Part Size and Geometry Test results may vary if the test piece differs from the calibration

or reference piece. In this way both shape and size will contribute to potential variation in test results. Particular interest in this variable exists for contact testing on curved surfaces. When a flat probe is used on a convex curved surface only a portion of the probe makes contact. This will reduce the amount of sound that can be transferred to and from the test piece. As a result sensitivity compared to coupling to a flat piece is reduced. The proportion of sound reduction compared to a flat piece is a function of the curvature of the part, the crystal diameter and the coupling ability of the couplant via its viscosity. Some sources also consider the relative hardness of the probe face with a greater coupling or contouring available from softer material such as plastics and virtually no contouring available. To avoid machining calibration blocks for every possible radius and surface condition compensation is made by adding gain to the receiver. The amount of compensating gain can be determined by a simple transfer value or it can be calculated using formulae and charts. Examples of the charts used for convex curvature compensation are found in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. These are from Australian Standard 2207 - Methods For The Ultrasonic Testing of Fusion Welded Joints in Steel. Two conditions are considered. In the first figure a nomogram is used to correct for losses when the probe contact is made on the curved surface. The test part radius is located on the left-hand scale and a line made through the appropriate probes diameter on the middle scale. The point on the right-hand scale this line intersects is the amount of gain to add as a correction factor. In the second figure the probe makes contact on a flat surface but the beam reflects off a convex curve thereby redirecting portions of the beam away and reducing the maximum possible reflected energy. The graph used does not consider probe diameter, instead, ratio of surface curvature to metal path thickness is used. moving vertically up from the ratio axis (horizontal axis) at the appropriate ratio for your work piece, the point on the vertical axis where the curve is intersected gives the necessary correction factor.

Figure 8-7

Figure 8-6

Other codes and specifications may use different equations or graphs but the intent is the same. Attempts to compensate by simply adding gain may not be adequate. Improvement is had by contouring the plastic wedge to the test piece. However, since the probe can no longer be calibrated on a flat reference piece this makes machining of a reference piece of the exact same geometry a necessity. For very small parts even this may prove unsatisfactory due to the production of surface waves and other spurious signals associated with large time differences of the beam in the wedge or delayline. If contouring probes proves too noisy then immersion methods or even another NDT method may have to be considered. Geometry is not only a consideration as a potential source of signal variation but also of feasibility. Consideration must be given to beam shape when interaction with a boundary occurs. Formation of unwanted surface waves and mode converted waves will result due to finite extents of a beam. The single ray drawn from the probe exit point at the refracted angle is merely a convenient presentation of the principle of the test. In reality portions of the beam will impinge at greater and lesser angles due to divergence or side lobes (in the near zone).

Figure 8-8

A beam impinging on a curved surface intended to generate a high refracted angle in the test piece is most prone to surface wave generation. See Figure 8-8. This occurs more often for curved surfaces than for flat surfaces because not only does the beam divergence increase the incident angle but the point of incidence on a curved surface is always receding so further increase in incident angle results. Curved surfaces make plotting more difficult than the simple trigonometry for flat surfaces. Compare similar conditions for a 45 beam in flat and curved plate. Using a thickness of 20mm the signal obtained at 35mm for an inspection of a 100mm radius pipe occurs 19.2 mm from the OD test surface and 31.7mm along the test surface from the exit point to the point over the indication. On a flat piece this would indicate an indication 15.2mm down and 24.8mm from the exit point. See Figure 8-9.

Figure 8-9

Geometry can also limit inspections. Again, concentric geometries are a common problem in this regard. A critical ID/OD ratio exists that will not allow an angle beam from the OD to intersect with the ID. This is shown in Figure 8-10.

Figure 8-10

This critical angle occurs when the ray representing the centre of beam is tangential to the inside surface of the pipe. Two situations may exist; either the angle is fixed (as in contact testing) and the critical ratio is to be determined or the ratio of wall thickness to the OD is known and the maximum angle that can be used is sought. The equation relating wall thickness t, pipe outside diameter D and refracted angle can be written D(1-Sin ) t=------------------2 t is the maximum thickness for which the beam centre will still glance off the ID. The other parameter being sought, maximum angle, would use the following equation: 2t Sin = 1 ----D

Figure 8-11 plots the t/D ratio that satisfies the above equation. When the thickness increases to one half the diameter this is the same as a solid cylinder and no ID exists to bounce off.

Figure 8-11

Although the equations and graph indicate that high angles of refraction may be used to ensure both ID and OD are seen, the actual size of the pipe will limit the practical maximum angle due to beam width and the resultant surface waves that occur. For tubular products where wall thickness approaches the wavelength the wall is flooded with sound and plate waves discussed in Chapter 5 result. Some authors have indicated that contact pipe inspection in the circumferential direction can be accomplished by simply moving the probe over the pipe surface by a distance equal to one full skip. The principle involved is shown in Figure 8-12.

Figure 8-12

This draws well for the centre of beam ray but when applied to real conditions this can supply little more than a go/no-go inspection. Beam spread, mode conversions and attenuation will not permit accurate locating of any defects occurring several skips away. In fact attenuation will probably limit detectability of defects by this method to pipes under 10-20cm diameter. Such a technique may be useful when access is limited to only half of the circumference. The

presence (but not necessarily the location) of a flaw may be detected by first scanning in one direction to the obstruction then the other, as in Figure 8-13.

Figure 8-13