Welcome to the Accelerator Physics

S.Y. Lee Indiana University This course is an introduction to the physics, technology, design, and operation of high energy particle accelerators. Topics include accelerator magnets, history and introduction of various types of particle accelerators, single particle transverse and longitudinal motion; emittance; effects of linear magnet errors; chromatic effects and their correction; effects of nonlinearities; basic beam manipulations; RF systems, diagnostic systems; and introduction to accelerator lattice design. Other topics such as synchrotron radiation excitation and damping; beam-beam interaction; collective effects and instabilities; linear accelerators will also be discussed. Computer labs will be included in our curriculum. Future prospectives of high energy accelerators and colliders will also be discussed. Prerequisites: Electromagnetism and classical mechanics.

http://physics.indiana.edu/~shylee/p570/ PHYS-P470 (26133)/PHYS-P570 (26134) INTRO TO ACCELERATOR PHYSICS (3 CR) Time: 11:15A-12:05P MWF SW 219 Instructor: S.Y. Lee, (email:shylee@indiana.edu) Office: SW205 Phone: 855-7637 (swain) or -2899 (IUCF) Office Hours: Lecture Notes will be provided Reference: Accelerator Physics, (S.Y. Lee) (World Scientific) The course grade will be based on your performance Homework Assignments 40 % Project 30 % Exams 30 %

Introduction to Accelerator Physics

Accelerator physics studies properties of charged particle beams in accelerators and storage rings. Charged particles interact with the external electromagnetic fields through Lorentzs law. They also interact each other through Coulombs law. In the later case, the force can be decomposed into a mean field and fluctuations. Since the beam of charged particles is normally confined to a small size, one can expand the particle orbit around a reference orbit, in Frenet-Serret coordinate system, where the motion in transverse phase-space is called betatron motion and the motion in longitudinal phase space is called synchrotron motion. Small amplitude betatron and synchrotron oscillations are simple harmonic. The numbers of betatron and synchrotron oscillations per revolution are called the betatron and synchrotron tunes. Topics of accelerator physics research include linear and nonlinear beam dynamics, beam stability (nonlinear and collective), beam cooling, beam injection extraction and transfer, beam detection and manipulation, rf beam manipulations, etc. Topics of accelerator technology include magnetic design and manufacturing, rf cavity design and manufacturing, vacuum system, beam target, beam injection and extraction technology, time dependent magnet devices, accelerator control and safety, etc.

r r A r E = , B = A t r r H = e + c m 2 c 2 + ( p eA) 2
1+ x / [( p x eAx ) 2 + ( p z eAz ) 2 ] eAs 2p B Bz Hills equation , z + K z ( s ) z = x x + K x ( s ) x = B B x

r r r dp = e( E + B ) dt r

Frenet-Serret coordinate system:

)+

H = p (1 +

En +1 = En + eV (sin n sin s ) 2 n +1 = n + 2 En +1 E

Synchrotron motion

Historical prospective
Historically, many major discoveries in sciences can be associated with innovative new experimental tools. Some of these tools involves particle beams, which have been very useful to research in high energy and nuclear physics (high energy colliders), condensed matter physics (SR and Neutron sources), biomedical sciences, etc. Accelerators has many applications: Medical treatments (Loma Linda, MGH, HIMAC, GSI, MPRI, etc), nuclear medicine, semiconductor industry, industrial processing (polymerization, sterilization, ion beam implantation), fossil-dating (AMS), defense industry, etc. Cockcroft-Walton electrostatic high voltage source and Van de Graaff high voltage source limited to about 1 MV/m in air. Induction accelerators betatron and induction linac Rf accelerators: linacs (DTL, CCL, SC, electron linacs, ), synchrotrons, RFQ, recirculating linacs, Cyclotrons, AVF (isochronous), separate sector cyclotrons, Phase focusing (1945), AG focusing (1952), Storage ring concept (1965), Beam Cooling (stochastic cooling, electron cooling, laser cooling, ionization cooling, SR damping, etc.) (1968) Storage rings and Colliders Applications of superconductivity in accelerators (SC cavity, SC magnets) New acceleration schemes: laser, plasma wake field, etc. NEW IDEAS!

Livingston Plot

Cockcroft-Walton

Van der Graaff

In 1930, Ernest Lawrence published his idea for a circular particle accelerator the basics of the cyclotron - in a short article in Science*. Lawrence's first successful cyclotron was some 10 cm across. Nowadays cyclotrons take a variety of forms and sizes, the world's largest being at TRIUMF, Canada's National Laboratory for Particle and Nuclear Physics. In this image, a worker is checking the accelerator vacuum chamber for worn or damaged components. The diameter of the machine is about 18 m, and during the course of their acceleration in the machine, as they spiral outwards, protons travel a total of 45 km to reach maximum energy (520 MeV). The machine is now embarking on its second quarter-century of operation, having started up in December 1974. *see E.O.Lawrence and N.E.Edlefsen, Science, 72 376 (1930)
Tandem accelerator

Betatron

& E dl = , r r = B dS
S

PSI

E dl = 2E =

& & Bav , E = 1 Bav 2

(Faradays Law)

& & Newton' s law : p = eE = 1 eBav , p = eBg 2

p = 1 eBav = eBg , Bg = 1 Bav 2 2

1928: R. Wiederoe published the Betatron principle, i.e. the guide field is equal to of the average field. However, Wiederoe had difficulties in making it work . 1940: D. Kerst was the first at University of Chicago to operate a betatron to achieve 2.3 MeV. In 1949, he achieved 315 MeV with a betatron parameters: =1.22m. In 1941, Kerst and Serber published a paper on the stability of transverse motion.

Basic equations and formula cylindrical coordinate system

r r r F = q B & d (mr ) & & & mr 2 = q[rBz zB ] dt & d (mr ) && & & + mr = q[ zBr rBz ] dt & d (mz ) & & = q[rB rBr ] dt

It took many years to understand the stability of transverse motion. This problem was solved in 1941 by D. Kerst and R. Serber [Phys. Rev. 60, 53 (1941)]. Let R be the reference radius at energy E, and let x=r-R and z be betatron coordinates. We expand the magnetic field around the reference orbit and define n the focusing index n as R dB R Bz = B0 , n = z B0 dr r = R r The betatron equation of motion becomes
d 2x d 2z + 2 (1 n) x = 0, + 2 nz = 0. dt 2 dt 2

Thus the motion is stable if 0<n<1. The resulting frequencies of harmonic oscillations are fx=f0(1n)1/2 and fz=f0n1/2, where f0=/2 is the revolution frequency.

Induction Accelerators

r r & E dl = , = B dS
S

Radio-Frequency (RF) Accelerators

Using a 1-MHz, 25 kV oscillator, Wiederoe, in 1928, accelerated potassium (K) ions to 50 kV. This achievement had drawn Lawrences interests in rf acceleration. Although Wiedere demonstrated the applicability of Na and K ions acceleration with an rf linear accelerator, Lawrence judged that rf linear accelerators are impractical for lighter particles because the length of the drift tube would become too long.

(Faradays Law) 1950: N.C. Christofilos invented Induction linac for high-intensity beams

Later developments: Alvarez Linac, electron rf linacs, superconducting linacs, etc.

1925, G. Ising pointed out that particle acceleration can be achieved by using an alternating radio-frequency field. 1928: R. Wideroe reported the first working rf accelerator using 1 MHz, 25 kV oscillator to produce 50 kV potassium-ion. Problems: 1) One would like to have a high frequency oscillator in order to shorten the length of the accelerator. However, 2) The linac is a EMwave source. It consumes power.

1948: Alvarez invented the Alvarez linac (DTL). Enclose the accelerator in a conducting tank, the magnetic field is confined inside the tank and introduce inductive coupling to generate resonance structure for the accelerator tank. Alvarez and Panofsky constructed the first Alvarez Linac at 201.25 MHz reached 32 MeV proton beam energy.

P = rf CVrf2

In 1937, Varian brother invented Klystron, a narrowband high-gain rf amplifier. Around the same time, magnetron was developed in England.

CCL
1964, E Knapp and D Nagle invented the idea of coupled cavity linac. In 1972, E Kanpp et al successfully operated the 800 MHz CCL at LANL to accelerate proton to 800 MeV.

Disk loaded structure

In 1994, the last 3 tank of DTL of the Fermilab linac was replaced by the DTL to double its beam energy from 200 MeV to 400 MeV kinetic energy.

1970 I.M. Kapchinskij and V.A. Teplyakov invented the radiofrequency quadrupole accelerator.

In 1945, McMillan and Veksler independently published papers on phase focusing of the rf accelerating field. This principle quickly verified in synchrocyclotron by R. Richardson. Synchrotron 1952: 3GeV Cosmotron was build in BNL, 1954: 6 GeV Bevatron was build in LBNL to discover antiproton!

Magnet aperture: Cosmotron 8 by 12 inches Bevatron: 12 by 48 inches 1952: Discovery of strong focusing Principle by Courant, Snyder and Livingston. This focusing idea was patented by a US engineer N.C. Christofilos living in Athens, Greece. AGS and CPS was quickly proposed to reach 30 GeV and 28 GeV respectively. The magnet aperture is about 2 by 4 inches. J. Blewett invented electric quadrupole, and applied alternating focusing idea to linac.

The Cosmotron In April 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission approved a plan for a proton synchrotron to be built at Brookhaven, called the Cosmotron. The Cosmotron reached its full design energy of 3.3 GeV in January 1953. It was also the first synchrotron to provide an external beam of particles for experimentation outside the accelerator itself. Early on, the intensity of the beam extracted for experiments was ten billion protons per pulse. By 1966, intensity had been increased nearly 100 times. Behind these energies and intensities was a 75-foot diameter machine, weighing 2,000 tons and composed of 288 C-shaped magnets that guided the protons in a circular path. After one second of acceleration in the Cosmotron, the protons had traveled 135,000 miles and had reached an energy of about 3 GeV. With cloud chambers, or with other detectors, the Cosmotron was the first machine to produce all the types of negative and positive mesons known to exist in cosmic rays, making possible the discoveries of the K0L meson and the first vector meson. It was also the first accelerator to produce heavy unstable particles, called "V" particles, and the experimental confirmation of the theory of associated production of strange particles. After fourteen years of service to the physics research community, the Cosmotron ceased operation in 1966 and was dismantled in 1969. Knowledge gained from the Cosmotron would lead to revolutionary design improvements that would overcome these limitations and pave the way for construction the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron.

Alternating Gradient Synchrotron The AGS reached its design energy of 33 billion electron volts (GeV) on July 29, 1960. In the original configuration of the AGS, protons started on their journey to high energies via a Cockroft-Walton generator (see right), which provided an initial energy of 750,000-electron volts to the protons. They were then injected into a 110-foot long, 50-million electron volt (MeV) linear accelerator (or linac), which in turn injected the protons into the AGS. In 1972, a much more powerful 537-foot, 200-MeV linac began operation, greatly increasing the AGS's efficiency and maximum intensity. At the beginning of its operational history, the AGS's peak intensity (the total number of protons in the beam) stood at 300 billion protons per pulse, a factor of 30 over the original design intensity. By 1986, intensity had been increased more than 1,800 times over the design specifications as the AGS reached a record intensity of 19 trillion protons per pulse. In 1984, the AGS began providing researchers with polarized protons (protons with spins aligned in the same direction) at the highest energy ever for polarized protons 16.5 GeV. Beam energies have increased beyond this level through continued machine upgrades. Important Discoveries Three discoveries made at the AGS -- the muon-neutrino, CP violation and the J particle -- captured the Nobel Prize in physics. Other important particles found there include the omega-minus (1964) and the charmed lambda (1975).

Once upon a time at IUCF

K=45 270 keV I=0-4 A

C=17.36 m

C=86.8 m

 History, Basic principle, and its evolution Major components, Beam dynamics, resonances, Rf systems, synchrotron motion, and beam manipulations Conclusion and Future Developments
References: 1.) CERN Accelerator School, CERN 96-02 on Cyclotrons, Linacs and their applications. 2.) Proceedings of International Cyclotron Conferences

Historical Development: The accelerator development was initiated by the drive to understand the internal structure of matter after the pioneering work of Rutherford scattering of alpha-particle off a gold thin-foil to uncover the atomic structure. Early electrostatic accelerators includes X-ray tubes, Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier (1931), van de Graaff and tandem high voltage accelerator (1931). However, these accelerators are costly to operate and can breakdown at high voltage. In 1925 G. Ising pointed out that particle acceleration can be achieved by an alternating radio-frequency field. In 1928, R Wiedere built the first working rf accelerator.

Historical Development of cyclotron principle: A charged particle interacts with electromagnetic field through the Lotentz force Law: F=e(E+vB), where e is the charge, v is the particles velocity, E is the electric field and B is the magnetic field.. In particular, if the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnetic force is equal to the mechanical centrifugal force, i.e. evB=mv2/r, where m is the mass and r the radius of its orbit. The particle moves in a circle with radius r=mv/eB. It is interesting to note that the cyclotron angular frequency =v/r=eB/m is independent of the radius and energy of the particle! Lawrence was surprised to find that the frequency of rotation of a particle is independent of the radius of the orbit: f = v/2r = eB/2m. If the particle orbits in a circle with constant magnetic field, an electric field alternating at a constant frequency can accelerate particles to ever higher energies. As their velocities increased so did the radius of their orbit. Each rotation would take the same amount of time, keeping the particles in step with the alternating field as they spiraled outward.
Similar to the discovery of Archimedes principle

In the non-relativistic limit, the kinetic energy T is related to the orbiting radius r as
T=
2 p2 e2 47.89 ( Br[Tm]) MeV - - proton = ( Br ) 2 = 2m 2m 23.95 ( Br[Tm]) 2 MeV - - deutron

The design of beam extraction systems in cyclotrons is challenging. Let V0 be the energy gain per revolution. The kinetic energy at N revolutions is KN=NV0=e2B2r2/2m, where e is the charge, m is the mass, B is the magnetic field, and r is the beam radius at the N-th revolution. The radius r of the beam at the N-th revolution becomes

r=

1 2mV0 B e

1/ 2

N 1/ 2

The orbiting radius increases with the square root of the revolution number N. The beam orbit separation in successive revolutions may becomes small, and thus the septum thickness becomes a challenging design problem.

Basic equations and formula cylindrical coordinate system

r r r F = q B & d (mr ) & & & mr 2 = q[rBz zB ] dt & d (mr ) && & & + mr = q[ zBr rBz ] dt & d (mz ) & & = q[rB rBr ] dt

Two limitations of cyclotrons:

(1) It took many years to understand the stability of transverse motion. This problem was solved in 1941 by D. Kerst and R. Serber [Phys. Rev. 60, 53 (1941)]. Let R be the reference radius at energy E, and let x=r-R and z be betatron coordinates. We expand the magnetic field around the reference orbit and define the focusing index n as n

= 1,

Bz = B0 , Br = B = 0 & & m(&& r 2 ) = qrB0 r & && & m(r& + 2r ) = qrB

0

m&& = 0 z

R dB R Bz = B0 , n = z B0 dr r = R r

The betatron equation of motion becomes

R= C1 =

qB p , cyc = 0 , qB0 m e 2 u =

cyc Z = C1 B0 , f cyc = 2 A

d 2x d 2z + 2 (1 n) x = 0, + 2 nz = 0. dt 2 dt 2
Thus the motion is stable if 0<n<1. The resulting frequencies of harmonic oscillations are fx=f0(1n)1/2 and fz=f0n1/2, where f0=/2 is the revolution frequency.

MHz ec 2 = 15.356122 T 2 Eamu

Here, we have used q=Ze, m=Au, u=a.m.u., and A=1.007276 for proton. For repeated acceleration, we have frf=hfcyc, h is called the harmonic number. The beam consists of beam bunches with a time structure corresponding to the rf frequency. Disregarding this microstructure, the cyclotron beam can be considered as CW.

(2) The maximum kinetic energy was limited by the kinetic mass effect. Because the relativistic mass effect can destroy particle synchronism, the upper limit of proton kinetic energy attainable in a cyclotron is about 12 MeV [see H. Bethe and M. Rose, Phys. Rev. 52, 1254 (1937)]. Two ideas proposed to solve the dilemma are the isochronous cyclotron and the synchrocyclotron. From the cyclotron principle, the magnetic field is related to the orbit radius r by

Relativistic Dynamics with synchronization To maintain a constant angular frequency for synchronization, the magnetic field must increase with the radius, i.e.

r=

p p c 1 = = 1 , eB m 2

1/ 2

B=

m m (r ) = 2 e e 1 (r / c )

B(r ) = B0 (r ) = B0 1 +

r 2 , where (r ) = , 2 1 c

ec Z B0 Eamu A

However, when the required magnetic field produces a focusing index with n<0 and the vertical betatron motion becomes unstable. In 1938, R.H. Thomas [Phys. Rev. 54, 580 (1938)] pointed out that, by using an azimuthal varying field, the orbit stability can be retained while maintaining the isochronism. The isochronous cyclotron is also called the azimuthal varying field (AVF) cyclotron. The breakthrough came in 1957, when the first AVF cyclotron in DELFT (Netherlands) produced a beam.

Since the relativistic correction depends on Z/A, a given field shape B(r) is suitable only for a single specie of particles. Strong correction coils are needed to adapt B(r) to different particles and variable energies. Let R=c/. Typically R=3.130m at B0=1T and f0=15 MHz. We can use R=R to estimate the extraction radius of a cyclotron. To restore vertical focusing, hills and valleys are introduced with B(r,). A minimum of three-fold symmetry is needed to attain stability. The above formula are still correct provided that B and R are taken as the average of one revolution.

Energy and momentum The momentum and kinetic energy of the extracted particle are

Orbit stability

p = mc , T = mc 2 ( 1) =

p2 , m( + 1)

p = mR
2 2

2 2 T e2 2 Z 2 2 Z = 4 2 m R ( f RF / h) 2 = B0 R = K +1 A m +1 A A

q ( r ) Bz . m dBz Let x = r rco , Bz = Bz (rco ) x + ..., dr 2 x 2 & = rco 2 (1 + ...), r 2 = rco rco r q 2 (r ) Bz (rco ) = 0. The closed orbit condition is given by rco m & We consider the radial motion: && = r 2 + r
The isochronous condition is maintained by

Bz (rco ) = B0 (rco ).

These formula can be used to calculate the kinetic energy T of the extracted beam. The radius is the orbiting radius that is centered onto the magnetic field. For a given magnetic field, the kinetic energy per amu is proportional to (Z/A)2, i.e. T/A=K(Z/A)2. The factor K is called the K-value of the cyclotron magnet.

The remaining terms in the radial equation of motion becomes

1 q

2 m

(r )

r dBz dBz r d = co k = = ( 2 1) dr Bz (rco ) dr dr

Thus the radial equation of motion becomes

&& = 2 x 2 kx = 2 2 x, x

x = x0 cos( x t + ), x =

Note that the radial betatron tune is equal to , which is greater than 1.

Vertical or axial focusing

& d (mz ) & & = q[rB rBr ], dt

Br ( z ) =

z or && =

q & & [rB rBr ] m

q & 2r r = m Bz
By 1970, there were 40 AVF cyclotrons. The separate sector cyclotron, or ring cyclotron proposed in 1963 by H.A. Willax [Proc. Int. Cyclotron Conf. 386 (1963)] led to the proliferation of further flexibility in the design. It gives stronger ``edge" focusing for attaining vertical orbit stability. Ring cyclotrons are composed of three, four, or many sectors. Many universities and laboratories built ring cyclotrons in the 1960's.

dBr dB z = z z + ..., dz dr

B ( z ) =

dB dB z = z z + ..., dz rd

r dBz q 1 dBz & & [rB rBr ] 2 B dr B rd z m z z r dBz 1 dBz k= z2 = k + , Bz rd Bz dr

&& = z
The azimuthal variation, flutter term, of the field is the only source to provide vertical focusing. The axial focusing term is normally very weak. Spiral magnet sectors or spiral pole shims are used to enhance the contribution to axial focusing. [See e.g. H.L. Hagedoorn and N.F. Verster, NIM 18/19, 201 (1962); M.M. Gordon, Part. Acc. 13, 67 (1983)]

GE+CGR, EBCO, Oxford Instruments, Philips, Scanditronix+IBA, Siemens, + Japanese and Korean Companies

The world's largest cyclotron at TRIUMF started up in December 1974. The diameter is about 18 m, and during the course of their acceleration in the machine, as they spiral outwards, protons travel a total of 45 km to reach maximum energy (520 MeV).

IUCF separate sector cyclotrons IUCF separate-4-sector cyclotrons (K16, K200) were completed in 1973. It was designed with 1/6<Z/A1, 1<z<1.5, r>1.1, frf=27-35 MHz. The vertical gaps are 3.125 cm for K16 and 9.4 cm for K200 cyclotron. The cavity design is re-entrant type. Energy gain per turn is 200kV at inner radius to 300kV at the outer radius. Flattop 2nd harmonics is used to minimize energy spread of the beam.

Resonances Beam loss in cyclotron can occur when resonances are encountered. These resonances are mr+nz=, where m, n, and are integers. The sum of |m|+|n| is the order of resonance. Since the vertical acceptance is normally much smaller than that of the radial direction, particle loss in vertical direction is common. The operation point (r,z) moves as the particle kinetic energy increases, and can cross resonance lines. Resonances are dangerous when the crossing is slow (low kinetic energy gain per turn) or when the resonance driving term is large. Since the field index is k=2-1, the radial betatron tune is r+. The condition of systematic betatron motion becomes r=N/2. The tune of radial betatron oscillation starts at 1 at the center, and thus cyclotron with N=2 sectors will be unstable. The theoretical maximum kinetic energies are 469 MeV and 938 MeV for cyclotrons with 3 or 4 symmetric periods. High energy kinetic energy requires more symmetric periods. An ingenious solution for the AGOR* cyclotron with 3 sectors is to mill a deep groove in each sector in order to increase the superperiodicity N, and without a significance decrease of average magnetic field in the cyclotron.
*AGOR

(Accelerateur Groningen-ORsay) is the result of the cooperation between the KVI, Groningen, and the IPN, Orsay. Its design was a joint effort of both the institues; building took place in France. After testing it was disassembled and moved to the Netherlands.

Synchrotron equation of motion In 1945, McMillan an Veksler discovered the phase focusing principle, i.e. the coupled energy phase oscillation of synchrotron motion.
f0 =

Synchrotrons vs cyclotrons
In 1952, BNL built the first proton synchrotron at 3GeV, and in 1954, LBNL built a 6GeV proton synchrotron to discover the antiproton. In 1952, Courant, Snyder and Livingston discovered the alternate-gradient-focusing concept, which was patented by a US engineer working in Greece. Since then, synchrotrons are preferred for high energy accelerators. However, cyclotron can still have advantage in low energy accelerators for higher duty cycle! The largest synchrotron with a circumference of 27 km is located at CERN in Geneva.

2 r

f rf eB = h 2m

f 0 r p 1 p = = ( c 2 ) = f0 p p 0 r0
2 d f p h0 E = h0 = 2 ( 0 ) = h = h0 dt f0 p E0 0

d E 1 & & = E = feV sin , E0 = f 0 eV sin 0 , eV (sin sin 0 ) dt 0 2

Cyclotron rf systems and cavity Most cyclotron cavities are of the coaxial type. The accelerating electrodes (Dees) extend from the machine central region to extraction radius, looks like a capacitor which is coupled to an inductor to become a resonant circuit. Major efforts is to design a resonators able to hold the maximum Dee voltage with minimum input power.

But reentrant type cavities have become very common in ring cyclotrons to gain higher acceleration gradient. The new rf cavity of the PSI is designed to attain 1 MV in comparison with the 750 kV energy gain per passage through the old cavity.

Beam acceleration by rf electric field in the cavity Ds. The rf losses in the cavity walls is given by

Synchrotron equation of motion in cyclotrons

Pwall =

2 Vgap

2 Rsh

R 1 Rsh = gQRc , Q = c = R R

L c

f0 =

f eB = rf = = constant, 2 r h 2m

where R is the resistance resulting from Ohmic loss, Rc is the characteristic impedance of the line, and g is the geometric factor of the cavity. The transit time factor for rf acceleration is

f 0 r 1 p p = = ( c 2 ) = =0 f0 0 r0 p p
2 d f p h0 E ( 0 ) = h = h0 = h0 = 2 =0 dt f0 p E0 0

Ttransit =

sin( / 2) , / 2

2 h f 0 l gap

In order to have a transit factor greater than 0.95, we must have the rf phase slip </3. The rf gap can not be too large. Note that the transit time factor is smaller at large radius due to a larger gap length gap.

This means that all particles are traveling rigidly with respect to one another. There is no synchrotron motion, i.e. the synchrotron tune is zero! d E 1 & & = E = feV sin , E0 = f 0 eV sin 0 , eV (sin sin 0 ) dt 0 2

Because of isochronism, particles travel rigidly together. To minimize the momentum spread, a common procedure is to flattop the rf wave so that the beam do not diffuse in the end due to a larger momentum spread.

Conclusion for Cyclotron developments

1. Cyclotron has evolved through several generations of improvements in the orbit stability, ease of beam extraction, and better beam quality. The design evolves from classical cyclotron to AVF (isochronous cyclotron), synchrocyclotron (FM modulated cyclotron), separate sector cyclotron (ring cyclotron), separate orbit cyclotron (did not take off), FFAG (fixed field alternate gradient, dead in 1960s but are reviving), superconducting cyclotron, etc. 2. Cyclotron is not a dead field in accelerator design. It is a versatile machine that can have many applications. There are many cyclotrons with various sizes and capabilities. The highest power cyclotron deliver more than 1 MW of beam power (1.8 mA 590 MeV) at PSI. In the near future, it is projected to deliver 1.8 MW of beam power. This is a very powerful neutron source. If one can build a cyclotron that can deliver 5-10 MW, it will become a machine of choice of future nuclear reactor. 3. Cyclotrons have become the major power source for the production of radionuclides. There are many companies that produce cyclotrons for radionuclide production. For energy less than 200 MeV, cyclotrons have many advantages in radiation therapy, while synchrotrons have advantage for high energy machines.

flattop