Seminar on

FELTTING OF CASTING, INSPECTIONS & CASTING DEFECTS

Submitted In partial fulfillment of Bachelor of Engineering Technology Degree of the Jodhpur National University, jodhpur.

Guide By: Mr. Pawan Gupta

Submitted By: Patel Chintan

Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering & technology Jodhpur National University Jodhpur(Raj.) 2011-12

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, JODHPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, BORANADA. JODHPUR (RAJ.): 342001

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report summited by Mr. PATEL CHINTAN s/o DEVENDRABHAI (roll no:- 08ET405036) towards the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering (Fourth year) of Jodhpur National University is record of work of carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. The work submitted has in my opinion reached a level required for being accepted for examination.

APPROVED BY:

GUIDED BY:

HOD of Mechanical Prof. S.N.Garg

Mr. Pawan Gupta

Acknowledgement
Apart from the efforts of me, the success of any seminar depends largely on the encouragement and guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this seminar. I would like to show my greatest appreciation to Shri. Pawan Gupta(Asst.prof) I cant say thank you enough for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and encouraged every time I attend his meeting. Without his encouragement and guidance this seminar would not have materialized. The guidance and support received from all the members who contributed and who are contributing to this seminar, was vital for the success of the seminar. I am grateful for their constant support and help.

PATEL CHINTAN B.Tech 4th Year Mechanical Engineering JNU. Jodhpur Date :Place :- Jodhpur

TABLE
TITAL 1.FETTLING & CLEANING OF CASTING 1.1 SHAKING OF MOULD 1.2 CLEANING OF CASTING 1.2.1 KNOCKING OF DRY SAND CORES 1.2.2 REMOVEAL OF GATES & RISERS 1.2.3 REMOVEAL OF FINS & UNWANTED PROJECTIONS 1.2.4 CLEANING & SMOOTHEN CASTING 1.2.5 REPAIRING THE CASTING 2.CASTING DEFECT 2.1 INTRODUCTIONS 2.2SHRINKAGE DEFECT 2.3 GAS POROSITY 2.4 COLD SHOT DEFECT 2.5 HOT TEARING DEFECT 2.6 MISRUNS DEFECT 2.7 METAL PENETRATIONS 3.INSPECTIONS OF CASTING 3.1 VISUAL SURFACE 3.2 DIMENSIONAL INSPECTIONS 3.3 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 3.4 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 4. CONCLUSION 5. REFERENCE PAGE NO 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 5 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 18 26 30 31

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NAME 1.1 METAL ARC WELDING 1.2 TIG PROCESS 1.3 MIG PROCESS 1.4 SUBMERAGE ARC WELDING 1.5 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING 1.6 TERMIT WELDING 1.7 BRAZE WELDING 1.8 METAL SPRAYING 2.1 SHRINKAGE DEFECT 2.2 GAS POROSITY 2.3 COLD SHUT DEFECT 2.4 HOT TEARING 2.5 MISRUNS 2.6 METAL PENETRATIONS 3.1 VISUAL SURFACE 3.2 RADIOGRAPHY 3.3 MAGNETIC PATICAL INSPECTIONS 3.4 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING 3.5 ULTRASONIC TESTING 3.6 TENSILE TESTING PAGE NO 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 11 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 19 21 23 24 27

INTRODUCTION
1.0: Abstract
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape,and then allowed to solidify, this solidify part is known as Casting.Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Metal casting involves pouring molten metal into a mould containing a cavity of the desired shape to produce a metal product. The casting is then removed from the mould and excess metal is removed, often using shot blasting, grinding or welding processes. The product may then undergo a range of processes such as heat treatment, polishing and surface coating or finishing. The different techniques have been designed to overcome specific casting problems or to optimize the process for specific metals, product designs and scales or other operational considerations such as automation. All casing processes use a mould, either permanent or temporary, which is a negative of the desired shape. Once the metal is poured and has solidified it forms the positive shape of the desired product. Processes differ in the number of stages that are required to produce the final casting. The process uses a permanent mould negative to produce the final casting positive. Processes, such as sand mouldingand shell casting, use a temporary mould negative which is typically produced using a permanent pattern or die positive. Investment casting and lost foam casting techniques use a temporary mould negative that is build around a temporary pattern positive. For repetitive work, patterns are often produced using a permanent mould or die negative.

1.FETTLING AND CLEANING OF CASTINGS[BOOK 1]

1.1 Shaking of Moulds[BOOK 1] After the metal has solidified and cooled in the sand mould, the casting is knocked out by breaking the mould. It is essential to ensure that the castings are removed from the mouldas early as possible for economic reasons. Premature withdrawal may, however, give rise to distortion, cracks and a chilling effect and cause rejections. It is, therefore, advisable to establish temperatures at which castings of each type, alloy composition or complexity are to be withdrawn from mould sand sent for shake out. Suggested temperatures at which steel castings can be withdrawn from moulds are shown below: (i) Simple castings of uncritical nature and uniform sections: 900C. (ii) (iii) (iv) Parts within even wall thickness; cast with chills: 600C. Castings with critical shapes, prone to warping or cold cracking; subjected to variable impact loads: 300C. Thin-walled casting shaving abrupt changes in sections: 100C.

The moulds may either be broken manually on the pouring floor itself or transferred to a separate shakeout station. In the latter case the mould is dumped on the shakeout where it is rapidly jarred so that the sand falls through a grate or screen either into a pit or on a belt conveyor arranged below the floor. The casting and moulding boxes remain on the grate and are removed from there. Shaking maybe done either manually or mechanically, but generally. mechanical shake-outs are used for large-scale work. In the manual type, a stationary grating is mounted and the moulds break when dropped over the grating. The mechanical units consist of a perforated plate or heavy mesh screen fixed to a vibrating frame. The screen is vibrated mechanically, producing a jarring action and causing quick separation of sand from other parts. 1.2 Cleaning Of Castings [BOOK 1] After the casting is extracted from the mould, it is no longer fit for use as such, as it has sprue, risers, etc. attached toit. Besides, It is not completely free of sand particles. This operation of cutting off the unwanted parts, and cleaning and finishing the casting is known as fettling. The fettling operation may be divined dinto different stages: (1) knocking out of dry sand cores; (2) removal of gates and risers; (3) Extraction of fins and unwanted projections at places where the gates and risers have been removed and also elsewhere; (4) cleaning and smoothening the surface; and 1

(5) repairing castings to fill up blowholes, straightening the warped or defomied Casting. 1.1.1 Knocking Out of Dry Sand Cores[BOOK 1] Dry and cores may be removed by rapping or knocking with an iron bar. For quick knocking. pneumatic or hydraulic devices may be employed. These devices, besides knocking the cores, also help in cleaning and smoothening die casting. 1.1.2 Removal of Gates and Risers [BOOK 1] The choice of method for removing gates and risers from the castings depends upon the size and the shape of the casting and the type of the metal. The options for such work are: (i) knocking off or breaking with a hammer. Which is particularly suited in case of grey iron castings and other brittle metals. (ii) sawing with a metal cutting saw. Which may be a band saw circular saw. or a power hacksaw (a metal band saw of the "do-all type is considered suitable for steel, malleable iron, and nonferrous castings); (iii)flame cutting with oxyacetylene gas is generally adopted for ferrous metals, specially for large-sized castings where the risers and the gates are very heavy; (iv)using a sprue cutter for shearing of the gates; (v) employing abrasive cut-off machines, which can work with all metals but are specially designed for hard metals. Which are difficult to saw or shear. (vi)Plasma arc cutting is now being increasingly used to cut sprue sand risers of plate-shaped castings with a view to eliminate the manual operation of burning off and to make the work fast, clean and accurate, by using a programmable robot for holding and manipulating the castings. 1.1.3 Removal of Fins and Unwanted Projections[BOOK 1] The operation of removing unwanted metal fins, projections, etc. from the surface of the casting is called snagging. While snagging, care must be exercised to see that a proper casting contour is followed and too much metal is not removed. 'The methods for snagging include: (i) using grinders of pedestal, bench, flexible shaft, or swing-frame type; (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) chipping with hand or pneumatic tools; gouging and flame-cutting; removing metal by arc-air equipment; and filing.

1.1.4 Cleaning and Smoothening Castings[BOOK 1] In as-cast state, castings often have sand particles adhering to their surface in a fused form. When the castings are heat treated, a scale is also formed on the surface. In order that the casting surface be clean and smooth, the adhering sand particles and the scale have to be removed. The various methods available for this purpose are now described briefly. 1.Tumbling[BOOK 1] The castings to be cleaned are put in a large steel shell or barrel. which is closed at its ends by cast iron lids. The barrel is supported on horizontal trunnions and is rotated at a speed varying from 25-50 rpm. Along with the castings, small pieces of white iron called "stars" are also charged to help complete the cleaning and polishing operations. When the barrel is rotated, it causes the castings to tumble over and over again, rubbing against each other. Thus, by continuous peening action, not only do the castings get cleaned and polished but also the sharp edges and fins get eliminated and the internal stresses in the castings arc relieved. When the band is charged, care should be taken to ensure that the castings are packed tight enough to prevent any breakage. At the same time these should not be so tight as to prevent the relative motion of the adjacent pieces. The capacities of tumbling barrels may vary from 1-12 cum. The limitation of this process is that heavy castings cannot be charged with small ones of fragile nature. Generally, small sized castings. which are not fragile in nature, are best suited for tumbling. 2.Tumbling with Hydroblast [BOOK 1] In this method, the barrel is not horizontal but is arranged obliquely at an angle of about 30. One end of the barrel, which is at a higher level than the other, may be kept open to enable observation of the cleaning process. When the castings are tumbled., a high velocity stream of water and sand is blasted on the castings at a velocity of about 6000 metres per minute. This action results in more efficient cleaning and polishing, and the tumbling time is also considerably reduced. The method is better adapted to nonferrous castings since ferrous ones tend to get corroded due to water treatment. The base of the barrel is perforated to facilitate removal of the sand-and-water mixture. For large castings, hydroblasting chambers are used. The castings are placed on a slowly rotating table and a high velocity stream is emitted from an adjustable nozzle. 3.Cleaning with Compressed Air Impact (Sand Blasting)[BOOK 1] A high velocity stream of compressed air along with abrasive panicles is directed by means of a blast gun against the casting surface. The blast gun is designed to convey air at high velocity into a mixing chamber. The abrasive is fed into this chamber through a side tube by suction feed, gravity feed, or direct pressure.

3 Generally, in the ease of small guns, the abrasive is drawn in the mixing chamber due to vacuum created by the passage of high velocity air. The abrasive used is either sand or steel grit, From the mixing chamber. airborne sand particles are directed towards the casting. Figure shows a compete sand blasting arrangement which has a manually operated blast pipe. The blasting operation is generally carried out in special cabinets or rooms where the operator directs the blast against the castings to be cleaned. The discharged sand drops through a perforated floor from where it is conveyed to the moulding hop for re use. The small sized castings are cleaned in cabinets equipped with windows through which the operator can manipulate the gun and direct the blast. While working, the operator must be thoroughly protected against harmful dust He should wear large Faber gloves, protective clothing on the body, and an air pressurised helmet. Unlike tumbling, the sand blasting method can be adopted for both fragile and large-sized castings. The method is also more efficient and ensures good polish. 4.Cleaning with Mechanical Impact (Shot Blasting) [BOOK 1] Instead of using air pressure for hurling the abrasive grit towards the casting, centrifugal force may be exerted by means of an impeller wheel. The abrasive applied in this case is steel shots. As die shots move from the hub of the impeller towards the periphery, their velocity gets accelerated and they finally leave the impeller at a very high velocity hitting the casting surface with enormous impact. Large cleaning units may be equipped with one or more blasting impellers strategically positioned at different places all around the casting. The casting may also be mounted on a rotating table. In sonic units, the castings am tumbled and at the same time the abrasive is hurled towards them. In a monorail type shot blast, the castings are carried by a power conveyer into machine from one side and taken out from the otherside. 5. Arc-air Process[BOOK 1] This method involves arc heating of the casting surface and blowing off the melted metal with compressed air. The projections or surface imperfections are heated by the arc so that they reach the molten state when the air simultaneously blows them away, leaving behind a clean and smooth surface. The process is used on large castings in steel foundries. The equipment is portable and comprises a gun which is equipped for producing the arc and blowing the air. 6.Pickling[BOOK 1] It essentially involves cleaning of casting surface by dilute acid treatment. The castings are suspended by means of nickel-plated steel or monel metal hooks, into a pickling tank containing equal part of hydrofluoric acid and sulphuric acid, or only

4 sulphuric acid for about four hours. The tank is made of mild steel plates but is lined with lead sheets on the inner walls. The castings are then washed with plain water in a washing tank and they arc further immersed in a neutralising tank, containing 10% solution of washing soda, preferably maintained at about 75 c .The castings are once again rinsed in plain water and dried. The pickling treatment is a cheap and yet effective method of dislodging sand. scales or tentacles of metal and producing clean and bright surface on iron and steel castings. 1.1.5Repairing the Castings[BOOK 1] Defects such as blowholes, gas holes, cracks, etc. may often occur in castings. Sometimes the castings get broken, bent, or deformed during shake-out or because of rough handling. Often the castings gets warped during heat treatment or while they cool down in the mould- Such defective castings cannot be rejected outright for reasons of economy. They are therefore repairs by suitable means arid put to use unless the defects ire such that they cannot be remedied. The common methods of repair are now dealt with. 1.Metal Arc Welding [BOOK 1] Large-sized cracks, blowholes. and other imperfections can be rectified by metal are welding. The area to be welded must first be cleaned by chipping, filing, gouging. or grinding, then the joint must be accurately prepared and, if necessary, widened before welding is commenced. Metals that can be welded by this method include almost all cast metals, except magnesium. A proper selection of welding electrode is vital. A.C. metal arc welding is most often selected for welding steel castings. The electrodes used should preferably be coated so that a dense and strong joint is produced. D.C. arc welding is preferred for welding cast irons and nonferrous metals as the polarity can be changed and more heat can he obtained on either the electrode or the workpiece. as desired. D.C. welding can thus give the lower electrode consumption, higher metal deposition rates and smoother welds. It is also less dangerous, lie arc voltage used bieing lower than in the case of AC. welding.

FIG 1.1 METAL ARC WELDING[REF 9] 2.Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding [BOOK 1] This method, which is the least expensive and easily portable.is suitable where the sections to be melded are not too heavy and where slower cooling rates arc required. for instance, to prevent hardenable steels from getting hardened. Gas welding can easily allow the use of a broad flame, which can pre-heat the area ahead of the section being welded.

This is not possible in are welding. The flame temperature is also lower than that of the arc. so cooling rates are slow. The flame can be adjusted so as to make it oxidising, reducing. or neutral. An oxidising flame is used for welding brasses and bronzes, reducing flame for high carbon and alloy steels, nickel alloys, and other hard-facing materials, and a neutral flame for low carbon steels. By using the proper technique, almost all cast metals and alloys, except magnesium. can be gas welded. Liquefied petroleum gas (L.P.G.) or natural gas is also used in place of acetylene where a broad flame is desired. 3.Inert Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Process)[BOOK 1] This process uses a non-consumable type of tungsten electrode together with a shield of Men gas. such as helium and argon for protection of the welding zone. It is most suitable for metals that tend to gel quickly oxidised, for instance. magnesium and inagnesium alloys. It is also widely used for welding thin aluminium castings as also for stainless sleek and alloys of copper and nickel.

FIG 2.2 TIG PROCESS[REF 9] 4.Inert Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG Welding) [BOOK 1] The electrode is made of metal similar to the work metal and is of the consumable type. The method is very fast as electrode wire is automatically fed and inert gas protects the metal from oxidation. The gases used are argon. nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. The method is suitable for the repair and joining of large-sized steel castings and is economical where high speed of operation is required.

FIG 1.3 MIG PROCESS[REF 9] 5. Submerged Arc Welding[BOOK 1] In this case, the entire welding action takes place beneath a granular mineral material which acts as flux (Fig. 8.4). The electrode used is in bare form. The flow of current melts the flux, spreading it over the weld zone and keeping the arc and weld metal submerged. The metal is has completely protected from oxidation; besides, there is no visible arc, sparks, spatter, or smoke. This enables use of heavy welding currents, high welding speeds, deeper penetration, and superior quality of welds. The method is unsuitable for repair work as it is basically a production process. but it is adopted for building up large pressure vessels or structures by welding together smaller steel castings. FIG 1.4 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING[REF 9]

6.Atomic Hydrogen Welding [BOOK 1] A continuous stream of hydrogen is passed through the arc produced between two tungsten electrodes. Due to the heat of the am, the gas dissociates from molecular to atomic form. When the atoms of hydrogen strike the cooler work surface, they again re-unite and emit an enormous amount of heat, thus melting the base metals that need to be jointed. The heat input thus available is very high; hydrogen also acts as ashield the action of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. Filler metal is fed separately from a wire. This process is ideal for the repair welding of metal moulds and dies made of alloy steels and is used for welding of thin casting in stainless steel, aluminium alloy etc. It produes a very homogenous and smooth joint with strength that equals that in the parent metal.

FIG 1.5 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING[REF 9] 7.Thermit welding[BOOK 1] The high temperature required for melting metal to fill up the joint is attained by employing an exothermic reaction. The method is more like a casting process. It entails igniting in a crucible mixture of iron oxide and finely divided aluminium in the ratio 3:1 and a special powder is used to ignite the mixture. Due to the heat of ignition the mixture explodes at a temperature of about 1540c, and pure iron with aluminium oxide as slag is produced: 8AL+ 3FE3O4 = 9FE + 4AL2O3

FIG 1.6 TERMIT WELDING[REF 9] The joint crack or cavity to be filled is arranged in a sand mould with a proper gating and feeding system and the metal from the thermit crubical is poured into the mould. Pure metal occupices the space between the pieces to be jointed and slag floats at the top. To enable preparations of the gating system, also in wax, is attached. The whole assembly is embedded in moulding sand and the mould inverted and heated to cause the wax and flow out, leaving the cavity around the metal parts to be jointed as shown in fig.

Thermit welding is employed for repairing large and heavy steel casting such as steel mill rolls, ship stern frames, and gears . It is also used for the fabrication of heavy units by joining relatively simple casting. The process is simpler, less time consuming and cheaper then other methods and produces good strength and better quality. Also, no stress relief is necessary as the cooling is very slow and the operations it self relieves the stresses. 8. Flow welding[BOOK 1] This entails melting the metal, in the same way as for casting purposes, then continuously pouring the molten metal directly into the crack or cavity to be filled, till the surrounding area also starts melting. This method is not much favoured now as easier and quicker methods of welding are available. 9. Braze welding[BOOK 1] This process is applied for such parts that tend to get distorted or cracked when welded by other means. A lower heat is required as the base metal is not actually melted and the bond is obtained only by diffusion. A nonferrous copper base or silver base alloy which melts at a temperature above 430c is employed as filler metal. It is method may be used to make casting watertight and to repair pipe sand pipe fittings fine cracks, crevices , porosity etc.

FIG 1.7 BRAZE WELDING[REF 9] 10.Slodering[BOOK 1] This is similar to brazing, the difference being in the filler metal; a tin lead alloy which at a much lower temperature(below 430c) is preferred for soldering. The process serves to fill up surface imperfections when high strength is not required and porous areas in copper base alloy casting are to be made pressure tight.

9 11. EPOXY FILLER[BOOK 1] Certain epoxy plastic filler can be used to fill up pinholes, blowholes, crack, etc. and to impart enough strength to the casting. For good mechanical properties, filler are also duly charged with metal powders to suit different cast metal. These fillers are of two types ,viz. general purpose and fastcuring. The latter takes hardly two hours to harden whereas the former takes longer. Smooth on cement , which is a pasty mixture of iron filings in hardening agent, is also widely used to repair iron casting. 12. STAIGHTENING[BOOK 1] Deformed or warped casting can be straightened in a press by applying pressure. This operations is possible only in the case of ductile material ,such as steel, aluminium ,copper, and bronze. Generally , a hydraulic press along with formed dies. Small casting can be straightened by hammering manually. Both cold and hot pressing are used according to size and material of casting. 13. Metal Spraying [BOOK 1] When the casting becomes undersized. it can be built up by providing a coat of metal in die desired thickness by a metal spraying process. This isa simple and relatively inexpensive way of forming a layer of metal on the cast surface. The sprayed metal may be e her the same as the base metal or a dissimilar one. The deposited metal is taken in wire form. The spray gun uses oxygen and acetylene to melt the wire and compressed air to atomise the molten metal in the form of spray. All types of metals and alloys can be sprayed. The bond obtained is of the mechanical type with negligible diffusion. The joint between the parent metal and the sprayed metal is not as strong as that obtained by welding or brazing. This technique is also used for providing an anticorrosive metal layer on iron and steel castings. Figure explains the principle of metal spraying and Fig. shows the set-up required for the process.

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FIG 1.8 METAL SPRAYING[REF 9]

2 CASTING DEFECTS [REF 8]

2.1 Introduction: A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting process that is undesired. Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired otherwise they must be eliminated or by changing the casting process. The defects 17ccurring in casting process mainly are as below, Shrinkage defect Gas porosity Hot tearing defect Misruns defects Metal penetrations defect 2.2Shrinkage defects [REF 8] Shrinkage defects occur when feed metal is not available to compensate for shrinkage as the metal solidifies. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different types: open shrinkage defects and closed shrinkage defects. Open shrinkage defects are open to the atmosphere, therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms air compensates. There are two types of open air defects: pipes and caved surfaces. Pipes form at the surface of the casting and burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form across the surface of the casting.Closed shrinkage defects, also known as shrinkage porosity, are defects that form within the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called hot spots. The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are broken up into macro porosity and microporosity (or micro shrinkage), where macro porosity can be seen by the naked eye and micro porosity cannot.

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FIG 2.1 SHRINKAGE POROSITY[REF 9] 2.3 Gas porosity [REF 8] Gas porosity is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled. This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools. Gas porosity may present itself on the surface of the casting as porosity or the pore may be trapped inside the metal, which reduces strength in that vicinity. Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are the most encountered gases in cases of gas porosity .In aluminum castings, hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can result in hydrogen gas porosity. For casting that is a few kilograms in weight the pores are usually 0.01 to 0.5 mm (0.00039 to 0.020 in) in size. In larger casting they can be up to a millimeter (0.040 in) in diameter. Gas porosity can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from micro shrinkage because micro shrinkage cavities can contain gases as well. In general, micro porosities will form if the casting is not properly risered or if a material with a wide solidification range is cast. If neither of these are the case then most likely the porosity is due to gas formation To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of low-solubility gases, such as argon or carbon dioxide, or under a flux that prevents contact with the air. To minimize gas solubility the superheat temperatures can be kept low. Turbulence from pouring the liquid metal into the mold can introduce gases, so the molds are often streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include vacuum degassing, gas flushing, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with another element to form a compound that will form a dross that floats to the top. For instance, oxygen can be removed from copper by adding phosphorus, or aluminum or silicon can be added to steel to remove oxygen. A third source consists of reactions of the molten metal with grease or other residues in the mold.

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FIG 1.2 GAS POROSITY[REF 9] 2.4 COLD SHOT DEFECT[BOOK 3] These are external defects caused by two streams of metals that are too cold to fuse properly; these can occur due to slow pouring ; poor design and small gate; and can be controlled by the use of hotter metal using streamlined splines to give smoother flow. In this defect small shot like spheres of metal are almost distinct from casting.

FIGURE 1.3 COLD SHUT[REF 9] 2.5 Hot tearing[Book 3 ] There are the crack having ragged edags due to tensile stress during solidification. It is due to the discontinuity in the metal casting resulting from hindered contraction,occurring just after the metal has solidfied. It is caused by excessive mould hardness of ramming, high dry and hot strength , improper metallurgical and pouring temperature control , provision of insufficient fillets or brackets at the junctions of sections.

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Figure 1.4 Hot tearing[REF 9] 2.6 Misruns[BOOK 3] Misruns may be present in the from of improperly filled corners and mould cavities. There occur because of low pouring temperature, lack of fluidity of the metal too small gates, too many resterictions in gating system etc. Another defect called the cold shot occur when two cold streams of molten metal meet at the junctions of a mould cavity and do not fuse together and thus the mould is not properly filled with metal.

Figure 1.5 MISRUNS[REF 9]

2.7 Metal penetrations[BOOK 3] It is refer to the conditions of penetrations of metal in the interstices of the sand grains. It causes a fused aggregate of metal and sand on the surface of casting which results in rough surface finish. It is caused by soft ramming , too coarse mould and core sand , and excessive metal penetrations.

Figure 1.6 metal penetrations[REF 9]

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3. INSPECTIONS OF CASTING[REF 1]
Inspections of casting aims at finding both surface and subsurface defects in the casting. Inspections will ascertain the quality of the casting and result in their acceptance or rejections. Inspections procedures and tests may be classed as follows. 1) Visual surface inspections for foundry defects 2) Dimensional Inspections 3) Non Destructive type 4) Destructive type

3.1 Visual surface:[REF 1] Visual inspection refers to an NDT method which uses eyes, either aided or nonaided todetect, locate and assess discontinuities or defects that appear on the surface of material undertest (Fig).If is considered as the oldest and cheapest NDT method. It is also considered as one of the most important NDT method and applicable at all stages of construction or manufacturing sequence. In inspection of any engineering component,

if visual inspectional on is found to be sufficient to reveal the required information necessary for decision making, then other NDT methods may no longer considered necessary. FIG 3.1 VISUAL SURFACE[REF 1] Visual inspection is normally performed by using naked eyes. Its effectiveness may be improved with the aid of special tools. Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors. In both cases, inspections are limited only to areas that can be directly seen by the eyes. However, with the availability of more sophisticated equipment known as borescope, visual inspection can be extended to cover remote areas that under normal circumstances cannot be reached by naked eyes. Defects such as corrosion in boiler tube, which cannot be seen with naked eyes can easily be detected and recorded by using such equipment.

15 Although considered as the simplest method of NDT, such an inspection must be carried out by personnel with an adequate vision. Knowledge and experience related to components are also necessary to allow him to make correct assessment regarding the status of the components.

Advantages: Cheapest NDT method Applicable at all stages of construction or manufacturing Do not require extensive training Capable of giving instantaneous results

Limitation: Limited to only surface inspection Require good lighting Require good eyesight 3.2Dimensional Inspections [REF 2] Dimensional control is usually required for all types of castings. Sometimes it is not so critical but at other times it may be vital. When precision castings are produced by processes such as investment casting, shell moulding and die casting, dimensions Trod to be closely checked. Initially, when the castings are made from a new pattern, a few sample castings are first made which are carefully checked with the drawings to ensure that the sizes obtained conform to those specified and will be maintained within the prescribed tolerances in the lot under production. On testing of the sample lot, deviations from the blueprint are rectified on the pattern equipment. When the castings are found to be consistently within the tolerances, spot checks, together with a regular check of the patterns and dies being used, may be sufficient. In the case of the jobbing type of foundry, each casting produced may be different and, therefore, according to the customer's requirements, each one may have to be thoroughly inspected for dimensional variations. Dimensional inspection of castings may be conducted by various methods: 3.2.1 Standard Measuring Instruments to Check the Sizes[REF 2] Instruments such as rule, vernier callipers,vernier height gauge, vernier depth gauge, micrometers, scribing block, combination set, straight edge, squares. spirit level, and dial indicator are commonly used. For high precision castings or after machining, more advanced measuring instruments, such as auto-collimator, comparator, ultrasonic instruments tor measuring wall thickness and projection instruments are also required.

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3.2.2 Templates and Contour Gauges for the Checking of Profiles, Curves, and Intricate Shapes [REF 2] Templates act as time-saving aid in measurement and facilitate the entire job. These can be easily prepared in mild steel or brass sheet by marking out, and cutting and finishing the profile that is required to be checked on the castings. 3.2.3 Limit Gauges [REF 5] For toleranced dimensions on casting produced on a repetitive basis, limit gauges are usually. The type of limit gaugesthe plug, ring, snap, plate, etc.depends on the shape of the parameter to be checked. Periodical checking and maintenance of limit gauges is very important 3.2.4 Special Fixtures [REF 3]

Special fixtures are required to be designed and used where dimensions cannot be conveniently checked by using instruments, for instance, during the checking of locations, relative dimensions, centre-to-centre distance, angularity of surfaces, and so on. 3.2.5Coordinate Measuring and Marking Machine (CMM) [REF 5] This machine is very useful for measurement and inspection of uneven, undulated, irregular, or curved surfaces which cannot be conveniently or accurately checked by other measuring tools or instruments. The accuracy of measurement of these machine ranges from 0.01 mm to 0.05 mm. Besides measuring, it can be used for marking purposes also in all three dimensions on metallic or nonmetallic surfaces. Measurement and marking are accomplished easily without errors in reading in all three dimensions. Once the machine is set, all measurements can be carried out in a programmed sequence automatically. The machine in reality is a multiaxial device providing measurement of output of position and displacement sequentially without a need for changing tools. The machine essentially consists of a touch probe, usually having a ruby tip, which is mounted on a horizontally sliding arm, movable vertically along a column. The column, is fixed to a base which in turn is held on a large accurately machined granite surface plate and is movable in a direction perpendicular to the direction of be movement of arm. Thus, the probe is capable of being moved along all three u for carrying out measurement of different surfaces of a workpiece. The sliding movements of arm and column are performed with great precision and are read on m electronic digital read out unit, attached to the machine. When marking is to be lone on surfaces, a scriber is used in place of a probe. A larger variety of probes, scribers and other accessories are available to enable the machine to be highly flexible and accurate in operation. The movements along the three axes may be manual or motorised. The machine can be further equipped with a small computer system for processing the data obtained from measurement and for storing and retrieving the same. A special software is also available with the computer so that measurement and inspection of different types of surfaces can be carried out automatically without the need for manual control. 17

The drawing data from CAD station an be also transmitted to this machine by interlinking the two systems with the actual value of dimensions. A printer can also be provided with the computer for producing & hard copy of the inspection report. The CMM machines are now getting increasingly popular in inspection departments attached to tool rooms, pattern and die shops, foundry and forging shops, press shops, welding and structural shops and plastic and glass parts manufacturing units. The appraisal of surface roughness or finish is required in addition to the dimensional measurement. Surface roughness is expressed as a number (in microns), which is an arithmetical average of the heights of the peaks and depths of the valleys on a casting surface above and below a mean line within a specified sampling length. IS: 3073-1967 provides a method for assessing the surface roughness by this system. The approximate values for different types of castings are specified Surface roughness is evaluated approximately, as is usually sufficient for castings, by surface roughness comparison standards, where the given cast surface is compared visually or with the aid of a magnifying lens with a set of standards duly marked with varying surface roughness values. For finished surfaces and more precise measurements, electrical type of direct reading, surface measuring instruments or profilometers, such as Talysurf, are used. 3.3 Non destructive testing[REF 6] Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a noninvasive technique for determining the integrity of a material, component or structure. Because it allows inspection without interfering with a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness. The main goal of NDT is to predict or assess the performance and service life of a component or a system at various stages of manufacturing and service cycles. NDT is used for quality control of the facilities and products, and for fitness or purpose assessment (so-called plant life assessment) to evaluate remaining operation life of plant components (processing lines, pipes and vessels). NDT inspection of industrial equipment and engineering structures is important in power generation plants, petroleum and chemical processing industries, and transportation sector. State-of-the-art methodology is applied to assess the current condition, fitnessfor-service, and remaining lifeof equipment. NDT inspection provides basic data helping to develop strategic plans for extending plant life. NDT life extension and life assessment services include: Equipment integrity analysis Corrosion monitoring of structures and equipment Corrosion damage evaluation Fatigue and creep damage prediction Fitness-for-service evaluation

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The long list of NDT methods and techniques includes: radiographic testing (RT), ultrasonic testing (UT), liquid penetrant testing (PT), magnetic particle testing (MT), eddy current testing (ET), visual testing VT as well as leak testing LT, acoustic emission AE, thermal and infrared testing, microwave testing, strain gauging, holography, acoustic microscopy, computer to mography, non-destructive analytical methods, non-destructive material characterization methods and many more. The major four (or basic) NDT methods, which are largely used in routine services to industryare:

Liquid penetrant testing Magnetic particle testing Radiography Ultrasonic testing

3.3.1 Radiography[REF 6] Radiography is an NDT method, which uses penetrating radiation. It is based on differential absorption of radiation by the part under inspection. In this inspection the source of radiation can be from radioactive sources, typically Irridium-192, Cobalt-60, Caesium-137, which emit gamma rays or from a specially built machine that can emit X rays. The former is known as gamma radiography whereas the latter is referred as X ray radiography. Table I presents major radioisotope sealed sources largely used in gamma radiographic testing. There are many methods of NDT, but only a few of them examine the volume of a specimen; some only reveal surface-breaking defects. One of the best established and widely used NDT methods is radiography the use of X rays and gamma rays to produce a radiograph of a specimen, showing any changes in thickness, defects (internal and external), assembly details etc. Radiographic testing (RT) method can be used in civil engineering equipments notably to verify the integrity of pre-stressed wires in a pre-stressed concrete structure by using radioisotope sealed sources, X ray machines or linear accelerator. Table I presents the main radioisotope sealed sources used for gamma radiography. Figure 9 shows a typical set up in radiographic testing and figure 10 presents a radiographic image of a metallic structure.

FIG 3.2 RADIOGRAPHY[REF 2]

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During the radiography X rays or gamma rays penetrate through material under inspection. While traversing through the material, these radiations experience modification by the internal structure of the material through absorption and scattering processes. If the internal structure is homogeneous, the absorption and scattering processes would be uniform throughout the material and radiations that escape from the material would be of uniform intensities. These radiations are then recorded by a suitable recording medium, typically radiographic film. When the film is processed, a uniform dark image will appear on the film that indicates the homogeneity of the material tested. The situation is different for cases of materials containing discontinuities or different in thickness. In general, the absorption of radiation by a material depends on the effective thickness through which the radiations penetrate. Discontinuities such as cracks, slag inclusions, porosity, lack of penetration and lack of fusion reduce the effective thickness of the material under test. Thus, the presence of such discontinuities causes radiations to experience less absorption as compared with those in areas with discontinuity. As a result, in areas containing discontinuities more radiations escape, recorded by the film and forming a dark image that represents the internal structure of the material. The appearance of radiographic images depends on the type discontinuities encountered by the radiation. Cracks for example will produce a fine, dark and irregular line, whereas porosities produce dark round images of different sizes. Some discontinuities that presence in a material such as tungsten inclusion in steel has a higher density than its surrounding. In this case, the effective thickness that needs to be traversed by radiation is somewhat greater. In other words, more radiation is absorbed in this area as compared with other areas. As a result the intensity of radiation that escaped after traversing this area will be lesser than that for other areas giving a lighter image bearing the shape of tungsten inclusion inside the material. Radiography is widely used throughout the industry. Its capability to produce twodimensional permanent images makes it as one of the most popular NDT methods for industrial application. However, radiation used for radiography presents a potential hazard to radiographers as well as members of public. Due to its hazardous nature, the use of radiation, including for industrial radiography is strictly controlled by Regulatory Authorities. Almost all countries throughout the world have their own Regulatory Body that regulates the use of radiation. Requirements imposed by the Authority upon the use of this method make it as one of the most expensive NDT method. Advantages and limitations of this method are as follows: Advantages Applicable to almost all materials Produce permanent images that are readily retrievable for future reference Capable of detecting surface, subsurface and internal discontinuities Capable of exposing fabrication errors at different stages of fabrication Many equipment are portable 20

Limitations Radiation used is hazardous to workers and members of public Expensive method (cost of equipment and other accessories related to radiation safety are relatively expensive) Incapable of detecting laminar discontinuities Some equipment are bulky For X ray radiography, it needs electricity Require two sides accessibility (film side and source side) Results are not instantaneous. It requires film processing, interpretation and evaluation Require highly trained personnel in the subject of radiography as well as radiation safety. Organizations applying this method need to be licensed and subjected to various rule and regulation. 3.3.2Magnetic partical inspections:[REF 4] Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a NDT method that utilizes the principle of magnetism. Material to be inspected is first magnetized through one of many ways of magnetization. Once magnetized, a magnetic field is established within and in the vicinity of the material. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These magnetic particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. They provide a visual indication of the flaw. The presence of surface breaking and subsurface discontinuity on the material causes the magnetic field to leak and travel through the air. Such a field is called leakage field. When magnetic powder is sprayed on such a surface the leakage field will attract the powder, forming a pattern that resembles the shape of the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions

FIG.1.3 Magnetic field lines and magnetic particles influenced by a crack.[REF 4] There are many methods of magnetizing materials. The use of permanent magnet is one of the ways of magnetization. However, in many cases the use of electromagnet is considered as a more superior and effective way of magnetization. Another way of creating magnetic field in a material is by the use of coil carrying current. 21 In this way, a longitudinal magnetic field would be able to be established in long items

such as bars and cylinders. Circular magnetic field on the other hand is produced by allowing current flowing along the cylindrical material. Induction of magnetic field into the material to be inspected can be achieved by the use of either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). In general the use of DC would produce magnetic field deeper below that surface that allow subsurface discontinuity to be detected. Discontinuities can be best detected when the direction of magnetic field is perpendicular. The chance of detection reduces as the angle between the magnetic field and the plane of defect decreases. When the angle between the magnetic field and the plane of defect is zero, i.e. the magnetic field is parallel with the plane of defect then the chance of detection becomes zero. The application of MT involved the following sequence: Pre-cleaning Magnetization Application of magnetic powder Demagnetization The advantages and limitations of using MT method are as follows: Advantages Inexpensive Equipment are portable Equipment easy to operate Provide instantaneous results Sensitive to surface and subsurface discontinuities Limitations Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials Insensitive to internal defects Require magnetization and demagnetization of materials to be inspected Require power supply for magnetization Coating may mask indication Material may be burned during magnetization 3.3.3 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING [REF 3] Liquid penetrant is an NDT method that utilizes the principle of capillary action in which liquid of suitable physical properties can penetrate deep into extremely fine cracks or pitting that are opened to the surface without being affected by the gravitational force. Liquid penetrant testing (PT) method consists in depositing on the object surface of a special liquid, which will be drawn into any surface defect by capillary action. A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects (Fig.). Following removal of excess penetrant an 22 FIG. 3.4 Liquid penetrant testing principle[REF 3]

application of a developer reverses the capillary action and reveals the presence of the flaw so that it can be visually inspected and evaluated. The PT method can be used on metallic parts of civil engineering equipments. Liquid penetrant inspection generally involved the following sequence: Pre-cleaning At this stage, surface of the inspected item is cleaned to avoid the presence of any dirt that may close the opening of discontinuity. Cleaning is accomplished by various methods such as vapor cleaning, degreasing, ultrasonic cleaning etc. Penetrant application Once the surface is cleaned, penetrant either in the form of dye penetrant or fluorescence penetrant is then applied. The application of penetrant can be achieved either by dipping, spraying or brushing depending on the nature or item to be inspected. This penetrant is then allowed to remain on the surface for some duration. Such duration is termed as a dwell time. During this period, if there is any discontinuity, penetrant will penetrate deep into it. Removal of excess penetrant Excessive penetrant need to be removed from the surface to allow inspection to be made. Such removal can be achieved by applying water, proper solvent or emulsifier followed by water (depending on the type of penetrant used) on the surface. At this stage, all unwanted penetrant will be removed from the surface, leaving only those trapped inside the discontinuity. Developer application Developer is then applied to the surface of the inspected item. This developer either in the form of dry powder or wet developer acts as a blotting paper which draws penetrant out of the discontinuity. In doing so, penetrant will bleed to form an indication whose shape depends upon the type of the discontinuity presence in the material. Such an indication is recorded either by the application of a special tape or by taking its photograph. Post-cleaning Application of penetrant and developer causes the surface to be contaminated. Thus, upon completion of the inspection, it is important for the item to be cleaned so that no corrosive material remains on its surface that may affect its serviceability. 23 As for other NDT methods, liquid penetrant has its own advantages and limitations.

Advantages: Simple to perform Inexpensive Applicable to materials with complex geometry Limitation Limited to detection of surface breaking discontinuity Not applicable to porous material Require access for pre- and post-cleaning Irregular surface may cause the presence of non-relevant indication .

3.3.4ULTRASONIC TESTING [REF 6] As the name implies, ultrasonic refers to an NDT method, which uses sounds having frequencies beyond those audible by human ears. Sounds having frequencies about 50 kHz to 100 kHz are commonly used for inspections of nonmetallic materials, whereas those with frequencies between 0.5 MHz up to 10 MHz are commonly used for inspections of metallic materials. Ultrasonic testing (UT) method uses high frequency sound waves (ultrasounds) to measure geometric and physical properties in materials. Ultrasounds travel in different materials at different velocities. The ultrasound wave will continue to travel through the material at a given velocity and does not return back unless it hits a FIG.3.5. Principle of ultrasonic testing.[REF 1] reflector. Reflector is considered any boundary between two different materials, or a

flaw. The ultrasound generator (transducer) emits waves and in the same position receives reflected sounds (if any). Comparing both signals (emitted and reflected) the position of the defect and its size can be measured. The UT can be used on civil engineering equipments, outside metallic parts, to verify the granulation of road covering or of concrete. High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws. Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound. 24 As in the case of radiography, ultrasonic is an NDT method that is used for detecting internal discontinuity. In ultrasonic inspection, sounds are generated by the use transducers that are made of materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect. Materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect are capable of converting electrical energy into sound

energy and vise versa. Typical example of such a material is quartz. When a quartz crystal is cut in certain orientation and thickness it is capable of generating sounds appropriates for ultrasonic inspections. Depending upon the orientation of crystal cutting, sounds generated by quartz can be of the longitudinal or transverse modes. Figure 10 shows ultrasonic testing in laboratory. During the inspection, sound generated by a transducer is transmitted into the material to be inspected via couplant. This sound travels in the material with a speed that depends on the type of material. For example, longitudinal waves travel at speeds of 5960 m/s and 6400 m/s in steel and aluminum respectively. When there is no discontinuity in the material, sound continues to travel until it encounters the backwall of the material. At the backwall, sound is reflected and continues to travel until it reaches the transducer. At this transducer, piezoelectric converts sound energy into electrical pulse. The pulse is then amplified and presented on the screen as a backwall signal or backwall echo (Fig. 12). However, if there is a discontinuity in the material, a portion of sound energy is reflected by this discontinuity whereas another portion continues to travel until it reaches backwall and reflected. Under these circumstances, a portion of sound that was reflected by the discontinuity reaches the transducer first and followed by those reflected by the backwall. In both cases sound energies are converted into electrical signals which then are displayed on the ultrasonic flaw detector screen as backwall signal and signal due to discontinuity. By properly calibrating the equipment, both the position of discontinuity with respect to the position of backwall and the size of discontinuity can be determined. The fact that ultrasonic does not present any potential hazard to the operator makes this method as a good competitor for radiography method. However, highly skillful and experience operators are required to allow correct interpretation of the test results. Unlike in the case of radiography where the results are presented in the pictorial forms, results of ultrasonic inspections are purely in the form of electrical signal. Knowledge about the material, correct movement of the transducer and proper time base calibration is absolutely necessary for correct assessment of the test results. More sophisticated ultrasonic equipment is currently available which allow results to be presented in 2D or 3D dimensions. This development provides greater strength to ultrasonic method in its rivalry against radiographic method. The advantages and limitations of ultrasonic methods are as follows: Advantages Requires only one side accessibility Capable of detecting internal defect Not hazardous Applicable for thickness measurement, detection of discontinuity, and determination of material properties 25 Can provide the size of discontinuity detected Very sensitive to planar type discontinuity Suitable for automation Equipment are mostly portable and suitable for field inspection

 Applicable for thick materials .Limitations Not capable of detecting defect whose plane is parallel to the direction of sound beam Require the use of couplant to enhance sound transmission Require calibration blocks and reference standards Require highly skillful and experience operator Not so reliable for surface and subsurface discontinuity due to interference between initial pulse and signal due to discontinuity. 3.4 Destructive type[REF 7] There are two type of the this part. It is also know as the mechanical properties. 1) Tensile testing 2) Hardness testing

3.4.1Tensile testing [REF 7] Most materials are generally supplied to a mechanical property specification. This usually involves data on tensile strength and ductility. Tensile strength is a measure of the materials ability to withstand a load under tension. Ductility is a measure of the materials ability to be permanently stretched, again under tension. The most common method used to determine tensile strength and ductility is the tensile test. This involves preparing a specially shaped standard test piece that has no sudden changes in cross-sectional area and then pulling it carefully in one direction with a continuously increasing load. The test-piece may be round or rectangular in cross section, depending upon the shape of the bulk material; for example, samples with rectangular cross sections are prepared from sheet material. In both cases, the central portion of the test piece is reduced in section to form a gauge length. The reduced section helps to ensure that fracture, when it occurs, does so within the gauge length rather than within the grips where surface imperfections may induce premature failure.

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FIG 3.6 TENSILE TESTING[REF 7]

The extension is measured and plotted against load producing a load / extension curve, as illustrated in FIG. The curve has several distinct sections. 0 A where the extension is linearly proportional to load. Point A is the limit of proportionality. A B extension non linearly proportional to load. The extension from O B is elastic deformation, and point B is the elastic limit. B C the extension is non linearly proportional to load, and is plastic deformation uniformly distributed along the length. CD extension is plastic but localised.

27

FIG 3.7 TENSILE TESTING 27 The point B is important as it marks the change from elastic to plastic behaviour. It can

be difficult to locate on the curve, as the change can be gradual. To overcome this a point is added to the curve at X. X is found by measuring a distance Y, along the extension axis and drawing a line parallel to OA. The intersection of this straight line with the curved line is not open to interpretation error. The generally used value for Y is 0.2% of the original length under test. The load L1 associated with X, divided by the original cross sectional area, gives the 0.2% proof stress for the material. Similarly L2 divided by the original cross sectional area gives the tensile strength. The elongation is given by the total extension divided by the original length (the gauge length) presented as a percentage. It should be noted that stress is defined as the load per unit area (for example, expressed in units of MPa); - strain is the extension of the gauge length divided by the original gauge length (expressed as a fraction). In the linear elastic part of the load - extension curve, O A in there is negligible change in the cross-sectional area of the sample, so we may say that the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, that is : stress / strain = a constant (E) , known as Youngs Modulus. The springiness of a material (its stiffness) is indicated by its Youngs modulus. For most aluminium alloys, irrespective of their metallurgical conditions, the value of Youngs Modulus is close to 68 GPa ( for the special case of lithium-containing alloys, where there is a significant increase in stiffness). The part of the load-extension curve given by C D in represents incipient fracture. Appreciable necking of the sample occurs, leading to fracture. Note that a progressive reduction of cross-sectional area occurs in the necking region; the stress (ie the load per unit area) continues to increase, even though the total load decreases. The ratio of the cross-sectional area of the fracture surface to that of the original cross-sectional area is known as the reduction in area , usually expressed as a percentage.

28 3.2.2 Hardness Testing[REF 7]

Hardness testing is a relatively quick and easy way to assess the strength of a material without the need to prepare tensile test samples. For example, it may be a convenient way of investigating the progress of precipitation hardening. The majority of commercial hardness testers force a small hard metal or ceramic sphere, diamond pyramid or diamond cone into the body of the metal under test by means of an applied load, and a definite hardness number is obtained from the dimensions of the indentation so formed. In practice, the dimension of the indent is referred to a set of values defined in a hardness index chart. Hardness then may be defined as resistance to permanent deformation, and a hardness test can often be considered as a rapid non-destructive estimation of the plastic deformation behaviour of metals. Small indenters are used for microhardness testing, with a special instrument equipped with an optical microscope to view the micro-indent. This provides a very valuable technique for investigation of the relative hardnesses of phases within a microstructure. Although the term hardness is a comparative consideration of great engineering importance, it is not considered to be a fundamental property of matter. The index of hardness is a manifestation of several related properties of the metal, which may well include a combined effect of yield point, tensile strength, ductility, work-hardening characteristics and resistance to abrasion.

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4.0 CONCLUSIONS The biggest issue that was raised in the simulation of foundry problems was the lack of consistent process information which appears to be inherent in the foundry industry. The response from the foundry, although delighted by their reduction of scrap, was disappointment in the inability of the software to predict the occurrence of the defects or to define the conditions which caused the defects. The main conclusions that can be drawn from this study are: By using simulation software intelligently it is possible to help foundries reduce scrap rates even for defects which cannot be predicted. The boundary conditions used to represent the process at the foundry are of extreme importance and must be assessed critically. The difference between changing boundary conditions in reality and static boundary conditions in the models gave rise to some discrepancies and an inability to predict some defects. More work should be performed in defining the mechanisms and or new models for a wider range of defects than is currently possible. MAGMAsoft has been validated to be able to produce reliable simulation results that actually reflect the real castingphenomena. The results signify the validity of using MAGMAsoft to perform mold design and casting processsimulation. The results of mold filling and solidification would be of high fidelity that can be relied upon to make decisions on designing the mold, feeder, sprue, runner and gating system as well as setting the casting process parameters to achieve the desired casting quality. The success of this validation alsoserves as a milestone to further utilize and explore the application of MAGMAsoft not only on sand casting, but also on gravity die casting, low pressure die casting and high pressure die casting

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REFERENCE
1) INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Guidebook on Non-destructive Testing of Concrete Structures, IAEA Training Course Series No. 17 (2002). 2) INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Training Guidelines in Nondestructive Testing Techniques 2002 Edition, IAEA-TECDOC-628/Rev. 1, Vienna (2002). 3) INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Development of Protocols for Corrosion and Deposit Evaluation in Pipes by Radiography, IAEA-TECDOC-1445, Vienna (2005). 4) MALHOTRA, V.M., 1984. In Situ Non-destructive Testing of Concrete." American Concrete Institute (ACI), Publication SP-82. 1984, 825 pp. 5) MALHOTRA, V.M., AND SIVASUNDARAM, V., 1991. CRC Handbook on Non-destructive Testing of Concrete: Resonance Frequency Methods. CRC press, editors, V.M. Malhotra, N.J. Carino, pp. 147-168. 6) MINDESS, SIDNEY. 1991. CRC Handbook on Non-destructive Testing of Concrete: Acoustic Emission Methods.CRC press, editors, V.M. Malhotra, N.J. Carino, pp. 317-334. 7) Prepare by M.H.Jacobs interdisplinary research centre in material the university of Birmingham,UK. 8) http://www.espint.com/engineering/technical-reference-

guides/default.aspx by dr.jerry thiel

9) Googleimage.com

BOOKS
1) PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY BY P. L. JAIN 2) A TEXT BOOK OF FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY BY O.P.KHANNA 3) PRODUCTIONS TECHNOLOGY BY R.K .JAIN 31