with intelligence instead of being centralized. Super PLCs will be used in applications requiring complex calculations, network communication, and supervision of smaller PLCs and machine controllers.

2.2) VFD (Variable Frequency Drive)

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustablespeed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, microdrives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. Variable-frequency drives are widely used. In ventilation systems for large buildings, variable-frequency motors on fans save energy by allowing the volume of air moved to match the system demand. They are also used on pumps, elevator, conveyor and machine tool drives. The first variable speed drives were certainly mechanical and were based on adjustable pitch diameter pulleys. Such systems are still in use but for obvious reasons are not in general use in industrial applications today. There are four basic types of electrically adjustable speed drives being installed in today's modern industrial machines: - DC Brush type motors and controllers - AC Variable frequency controllers and induction motors - AC Vector controllers and induction motors - DC Brushless motors and controllers

Eddy Current, magnetic reluctance, and other types are available but are not widely used and have various qualities making them unsuitable for widespread general use and are not discussed in this paper.

2.2.1) History of Brush type DC Drives

The brushed DC motor was invented in 1856 by Werner Von Siemens in Germany. Variable speed by armature voltage control was first used in the early 1930s using a system involving a constant speed AC motor driving a D.C. generator. The generator's DC output was varied using a rheostat to vary the field excitation and the resulting variable voltage DC was used to power the armature circuit of another DC machine used as a motor. This system was called a Ward-Leonard system after the two people credited with it's development. The Ward-Leonard method of DC variable speed control continued until the late 1960s when Electric Regulator Company brought to market a practical, general purpose, static, solid state controller that converted the AC line directly to rectified DC using SCR (thyristor) devices. That technology was adopted by virtually all manufacturers and still is in use today. It is a very simple power control concept and uses the fewest number of parts possible to produce variable speed from an electric motor.

2.2.2) History of AC Variable Frequency

The induction motor (as well as the syncronous and split phase motors) was developed by Nikola Tesla in 1924 and has the endearing characteristic that it can be run by direct connection to a three phase power source. The motor speed is directly proportional to the applied frequency and is determined by the formula n = 120f/p where n is the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm, f is the frequency of power applied and p is the number of poles on the rotor. Therefore a 2 pole induction motor running at 60 Hz will run at 3600 rpm synchronous speed less the slip required to produce the induction effect at full load. This slip is variable depending on the motor design but for the "standard" NEMA design B motor it is 3 to 5 % making the typical 2 pole motor run at 3500 rpm at

full load at 60 Hz. Soon after the AC motor was developed, the idea of varying the speed was considered and the only practical way of doing this at the time was to provide the motor with a variable frequency obtained by using a DC motor turning an AC alternator which allowed a variable frequency. This was done on a wide range of applications in the 50s, 60s, and 70s. Since the much simpler Ward-Leonard system existed for DC motors, however the major use for such lines was in precision controlled multimotor lines where synchronous AC motors were used for each section and when the master alternator frequency was varied, all the motors would follow together with synchronous accuracy. Such systems were still being installed on new machines as late as the mid 80s when static variable frequency controls became widely used. Static AC variable speed drives that were readily available were of the six step, variable voltage design. Later, when Phillips/Signetics came out with a sine coded PWM chip set, sine coded PWM drives became the norm and six step variable frequency faded into non-use except for unusual applications where the slightly lower loss at full speed, full load was an advantage.

2.2.3) History of the AC Vector Drive

AC vector technology was known as early as 1970 but practical devices employing the technology in industrial applications did not become available until the early 80s and first units were generally limited to current source inverter technology. The current source inverter, however is only practical for general purpose use at 75 to 100 hp and up and virtually no progress was made with the technology until the PWM sine coded inverter became a reality in the middle 80s. At this point in time, vector AC drives have still not had a significant effect in the general industrial market primarily due to the complex algorithm (formula) the controller uses to locate the flux vector and the fact that the controller must be "programmed" with the motor parameters. As more manufacturers are bringing these drives to the marketplace, they are being used in more general purpose applications. The vector drive is used in large numbers in the machine tool industry where it's high speed and wide constant torque range capabilities are key benefits.

2.2.4) History of Brushless D.C.

The earliest evidence of a Brushless D.C. motor was in 1962 when T.G. Wilson and P.H. Trickey made a "DC Machine with Solid State Commutation". It was subsequently developed as a high torque, high response drive for specialty applications such as tape and disk drives for computers, robotics and positioning systems, and in aircraft where brush wear was intolerable due to low humidity. Unfortunately, the technology to make such a motor practical for industrial use over 5 hp simply did not exist until a number of years later. With the advent of powerful and permanent magnet materials and high power, high voltage transistors in the early to mid 80,s the ability to make such a motor practical became a reality. The first large Brushless DC motors (50 hp or more were designed by Robert E. Lordo at POWERTEC Industrial Corporation in the late 1980s. Today, almost all of the major motor manufacturers make Brushless DC motors in at least some size range and one company makes Brushless DC from 1/2 to 300 hp as a complete product line (had has announced 500 Hp available in October, 1992). Brushless DC has had a substantial impact in some industry market areas, primarily Plastics and Fibers and most recently a mining company has put several of these drives at 300 hp ratings operating coal conveyors in underground mines. The drives work on the same principle as all DC motors but the motor is built "inside out" with the fields (which are permanent magnets) on the shaft of the motor and the "armature" on the outside. The fields turn and the "armature" stays stationary. To duplicate the action of the commutator (which no longer needs to exist since the winding is now stationary), a magnetic encoder is mounted to the shaft of the motor to sense the magnetic position of the fields on the shaft. The controller "sees" the magnetic position information and determines through simple logic which motor lead should have current going to a winding and which motor lead should return the current from the winding. The controller has power devices which connect the voltage on a capacitor bank to the correct motor lead at the correct time when the shaft encoder demands it. In this way the motor and controller act in the same way as a

brush DC motor but without the brushes. The controller is built in a very similar way to the controller used in an AC variable frequency drive or in an AC Vector drive because all three types use a PWM type of variable voltage control to their respective motors.

LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1.1) The Guts Inside

The PLC mainly consists of a CPU, memory areas, and appropriate circuits to receive input/output data. We can actually consider the PLC to be a box full of hundreds or thousands of separate relays, counters, timers and data storage locations. Do these counters, timers, etc. really exist? No, they dont physically exist but rather they are simulated and can be considered software counters, timers, etc. These internal relays are simulated through bit locations in registers.

What does each part do? INPUT RELAYS-(Contacts) These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are transistors. INTERNAL UTILITY RELAYS-(Contacts) These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some are on only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was stored.

COUNTERS- These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, doen or both up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed.

TIMERS- These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments. The most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types. Increment vary from 1ms through 1s.

OUTPUT RELAYS- (Coils)These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.

DATA STORAGE- Typically there are registerd assigned to simply store dat. They are usually used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also typically be used to store data when power is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up they will still have the same contains as before power was removed.

3.1.2) PLC Operation

A PLC works by continually scanning a program. We can think of this scan cycle as consisting of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the important parts and not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system and updating the current internal counter and timer values.

CHECK INPUT STATUS

EXECUTE PROGRAM

UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS

Step 1 CHECK INPUT STATUS First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or off. In others words, is the sensor connected to the first input on? How about the second input? How about the third. It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step. Step 2 EXECUTE PROGRAM Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time. Maybe your program said the if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution result for use letter during the next step. Step 3 UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now turn on the first output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the first output when this condition is true. After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One scan time is defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above.

3.1.3) Response Time

The total response time of the PLC is a fact we have to consider when shopping for a PLC. Just like our brains, the PLC takes a certain amount of time to react to changes. In many applications speed is not a concern, in others though If you take a moment to look away from this text you might see a picture on the wall. Your eyes actually see the picture before your brain says Oh, theres a picture on the wall. In this example your eyes can be considered the sensor. The eyes are connected to the input circuit of your brain. The input circuit of your brain takes a certain amount of time to realize that your eyes saw something. (If you have been drinking alcohol this input response time would be longer) Eventually your brain realizes that the eyes have seen something and it processes the data. If then sends an output signal to your mouth. Your mouth receives this data and begins to respond to it. Eventually your mouth utters the words Gee, thats a really ugly picture. Notice in this example we had to respond to 3 things: INPUT It took a certain amount of time for the brain to notices the input signal from the eyes. EXECUTION It took a certain amount of time to process the information received from the eyes. Consider the program to be: If the eyes see an ugly picture then output appropriate words to the mouth. OUTPUT The mouth receives a signal from the brain and eventually spits (no pun intended) out the words Gee, thats a really ugly picture.

INPUT RESPONSE TIME

+
PROGRAM EXECUTION TIME = TOTAL RESPONSE TIME

+
OUTPUT RESPONSE TIME

3.1.4) Response time concerns

Not that we know about response time, heres what it really means to the application. The PLC can only see an input turn on/off when its looking. In other words, it only looks, it only looks at its inputs the check status part of the scan.

PROG EXEC OUT IN SCAN 1

OUT

IN

PROG EXEC SCAN 2

OUT

IN

PROG EXEC SCAN 3

OUT

In the diagram, input 1 is not seen until scan 2. This is because when input 1 turned on, scan 1 had already finished looking at the inputs. Input 2 is not seen until scan 3. This is also because when the input turned on scan 2 had already finished looking at the inputs. Input 3 is never seen. This is because when scan 3 was looking at the inputs, signal 3 was not on yet. It turns off before scan 4 looks at the inputs. Therefore signal 3 is never seen by the pic. But what if it was not possible for the input to be on this long? Then the PLC doesnt see the input turn on. Therefore it becomes a paper weight! Not true of course there must be a way to get around this. Actually there are 2 ways.

Pulse stretch function: This function extends the length of the input signal until the PLC looks at the inputs during the next scan. (i.e. it stretches the duration of the pulse.)

SCAN

OUT

IN

PROG EXEC

OUT

IN

Interrupt function: This function interrupts the scan to process a special routine that you have written. I.e. As soon as the input turns on, regardless of where the scan currently is, the PLC immediately stops what its doing and executes an interrupt routine. After its done executing the interrupt routine, it goes back to the point it left off at and continues on with the normal scan process.
INTERRPT

OUT

IN

PROG EXEC SCAN

OUT

IN

Now lets consider the longest time for on an output to actually turn on. Lets assume that when a switch turns on we need to turn on a load connected to the PLC output.

3.1.5) Relays
The main purpose of a PLC is to replace real world relays. We can think of a relay as an electromagnetic switch. Apply a voltage to a coil and a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the contact of the relay in, causing them to make a connection. These contacts can be considered to be a switch. They allow current to flow between two points thereby closing the circuit. Lets consider the following example. Here we simple turn on a bell (Lunch Time!) whenever a switch is closed. We have three real world parts. A switch, a relay and a bell. Whenever the switch closes we applied a current to a bell causing it to sound.

BELL
CONTACT

AC

RELAY

COIL

DC

SWITCH

Notice in the picture that we have two separate circuits. The bottom (blue) indicates the dc part. The top (red) indicates the ac part. Here we are using a dc relay to control an ac circuit. Thats the fun of relays! When the switch is open no current can flows through the coil of the relay. As soon as the switch is closed, however, current runs through the coil causing a magnetic field to build up. This magnetic field causes the contacts of the relay to close. Now ac current flows through the bell and we hear it. Lunch Time!

3.1.6) Basic Instructions

Now lets examine some of the basic instructions in greater details to see more about what each one does.

Load
The load (LD) instruction is a normally open contract. It is some time also called examine if on. (XIO) The symbol for a load instruction is shown below.

A LoaD (contact) symbol This is used when an input signal is needed to be present for the symbol to turn on. When the physical input is on we can say that the instruction is true. We examine the input for an on signal. It the input is physically on then the symbol is on. An on condition is also referred to as logic 1 state. This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external inputs and external output contacts. Remember that internal relays dont physically exist. They are simulated (software) relays.

LoadBar
The Load Bar instruction is a normally closed contract. It is sometimes also called LoaDNot or examine if closed. (XIC) The symbol for a loadbar instruction is shown below.

A LoaDNot (normally closed contact) system This is used when an input signal does not need to be present for the symbol to turn on. When the physical input is off we can say that the instruction is true. We examine the input for an off signal. If the input is physically off then the symbol is on. An off condition is also referred to as a logic 0 state.

This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external input and sometimes, external output contacts. Remember again that internal relays dont physically exist. They are simulated (software) relays. It is the exact opposite of the load instruction.

Logic State 0 1

Load False True

LoadBar True False

Out
The Out instruction is sometimes also called an OutputEnergize instruction. The output instruction is like a relay coil. Its symbol looks as shown below.

An OUT (coil) symbol When there is a path of True instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will also be True. When instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a normally open output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs.

Outbar The Outbar instruction is sometimes also called an OutNot instruction. Some vendors dont have this instruction. The Outbar instruction is like a normally closed relay coil. Its symbol looks like that shown below.

An OUTBar (normally closed coil) symbol

When there is a path of False instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will be true. When the instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a normally closed output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs. It is the exact opposite of the Out instruction.

Logic State 0 1

Out False True

OutBar True False

3.1.7) PROCESSOR SCAN

The basic function of a programmable controller is to read all of the field input devices and then execute the control program, which according to the logic programmed, will turn the field output devices ON or OFF. In reality, this last process of turning the output devices ON or OFF occurs in two steps. First, as the processor executes the internal programmed logic, it will turn each of its programmed internal output coils ON or OFF. The energizing or deenergizing of these internal outputs will not, however, turn the output devices ON or OFF. Next, when the processor has finished evaluating all of the control logic program that turns the internal coils ON or OFF, it will perform an update to the output interface modules, thereby turning the field devices connected to each interface terminal ON or OFF. This process of reading the inputs, executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as the scan. Figure shows a graphic representation of the scan. The scanning process is repeated over and over in the same fashion, making the operation sequential from top to bottom. Sometimes, for the sake of simplicity, PLC manufacturers

READ INPUT STATUS Solve the control program and turn the internal coils ON/OFF

Update Output

call the solving of the control program the program scan and the reading of inputs and updating of outputs the I/O update scan. Nevertheless, the total system scan includes both. The internal processor signal, which indicates that the program scan has ended, is called the end-of-scan (EOS) signal. The time it takes to implement a scan is called the scan time. The scan time is the total time the PLC takes to complete the program and I/O update scans. The program scan time generally depends on two factors: (1) the amount of memory taken by the control program and (2) the type of instructions used in the program (which affects the time needed to execute the instructions). The time required to make a single scan can vary from a few tenths of a millisecond to 50 milliseconds. PLC manufacturers specify the scan time based only on the amount of application memory used (e.g., 1 msec/1K of programmed memory). However, other factors also affect the scan time. The use of remote I/O subsystems can increase the scan time, since the PLC must transmit and receive the I/O update from remote systems. Monitoring control programs also adds time to the scan, because the microprocessor must send data about the status of the coils and contacts to a monitoring device (e.g., a PC). The scan is normally a continuous, sequential process of reading the status of the inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating the outputs. A processor is able to read an input as long as the input signal is not faster than the scan time (i.e., the input signal does not change stateON to

OFF to ON or vice versatwice during the processors scan time). For instance, if a controller has a total scan time of 10 msec (see Figure 4-8) and must monitor an input

signal that changes states twice during an 8 msec period (less than the scan), the programmable controller will not be able to see the signal, resulting in a possible machine or process malfunction. This scan characteristic must always be considered when reading discrete input signals and ASCII characters. A programmable controllers scan specification indicates how fast it can react to inputs and still correctly solve the control logic.

3.2) Variable Frequency Drive:

3.2.1) VFD Types All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off. Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the power dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load. Drives can be classified as:

Constant voltage Constant current Cycloconverter

In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase. The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.

3.2.2) VFD System Description

A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface.

VFD motor The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance, such as MG31 rated motors.

VFD controller Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, full-wavediode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load. As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century. AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz is the general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor.

In addition to this simple volt per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct torque control (DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque of the motor can be precisely controlled. The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-width modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to construct a quasi-sinusoidal output waveform by a series of narrow voltage pulses with pseudo sinusoidal varying pulse durations. Operation of the motors above rated name plate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above rated name plate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150% of the rated name plate speed. Wound rotor synchronous motors can be run even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300% of the base speed is used. Naturally the mechanical strength of the rotor and lifetime of the bearings is also limiting the maximum speed of the motor. It is recommended to consult the motor manufacturer if more than 150% speed is required by the application.

PWM VFD Output Voltage Waveform

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.

VFD operator interface The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.

3.2.3) VFD operation When an induction motor is connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6 times) its rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than

50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. Note, however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation. In principle, the current on the motor side is in direct proportion of the torque that is generated and the voltage on the motor is in direct proportion of the actual speed, while on the network side, the voltage is constant, thus the current on line side is in direct proportion of the power drawn by the motor, that is U.I or C.N where C is torque and N the speed of the motor (we shall consider losses as well, neglected in this explanation). (1) n stands for network (grid) and m for motor (2) C stands for torque [Nm], U for voltage [V], I for current [A], and N for speed [rad/s] We neglect losses for the moment : Un.In = Um.Im (same power drawn from network and from motor) Um.Im = Cm.Nm (motor mechanical power = motor electrical power) Given Un is a constant (network voltage) we conclude : In = Cm.Nm/Un That is "line current (network) is in direct proportion of motor power". With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With 4-quadrants rectifiers (active-front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and reverting the energy back to the network.

EXPERIMENTS
OBJECTIVE: To measure output voltage and current of VFD operating at different frequencies. Observations:
Frequency(Hz) 10 Voltage(V) 90 Current(A) 2.20

20

170

1.85

30

252

1.72

40

334

1.80

50

416

1.75

OBJECTIVE: To operate motor at different speeds using PLC and VFD.

Observations:

CONCLUSION
A PLC has many "input" terminals, through which it interprets "high" and "low" logical states from sensors and switches. It also has many output terminals, through which it outputs "high" and "low" signals to power lights, solenoids, contactors, small motors, and other devices lending themselves to on/off control. In an effort to make PLCs easy to program, their programming language was designed to resemble ladder logic diagrams. Thus, an industrial electrician or electrical engineer accustomed to reading ladder logic schematics would feel comfortable programming a PLC to perform the same control functions. Variable Frequency Drive has the following information: Significant energy savings Easy setup & programming Retrofits Space Better design Competitive edge