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The Wiki (Encyclopedia) about Construction that anyone can edit. Are you studying for or working in the construction industry? Do you think you are an expert in any subject related to construction, civil engineering, interior design, home improvement or architecture? Share your expertise and experience with the Construction community. You are free to improve or ask questions on any of the articles in the Construction Wiki. Overtime and with your help, we aim to make this the largest and best resource for Construction Professionals in the industry

Construction
Construction is a process that results in the assembly and use of buildings or infrastructure. Large scale construction is a feat of massive multitasking and co-ordination between many parties through the negotiation and carrying out of various types of contracts. The process begins with a concept that gets fleshed out into designs and then the designs are realized through construction management coordinating site activities such as excavation, foundation work, road works, concreting, etc. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential with large scale construction projects often dedicating a department to ensure that the project is executed efficiently. The commercial aspect of the execution is also critical and often determines and defines the outcome of the project's quality and schedule. Quality and Safety are also critical factors for a construction project and construction managers are required to comply with the respective safety regulations, building codes and standards and site tests as specified by law or by contract This wiki will also discuss the contractual side of construction, looking at the different types of contracts, construction claims, contract documents, construction delays, extension of time, defects liability period, etc.

Construction Phases
There are too many variations to have a list of phases that fits all construction projects, especially as each phase represents differing levels of importance to different groups. Below are our view on the core construction phases applicable for most construction projects.

Pre-Project Phase Planning & Design Phase Main Contracts Award Phase Construction Mobilization Phase Construction Phase Construction Completion Phase Maintenance Phase

Types of construction

Building Construction Infrastructure Construction Landscape Construction

Construction Materials
This Construction Wiki will also with your help and the help of other Material Suppliers and Manufacturers build towards the Internet's largest Construction Material Database. We need to decide how to best present the information and how much freedom we intend to give to suppliers to promote their products. As a start on this project, we will continue to add information to construction material such as granite, cement, tower scaffolds, wood flooring, wood, etc. If we use the Construction Specifications institute's Division grouping, we have:
Division 01 - GENERAL DATA Division 02 - SITEWORK Division 03 - CONCRETE Division 04 - MASONRY Division 05 - METALS Division 06 - WOOD & PLASTICS Division 07 - THERMAL & MOISTURE PROTECTION Division 08 - DOORS & WINDOWS Division 09 - FINISHES Division 10 - SPECIALTIES Division 11 - EQUIPMENT Division 12 - FURNISHINGS Division 13 - SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION Division 14 - CONVEYING SYSTEMS Division 15 - MECHANICAL Division 16 ELECTRICAL

Construction Companies
This Construction Wiki will also with your help and the help of other construction professionals build towards the Internet's largest Construction Company Database.

Construction Industry Building Construction Infrastructure Construction Landscape Construction

Construction Industry
The construction industry is divided into three types; Buildings Construction: includes contractors, usually called general contractors, who build residential, industrial, commercial, and other buildings. Civil Construction: build sewers, roads, highways, bridges, tunnels, and other projects related to our Nations infrastructure. Specialty Construction: perform specialized activities related to all types of construction such as carpentry, painting, plumbing, and electrical work. Construction usually is done or coordinated by general contractors or main contractors, who specialize in one type of construction such as residential or commercial building. They take full responsibility for the complete job, except for specified portions of the work that may be omitted from the main contract. Although main contractors may opt to do part of the works with their own workers, packages are usually subcontracted out to specialty contractors. Specialty trade contractors usually do the work of only one trade, such as painting, carpentry, or electrical work, or of two or more closely related trades, such as plumbing and heating. Beyond fitting their work to that of the other trades, specialty trade contractors have no responsibility for the structure as a whole. They obtain orders for their work from general contractors, architects, or property owners. Repair work is almost always done on direct order from owners, occupants, architects, or rental agents. As energy costs have risen, some companies are finding it necessary to build or renovate buildings that are not energy efficient. "Green construction" and Sustainable Architecture are areas that is increasingly popular and involves making buildings as environmentally friendly and energy efficient as possible by using more recyclable and earth-friendly products.

Construction Phases
Each phase of a construction projects life cycle represents differing levels of importance to different groups. A Client's involvement in a project would begin earlier than the contractor for example. Each of the phases mentioned below would have many stages and responsibilities performed by different parties.

Main Phases in a Construction project

Pre-Project Phase Planning & Design Phase Main Contracts Award Phase Construction Mobilization Phase Subcontracts & Suppliers Award Phase Construction Phase Construction Completion Phase Maintenance Phase

Pre-Project Phase Planning & Design Phase Main Contracts Award Phase Construction Mobilization Phase Construction Phase Construction Completion Phase Maintenance Phase

Pre-Project Phase
At this early stage, the project brief should be defined in terms of time, cost and quality with the employer or employer representatives having a clear idea of what it is they want to be building. i.e. preliminary design. Other issues to consider at this stage are;

Preliminary Design Project Organization Structure (larger scale projects) Project Budget & Project Financials Project Timeframe Submissions and Approvals Process Environment, Local Regulations, Health and Safety Risk Analysis

Preliminary Design
When a government department, a public corporation or a private sector wants to develop a project for public service or commercial purpose, legal permissions must be obtained from the local authority such as town planning and environmental protection. Some projects may require prior approval under statutory regulations owing to public interests. The client should have a list of assumptions and requirements in hand for technical and economic considerations in regards of social benefits and commercial return. The proposed project can be developed by the in-house design teams, or sublet to a consultant firm for professional advice in case some approvals demand compliance with specific procedure. The subsequent report will give the ideas of the preferred site or where-about, the estimated project cost, completion time frame, the prospective end users, and the expected return of investment, the social interests and any other side benefits.

Feasibility Study
When a construction project is proposed, a feasibility study will be conducted to objectively review the strengths, benefits and weaknesses of the proposed project. The feasibility study will include, but not limited to , the estimated costs, potential returns, effects to the environment and adjacent structures, the feasibility of the proposed design, the site conditions, and other reports to determine whether the project will provide a suitable return for the required time and resource investment.

Engineering Design Study

A report with layout drawings, boreholes logs, soil samples, laboratory test results together with the specialists interpretation will be produced for the engineer/architects reference to proceed with the design and specifications for the foundation. The foundation design will include the earthworks (the balance of cut and fill, re-use of suitable material, disposal of unsuitable material and the respective replacement), piling work, diaphragm walls and underground waterproofing work. The designs of substructures and superstructures will also be carried out and substantiated by engineering analysis of each structural member and are converted and put into drawings. In this planning stage, the engineer will consider the various alternatives to achieve the requirements of the project in order to save cost and time. Further designs of drainage work, utilities work, roadwork, external work, E & M works, building services, building finishes and landscaping work will be followed up and accomplished to form the set of engineering drawings after consideration of alternative solutions to meet the constructional and financial requirements.

Project Financial Study

Naturally the client wants to know as close as possible the forthcoming expenditure that will incur for the project, and also wish to see the project work will be finished at a minimum cost compatible with satisfactory materials, workmanship and time. So, when the set of engineering drawings is available together with the determination of materials to be used, the apparent cost of the project will be then evaluated for the clients consideration. The cost of the project will have to be amended as the revised architectural/engineering design demands, or vise versa until the decision of final design is made. In case the financial status mainly governs the size and sequence of the project, the client itself should know well about the schedules of its capital investment and expenditure.
Schedule of Quantities

After the architectural/engineering design is determined, a schedule of quantities for all the proposed works will be prepared and to ascertain the true cost of the project by entry of estimated unit rate against each work item. For the sake of not changing the design, the cost of budget can only be fine toned by the change of building material or lower requirement of specifications.

Estimation/Cost Planning

An estimate of capital cost (direct cost and indirect cost) and an estimate of capital expenditure (plant, labour, material, temporary works, fixed overhead, subcontractors, suppliers, operation and maintenance) will be well prepared in some kind of financial schedule to assess the economic viability. At the same time, an income schedule shall also be prepared to foresee the profitability and rate of return in case of a commercial project.
Financial Support

Financing of a project, particularly for a commercial project, may significantly affect the choice of size of project and type of contract to be selected by the client. In case the financial status mainly governs the size and sequence of the project, the client itself should know well about the financial schedule of its capital investment and expenditure. If short of funding, it should look for supports well in advance from outside parties or banks whence necessary.
Contingency

No matter how much time and efforts have been spent on preliminary investigations and in engineering design stage , there are always unforeseen problems encountered in civil engineering projects after the commencement of work . In order to eliminate the situation of running out of budget , the client or its engineer usually allows a contingent sum of money to cover the unexpected additional works .

Site Investigation
As part of the initial studies, a site investigation will be carried out to determine the ground/soil conditions to ascertain the suitability of the proposed site for the proposed building or civil engineering project in view of planning. If time or cost issues prevents a comprehensive site investigation report, the following adverse effects may be witnessed;

Leads to an incomplete engineering design Subsequently leads to a wrongly estimated project cost Subsequently leads to an insufficiently prepared Bill of Quantities Subsequently leads to an inadequate method statement Subsequently leads to a delayed completion date Leads to subsequent claims and prolongation cost Eventually results a higher completion cost than the budget

Planning & Design Phase

The architecture and engineering contract is awarded, and the formal planning and initial design stages are completed during this phase. The project cost and schedule are updated and a revised Operation and Maintenance (O&M) cost estimate is developed during this phase. Site acquisition will not be required for all projects. However, in cases where the site location is unknown, a site acquisition process must be followed.

Design Stages Milestones Project Costs

Design Stages
Schematic Design.
During the Schematic Design stage for buildings, a list of spatial requirements (number of offices, conference rooms, and special spaces) will baseline the design. The goal during this phase is to acquire a complete and accurate understanding of project requirements. For example: - A code analysis will establish specific zoning and environmental restrictions. Based on the Program and Code Analysis - A preliminary design sketch of a site plan (the proposed building located on the site), floor plans (layout) and elevations (exterior views of the building) will be produced. - Then an Outline Specification; a list describing the proposed products and materials to be used on the project will be prepared - Depending on the size and complexity of the project, multiple schemes will be prepared and discussed to focus on the benefits and/or drawbacks of each scheme. Use of several different presentation methods such as 3D perspective drawings and/or models is encouraged. Upon completion of the Schematic Design phase, a preliminary cost estimate for each potential scheme is prepared.

Conceptual design stage.

This stage should demonstrate compliance with the relevant codes and zoning, the space program identified in the programming phase, functional requirements, adjacencies, and the massing should respect the context for the project. Engineering systems must be defined in a narrative form in this phase. Building envelope should be defined and should respect and relate to the context of the project. A design narrative should be included describing the design approach and the rationale for it. The cost estimate should be consistent with the programming phase and be included in the report.

Design development Stage.

Engineering systems must be defined in this phase and incorporated into the architecture. This includes civil, structural, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), plumbing, electrical, fire protection, and security. All building elements and components must be selected, defined, and incorporated in this phase of the work. This includes building envelope, interior construction, service spaces, and elevators. Outline specifications should be produced and included in this package.

Construction document Stage.

This stage includes the production of working drawings that identify all the necessary details. Engineering disciplines should be well-coordinated and incorporated into the architecture. The drawings should also be consistent with the specifications. The notes on these drawings should result in a single interpretation of a specific set of data and become the basis of a competitive price proposal.

Design Modifications Stage.

Modifications can be incorporated at any stage in the project. However, the more advanced the design, the higher the modification cost. Hence, it is best to conduct thorough programming and schematic design phases to avoid any modifications during the design development phase and the construction document phase. Modifications during construction will have to be negotiated with the Architect firm through construction; the Architect firm will prepare a cost estimate for the modification. The contractor will be required to submit a modification (variation order) cost. Modifications are common in every project, so the project manager should anticipate them and budget at least 10 percent of the construction budget as post award allowance. The project manager should expect a higher level of modifications in renovation projects due to unforeseen conditions.

Milestones
This is a series of check points that are required by the Contract to determine the partial completion or substantial completion of the major work at intermittent time during the contract period. It lays out the extent of works required to be completed at a certain time interval (with a key date) after commencement of work in order to govern the programmed and progress of the project. In case there is any variation work instructed by the Engineer that interrupts the works progress of the critical activities to achieve these milestones , an application for extension of time ( EOT ) may be required ; or the Engineer should issue instruction to accelerate the affected works should he still wish to maintain the milestone works at the specified key date ( KD ) .

Project Costs
A budget for expenditures on deployed plant , labour , materials , site supervision , office overhead , temporary works , temporary diversions , permits and licenses , suppliers , subcontractors , safety , environmental protection , financial charges and insurances should be well prepared for guidance of the project cost . The budget for a new project could be forecast based on the past job(s) of similar nature , with cost data to be adjusted to bring the cost to an updated value . The general issues are as follows : a) Purchased Plant : plant cost , maintenance , fuel , mobilization , plant operator and storage area . b) Hired Plant: availability, hire rate , hired period , fuel , mobilization and de-mobilization . c) Labour : directly employed , sublet by day work , overtime work , shift work , various trades , and numbers required at high / low seasons . d) Materials : material cost , delivery lead time , shipping cost , customs , storage area , internal transportation , wastage and disposal . e) Site Supervision : directly employed , sublet by package , shift work and size required at high / low seasons . f) Office Overhead : size required at commencement , during execution and after completion of works . g) Temporary Works : timber-made , steel-made , pre-fabricated , by erection and dismantling , ICE certifications for work , to be re-used , make good works , transportation , storage area and disposal . h) Temporary Diversions : utility diversion , road diversion , signages and barriers , Temporary Traffic Management Scheme ( TTMS ) and reinstatement . i) Licenses and Permits : application fees . j) Suppliers : minimum order quantity ( MOQ ) , downpayment , schedule of shipments and follow-up payment terms . k) Sub-contractors : lump sum price , on re-measurement basis , advance payment , retention money , schedule of payments and final account . l) Safety : complying with the contract requirements , tool box talks , safety promotion , signage , labels and safety audits . m) Environmental Protection : complying with the contract documents , measuring equipments , cost of tests and reinstatement . n) Financial Charges : bank bond , interests , taxation and inflation . o) Insurances : Contractors All Risks ( CAR ) , plant insurance and Employees Compensation Scheme .

Running Cost
After preparation of the budget with itemized costs , an expenditure schedule of running costs on the basis of contract period and programmed works should be listed out for financial evaluation . This is a good time to re-assess whether some other part of the works should be subcontracted instead of executing by direct labour in order to alleviate the financial burden at the peak time .

Cost Centres
This is a kind of payment terms that lays out a series of fixed payments ( partial payments of the contract sum ) to be certified at various status of completion of works as required by the Contract . The works that require to be completed may be part of the permanent works , or provision of temporary work , or approval of the trial erection , or receipt of the major material on site , etc . In this case , the estimator is quite easily to predict the forthcoming income if the programmed works are being executed on time . In some cases , the re-scheduling of programmed works might help to achieve these cost centres earlier in order to release the financial burden of the running cost .

Cash Flow Forecast

Movements of cash either into or out of the project account are all regarded as cash flows . With reference of the above running costs schedule , cost centres and milestones , the estimator could then prepare a cash flow forecast on the basis of probable incomes ( valuation of workdone ) , retention money and predicted expenditures in accordance with the works programme . This forecast will help the commercial staff to determine the amount and time that are required for financial supports .

Fluctuation
Fluctuations are the changes in the price of wages and materials during the period of construction and are based on the monthly publication of Index of Wage Rates for the building industry by the Census and Statistics Department of the Hong Kong Government . These indices of wage rates are evaluated and averaged from the preceding 3 months wages return submitted by the main contractors of prevailing major projects in Hong Kong . If the percentage of increase / decrease is less than 10% , no adjustment will be made to the contract sum ; but if the percentage of increase / decrease is more than 10% , the contract sum will then be adjusted by the net amount that exceeds 10% . Previously most contracts , particularly for large sized project , are having a clause for fluctuations . However nowadays , the employer would rather shift the risk of wages and materials fluctuations to the contractor to consider at the tendering stage and remove this clause from the contract documents .

Auditing
For a large sized project , there are so many trades of works to be dealt with . Every issue existing on a construction site will affect the profit and loss of a contract , no matter it is huge or tiny . For instance the drinking water for the workers , it is crystal clear that the cost of provision of soft drinks is higher than bottled mineral water , in turn is higher than the bulk mineral water and in turn is higher than the boiled tap water being cooled overnight . Thus , internal audits or independent audits are essential to keep the works and progress ( technical audit ) , the incomes and expenditures ( financial audit ) and the safety issues ( safety audit ) in good order and in an efficient manner . The sophisticated review of these audits will surely help to complete the project economically and efficiently .

Project Bonus / Penalty

For commercial projects , sometimes there is an offer of bonus stated in the contract if the whole of project is completed on time or earlier than the target date . This bonus clause may encourage the contractor to keep a close eye on the progress and coordination of the works , and even could make use of this clause to voluntarily accelerate the works to achieve an early completion should the contractor finds beneficial and profitable . On the other hand , the penalty clause is being used to push the contractor to finish the works on time . Nowadays , these bonus / penalty clauses are also commonly applying to the safety issues on a construction site by which to encourage the main contractor to keep the site in a safe manner and without or with low accident frequency .
Milestones up Main Contracts Award Phase

Preparation of Contract Documents

Preparation of Tender Documents
At the time of calling for tenders , it is the best to portray the full design , detailed requirements , stage completions of works , contractors responsibilities , terms of payment and any other special conditions into tender drawings , specifications , bills of quantities , works programme and the contract documents . With more comprehensive indications , the tenderers will more easily understand the entire scope of work such that they can submit a competitive but accurate quoted price to cover the whole of the work . Lack of adequate information in the tender documents will consequently lead to disputes and claims during and at the end of the contract . The list of tender documents generally includes : a) Instructions to tenderers b) Form of Tender c) General Condition of Contract d) Special Condition of Contract e) General Specification f) Particular Specification g) Bill of Quantities h) Methods of Measurement i) Tender Drawings j) Additional appendices k) Form of Agreement

Preparation of Bills of Quantities (BOQ)

The bill of quantities is a schedule of preset work items for individual portion of contract works . It lays out the brief description of the required work and with approximate quantity taken off from the tender drawings. The contract may contain a series of bills to cover the whole of the work. These series of BOQ will form a part of the tender documents for the tenderers to quote against each item with a unit rate or unit price . The total tendered price will then be built up on basis of the provided quantity . Valuation of the BOQ items will be based on the preface and in accordance with the procedure set forth in the Standard Method of Measurement ( SMM ) . Absolute care must be taken to check whether there are typing errors in regards of the BOQ unit and the numerical figures of the BOQ quantity .

Particular Specification ( PS )
Contractually the provisions contained in the Particular Specification and the Drawings shall prevail over the provisions contained in the General / Standard Specification .

Preparation of Specifications
Specification is a set of documents that describes the details of each trade of works and set out the requirements for quality of materials , workmanship , and method of tests, sequence of works, stages of inspection, acceptance criteria and any other obligations of the contractor that are not covered by the Conditions of Contract . When drafting the specification , it is important that the clauses should be written in good and simple English so that the site staff can readily understand what the requirements are . Absolute care must be taken to avoid having conflicts with the other contract documents or otherwise may trigger out disputes during or after completion of work .

General / Standard Specification ( GS / SS )

Contractually the provisions contained in the General Specification shall prevail over the provisions contained in the standard documents such as the British Standards ( BS ) , British Standard Codes of Practice ( CP ) , American Society for Testing and Materials ( ASTM ) Standards , etc .

Preparation of Drawings
The set of tender drawings should provide all the details of proposed works that are required by the contract , however this is always not practicable owing to many reasons . One of the main reasons is that when time is of an essence , the client may want to commence the project within short time such that the clients engineer in fact does not have sufficient time to finish up the detailed design , and sometimes even working concurrently after the work is commenced . Nevertheless the incomplete tender drawings will most likely influence the preparation , execution and cost of work which in turn will consequently affect the tendered price . Failure to provide sufficient and correct information in the tender drawings will unavoidably lead to follow up disputes and claims

Tender of Construction Projects

Invitation of Tender
When the client decides to proceed the project by enter into a contract , normally there are 3 ways to select a contractor that are as follows : a) Open tendering b) Invited tendering c) Negotiation with a selected contractor Instructions to tenderers will be issued to the interested parties to assist them to complete the tender documents , and return the tenders in a format as required by the client or its engineer for easy assessment .

Tender Bond
The employer might require each of the tenderers to provide a bond ( usually from a bank ) as a security to ensure the selected contractor would not attempt to withdraw its tender after submission or refuse to sign the contract after it is awarded . In the latter case , it obviously will cause loss to the employer owing to the additional expense or time delay to the proposed project .

Tender Query
During the preparation of the tender , the prospective contractors may make extensive inquiries for clarification of some omissions , mistakes , uncertainties or ambiguities found in the tender documents . In order to assist the tenderers to ascertain the appropriate cost and time of work and to minimize the contractual risks , the clients engineer will reply to these queries and copy to all tenderers at the same time for their information .

Assessment of Tender Bids

Tendered price , works experience and financial standing are essential for selection of a prospective contractor . A comparison summary with analysis of all the tenders should be well presented for assessment purpose . There is always a clause in the tender documents to remind the tenderers that the client does not undertake to accept the lowest or any tender . However in case a tender other than the lowest is recommended , full explanation must be recorded to clarify others query . In fact , the client and its engineer may not have to know precisely how the tenderers build up their tender price . Nevertheless if some BQ items are found that bear an exceptionally higher or lower quoted rate than the estimate , careful examination should be conducted to explore whether there are mistakes or errors had been made by the tenderer ; or otherwise these mistakes or errors in fact exist in the contract documents .

Tender Admendments
During the tendering period , the client and its representatives will take time to go through again the contract documents and carefully examine whether there are omissions or mistakes exist . In case omissions or mistakes are discovered , the clients engineer will inform all the tenderers at the same time before the tender is closed . In case there are minor change of design and updating of works details , the clients engineer will inform all the tenderers by means of letters and these letters will be kept as appendices in the tender documents .

Drawings Register
Ideally , all the details of works and particular notes should be quoted on the construction drawings at the tender stage or at least at commencement of works , however it rarely can be achieved . Sometimes the full set of construction drawings are even not yet finished at time of awarding the contract . Thus the Engineer / Architect will usually issue a series of working drawings during the construction period or amend and supplement details to the tender drawings from time to time for construction . While the contract price is based on the bills of quantities taking off from the tender drawings , this practice may incur additional or variation work to the contractor and subsequently affects the works programme and progress . In view of this situation , a detailed drawings register must be kept and maintained for commercial purpose . The drawings register should include at least the followings : a) Date and time of receipt ; b) Drawing number ; c) Revision number ; d) Drawing title ; e) Purposes of Issue eg. for construction , for information or for tender ; f) Accompany document reference eg. Site Instruction ( SI ) , Drawing Amendment Notification ( DAN ) , Variation Order ( VO ), transmittal , correspondence , etc.

Receipt of Drawings
After the award of contract , the Engineer will issue construction or working drawings via its site representative to the contractor for execution of work . These construction drawings at receipt should be well dated and documented . A log book and a standard chop should be prepared for onward registration . The key personnel should try to explore any interface problems between the adjacent main contract and inform the Engineer for solution if applicable . Copies of these received drawings are then prepared for in-house allocation and sub-contract purposes . Further receipt of drawing revisions shall be updated , registered and maintained in a traceable manner for reference . It is recommended that every drawing and sketch received to be registered with date and transmittal reference. This data is often critical for tracing back any design related delays or disruptions.

Types of Contracts
Below shows some common contract types used in construction. It is also prudent to remember that the contract type is a base and most contracts has has its own unique complications to the type.

Lump Sum Contract

The Lump Sum Contract can sometimes be called 'Stipulated Sum' and is the most basic form of agreement where the contractor/supplier agrees a fixed lump sum price to undertake all the specified contract works and the employer agrees to pay this price upon completion of works. The Schedule of Rates may be provided by the employer but quantities are usually binding upon the contract drawings and specifications. The SoR can be used for payment purposes and the rates used for assessments of design changes and additional work.
Advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Lower financial risk to Employer. Higher financial risk to Contractor. Minimum Owner supervision related to quality and schedule. Contractor has higher incentive to achieve earlier completion and better performance. Contractor selection is relatively easy.

Disadvantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Changes difficult and costly. (but it usually is) Need to substantially complete design prior to bidding. Contractor inclined to choose lowest methods / materials to comply with specification. Hard to build relationship. Each project is unique. Bidding expensive and lengthy. Contractors may include high contingency within each Schedule of Rate item

Re-measurement Contract
The Re-measurement Contract contains a Bill of Quantities ( BQ )provided by the employer or its consultants, however the BQ quantity is estimated and not final . The contractor will quote against each BQ item and enter a unit rate or unit price to build up the total contract price on basis of those BQ quantities . During the construction period , the actual quantity of works executed under each BQ item will be jointly measured and valued at the quoted rate for interim payment purpose . At completion of contract , the exact quantity of works finally executed under each BQ item will be again re-measured ( ie. the final measurement ) and valued at the quoted rate to evaluate the final account . In case of instructed variation or additional works that are without basis of BQ rate(s) , the contractor can build up new rates or star rates for those works for valuation . Arguably , this type of contract is more fair to both the client and the contractor because the final contact sum is based on a final re-measurement rather than being based on preliminary quantities set at tender.

Build , Operate and Transfer ( BOT ) Contract

This type of contract is sometimes known as Build , Own , Operate and Transfer ( BOOT ) contract . The client will layout a series of required end products with specification , terms and conditions ; and the contractor has to finance , design , construct , maintain , manage and operate the finished work for an agreed period say 10 years , 20 years or so . During this agreed period , the contractor has the temporary ownership of these finished works and can charge the end users for recovery of its investment together with the expected profit . However when the agreed period expires , the finished work will have to be transferred back to the client in specified conditions .

All-in Contract
This type of contract is sometimes known as package contract or turnkey contract or design and build contract and can be on lump sum basis or re-measurement basis . The client or its engineer will set out the requirements in board or particular terms and invite the tenderers ( usually pre-qualified ) to submit a comprehensive proposal for the design and construction of the project .

Maintenance Contract
This type of contract is usually for the maintenance or renovation work of a large sized project and the construction period usually ranges between 2 to 3 years or as otherwise agreed . Usually a schedule of rates contains a comprehensive list of work items is already prepared to cover the employers proposed works but without specified quantities . The tenderers will be invited to quote their competitive rates against the work items in the schedule ; or sometimes to quote an addition / deduction percentages against the pre-determined rates entered by the employer or its engineer . The employer will issue Works Orders to the contractor during the stated period for execution of any work items as required in anywhere within the project site . Payment for workdone will be based on the agreed schedule of rates . In case the executed work items are not covered under the agreed schedule of rates , a new rate or star rate will be built up and jointly agreed for payment purpose .

Term Contract
This type of contract is a short term contract and usually applies to some project which has an urgency to commence construction work . It includes a list of major work items with provisional quantities and invites the contractor to quote . Following the award of the contract , the contractor will immediately commence preparatory work and detailed scope of works will be instructed from time to time until the whole design is completed . The works payment will be on the basis of the list of major work items , and will negotiate a relevant new rate for the missing work items .

Letter of Intent
The Letter of Intent(LoI) is a letter of acceptance of the tender which includes all the terms and conditions as specified in the contract documents in addition to any modifications and discussions that are recorded by means of exchange of letters during the tendering stage. Before a formal contract is prepared for joint signatures or seals, the client or its representative will usually issue a letter of intent first to the selected contractor for their preparation to commence work.

Performance Bond
It is often for a construction contract that the employer requires the contractor to provide some security to guarantee the fulfillment of the sublet contract and to protect the employer in respect of the additional costs caused by the contractors failure to perform . A bond is just a simple contract , separated from the construction contract , by which someone ( usually a bank or guarantor ) agrees to pay to the employer a certain sum of money if the defined terms of the bond are met . The contractor may have to deposit a certain amount of money into and secured by the bank , and / or to pay financial charges and interests to the bank for the issue of a bond .

Company Guarantee
Other than a bank bond is required from the main contractor to secure the fulfillment of a contract , a company guarantee is also needed . For large civil engineering projects , it is usual that a group of local and / or overseas construction companies to form a joint venture ( JV ) to tender the works owing to sharing of commercial risks , financial , technical and / or management supports . For some commercial projects , sometimes the developer or the construction company may even make use of a new company to tender the work in order not to affect the routine business of the parent company in case there were troubles . Thus , in all these cases , a parent company guarantee will be required by the Client to secure the satisfactory completion of the project .

Product Warranty
For some specific material or end products , the Client might seek for a warranty from the main contractor but is usually provided by the nominated supplier to guarantee the quality and / or performance of the specified products for a certain period of life time , beyond the maintenance period but excluding the normal tear and wear of the material . This may apply to , for instance , waterproofing for a structure , durability of a bridge bearing , performance of E & M equipments , protective coating of metal , or effectiveness of acoustic assemblies , etc .

Contract Documents
There are 2 forms of contract commonly used ; a) ICE Contract b) FIDIC Contract Availability of Contract / Sub-Contract Documents The original of full set contract documents and sub-contract documents together with contract drawings shall be kept in project office by the commercial / QS staff . A copy of the same set of documents ( with omissions of tendered price ) and drawings shall also be produced and kept in site office for the staffs reference . However , if the commercial staff found that there are some BQ items which carry a too high or too low unit rate , this should be highlighted for the site supervisors information and awareness . The too high / too low rates might be the incidental tender errors , however if the front loading technique is applied to the BQ items ( ie. high rates at start and low rates at completion ) , it may not so easily to control up to the completion of the Contract . Signing of Contract Documents When signing or countersigning the contract documents , particularly for Sub-Contracts , it must be checked very carefully against the agreed terms and conditions , tendered price and addendums . Once signed on it means accepted it . However beside the Main Contract entered into with the Employer , some main contractors are reluctant to sign back and return the subcontract to the sub-contractor until near completion of work . This is obviously not fair at all to the counter-party . In the recent years , back to back becomes a common term when discussing contracts . In this situation , the whole terms and conditions of a contract and its specifications are taken aboard by the contractor . This term back to back is sometimes used incorrectly when referring to situations such as subletting parts of the contract work and the contractor needs only to abide to the technical aspects of the contract and the contractual terms are to be separately dealt with .

Master Programme

The prolonged construction period to compete the contract works will significantly affect the profits of the contract . A draft programme should be prepared and circulated to seek advice and comments before implementation. Programme should clearly indicate the ID No., activities, start & finish dates, duration , stage, phase and location of work and the links. A well organized programme will help to carry out the work ahead or on time and average the labour cost with least disturbance to the site work still in progress.

Critical Path To be forthcoming - need info Critical Activity To be forthcoming - need info

International Organization for Standardization

Nowadays in construction industry, the site staff should try to gain themselves more knowledge regarding the ISO requirements. In fact, the Hong Kong Government already announced that after 1 April 1993, only the ISO 9000 certified companies are eligible for tendering the government projects. In the past days, quality control ( QC ) is the traditional way to ensure the work is done properly before handover . However, this method only aims on checking whether it meets with the specification and drawings at time when the work is finished. This way is obviously not desirable because if there is anything found out of tolerance, additional expenses will be incurred to rectify the deficiencies. The implementation of ISO 9000 will eliminate this shortcoming. These quality management systems include a series of standards for policy , planning , organization , responsibility , training , document control , operational procedure , measurement , calibration , non-conformance , corrective action , preventive action , record , audit and management review . More information can be obtained from other particularized reference books should someone find this subject interesting , such as the ISO 9000 , 9001 , 9002 , 9003 , 9004 or the ISO 14001 which provides a series of standards to support environmental protection .

Manufacturing Quality Plan

Some construction contracts may require manufacturing or fabrication of large quanitities of precise products such as concrete segments for viaduct , steel portals for enclosure , facades for building , curtain wall and cladding. Generally these products are manufactured off site or overseas . A comprehensive Manufacturing Quality Plan (MQP) will provide control and knowledge of how the products will be manufactured in compliance with the specifications and drawings . A MQP may include; a) Location , size , access , set up and capacity of factory ; b) Resources like supervision , labour , plant , equipment and materials ; c) Facilities like insurance , communication , water , power and electricity ; d) Manufacturing process , ISO qualifications and QA / QC / NCR systems ; e) Labeling , storage , protection , packing and delivery ; f) Trial erection , assembly or mock up for approval .

Construction Quality Plan

For large sized projects with major amounts of repetitive work like the railway , tunnel , launching of viaduct segments or a series of residential buildings , the Engineer may request the contractor to submit a CQP for discussion . Since these projects are usually executed in phrases of work or commence work simultaneously at various locations , a well planned CQP will help the Engineer to have full knowledge of how the project could be completed in compliance with the specifications and drawings and most important of all , finishing at the same time with full scale . The CQP shall state at least the followings for consideration : a) Programme , phrases and shifts of work ; b) Resources like supervision , labour , plant and materials ; c) Facilities like communication , transport , vertical delivery , temporary water and power supply ; d) Utilities diversions , road diversions and TTMS ; e) Manufacturing , storage and delivery of precast / pre-fabricated items ; f) Design , erection , dismantling and location of temporary work / plant ; g) Method statements and sequence of works ; h) Construction process and QA / QC / NCR systems ; g) Identification , labeling and protection of work before handover ; h) Inspection and Testing Plan ( ITP ) ; i) Handover Plan .

Inspection & Testing Plan

The purpose of an Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) is a quality control document that records and controls all inspection and testing requirements relevant to the sub-contract or process. This quality control plan is often requied in construction contracts and should list out the various stages of work and show when to conduct test and inspection and which parties should be involved. The plan should propose hold or witness points at inspection and recommend permission to proceed upon approval. A hold point defines a checkpoint which requires the successful completion and approval of inspection or test before work can proceed.

Independent Checking Engineer

The purpose of the Independent Checking Engineer is to provide a third party check or way to resolve technical issues that may benefit from an objective and independent review. The qualified independent engineer serving as the ICE will be independent from the employer, its representatives and the contractor. Issues that require the involvement of ICEs are often stipulated in the contract documents.

Construction Mobilization Phase

After the contractor is selected, a number of activities must be completed before installation work can begin at the project site. Various bonds, licenses and insurances must be secured. A detailed program for the construction activities must be prepared. The cost estimate must be converted to a project budget and the system for tracking actual project costs must be established. The site must be organized, with provisions for temporary buildings and services, access and delivery, storage areas and site security. The process of obtaining materials and equipment to be incorporated into the project must be initiated and arrangements for labor, the other essential resource, must be organized. With the completion of this phase, it is finally time to begin the actual field construction. A good start helps significantly to finish the forthcoming project correctly , fluently and efficiently , on time and under control . Each duty staff should have a general picture of what he / she has to proceed on his / her part of work and should try to make use of their personnel skills , engineering knowledge and site experience to foresee and establish an in-house system or check list before commences the work . Herein some issues are contractual while some of them are procedural . This chapter mentions most of the issues that have to be prepared and aware of by the site staff. This Phase also begins the process of sourcing and the award of the larger sub-contractors, specialist sub-contractors and supply contracts which often is a race against time for the procurement department and written confirmations on issues such as commencement date , possession of site , initial joint survey , receipt of construction drawings , master programme , etc may seem too formal at this early stage and that it may violate the harmony between the involved parties. However, it should be stated that most contractual disputes will ultimately come back to these base lines.

License and permits

Application for licenses and permits from the Local Authorities usually needs comprehensive supporting documents and drawings and may require a long time to process. Statutory permits for construction projects may include; a) Road Opening Permit from Highways Dept ; b) Mariner Notice from Marine Dept ; c) Dumping Permit from Civil Engineering Development Dept ; d) Construction Noise Permit ( CNP ) from Environmental Protection Dept ; e) Road Diversion Permit from Police Dept ; and f) Blasting Permit from Mines Dept .

Survey on Site Boundary

The complexity and accuracy of survey method(s) employed in setting out of the site boundary depends on the site conditions and type of works under construction. Before possession of a works site, a joint survey on the site boundary or datum should be conducted to confirm the agreed works areas as provided under the conditions of contract.

Date of Commencement Site Possession Site Access Site Organization Site Insurance Site Office

Date of Commencement
Subsequent to the issue of letter of intent to the selected contractor , the Engineer will then formally instruct the contractor to proceed with the contract work and to define a commencement date after which the time for completion will run on . The Date of Commencement of a contract is often the subject of disputes in Construction and it is recommended that an commencement date be agreed upon between concerned parties as soon as possible. This date could be critical for the evaluation of the contract completion date , Extensions of Time , prolongation costs , maintenance period , release of retention and many others.

Site Possession
Possession of the site will be given to the contractor in accordance with the terms and conditions of the contract . These dates of possession of site must be clearly recorded , especially in cases of partial possession handover. The commencement date of contract may not be the same day that work commences on site and the exact date and conditions of Site Possession as referred to in the contract needs to be clearly specified and understood to avoid future disputes Notice to public should be posted at any ingress / egress of work site to notify the passers-by that there is construction work carrying on . Project signboards should also be erected at all main ingress / egress of site to illustrate the Project Title , site plan , the Client and the major parties concerned ..

Site Access
Possession of site does not necessarily mean there will be undisrupted access to the work areas For example , the contractor is given possession of the site, however the area is located behind a native village and the only vehicle access from the main road has to pass by their Chi Tong ( Temple ). The village representatives protests that the flow of construction vehicles will seriously affect their Fung Shui and only allows the workers to carry constructional equipment and materials by hand to the borrow area . Regardless of the contract conditions , it still requires timely negotiation with the villagers to settle the access problem and when worse comes to worst , new construction and subsequent reinstatement of temporary access road may be required for replacement . Thus the dates of gradual possession of access roads to work sites are critical for programming of Work and should be recorded . Possession of access is only one of the potential problems on site that eventually requires the Contractor to resolve. Whether or not the contractor can resolve these issues with any reimbursement from the contract depends on prior agreement and clear and precise documentation and records of any disruption.

Site Organization
A well-planned site organization plays a major part in determining the success of a construction project. The type and scale of personnel depends on the scale of the project, however preliminary site roles often include the following; a) Survey crew : conduct initial record survey for handover/takeover purpose ; b) Planning Engineer/Planner : administer master programme for commencing works c) Administration : issue and receipt of correspondence and drawings. For construction sites are are difficult to reach, special arrangement of site transport may be necessary for site staff and workers.

Site Insurance
Insurance is quite a specialized issue and is a must in construction industry . It has to be handled by the Head Office , not by site staff . The extent of insurance cover desirable and obtainable depends on each case stipulated in the conditions of contract together with any particular risks likely to be involved . Nevertheless the site staff must aware and ensure that the respective insurance cover is in effect before the work starts . Do remember to post a true copy of the Employees Compensation Certificate in the site office for general notice . The insurance generally required for a project are as follows : a) Contractors All Risks ( CAR ) ; b) Employees Compensation Scheme ( EC ) ; c) Off-site Plant Insurance ; and d) Special Labour Insurance , eg. Diver . It is common practice that an excess be set as a basic threshold for anys insurance claims by sub-contractors. The presence of this excess often poses the dilema of whether or not to proceed with an insurance claim and often depending on the amount of damages, prior number of claims and consequences.

Site Office
Depending on the size of project , geographical configuration of site and duration of construction period , an appropriate site office plan should be set up for the operation of site activities.

Site Office set up

Smaller site offices could be one customized shipping container equipped with general facilities whilst the larger site offices could be custom built multi-story structures set up to provide document control, meeting facilities and administration support. A site office plan should be made and factors to be considered should include;

Size of the required site office Obstruction to site works Choosing a suitable location

Project Office
For larger construction projects, often the project team and consultants will be stationed on site to facilitate more efficient communication with the concerned parties.

Construction Phase
This phase covers the actual activities on the construction site as well as the monitoring, documentation and commercial and resource planning that goes into all construction projects For quality, one should be familiar with the specifications and working drawings ; for cost issue , one should be familiar with the know-how of method statements and deployment of resource ; for time issue , one should be familiar with the stages of work and the predicted programme . Beside all these , safety and environmental protection issues are always a must on a construction site . Furthermore , bearing in mind that your attitude and personnel skills with the seniors , colleagues , sub-contractors , suppliers and the Clients representatives may also affect the performance. There is no doubt that routine supervision on site requires general engineering knowledge and experience , in additional to the working drawings and contract specifications . Knowledge and experience may differ from where the site staff got it , however the subordinates usually follow the practice of their team leader . Hence the team leader should always show a good example of himself to demonstrate the requirements and attitude of his team in ways of attendance , diligence , consistent judgment , definite decision and the degree of toleration of work.

Site Records Site Tests

Site Records
Time Sheet
Time sheet is different from daily report and is used to note down record of the staffs attendance not only for time in and time out but also for the hourly workdone in each day . Site supervisors may not have to complete the daily time sheets since they are usually working full time on site(s) for one project . But for office staff , they might sometime handle a couple of projects at the same time , so their daily time sheets will help to analyse the cost for separate project . Time sheet should state at least the job site , job allocation , brief description of daily workdone including overtime work and reference of Instruction ( where applicable ) .

Daily Report / Site Diary

Site supervisors must complete the daily report or site diary on daily basis to record down what has been happened on each day during the construction period . Daily reports / site diary shall be continuous without break , that means it has to be prepared for each day although on holiday , on leave or without site activity . The report shall contain the works information of at least the job site , date , weather condition , location & duration & brief description of work , Instruction reference ( where applicable ) , resources of labour & plant , materials on site , daily particulars and signature . Daily Reports are a collection of contemporary work records which is very important to the commercial staff who might need to handle the claims , Variation Orders , extension of time and prolongation cost at the end of a contract . For HK Government projects , the book of Site Diary has to be prepared by the RSS at least on weekly basis and send to the contractor for endorsement with authorized signature . Once it is countersigned , it will become part of the contract documents .

Weekly Report
The senior staff on site is encouraged to complete the weekly report and return to project office for information and record . In fact weekly reports are only a series of progress reports stating conclusively what has been happened during the current week and what may be happened in the following week , and the update and amendment will not require too much time to prepare . Weekly Report should contain the progress information of say the job site , current week No. & total work weeks , elapse of construction period , % of weekly & cumulative workdone , resource of staff & workers , materials on site during the week , more important is the areas of concern and preferably with some site photos . This kind of report will help the office staff to understand what was happening on site , with reference to the updated progress charts , they could then easily monitor the programme from time to time up to completion of the works.

Monthly Report
As a normal practice , the managerial staff is usually required to produce reports on monthly basis for the Head Office information . These monthly reports are a series of performance reports stating what have been executed during the current month and what may be done in the following month . With the prediction of achieving the various cost centres and milestones , the most of all is to estimate the project receivables and expenses and to set out the financial cashflow for the following months . At the end of each contract, monthly reports can be used for general cost analysis.

Incident Report
Site supervisor who encountered any incident during the course of site work should prepare the incident report for record and follow up purpose . Incident report should state at least the job title , date & time , description of incident , findings , probable causes , immediate actions taken ( if applicable ) , precaution control , recommendations and preferably with illustration sketch and record photos . For accidents with injury and near miss cases , the report shall be prepared by the safety officer for investigation and further analysis .

Site Tests
There are quite a lot of site tests to be conducted on construction site before , during and after the execution of a construction project. Most of these site tests are to be carried out by the laboratory staff , however in some cases some of these tests are to be looked after by the supervisory staff on the job site . This chapter only introduces the scope of work of a site test and describes the preparatory works to be handled by the staff on site . In view of the calculation of the test result , it should be left to the independent laboratory staff to determine . Site test is used to determine the acceptance of a material or a semi-finished product or the site condition at some specified stage of works before further work is allowed to proceed , or optionally as required by the Engineer in case of query . The individual or collection of acceptable test results does not define the final acceptance of the work but could be used to support the interim performance at various stages . The site staff should bear in mind to clean the testing apparatus after each use , to store and maintain in good condition and to carry out periodical calibration .

A ) For concrete Works - Sampling of Trial Mix ( at Batching Plant ) - Sampling of aggregates ( at stockpile ) - Sampling of Reinforcement - Speedy Test ( for moisture content ) - Slump Test ( for workability of concrete ) - Compacting Factor Test ( for self compaction of concrete ) - Temperature Test ( for green concrete ) - Compression Test ( for Compression Test ) - Sand Patch Test ( for surface texture of rigid pavement ) - Rolling Edge Test ( for surface profile of rigid or flexible pavement ) - Test cores ( for hardened concrete / asphalt concrete ) - Cover metre test ( for reinforced concrete structure ) - Schimt Hammer Test ( for structural concrete ) B ) For Steelwork - Torque Test - Pull Out Test ( for cast-in sockets of anchorage system ) - Paint Thickness Test - Radiographic Test ( for welding ) - Ultrasonic Test ( for welding ) - Magnetic Particle Inspection ( MPI ) C ) For Water Leakage - Soil Permeability Tests - Dye Test - Ponding Test ( for service reservoir / penstock ) D ) For Piling work - Kentledge Pile Loading Test E ) For Drainage works - Air Test ( for gravity pipeline ) - Water Test ( for gravity pipeline ) - Infiltration Test ( for sewage drainage system ) - Pigging - Closed Circuit Television ( CCTV ) F ) For Marine works - Sand Content Test ( for seabed material ) - Bar Check Test ( for Echo Sounder )

G ) For Earthworks - GEO Probe Test ( Drop Hammer Test ) - Proctor Test ( to determine the max dry density and optimum moisture content ) - Sand Replacement Test ( to determine compacted soil condition ) - California Bearing Ratio ( CBR ) Test - Compaction by Roller ( product spec )

Sampling of Trial Mix Sampling of Aggregates Sampling of Reinforcement Speedy Test Slump Test Compacting Factor Test Compression Test Temperature Test Sand Patch Test Rolling Edge Test Test cores Cover Metre Test Torque Test Pull Out Test Schimt Hammer Test Paint Thickness Test Air Test Bar Check Test California Bearing Ratio Closed Circuit Television Compaction by Roller Dye Test GEO Probe Test Infiltration Test Kentledge Pile Loading Test Magnetic Particle Inspection Pigging Ponding Test Proctor Test Radiographic Test Sand Replacement Test Soil Permeability Tests Ultrasonic Test Water Test

Sampling of Trial Mix

This process is usually conducted at the approved batching plant . When the trial mix of concrete ( with a nominal load ) produced from the batching plant is sufficiently mixed inside the mixer or the drum of a concrete truck , the mix is then discharged with a chute for testing . 3 separate increments should be obtained with a scoop by passing across the stream of concrete at about the first 1/6 , 1/2 and 5/6 of the load and put into a bucket . Pour these sampled concrete onto a levelled tray of approximate size 900mm x 900mm x 60mm high edges and thoroughly mix it together . After passing the slump test and temperature test , the mix is then evenly spread out inside the tray and divide to 4 quarters on plan . Remove away one set of opposite quarters in either direction , the remaining 2 quarters will then be thoroughly mixed up again for sampling of the test cubes .

Sampling of Aggregates
The fine and coarse aggregates storing at the stockpile or batching plant should be periodically sampled for sieve analysis , ie the Grading Test , before bringing up to the overhead hoppers for batching purpose . When the aggregates are delivered to the stockpile on site , it usually causes segregation during unloading , no matter by conveyor belt beside the waterfront or end tipping by lorry .

Segregation means the fine material leaving at the top while the coarse material rolls down to the toe of stockpile . Thus , sampling should be conducted at different levels within the middle half of the stockpile and avoid sampling material at the top and bottom parts . The sample will be divided by using a riffle box to obtain a specimen for testing .

Sampling of Reinforcement
Sampling of reinforcement is always conducted by the site supervisor who should also get the copy of mill certificate and letter of origin of the sampled batch of steel bars available at time of submission for tests . The frequency and number of samples to be taken may vary at different contract stage and with different batches , sizes , types of steel bars and should be in accordance with the Specification . The samples are to be tested in the laboratory normally for ; a) yield stress b) elongation c) tensile strength d) bending and re-bending properties e) unit mass The results will represent the acceptance or failure of the sampled batch of steel bars . For sample of fabric reinforcement , it shall also be tested for weld shear strength . The steel bar samples must be sawn cut to maintain the same feature and should be obtained from different piece of steel bars to ensure a representative result . Someone might sample the whole lot of test specimens from only one or two numbers of steel bar to avoid material wastage and this malpractice is really risky . Once the test results fail to comply with the requirements , the representative batch of steel bars will be rejected resulting that the finished work will become abortive and extra work will be required to replace these reinforcement in a concrete pour . While the new batch of steel bars is delivered to site , it has to stockpile separately or being fenced off from the previous batches await testing before use . There is a general practice on site how to distinguish the running storage of steel bars to avoid the prompt use of newly delivered steel bars and leave behind the previous steel bars rusting at bottom of the heap , it is called the BYGO theory that is as follows : B for blue to identify steel bars delivered to site between January and March Y for yellow stands for period between April and June G for green stands for period between July and September O for orange stands for period between October and December . R - Red stands for rejection and the batch under tests is fenced off , the various stockpiles of steel bars could then be easily monitored .

Speedy Test
This is a quick site test to determine the insitu moisture content of the fine aggregate , sand or non-cohesive soils . In principle , the moisture content of these materials should be defined by Oven Test inside the laboratory . But in some cases while the materials are openly stored without sheltering and meets with a sudden wet weather , this test will provide quick result for in situ moisture content although the result is not so accurate . The principle of this test is to make use of nitrogen to react with the moisture content contained in the sample and provide a reading for comparison .

Slump Test
This is a site test to determine the workability of the ready mixed concrete just before its placing to final position inside the formwork , and is always conducted by the supervisor on site . However in mid of concreting process , should the site supervisor visually finds that the green concrete becomes dry or the placement of concrete has been interrupted , a re-test on the remaining concrete should be conducted in particular of the pour for congested reinforcement area . The procedure of test in brief is as follows; 1. Ensure the standard Slump Cone and associated equipment are clean before test and free from hardened concrete . 2. Wet the Slump Cone and drain away the superfluous water . 3. Request the mixer or concrete truck to well mix the concrete for additional 5 minutes . 4. Place the Slump Cone on one side ( ie. not in middle ) of the base plate on levelled ground and stand with feet on the foot-pieces of cone . 5. Using a scoop and fill the cone with sampled concrete in 3 equal layers , each of about 100mm thick . 6. Compact each layer of concrete in turn exactly 25 times with a Slump Rod , allowing the rod just passes into the underlying layer . 7. While tamping the top layer , top up the cone with a slight surcharge of concrete after the tamping operation . 8. Level the top by a sawing and rolling motion of the Slump Rod across the cone . 9. With feet are still firmly on the foot-pieces , wipe the cone and base plate clean and remove any leaked concrete from bottom edge of the Slump Cone . 10. Leave the foot-pieces and lift the cone carefully in a vertical up motion in a few seconds time . 11. Invert the cone on other side and next to the mound of concrete . 12. Lay the Slump Rod across the inverted cone such that it passes above the slumped concrete at its highest point . 13. Measure the distance between the underside of rod and the highest point of concrete to the nearest 5mm ( see Fig 7 3 ) . 14. This reading is the amount that the sampled concrete has slumped . 15. If the concrete does not show an acceptable slump ( see Fig 7 4 ) , repeat the test with another sample . 16. If the repeated test still does not show an acceptable slump , record this fact in the report , or reject that load of concrete .

Compacting Factor Test

This is a site test to determine the consistency or workability of concrete and is conducted in the lab or on site .Nowadays, this test is commonly replaced by the Slump Test to determine the workability of the green concrete . The procedure of this test in brief is as follows;

1. Ensure the apparatus and associated equipment are clean before test and free from hardened concrete and superfluous water . 2. Weigh the bottom cylinder to nearest 10gm , put it back on the stand and cover it up with a pair of floats . 3. Gently fill the upper hopper with the sampled concrete to the level of the rim with use of a scoop . 4. Immediately open the trap door of the upper hopper and allow the sampled concrete to fall into the middle hopper . 5. Remove the floats on top of the bottom cylinder and open the trap door of the middle hopper allowing the sampled concrete to fall into the bottom cylinder . 6. Remove the surplus concrete above the top of the bottom cylinder by holding a float in each hand and move towards each other to cut off the concrete across the top of cylinder . 7. Wipe clean the outside of cylinder of concrete and weigh to nearest 10gm . 8. Subtract the weight of empty cylinder from the weight of cylinder plus concrete to obtain the weight of partially compacted concrete . 9. Remove the concrete from the cylinder and refill with sampled concrete in layers . 10. Compact each layer thoroughly with the standard Compacting Bar to achieve full compaction . 11. Float off the surplus concrete to top of cylinder and wipe it clean . 12. Weigh the cylinder to nearest 10gm and subtract the weight of empty cylinder from the weight of cylinder plus concrete to obtain the weight of fully compacted concrete . 13. The compacting factor ( CF ) = ( weight of partially compacted concrete ) divided by ( weight of fully compacted concrete ) .

Compression Test
The Compression Test is a laboratory test to determine the characteristic strength of the concrete but the making of test cubes is sometimes carried out by the supervisor on site . This cube test result is very important to the acceptance of insitu concrete work since it demonstrates the strength of the design mix . The procedure of making the test cubes is as follows : -

1. 150 mm standard cube mold is to be used for concrete mix and 100 mm standard cube mold is to be used for grout mix . 2. Arrange adequate numbers of required cube molds to site in respect with the sampling sequence for the proposed pour . 3. Make sure the apparatus and associated equipment ( see Fig 7 6 ) are clean before test and free from hardened concrete and superfluous water . 4. Assemble the cube mold correctly and ensure all nuts are tightened . 5. Apply a light coat of proprietary mold oil on the internal faces of the mold . 6. Place the mold on level firm ground and fill with sampled concrete to a layer of about 50 mm thick . 7. Compact the layer of concrete thoroughly by tamping the whole surface area with the Standard Tamping Bar . ( Note that no less than 35 tamps / layer for 150 mm mold and no less than 25 tamps / layer for 100 mm mold ) . 8. Repeat Steps 5 & 6 until the mold is all filled . ( Note that 3 layers to be proceeded for 150 mm mold and 2 layers for 100 mm mold ) . 9. Remove the surplus concrete after the mold is fully filled and trowel the top surface flush with the mold . 10. Mark the cube surface with an identification number ( say simply 1 , 2 , 3 , etc ) with a nail or match stick and record these numbers in respect with the concrete truck and location of pour where the sampled concrete is obtained . 11. Cover the cube surface with a piece of damp cloth or polythene sheeting and keep the cube in a place free from vibration for about 24 hours to allow initial set . 12. Strip off the mold pieces in about 24 hours after the respective pour is cast . Press the concrete surface with the thumb to see any denting to ensure the concrete is sufficiently hardened , or otherwise de-molding has to be delayed for one more day and this occurrence should be stated clearly in the Test Report . 13. Mark the test cube a reference number with waterproof felt pen on the molded side , in respect with the previous identification number . 14. Place the cube and submerge in a clean water bath or preferably a thermostatically controlled curing tank until it is delivered to the accredited laboratory for testing .

Temperature Test
Since the cement in concrete mix is mostly calcareous material and will evolve heat during the hydration process when meets with water , thus the temperature of the green concrete must be under control to avoid it is too high , particularly in hot season . The temperature control could be by means of the combination of , or the followings : 1. Cooling down the temperature of the newly arrived cement before use . 2. The coarse and fine aggregates to be stockpiled under shelter . 3. The batching process to be carried out in the morning . 4. Addition of ice cubes . 5. Addition of chilled water . Before the placement of ready mixed concrete to the final position , it should be tested with a laboratory standard certified ( or calibrated ) mercury thermometer ( shielded with metal casing ) with an accuracy of at least 0.5 degree Celsius . The acceptance of temperature range is to be in compliance with the Specification for various work and / or grade of concrete . Bear in mind to provide a few calibrated thermometers on site as these instruments are quite easily being broken .

Sand Patch Test

This is a site test to determine the surface texture of concrete pavement and is conducted by the laboratory staff . Most of the concrete pavement ( if without specified surface finishes ) requires a surface texture to provide non-skid resistance to the pedestrians or traffic . These surface texture is usually formed with the use of a broom brushing transversely across the rigid pavement while the concrete is still green . The right time of forming this rough texture depends mainly on the site supervisors experience . If brushing is too early while the concrete is still wet , the formed grooves will slump resulting no texture or the texture is too light ; and if brushing is too late when the concrete is about to set , the broom will scratch off the aggregate and just leaving behind only the mortar on the concrete surface . The right time to brush is to see the finger print , not just a dent , after pressing on the green concrete with the thumb . Before test , the testing area should be vigorously wire brushed and cleaned . The test is conducted by using an apparatus ( a wooden disc with hard rubber facing ) to trowel the specified volume ( in form of a heap ) of fine sand with a circular motion and fills up the texture until it reaches the top of concrete surface and the sand circle will not spread outwards anymore . The average diameter of the sand circle is measured to calculate the texture depth to the nearest 0.1 mm . If the texture depth is being too light , it will require remedial work such as saw cutting a series of grooves instead .

Rolling Edge Test

This is a test conducted on site to determine the surface profile and the cross fall of the as-cast concrete pavement and is conducted by the laboratory staff . Normally the acceptance of surface profile is to be determined by the survey results and the respective sections . However in case there are some local areas that are found beyond the design profile and out of tolerance , the Rolling Edge Test will be deployed to further investigate . The test apparatus includes a long beam which to be placed transversely across the test area with determined level . A series of measurements are taken between the underside of beam and pavement surface to indicate the sectional profile and the series of sectional profiles will indicate the longitudinal profile accordingly .

Test cores
Prior to the placing of concrete to its final position , although there are always some site tests conducted to verify the consistency of the material , however the degree of final compaction is still uncertain . Visual inspection on the deployment of exterior or internal vibrators or the paving machine may help to justify the degree of compaction , nevertheless this watch-out may be quite subjective and requires some further proof . The Engineer or the specification may require subsequent cores for compression test to demonstrate that the finished product has achieved the specified strength . Or occasionally if the site performance is in doubt , for instance the formation of cold joint , the Engineer may require specific test cores at the affected area to prove whether the finished product is still in compliance with the specification .

Cover Metre Test

Concrete cover to the steel bars inside a concrete pour is critical to the durability of reinforcement for the structure . Once the Engineer is in doubt , it may require to conduct a Cover Metre Test to verify the as-cast concrete cover to the reinforcement to see whether the condition is acceptable . During casting , the concrete cover is usually maintained by the insertion of cover blocks ( usually made of concrete , epoxy or plastic ) between the form work and steel bars . However owing to some cases occur , the cover to steel bars might be found less than specified limit during or after the concrete pour . The situations are usually as follows : -

1. The space between the form work and steel bar is less than the size of cover block such that the cover block sheared after force insertion . 2. The cover blocks are disturbed by the internal vibrator that is working too close and displaces the blocks from its original position . 3. The movement of reinforcement cage might occur during concreting .

Torque Test
The mechanical splicing and fixing of structural steel members always require the fastening of the sets of bolt , washer and nut , and the degree of tightening or the torque achieved has to be checked by the site supervisor to ensure the set of components is adequately secured . The specification may state the required torque value for each kind of fixing components which may differ from their type of material , size and structural requirement . If it is too tight , it will induce an excessive stress on the threads of nut , and if it is too loose , the nut may easily fall out . The measurement of the torque is demonstrated usually by the use of a torque wrench to indicate the value in N-m .

Pull Out Test

Some of the superimposed steel structure is fixed to the welded base plates that are held by the holding down bolts . In the best case , these holding down bolts are cast in with anchorage ( e.g. fish-tail end ) and embedded into concrete . However in some cases , particularly for precast concrete units , these holding down bolts are sometimes screwed into the cast-in sockets that are already embedded inside the concrete . In order to ensure these cast-in sockets can withstand the uplift force when the steel structure is imposed on , prior Pull Out Tests may be required randomly or at a sampling rate by the supervisor on site . The process of the test is to use a hydraulic jack with a dial gauge to indicate the uplift force to pull out the holding down bolt which is screwed into the testing socket until the applied force exceeds the specification requirement without signs of failure .

Schimt Hammer Test

Concrete cover to the steel bars inside a concrete pour is critical to the durability of reinforcement for the structure . Once the Engineer is in doubt , it may require to conduct a Cover Metre Test to verify the as-cast concrete cover to the reinforcement to see whether the condition is acceptable . During casting , the concrete cover is usually maintained by the insertion of cover blocks ( usually made of concrete , epoxy or plastic ) between the formwork and steel bars . However owing to some cases occur , the cover to steel bars might be found less than specified limit during or after the concrete pour . The situations are usually as follows : 1. The space between the formwork and steel bar is less than the size of cover block such that the cover block sheared after force insertion . 2. The cover blocks are disturbed by the internal vibrator that is working too close and displaces the blocks from its original position . 3. The movement of reinforcement cage might occur during concreting .

Paint Thickness Test

1. To determine the dry film thickness ( DFT ) by Paint Gauge For structural steelworks , no matter at indoor or outdoor , it always requires anti-corrosion protective coatings to cover up the members such as hot dipped galvanizing . In addition to these galvanized coating , sometimes a painting system is also applied on the steel members for further corrosion protection as well as aesthetic purpose . Painting systems may vary in accordance with their usage or exposure but normally made up with coatings of a) itching primer b) undercoat c) finishing coat The thickness of each or cumulative paint coatings when dried can be measured by a paint gauge to determine its dry film thickness ( DFT ) in microns ( m ) . In fact , paint gauge could also be used to measure the nominal thickness of zinc coating on steelwork after galvanization since it is not a ferrous metal . During the painting process , the site supervisor may be frequently asked to perform this test in the witness of ERs staff and thickness of each and cumulative coatings are recorded in tabulation form for QA purpose . 2. To determine the wet film thickness by Comb Gauge To be forthcoming .

Air Test
This test will be set up and conducted by site supervisor and the procedures in brief are as follows : 1. Before test , the ends of the pipeline are plugged using expanding disc stoppers and one end is connected with a U-tube manometer . 2. Air to be pumped into the pipeline until a test pressure of slightly more than 100mm of water is observed in the U-tube . 3. Allow a few minutes for stabilization of the ambient temperature , then adjust the air pressure to 100mm of water in the U-tube . Lock the device without further pumping . 4. After five-minute test period , read the pressure in the U-tube and record . 5. It is satisfactory if the air pressure remains above 75mm head of water at the end of the air test .

Bar Check Test

If a portable , battery-operated echo sounder is to be affixed to the side or bottom of the work boat to detect the water depth or seabed profile , the echo sounding result must be calibrated after the set up by a bar check test to determine its accuracy . The test is simply conducted by a diver to measure the vertical distance of the seabed from the echo sounder by the use of a steel measuring tape with a plumb or heavy weight at the end , to determine the actual depth and fine tune the echo sounder readings to eliminate its discrepancy .

California Bearing Ratio

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a simple strength test that compares the bearing capacity of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone (thus, a high quality crushed stone material should have a CBR @ 100%). The CBR rating was developed for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils used for building roads. The CBR can also be used for measuring the load-bearing capacity of unimproved airstrips or for soils under paved airstrips. The harder the surface, the higher the CBR rating. A CBR of 3 equates to tilled farmland, a CBR of 4.75 equates to turf or moist clay, while moist sand may have a CBR of 10. High quality crushed rock has a CBR over 80. The standard material for this test is crushed California limestone which has a value of 100.

CBR (%) = ( x / y ) x 100 Where: x = material resistance or the unit load on the piston (pressure) for 2.54 mm (0.1") or 5.08 mm (0.2") of penetration y = standard unit load (pressure) for well graded crushed stone = for 2.54 mm (0.1") penetration = 6.9 MPa (1000 psi) = for 5.08 mm (0.2") penetration = 10.3 MPa (1500 psi)

Closed Circuit Television

This is another means of carrying out internal inspection inside small diameter pipelines . The CCTV camera is being moved through the pipeline at a constant speed and stop wherever to allow inspection from the display screen , to take video and photographs as necessary . The site supervisor should prepare the key plan to locate the pipelines being inspected , associated manholes , chambers and structures , together with details including date , location , pipe material , pipe diameter , chainage of inspection , manholes , junctions and occurrence and type of defects observed in each pipeline inspected .

Compaction by Roller
In some remote works area or when the bulky compaction work is to be carried out beyond 1200mm below formation level , the site supervisor could suggest to use a what we called the product specification to determine the relative compaction of the backfill . In the first beginning , we set out and agree with the Engineer Representative a trial compaction area and record the thickness of compacted layers , number of passes performed and the weight or model of compacting roller to achieve the required degree of compaction . After all these data are noted down and agreed , we shall then proceed the same process of work continuously and without taking Sand Replacement Tests and awaiting laboratory results for approval to the next layer . But bear in mind that the site supervisor should discuss in advance and agrees with the ERs staff first or otherwise they may request for retrospective test(s) on layer which is already 1000mm below the current working level .

Dye Test
This test is used to find out the apparent path of water leakage at the tidal zone or from high level to low level . Place the dyed water in the water inlet and record the location and time of test . The site supervisor should inspect the surrounding area , may be quite remote from the water inlet , to watch out where will be the dyed water coming out and respectively record the location and time of finding .

GEO Probe Test

This test is to be carried out by the laboratory staff on site . When excavation is proceeded to the designed formation level of a structure , the ER may need to ascertain the bearing capacity of that layer of insitu soil before approval is given to blinding concrete . In case the existing soil condition is not satisfactory or soft spot(s) is encountered , the GEO Probe Test will be used to determine the bearing capacity of the doubted areas . The procedure is to place the lower end of probe resting against the ground at the test location and raise the hammer to bear against the upper anvil and then allow to fall freely to drive the probe into the existing soil . The number of blows required to drive the probe for every 100mm of penetration into the existing soil , or at refusal ( nil penetration distance ) for 50 blows will be recorded for the Engineers assessment .

Infiltration Test
This test is to be set up and conducted by site supervisor and is used to test for any infiltration and water leakage occur in the sewage pipeline system which includes all the branches and pipelines , manholes , chambers and structures . Since a great amount of water will be used for ponding the pipeline system , suitable arrangement for discharging the water at the end of the test should be well planned , particularly for the drainage system at the basement where water might have to be pumped out instead of directly draining to existing drainage system .

Kentledge Pile Loading Test

Kentledge testing invloves the use of dead weights as a reaction system. For bored, cast-in-situ piles where anchor piles cannot be installed, the use of a kentledge reaction system can be an appropriate testing solution. Also where insufficient friction capacity may be available to allow the use of tension piles, the kentledge system is commonly used.

Pile Compression Load Test by Kentledge System

1. General
This compression test using either the reaction frame or kentledge system is undertaken on a test pile concurrent with the construction of the main piling works. The test is used to validate the pile design. In this case the pile is loaded to 2 times the design working load.

2. Frequency
The frequency of this test is one pile to represent the entire site including current and future pile installation.

3. Prerequisite
The preinstalled micropile shall only be tested after the 10th day for the grout to be sufficiently hardened. This can be confirmed by the grout test cube reports.

4. Method
a) The pile head shall be prepared with casing to be above the ground by a sufficient length or a minimum of 300mm. b) Assemble the kentledge system as shown in the diagram with sufficient care when stacking and placing the I-beams The geometry of the arrangement should also aim to minimise interaction between the test pile, reaction system and reference beam supports. Allow a 10% to 20% margin on the capacity of the reaction against maximum test load. c) A hydraulic jack and calibrated load cell reacting against a set of steel beams tied to anchor piles is placed. d) Fix four (4) nos. dial gauges on an independent frame to measure the pile head displacement. e) Movement of the pile head shall be measured using the four (4) Nos dial gauge and checked with a leveling instrument and scale rules fixed to their holers. The scale rule shall have an accuracy of 1mm, visually interpretable to 0.5mm. Two scale rule shall be fixed on top of the pile head on diagonally opposite sides. f) Another scale rules shall be fixed as independent bench marks to be rested on a permanent structure or to one Y20 or equivalent bar driven at least 1m inside firm ground. g) All testing equipment shall be protected from unnecessary disturbance prior to and throughout the load test. h) The loading sequence shall follow the clients specification including the step and duration. i) Records shall be kept promptly throughout the testing period. A copy shall be extended to the Superintending Officer at the end of the test.

Following each application of an increment of load the load shall be held for not less than the period shown in the above table. For any period when the load is constant, time and settlement shall be recorded immediately on reaching the load and prior to the next step of load. At 24hrs holding time, the load shall be recorded at 1hr interval

Method Statement for Static Load Testing - Geoprofound.com

Magnetic Particle Inspection

This is a non-destructive test for examination of a fillet weld by magnetic particle flaw detection . The test could indicate the cracks and surface pores on the weld for visual inspection .

Pigging
Pigging in the maintenance of pipelines refers to the practice of using pipeline inspection gauges or 'pigs' to perform various operations on a pipeline without stopping the flow of the pipeline. The cleanliness , bore , linearity and joints inside the small diameter , say 450mm or less , drainage pipelines will be tested by pulling a mandrel through the completed pipeline after completion of work . The mandrel is about 750mm long and 12mm less in diameter than the nominal diameter of the pipeline being tested . If specified under the Contract , this internal inspection may have to be performed by closed circuit television ( CCTV ) .

Ponding Test
Waterproofing structures may be required to test for watertightness after completion of work . The test is to apply static pressure by means of ponding water on the internal face and no head of water on the external face . Testing period may vary from 24 hours to 3 days as required by the Specification . Site supervisor should record any leaks or damp patches and submit to the Engineer for assessment .

Proctor Test
This test will be carried out by the laboratory staff on site or at the borrow area . Before the backfilling work starts , the site supervisor should know where about is the borrow area and should inform the laboratory staff well in advance to allow them to conduct proctor tests for the respective backfilling materials . The test will determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the selected material and the results will be set out as the 100% compaction basis for the respective material . The laboratory staff will keep these material sample in a jar for comparison to insitu material and the test results will be used as denominator to determine the degree of compaction of that type of material after it is compacted on site . This is a very important test for the backfilling and compaction work because its results are being used as the divisor to determine the percentage of compaction . If the irrespective test result is being used as the divisor , it will then produce a misleading and unrealistic compaction factor . Thus it is wise to prepare as more as practicable proctor tests results in line with the different grades ( more or less with different colours ) of backfill materials .

Radiographic Test
Beside the mechanical splicing with bolts and nuts , the longitudinal connection for structural steel members may be by means of butt welding . Butt welded joints deployed on main structural members such as for pipe pulling , should be examined by radiographic tests to inspect the quality of the finished welds . This tests must be conducted by the Independent Welding Inspector and test reports should be endorsed and submit to the Engineer for record purpose . The site supervisor should record during the welding process the type of welding consumables used , ampere of electric current , preheating condition , numbering of structural members , etc and furnish to the Independent Welding Inspector for information to prepare the test reports .

Sand Replacement Test

This test is to be conducted by laboratory staff to determine the degree of compaction after the layer of sand fill or DG material has been compacted. 1. Hand dig an in situ core sample from the compacted soil and weigh to get the mass of test sample. [Note: It is usually to pick out the occasional gravels and cobbles that are of relatively big size before weighing since they are not the same type of material as the sample] 2. Pour into the subsequent void with fine sand of consistent and known density ( eg. Quartz sand) to calculate the volume of the void which is equivalent to the volume of the test sample. [Note : Put back the gravels and cobbles into the void before pouring in with quartz sand ] 3. Get the mass of the sample after oven-dried and divided by the volume of void to obtain the dry density of the sample . 4. Divide the dry density of sample by the proctor test result , ie. the maximum dry density of the respective sample to obtain the relative percentage of compaction . 5. The acceptance criteria for these percentage depends on the specification requirements and is generally as follows : ? No less than 98% within 150mm below formation level. ? No less than 95% between 150mm and 1200mm below formation. ? No less than 90% beyond 1200mm below formation level.

Soil Permeability Tests

These tests are used to determine the permeability of the soil stratum at various levels below the ground water table. The site supervisor should record the results and phenomenon during the test and hand in to the Geological Engineer for assessment. The preparation work and principle of the various tests are as follows: Preparation work : 1. to survey the coordinates of the driven bored hole , 2. to note down the size of casing , 3. to survey the existing ground level , 4. to calculate the level of the top of casing by measurement above existing ground level , 5. to calculate the level of the bottom of casing by deduction of casing lengths , and 6. to calculate the level of ground water table with a dip meter . Rising Head Test: Pump away the water inside the casing of bored hole to a level above bottom of casing and below ground water table. When the test starts, check the pumped-down water level with a dip meter and record the time. Let the water level rises until it is stable at ground water table and accordingly check the various water levels at a fixed time interval. Constant Head Test : To fill water to the top of casing such that a certain water column is added on above the ground water table and record the time of test . Let the water seeps away but continuously add up with water to maintain the level at the top of casing . Record the volume of water subsequently added and the duration of testing . Falling Head Test : To fill water to the top of casing such that a certain water column is added on above the ground water table and record the time of test . Let the water seeps away until it is stable at ground water table and accordingly check the various water levels at a fixed time interval .

Ultrasonic Test
This is another non-destructive test (NDT) to examine the quality of a butt weld and is to be conducted by specialist staff from an approved testing consultant. The ultrasonic test results in graph should be printed out and submit to the Engineer for record purpose. The site supervisor may be asked to dress or grind the welds to facilitate the test.

Water Test
This test will be set up and conducted by site supervisor and the procedures in brief are as follows: 1. Water test on pipeline should be carried out on the complete pipeline between manhole and manhole or manhole and structure as much as practicable. 2. Short branch pipelines could be tested together with the main pipeline; however Long Branch pipelines are better tested separately. 3. Before test, the openings / ends of the pipeline to be plugged using expanding disc stoppers. 4. The pipeline is then filled with water and should be kept fully filled for a couple of hours before test to allow self absorption. For large diameter pipeline, it is advised to keep filled with water overnight. 5. A test pressure of specified head of water above the crown of pipe at the high end is applied through a standpipe and maintain for 30 minutes. 6. When test starts, the head of water at the standpipe will be topped up at 5 minute intervals during and at the end of the test period. The amount of water added to the standpipe should be measured and recorded. 7. The total amount of water added represents the leakage of water from the pipeline being tested, should not exceed the permitted leakage as stated in the Specification. 8. Adequate arrangement and care for discharging the water from the testing pipeline should be made in order not to flood the downstream area at the vicinity.

Construction Completion Phase

Finally, as the project nears completion, a number of special activities must take place before the contractors responsibilities can be considered complete. There are the various testing and startup tasks, the final cleanup, various inspections and remedial work that may result from them and the process of closing the construction office and terminating the staffs employment. In addition, massive amounts of paperwork is required, including approvals and certifications that allow the contractor to receive final payment, a set of as-built drawings that include all changes made to the original design, operating manuals, warranties and a final report. The contractor will also be responsible for transferring and archiving project records and will conduct some sort of project critique and evaluation; operator training may also be part of the contractors contractual responsibilities. Always bear in mind that, no matter what dispute arises, no Contractor can get back its money if the works are still incomplete, unless otherwise the Employer breaches the contract. This is to say that the contractor can only get the final payment at time the employer or its representative certified the overall work done at completion of work. In case the contractor does not accept the certified value, settlement of dispute will then go to mitigation or arbitration which is quite time consuming. Let us consider, as a normal practice, there is always a 5 ~ 10 % retention money being kept by the employer; in addition to the usual QS practice of certifying only about 90 ~ 95 % of work done on account for interim purpose; in addition to the Bank Bond and Company Guarantee as stated in Chapter 3, the total amount of contractors money or security being kept in the employers custody may vary to over a few million dollars just for a nominal size construction contract. So if the Work is not being completed with acceptable quality, on time, with good documentation and contemporary records by the Site Staff, which contractor can suffer these damages?

Defects Liability Period

Defects Liability Period

This usual twelve months maintenance period may only require a couple of site staff to lead a few workers to carry out the outstanding and remedial work and to maintain the as-built works in good condition until the final handover to the end user or the award of Maintenance Certificate. However it is noted that the running cost during this period (including the site overhead and direct cost of works) cannot be further reimbursed by any means since it was covered by the BQ rates, except the tear and wear consumables. During this time, the busiest people are the commercial staff and the quantity surveyors who will be working hard on the contract final account that includes the final measurement of contract works, retention money, contra-charges, Variation Orders, Architect/Site Instructions, extension of time, liquidated damages, claims, as well as the more or less same issues for the subcontractors and suppliers. Undoubtedly, the past performance of works and respective works records made by the dutiful site staff surely plays an important role on the finalization of a construction contract.

Maintenance Phase
This phase covers the maintenance period that most contracts bind the Main Contractor and SubContractors to.

Additionally, it covers the maintenance work of the owner for the completed construction throughout its lifetime.

Building Construction
The process involved in the assembly and erection of structures. The scale and complexity of the building determines which and how many different parties are required. The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common - design, financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation reason; those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled trades people. As residential (as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here. The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste. Larger scale building construction projects require the effort and collaboration of numerous parties throughout the construction process.

Types of Building Construction

Building Construction can be categorized into four main types.
Residential Construction

Residential construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments.
Commercial Construction

Commercial building construction encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouses, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels.
Institutional Construction

Institutional construction encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals.
Industrial Construction

Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants.

Infrastructure Construction
Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations.

Landscape Construction
The scope of landscape construction and landscape architecture includes: urban design; site planning; town or urban planning; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the purpose of the project and the funds available. They then analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation. They also assess existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utilities to determine what improvements are necessary. At all stages, they evaluate the projects impact on the local ecosystem.

Consent
Consent from the local Authorities are required in certain countries for certain scale of landscaping works. In New Zealand for example, some outdoor and garden features will need building consent. Under the Building Act 2004, building work includes:

Building decks one metre or more in height above ground level. Building retaining walls that:

o Are above 1.5 metres in height above ground level. o Will retain driveways or structures regardless of height.

Plumbing or drainage work that is not routine maintenance. Construction or installation of swimming and spa pools. Installation of roof, wall and free-standing communications aerials.

o A fence constructed of concrete, block-work, steel, etc which requires heavy foundations; or o A fence of any other type of construction over two metres in height. Building garages or garden sheds over 10 sqm.