BASIC ELECTRICITY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM BASICS - It all starts with the electrons moving around atoms.

Electricity is the movement of electrical charge from one place to another. Electric charges do not exist without their associated electric and magnetic fields. This module will introduce you to many of the basic concepts involved with electricity and magnetism. MATTER - Matter is physically everything that exists that we can touch and feel. Matter consists of atoms. Now we will introduce you to the structure of atoms, talk about electrons and static charge, moving charges, voltage, resistance, and current. You will learn about the properties of magnets and how magnets are used to produce electric current and vice versa. All matter can be classified as being either a pure substance or a mixture. Matter can exist as either a solid, liquid, or a gas and can change among these three states of matter. In electronics the most important matter are conductive metals, non-conductive insulators, and semiconductors. (Yes, all this is a simplification on purpose to keep the subject easier to grasp. We will leave deeper thoughts to the study of nuclear physics.) ELECTRICAL CHARGE - Any object or particle is or can become electrically charged. Nobody completely understands what this charge consists of but we do know a lot about how it reacts and behaves. The smallest known charge of electricity is the charge associated with an electron. This charge has been called a "negative" charge. An atoms nucleus has a positive charge. These two un-like charges attract one another. Like charges oppose one another. If you had 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons in a box you would have what has been named; one coulomb of charge. An easier way of thinking about a large number like that is called "powers of ten" and it would look like this 6.25 x 10^18 electrons. It is simply a way to let you know to move the decimal point to the right 18 places. When electrical charges are at rest, meaning they are not moving, we call that static electricity. If charges are in motion we then have a flow of charge called electrical current. We have given the force that causes this current a name called "electromotive force" and it is measured by a unit called a volt (V). The unit of measurement of the current (I) or movement of the charge is called an ampere. The resistance, or opposition, to current flow is called an ohm (R).

2. ELECTRICAL FIELDS- Around every charge is an electric field. With

every electric field there is a magnetic field. While we can't see these fields, or yet know exactly what they consist of, we can measure them with instruments and tell a great deal about their behavior. We can then use this knowledge to our benefit. The design and construction of electric motors, computers, radios, televisions, stereos, and many other electrical and electronic devices depend upon a knowledge of these basic principles of electricity. As you can see we have given names to these phenomenon to make it easier for us to study and use. We could have called them Dick, Jane and Mary but instead we named them for the scientists that discovered or first studied them; Volt, Ampere, and Ohm. Mr. Volt, Mr. Ampere, and Mr. Ohm spent many years of their gifted lives studying electricity. They were not alone however as many other scientist were studying and learning more about electricity as well. WATTS - POWER - What is a watt? A watt is the International System unit of power equal to one joule per second. A joule is a unit of electrical energy equal to the work done when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. The symbol used for a watt is "P" for power. Power in watts is found by multiplying a circuits current (I) times its voltage (V). You will learn more about power in watts in the ohms law section below. P - I*V
. 3. 4. RESISTANCE -

RESISTORS AND RESISTOR CIRCUITS - Resistance is the opposition to current flow in various degrees. The practical unit of resistance is called the ohm. A resistor on one ohm is physically very large but provides only a small resistance to current flow. A resistor of one million ohm's is physically small but presents a high resistance to current flow. A resistance that develops 0.24 calorie of heat when one ampere of current flows through it for one second has one ohm of resistance. The unit of resistance is often represented by the Greek letter omega. Resistors are often made of thin layers of carbon or lengths of small copper wire. They can also be thin deposited layers of metallic material. An image of a few resistor types is shown below.
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What is electrical current? Electrical current, represented by the letter "I" in formulas, and it is the flow or rate of electric charge. This flowing electric charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a metallic conductor or electronic components such as resistors or transistors as an example. The unit of electrical current is the ampere, named after a french mathematician, Andre Marie Ampere. What is electrical voltage? Electrical voltage is represented by the letter "V" in formulas and it is the electrical pressure a moving charge is under. In the case of a static charge, one that is not moving, then voltage is the potential difference or pressure of the charge. The relationship between current (I), resistance (R), and voltage (V) is represented by the formulas developed in Ohm's law. We will study that in section 5 below.
5. RESISTORS AND RESISTOR CIRCUITS-

Resistors can be connected in series (end to end), or in parallel (across one another), or in a combination of series and parallel. If you connect two, 1/4 watt, 100 ohm resistors across one another (i.e. in parallel) then the total resistance in ohms is one half of one of the resistors. In this example the resistance would be 50 ohms. The wattage doubles as the current is now split between the two resistors. The combination can now handle up to one half a watt safely. If the two resistors were connected end-to-end (i.e. in series) the resistances add and in this case would be 200 ohms. The wattage in this series case stays the same, 1/4 watt. This information is handy to know as it is easy to calculate in your head and will allow you to devise additional resister values from a limited resistor bench stock. RESISTORS IN SERIES: Connecting resistors in a string one pigtail to another is called connecting them in series. When connected this way the resistance of one resistor adds to the next in line. For example a 100 ohm resistor in series with a 500 ohm resistor is the same as having a 600 ohm resistor. The wattage capability stays the same, in other words if the resistors are all 1/4 watt the string is 1/4 watt. Resistance in series resistance simply adds: R = R1 + R2. This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ... RESISTORS IN PARALLEL: When resistors are connected in parallel (parallel; meaning they are tied across one another) their combined
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resistance is less than any of the individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2: Combined resistance of R1 R2 two resistors in parallel: R = R1 + R2 For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be used. This adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the combined resistance, R: 1 R 1 1 1 + + + ... R1 R2 R3

The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use! Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of the individual resistances. Resistor values are measured in ohms. A thousand ohms is written as 1k to eliminate all the zeros. The k represents three zeros. A million ohms is represented by 1M. Therefore; 1000 ohms = 1k ohm and 1000k ohms = 1M ohm. Since resistors are so small their value is marked by a color code.
6. OHMS LAW

Ohm's Law is extremely important in learning basic electronics. What is Ohm's Law? Ohm's Law is a formula that describes the relationship between resistance, current and voltage in an electrical circuit. The formula is R (resistance in ohms) = (equals) V (voltage in volts) divided by I (current in amperes). That is: R = V I ...and algebraic rules tells us that I - V R and V = I*R.

I = V R, V = I*R, R = V I, and P (power in watts) = I*V are the fundamental formulas of Ohm's law. (The * means to multiply the two quantities together). Where V is the circuit voltage in volts, I is the circuits amperage in amps, and R is the resistance in ohms. Almost every electrical and electronic circuit involves resistance, current and voltage. This is why it is vital you understand the relationships between them. As an experiment you can set up a circuit by connecting resistors in series with a battery, measure the voltage across the resistors with a voltmeter, measure the current in the circuit by placing an ammeter in series with the resistors and the battery. If you know the voltages and current in the circuit you can use Ohms law to calculate the resistance. With the resistor out of the circuit you can measure it's resistance directly with an ohm meter. The multi-meters today can measure ohms, volts and amperes (usually measured in milliamperes in practical circuits) all in one piece of test equipment. Below is a graphic chart showing the various relationships between resistance, current, voltage, and power and shows how one unknown can be calculated if you know the other two.

CAPACITORS A capacitor is a device that stores an electrical charge when a potential difference (voltage) exists between two conductors which are usually two plates separated by a dielectric material (an insulating material like air, paper, or special chemicals between two sheets of aluminum foil). Capacitors block DC voltages and pass AC
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voltages. They are used as filters, AC coupling capacitors and as bypass capacitors. They are also used in conjunction with resistors and inductors to form tuned circuits and timing circuits. A capacitors value C (in Farads) is dependent upon the ratio of the charge Q (in Coulombs) divided by the V (in volts). Common capacitors come in values of microfarads or Pico farads. Often you will have to convert between Pico farads and micro farads. A chart is provided below to assist in the conversion. For a list of 7. INDUCTORS Inductors are usually made with coils of wire. The wire coils are wound around iron cores, ferrite cores, or other materials except in the case of an air core inductor where there is no core other than air. The inductor stores electrical charge in magnetic fields. When the magnetic field collapses it induces an electrical charge back into the wire. Inductors are associated with circuit capacitance and can form a tuned circuit and resonate at a particular frequency. Two coils close to one another, as they are in a transformer, literally transfer charge from one coil to the other. This is called mutual inductance.
All matter has positive and negative charged ions Move from high to low concentrations Coulombs Law Electrons Negative charged ions Flow always goes from higher to lower potential Negative pole = cathode Positive pole = anode How is an electrical force generated? imbalance Electrons Opposites attract , likes repel

Negative charged ions Flow always goes from higher to lower potential Ampere Indicates rate at which electrical current or electrons flow 1 ampere = 6.25 x 1018 electron per second Most modalities have current flow designated much lower Milliamperes or microamperes Coulomb Number of electrons passing by a point in one second

1 ampere is defined as the movement of 1 coulomb Direct Current (Galvanic Current) Continuous flow of electrons in one direction Negative to positive pole Polarity remains constant Square WaveDirect Current Alternating Current Flow changes direction Constantly changing polarity Negative to positive and then changing direction with polarity Closer Look at AC Current Peak value

Peak-to-peak value Cycle duration

frequencyPulsed Currents Unidirectional or bi-directional flow Usually 3 or more pulses grouped together Pulses are interrupted 3 Types of Waveforms Monophasic Biphasic Polyphasic (Russian Current)

Pulse Duration Distance wave covers on horizontal axis Length of time current is flowing in 1 cycle 8

Phase Duration Important Monophasic Uninterupted Phase duration = pulse duration Biphasic Uninterupted Pulse duration = combined phase durations

Pulse Charge Measure of electrons delivered in pulse Phase Charge How do you know pulse charge is large enough to overcome capacitance of tissue? Pulsed Currents Interpulse interval Intrapulse Interval Pulse Period Strength-DuratiNonlinear relationship between current duration and current intensity Shorter duration need higher intensities Nerve and muscle differ greatly in firing threshold on CurveAdjusting Amplitude and Phase Duration to Increase Pulse Charge to Elicit Desired Response Rheobase

Minimum amplitude needed to depolarize nerve fiber

Chronaxie Minimum phase duration required to depolarize a nerve when peak amplitude is twice rheobase

Current Continuous
Amplitude remains same Interrupted On- and off-time Monophasic and biphasic pulsed currents Burst Short duration on and offs repeated in a cycle Mon-, bi- and polyphasic waveforms Ramping Gradual rise or fall Modulation
ALTERNATING CURRENT In a DIRECT CURRENT (dc) circuit the current flows in one direction only.

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In an ALTERNATING CURRENT (ac) circuit the direction of current flow through the

circuit changes at a particular frequency (f). The frequency used in the United States is 60 cycles per second or 60Hz. No Relationship Between Type Of Current Used To Power Generator and Type Of Current Output To Patient Generators May Be Powered By AC or DC Batteries = DC between 1.5 and 9 V Wall Outlet = AC at 120 or 220V at 60 Hz Horizontal Distance between the crests of any two adjacent waves is called wave length Unit of current RATE which electrons pass a given point 1 ampere = 1 coulomb / second Coulomb is a unit of electrical charge

Indicate the number of electrons

Measured in milliamperes (1/1000) microamperes (1/1,0

voltage
Electromotive force (EMF) or Electrical Potential Difference Greater the difference, greater potential for electron flow Measured in Volts (V)

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Potential difference necessary to move 1 amp of current in 1 sec against a resistance of 1 ohm High voltage = above 100 or 150 volts Low voltage = below 100 or 150 volts

Waveform
Monophasic (Galvanic, Direct) Unidirectional flow of electrons High voltage units, low volt direct current units, neuroprobes Biphasic Alternating / Sinusoidal currents Can be symmetrical or asymmetrical

Intrapulse interval Period within a discrete pulse when the current is not flowing Interpulse interval

Elapsed time between the conclusion of one pulse and start o Frequency
Stimulation frequency machine specific Low: 1 1000 hertz Medium: 1,000 100,000 hertz (IFC, Russian) High: 100,000 hertz and higher (diathermy) Pulse frequency adjustable output parameter Low: 10 or less (individual muscle contraction, twitch) Medium: 10 50 (summation of contractions, tetany)

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High: 50 or higher (tonic contraction) Top Ten List magenetism

. There are North Poles and South Poles. 2. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract. 3. Magnetic forces attract only magnetic materials. 4. Magnetic forces act at a distance. 5. While magnetized, temporary magnets act like permanent magnets. 6. A coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it becomes a magnet. 7. Putting iron inside a current-carrying coil increases the strength of the electromagnet. 8. A changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor. . A charged particle experiences no magnetic force when moving parallel to a magnetic field, but when it is moving perpendicular to the field it experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the direction of motion. 10. A current-carrying wire in a perpendicular magnetic field experiences a force in a direction perpendicular to both the wire and the field. Magnetic fields are vector quantities.that is, they have a magnitude and a direction! A magnet has a

magnetic field distributed throughout the surrounding space Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnetic material due to the arrangement of its atoms, particularly its electrons.

The ends of a magnet are where the magnetic effect is the

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strongest. These are called poles. Each magnet has 2 poles 1 north, 1 south

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