Clean Techn Environ Policy DOI 10.

1007/s10098-011-0426-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Evaluation of performance and emissions of Hibiscus cannabinus (Ambadi) seed oil biodiesel
S. Jindal K. Goyal

Received: 1 August 2011 / Accepted: 28 October 2011 Springer-Verlag 2011

Abstract New and alternative oil crops must be explored for extending the horizon of plant based fuels for the increasing number of engines in agriculture sector. To preserve the biodiversity, locally available oil crops need to be identied and evaluated for its biodiesel potential. In this study, one of such oil crop, i.e., Hibiscus cannabinus (Ambadi) was selected for exploring the potential to be used as alternative fuel in diesel engines. The oil is found to be good as the properties of its methyl ester (biodiesel) are well within the range prescribed by ASTM. The biodiesel so prepared posses 8% lesser heat content when compared to diesel on volume basis but thermal efciency and specic fuel consumption improves with blend of 20% (B20). Improved combustion regimes are also seen with the biodiesel blends. Keywords Ambadi Hemp Biodiesel Efciency Combustion

Introduction During last few years, the importance of vegetable oil and fat based biodiesel has been established due to its renewable nature added with emission advantage over petroleum derived fuels. This is considered to be a good substitute for
S. Jindal (&) Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur 313001, India e-mail: sjindals@gmail.com K. Goyal Department of Botany, Meera Girls College, Udaipur 313001, India

petro diesel in existing diesel engines. Biodiesel scores several merits over that of the existing petroleum fuels. A signicant amount of research has been undertaken to understand the operative characteristics and emissions of biodiesel-fueled engine, as well as the technologies for production of biodiesel from various sources (Panwar et al. 2010; Jindal et al. 2010a). The experimental ndings of various researchers support the use of biodiesel as a suitable alternative to the diesel oil for use in the commonly available internal combustion engines (Jindal et al. 2010b). A large number of vegetable crops and plant seeds have been identied as good source for synthesizing biodiesel. Peanut oil (Kaya et al. 2009), palm oil (Kalam and Masjuki 2002), rapeseed oil (Karaosmanoglu et al. 1996), jatropha oil (Jindal et al. 2010b), karanj oil (Sharma and Singh 2008), etc., are popularly researched oils for production of biodiesel. In a quest for nding newer and different sources, canola oil, coconut oil, jojoba oil, Ethiopian mustard (brassica carinata), rubber seed oil, cassava, etc., have been tried at different places and are found suitable, mostly up to 20% blending ratios (Ramadhas et al. 2005a; DCruz et al. 2007; Jansson et al. 2009; Canoira et al. 2006; Cardone et al. 2003; Nabi Md et al. 2009; Usta 2005; Usta et al. 2005; Sahoo et al. 2007; Holser and OKuru 2006; Ghadge and Raheman 2005). The benet on the front of emissions is also well established (Jindal 2010). In India, non-edible type oil yielding trees such as linseed, castor, karanj, neem, rubber, jatropha, and cashew are available in large number. The production and utilization of these oils are low at present, because of their limited end usage (Ramadhas et al. 2005b). So far, for biodiesel production in many countries, including India, main focus is on Jatropha. But land and climatic conditions are not suitable for Jatropha production everywhere. Also, going blindly for Jatropha cultivation

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everywhere will harm the ecology. Thus it becomes necessary to understand that, in place of developing a particular crop for biodiesel production, different varieties must be harnessed, especially locally available crops, for production of biodiesel. Hibiscus cannabinus (Ambadi) is one of such crop. Ambadi hemp posses that possibility to be available as an alternative source of energy and it is grown in many parts of the world for ber production. Ambadi belongs to the cotton family. Its other names are Ambari hemp, Bimili, Deccan hemp, Jamaica, Roselle hemp, Sorrel, kenaf, etc. It is a kharif crop and is not exacting in its requirements. It is therefore adaptable to a wide range of climate and soil. It is often recommended for tropical and subtropical climates and thrives best with temperatures of 1527C during the growing season. Ambadi is adaptable to a variety of soils, best being a deep, friable, welldrained, sandy loam with humus. A pH of neutral to slightly acid is suggested. Almost any farmer living between 45N and 30S latitude, with a soil capable of producing corn, cotton, sugar, beans, or vegetables can produce good crops of Ambadi. The seed (Fig. 1) has good storage stability and is tetrahedral in shape with strongly adherent coat difcult to separate from kernel. The seed is aked, cooked by steam, and the oil is obtained by the process of expression. Residual oil in the cake can be extracted with hexane. After the extraction of oil, sufcient quantity of oil cake is left behind. This oil cake is used as a cattle feed. In India, the principal producing areas in the country are Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa. So far Ambadi has been accepted only as a ber crop but from latest scientic developments it has been found that the ber quality will not impair much even if seed is allowed to set. The ber still can be used for pulp and other industries. Thus the crop can be grown for both seeds as well as ber. The potential for annual availability of Ambadi seeds in the country is around 75,000 tonnes and around 13,000 tonnes of the Ambadi oil. Ambadi seeds contain 1822% of oil (Indian Standards 1979).

Table 1 Properties of Ambadi oil and its methyl ester Property Biodiesel standards (ASTM D6751) 1.96.0 0.870.89 100170 \110 Diesel Ambadi oil Ambadi methyl ester (AME) \0.715 5.23 0.8575 39.141 124 104.06

% FFA Viscosity (cSt) at 44C Specic gravity (g/cc) Caloric value (MJ/Kg) Flash point (C) Iodine value

3.2 0.83 44 67

2.15 22.29 0.902 39.587 164 114.12

Keeping the present energy scenario in mind, Ambadi seed oil can be used for production of biodiesel. This will also help in getting better value of seeds besides getting ber from the plant. The by product of oil extraction is an added advantage in the form of protein rich oil cake.

Materials and methods The vegetable oil extracted from fresh Ambadi seeds was sourced from local oil mill and was tested for basic oil properties, which are of importance from the biodiesel point of view. The specic gravity (density) of the oil was measured using standard RD bottles, viscosity was measured using Redwood Viscometer (No. 1) and the ash point was determined using Pensky-Marten closed cup ash point apparatus as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) test methods. Iodine value and free fatty acids (FFA%) were estimated using titration methods with Wijs solution and 0.1% NaOH lye, respectively. For estimation of the heating value (caloric value), adiabatic bomb calorimeter was used as per BIS test method. Same procedure was adopted for estimation of properties of biodiesel made from this oil. The experimental properties of Ambadi oil and its methyl ester are given in Table 1. Transesterication of Ambadi seed oil The oil was transesteried using methanol with KOH as catalyst by standard procedure (Randall 1999). A solution was prepared by dissolving 10 g of KOH in 200 ml of methanol. This mixture was then added to 1 l of oil heated to 55C and was stirred for about half an hour. The reactants were then transferred to separating ask and left undisturbed for 24 h. The contents were separated into two distinct layers: lower one of glycerol and top layer of ester. After removal of glycerol, the ester was water washed thrice to remove traces of alcohol and catalyst and nally

Fig. 1 Ambadi seeds

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Evaluation of performance and emissions of Hibiscus cannabinus Table 2 Properties of Ambadi biodiesel and diesel fuel blends Blend B0 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B75 B100 Density (kg/m ) 830.41 835.79 841.18 846.56 851.95 857.33 870.79 884.25
3

Table 3 Engine specication Parameter Make Model Details Bore and stroke Cubic capacity Compression ratio Rated power Injector opening pressure Peak pressure Injection timing Value Kirloskar TV1 Single cylinder, four stroke, water cooled, direct injection 87.5 mm 9 110 mm 0.661 l 17.5:1 3.5 kW at 1,500 rpm 210 bar 77.5 bar 23 BTDC (before top dead centre)

Caloric value (MJ/kg) 45.07 44.48 43.88 43.29 42.70 42.11 40.62 39.14

connected to eddy current type dynamometer for loading (Fig. 2). This type of engines is mainly used for stationary applications in agriculture sector in many asian and middle eastern countries. The setup is provided with necessary instruments for online measurement of cylinder pressure, injection pressure and crank-angle. Provision is also made for online measurement of airow, fuel ow, temperature of exhaust, cooling water and calorimeter water inlets and outlets and load measurement. These signals are interfaced to computer for on line performance evaluation. The specications of the engine used for study are given in Table 3.
Fig. 2 Test engine setup

Experimental procedure The experiment was conducted on the aforesaid test rig. For performance test, initially the engine was run on no load condition and its speed was adjusted to 1,500 10 rpm. The engine was then tested at no load, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125% loads. For varying the loads, eddy current dynamometer was used, for which, with the given arm length, 12 kg is full load at rated power of 3.5 kW and rated speed of 1,500 rpm. The engine at the above-mentioned loads was tested with all of the fuel blends. For each load condition, the engine was run for at least 3 min after which data were collected. The experiment was replicated three times.

heated to 110C for drying. The clear Ambadi methyl ester (AME) was cooled and stored in air tight container for further use. Preparation of blends For the evaluation of biodiesel as a compression ignition (CI) engine fuel, various blends of Ambadi biodiesel (ABD) and mineral diesel (D) were prepared by mixing different amount of biodiesel and diesel, and the properties of blends are given in Table 2. The blends were designated by the alphabetic letter B. For example, B20 indicates that it contains 20% of biodiesel and remaining 80% is diesel. For nding the optimum ratio, the blends B10, B20, B30, B40, B50, B75 were prepared and tried along with B0 and B100. Experimental set-up The study was carried out in the laboratory on a 3.5 kWsingle cylinder, water cooled, four-stroke diesel engine

Results and discussion Physical properties of Ambadi oil are quite similar to that of jatropha and karanj, so it poses a strong possibility to be used as biodiesel. The properties of biodiesel prepared from Ambadi oil are well within the range specied by ASTM/BIS standards. Its caloric value is 11% lower than that of diesel, whereas the specic gravity is higher by

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S. Jindal, K. Goyal Fig. 3 Effect of blend and load on brake thermal efciency

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

40 35 30

B0 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B75

0.40 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00

BTHE (%)

25 20 15 10 5 0

B100

LOAD (%)
Fig. 4 Effect of blend and load on brake-specic fuel consumption

BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

0.80

BSFC (Kg/KW-h)

0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00

B0 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B75 B100

LOAD (%)

3.3%. Thus the net energy content per unit volume (MJ/m3) of AME is only 8% lower than that of diesel. The viscosity of Ambadi oil is reduced from 22.59 to 5.23 cSt by methanolysis and is within the acceptable range. Brake thermal efciency The variation of brake thermal efciency (BTHE) with respect to load for different blends of ABD considered for the present analysis is presented in Fig. 3. In all cases, brake thermal efciency increases with increase in applied load. This is due to the increase in power developed with increase in load associated with less increase in energy input. The maximum brake thermal efciency obtained is about 26% for B20, which is 8% higher than that of diesel (24%) for load of 75%. On mixing biodiesel in diesel oil, the thermal efciency of the engine improves as biodiesel provides better lubricity to the fuel resulting in lower loss of power in fuel pump. Also the extra oxygen available with ester molecules helps in better combustion. But, larger concentration of biodiesel (above B20) in the blend tend to reduce the thermal efciency due to the reduction in net caloric value of the mixture leading to increase in fuel consumption as compared to B20. Ramadhas et al. 2005b

and Puhan et al. 2005 also found similar results while working with rubber seed oil and mahua oils, respectively. Specic fuel consumption The variation of brake-specic fuel consumption (BSFC) with load for different blends of fuels is presented in Fig. 4. BSFC found to decrease with increase in the load for all fuels blends tested. With increase in load, the brake power increases to rated value for the engine leading to better utilization of injected fuel. The increase in brake power is more as compared to the increase in fuel consumption resulting in lower BSFC. Using lower percentage of biodiesel in biodieseldiesel blends (up to B20), the BSFC of the engine is lower than that of diesel for all loads. In case of B30 to B100, the BSFC is found to be higher than that of diesel. It was observed that a larger amount of biodiesel is supplied to the engine compared to that of standard diesel. Fuel pump of the engine delivers fuel on volumetric basis. As the density of biodiesel is higher than diesel, the plunger in the fuel injection pump discharges more fuel (on mass basis) compared to that of diesel. Also, with increase in biodiesel percentage in the blends, the caloric value of fuel decreases. With lower caloric value, more

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Evaluation of performance and emissions of Hibiscus cannabinus Fig. 5 Effect of blend and load on brake-specic energy consumption

volume of fuel is pumped for the required power resulting in still higher mass of fuel. Therefore, BSFC for B30 to B100 is higher than diesel. At maximum load condition, the specic fuel consumption of pure biodiesel is 12% more than that of diesel. It may be noted that the caloric value of biodiesel is 11% lower than that of diesel. Brake-specic energy consumption Similarly, the brake-specic energy consumption (BSEC) also decreases with increase in load (Fig. 5). As we consider the net energy consumed in place of volumetric fuel consumption, it is observed that the specic energy consumption is almost same for all blends as well as for diesel fuel, except for B20, for which slightly lower specic energy consumption is observed up to 75% load. This is also reected in slightly higher thermal efciency with B20 for part loads. Combustion history From Fig. 6, the cylinder pressure history and heat release pattern can be seen for full load conditions with B0, B10, B20, B30, and B40 blends. The smoothened curves of cylinder pressure, with biodiesel blended fuel, indicate better running of the engine with higher mean pressure inside cylinder. It is observed that the ignition delay is reduced (*2) with advancement of combustion leading to earlier peak (nearer to top dead centre). The net heat release rate (NHRR) also shows earlier heat release with good amount of heat release in after-burn zone leading to smoother and higher mean pressure. It can be seen that B10 and B20 are having good combustion characteristics and helps in improving the performance of the engine. Emissions The variation of exhaust emissions of un-burnt hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and smoke opacity
Fig. 6 Cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise, and net heat release rate at full load

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Conclusion In the quest for searching more and more alternatives for fossil fuel, various vegetable and plant oils have been tried world over. These are found to be good except for some properties, for which transesterication is considered as best strategy. For sustainability of these alternatives, one has to consider the biodiversity factors and hence, it is recommended that oils of local origin should get priority over imported varieties. Hibiscus cannabinus (Ambadi) is one of such variety and its oil is found to be a good feed stock for making biodiesel. The AME is found to have all properties within acceptable range as recommended by various national standards. It posses 8% lesser energy per unit volume, but a blend of 20% with diesel (B20) is found to deliver higher (8%) thermal efciency when compared with diesel. The combustion of blended fuel is comparatively better leading to smoother engine operation. The emission advantage can also be harnessed by using lower blends of this biodiesel. With the use of 20% AME in diesel, the unburnt hydrocarbons and smoke reduces to a great extent.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the sponsorship of the research project provided by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.

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Fig. 7 Emissions of HC, NOx, and smoke with different blends

are shown in Fig. 7. It is observed that diesel fuel emits highest HC and higher smoke for all loads. As the blend ratio increases from B0 to B100, the un-burnt hydrocarbons decrease in exhaust. This is due to better combustion in after-burn zone, as evident from the pressure and heat curves. B20 blend emits much lesser HC when compared with diesel fuel. The smoke opacity is remarkably lower for all loads and blends. The lowest smoke opacity (around 20%) is observed for B100 at 75% load. The emission of NOx increases, for all blends, with load up to 75% after which it decreases. The engine emits highest amounts of NOx with diesel up to 75% load, after which biodiesel blends are emitting more NOx. With B20 blend, NOx emissions are almost same as that with diesel.

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