A Seminar Report On

Bull horn Loudspeaker

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement For the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In Electronics & Communication Engineering

Submitted by
Drishti Dusad- 6EC-21 Disha Shroff- 6EC-54 Nupur Purohit- 6EC-34

Under the supervision of

Sandeep Bairwea

Department of Electronics Engineering

JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

JAIPUR

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr/Ms.a student of B.Tech(Electronics & communication Engineering) 3rd year 6th semester has submitted His/her Project entitled BULL HORN LOUDSPEAKER under my guidance.

SANDEEP BAIRWEA Project guide

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to have the opportunity to work with Mr. SANDEEP BAIRWEA and Mr. YAGVALKYA SHARMA department of electronics and communication engineering, who had kept me on my toe and guided me at each step. Working under him was wonderful experience.

I learned not only the technical aspects but also the practical qualities of working as a team. I am highly inspired by his dedication to work, as he made continuous effort to make this project successful.

I am grateful to Prof. S.K.Gupta, head of electronics & communication department, for giving me this opportunity to work on the topic on this esteemed organisation.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents whose blessings are always with me. Their life time support and encouragement has provided the basic foundation of any success, we will ever achieve.

Drishti Dusad- 6EC-21 Disha Shroff- 6EC-54 Nupur Purohit- 6EC-34

(3rd year, 6th sem ECE)

ABSTRACT
The loudspeaker, forming a compact microphone amplifier primarily intended for speech reinforcement. A device of this kind is particularly suited to teachers, lecturers, tourists' guides, hostesses and anyone speaking in crowded, noisy environment. The circuit's heart is formed by the TDA7052 Audio power amplifier IC, delivering a maximum output of 1.2W @ 6V supply. An external microphone must be plugged into J1, its signal being amplified by Q1 and fed to IC1. R1 acts as a volume control and C3 tailors the upper audio frequency band, mainly to reduce the microphone possibility of picking-up the loudspeaker output, causing a very undesirable and loud "howl", i.e. the well known Larsen effect. Therefore, C3 value can be varied in the 4n7 - 22nF range to ensure the best compromise from speech tone quality and minimum Larsen effect occurrence. Dynamic or electrets microphone is warmly recommended. It has a useful feature that can be used to momentarily mute the microphone This simple tone control (bass & treble control) can be used in may audio applications. It can be added to amplifiers, used as a stand alone control module, or even built into new and exciting instruments. It uses NE5532 IC but other ICs such as LF353 or 4558 could be used as well. It requires dual +12V,-12V power supply. By this circuit can fine the bass treble well, and fine the loud sound the light. get fine to balance the sound everything is completed.

List of figures

page no.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

EQUIVALENT SCHEMATIC & CONNECTION DIAGRAM OUTLINE OF LM 386 LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM DESIGN CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

9 10 12 15 31

CONTENT

CHAPTER

page no.

1. LM 386 ......7 1.1 GENERAL DISCRIPTION 7 1.2 FEATURES 8 1.3 APPLICATIONS 8 1.4 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 10 1.5 APPLICATIONS 11
2. LOUDSPEAKER

...12 2.1 TERMINOLOGY 12 2.2 DRIVER DESIGN 13 2.3 LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM DESIGN 15 2.4 SPECIFICATION 17 2.5 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 18

3. HORN LOUDSPEAKER 19 3.1 MEGAPHONE 3.2 ELECTRIC MEGAPHONES 3.3 MEGAPHONE USES 20 21 22

4. MONO JACK SOCKET 23 4.1 MODERN CONNECTOR 24 4.2 MONO & STEREO COMPACTIBILITY 25 4.3 USES 27 4.4 SWITCH CONTACTS 29 5. CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION ..30 5.1 INTRODUCTION 30 5.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 31 5.3 PARTS 32 5.4 PROCEDURE OF BUILDING LOUDSPEAKER 33 6. FUTURE WORK 7. REFERENCES ..34 35

Introduction
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Horns were the earliest form of amplification. Horns do not use electricity. Thomas Edison, Magnavox, and Victrola all developed advanced and well-performing horns from 1880 to the 1920's. The problem with horns is that they could not amplify the sound very much. With the use of electrical amplification in the future loud sound could be generated to fill large public spaces. Horns remain a novelty for collectors today. . Horn loudspeakers use a shaped waveguide in front of or behind the driver to increase the directivity of the loudspeaker and to transform a small diameter, high pressure condition at the driver cone surface to a large diameter, low pressure condition at the mouth of the horn. This increases the sensitivity of the loudspeaker and focuses the sound over a narrower area. The size of the throat, mouth, the length of the horn, as well as the area expansion rate along it must be carefully chosen to match the drive to properly provide this transforming function over a range of frequencies (every horn performs poorly outside its acoustic limits, at both high and low frequencies). The length and cross-sectional mouth area required to create a bass or sub-bass horn require a horn many feet long. 'Folded' horns can reduce the total size, but compel designers to make compromises and accept increased complication such as cost and construction. Some horn designs not only fold the low frequency horn, but use the walls in a room corner as an extension of the horn mouth. In the late 1940s, horns whose mouths took up much of a room wall were not unknown amongst hi-fi fans. Room sized installations became much less acceptable when two or more were required. A horn loaded speaker can have a sensitivity as high as 110 dB at 2.83 volts (1 watt at 8 ohms) at 1 meter. This is a hundredfold increase in output compared to a speaker rated at 90 dB sensitivity, and is invaluable in applications where high sound levels are required or amplifier power is limited.

We have made Bull horn loudspeaker.The basic function of this project is given later. We have used a IC LM386 for this purpose along with the capacitors which are used as filters . for input we can use mic or any audio signal in this project we have used the audio source such as mobile with the help of an 3.5mm socket. The complete description of project is given below.

Chapter1
7

1. LM386
Low Voltage Audio Power Amplifier 1.1 General Description
The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications. The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 milliwatts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation.

1.2 Features

Battery operation Minimum external parts Wide supply voltage range: 4V12V or 5V18V Low quiescent current drain: 4mA Voltage gains from 20 to 200 Ground referenced input Self-centering output quiescent voltage Low distortion: 0.2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, RL = 8, PO = 125mW, f = 1kHz) Available in 8 pin MSOP package

1.3 Applications
AM-FM radio amplifiers Portable tape player amplifiers Intercoms TV sound systems Line drivers Ultrasonic drivers Small servo drivers Power converters

Equivalent Schematic and Connection Diagrams

1.4 Electrical Characteristics

10

1.5 Application Hints

GAIN CONTROL To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1 and 8) are provided for gain control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1.35 k resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB). If a capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1.35 k resistor, the gain will go up to 200 (46 dB). If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to any value from 20 to 200. Gain control can also be done by capacitively coupling a resistor (or FET) from pin 1 to ground. Additional external components can be placed in parallel with the internal feedback resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response for individual applications. For example, we can compensate poor speaker bass response by frequency shaping the feedback path. This is done with a series RC from pin 1 to 5 (paralleling the internal 15 k resistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R . 15 k , the lowest value for good stable operation is R = 10 k if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8 are bypassed then R as low as 2 k can be used. This restriction is because the amplifier is only compensated for closed-loop gains greater than 9.

INPUT BIASING The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 kW resistor. The base current of the input transistors is about 250 nA, so the inputs are at about 12.5 mV when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250 kW it will contribute very little additional offset (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 kW, then shorting the unused input to ground will keep the offset low (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). For dc source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitively coupled. When using the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1.35 kW resistor between pins 1 and 8) it is necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible instabilities. This is done with a 0.1 F capacitor or a short to ground depending on the dc source resistance on the driven input.

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Chapter2 2. Loudspeaker
A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube made loudspeakers more generally useful. The most common form of loudspeaker uses a paper cone supporting a voice coil electromagnet acting on a permanent magnet, but many other types exist. Where accurate reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeakers may be used, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. Miniature loudspeakers are found in devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.

2.1Terminology
The term "loudspeaker" may refer to individual transducers (known as "drivers") or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers. To adequately reproduce a wide range of frequencies, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver, particularly for higher sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to reproduce

12

different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers (for very low frequencies); woofers (low frequencies); mid-range speakers (middle frequencies); tweeters (high frequencies); and sometimessupertweeters, optimized for the highest audible frequencies. The terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation "tweeter" for the high frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them as "HF" or "highs". When multiple drivers are used in a system, a "filter network", called a crossover, separates the incoming signal into different frequency ranges and routes them to the appropriate driver. A loudspeaker system with n separate frequency bands is described as "n-way speakers": a two-way system will have a woofer and a tweeter; a three-way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and a tweeter. Loudspeakers were described as "dynamic" to distinguish them from the earlier moving iron speaker, or speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems as opposed to avoice coil that moves through a steady magnetic field.

2.2 Driver design

The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker, uses a lightweight diaphragm, or cone, connected to a rigid basket, or frame, via a flexible suspension that constrains a coil of fine tinsel wire to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap. When an electrical signal is applied to thevoice coil, a magnetic field is created by the electric current in the voice coil, making it a variable electromagnet. The coil and the driver's magnetic system interact, generating a mechanical force that causes the coil (and thus, the attached cone) to move back and forth, thereby reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal coming from the amplifier. The following is a description of the individual components of this type of loudspeaker. The diaphragm is usually manufactured with a cone- or dome-shaped profile. A variety of different materials may be used, but the most common are paper, plastic, and metal. The ideal material would be 1) rigid, to prevent uncontrolled cone motions; 2) have low mass, to minimize starting force requirements and energy storage issues; 3) be well damped, to reduce vibrations continuing after the signal has stopped with little or no audible ringing due to its resonancefrequency as determined by its usage. In practice, all three of these criteria cannot be met simultaneously using existing materials; thus, driver design involves trade-offs. For example, paper is light and typically well damped, but is not stiff; metal may be stiff and light, but it usually has poor damping; plastic can be light, but typically, the stiffer it is made, the poorer the damping. As a result, many cones are made of some sort of composite material. For example, a cone might be made of cellulose paper, into which some carbon fiber, Kevlar, glass, hemp or bamboo fibers have been added; or it might use a honeycomb sandwich construction; or a coating might be applied to it so as to provide additional stiffening or damping. The chassis, frame, or basket, is designed to be rigid, avoiding deformation that could change critical alignments with the magnet gap, perhaps causing the voice coil to rub against the sides of the gap. Chassis are typically cast from aluminum alloy, or stamped from thin steel sheet, although molded plastic and damped plastic compound baskets are becoming common, especially for inexpensive, low-mass drivers. Metallic chassis can play an important role in conducting heat

13

away from the voice coil; heating during operation changes resistance, causing physical dimensional changes, and if extreme, may even demagnetize permanent magnets. The suspension system keeps the coil centered in the gap and provides a restoring (centering) force that returns the cone to a neutral position after moving. A typical suspension system consists of two parts: the spider, which connects the diaphragm or voice coil to the frame and provides the majority of the restoring force, and the surround, which helps center the coil/cone assembly and allows free pistonic motion aligned with the magnetic gap. The spider is usually made of a corrugated fabric disk, impregnated with a stiffening resin. The name comes from the shape of early suspensions, which were two concentric rings of Bakelite material, joined by six or eight curved "legs." Variations of this topology included the addition of a felt disc to provide a barrier to particles that might otherwise cause the voice coil to rub. The German firm Rulik still offers drivers with uncommon spiders made of wood. The cone surround can be rubber or polyester foam, or a ring of corrugated, resin coated fabric; it is attached to both the outer diaphragm circumference and to the frame. These different surround materials, their shape and treatment can dramatically affect the acoustic output of a driver; each class and implementation having advantages and disadvantages. Polyester foam, for example, is lightweight and economical, but is degraded by exposure to ozone, UV light, humidity and elevated temperatures, limiting its useful life to about 15 years. The wire in a voice coil is usually made of copper, though aluminumand, rarely, silvermay be used. The advantage of aluminum is its light weight, which raises the resonant frequency of the voice coil and allows it to respond more easily to higher frequencies. A disadvantage of aluminum is that it is not easily soldered, and so connections are instead often crimped together and sealed. These connections can corrode and fail in time. Voice-coil wire cross sections can be circular, rectangular, or hexagonal, giving varying amounts of wire volume coverage in the magnetic gap space. The coil is oriented co-axially inside the gap; it moves back and forth within a small circular volume (a hole, slot, or groove) in the magnetic structure. The gap establishes a concentrated magnetic field between the two poles of a permanent magnet; the outside of the gap being one pole, and the center post (called the pole piece) being the other. The pole piece and backplate are often a single piece, called the poleplate or yoke. Modern driver magnets are almost always permanent and made of ceramic, ferrite, Alnico, or, more recently, rare earth such as neodymium and Samarium cobalt. A trend in designdue to increases in transportation costs and a desire for smaller, lighter devices (as in many home theater multi-speaker installations)is the use of the last instead of heavier ferrite types. Very few manufacturers still produce electrodynamic loudspeakers with electrically powered field coils, as was common in the earliest designs (one such is French). When high field-strength permanent magnets became available, Alnico, an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt became popular, since it dispensed with the power supply issues of field-coil drivers. Alnico was used for almost exclusively until about 1980. Alnico magnets can be partially degaussed (i.e., demagnetized) by accidental 'pops' or 'clicks' caused by loose connections, especially if used with a high power amplifier. This damage can be reversed by "recharging" the magnet.

14

After 1980, most (but not quite all) driver manufacturers switched from Alnico to ferrite magnets, which are made from a mix of ceramic clay and fine particles of barium or strontium ferrite. Although the energy per kilogram of these ceramic magnets is lower than Alnico, it is substantially less expensive, allowing designers to use larger yet more economical magnets to achieve a given performance.

2.3 Loudspeaker system design

Crossover Used in multi-driver speaker systems, the crossover is a subsystem that separates the input signal into different frequency ranges suited to each driver. The drivers receive power only in their usable frequency range (the range they were designed for), thereby reducing distortion in the drivers and interference between them. No crossover can be perfect (i.e., absolute block at the edges of the passband, no amplitude variation within the passband, no phase changes across the frequency band boundaries the crossover establishes, ..), so this is an idealized description. Crossovers can be passive or active. A passive crossover is an electronic circuit that uses a combination of one or more resistors, inductors, or non-polarcapacitors. These parts are formed into carefully designed networks and are most often placed between the full frequency-range power amplifier and the loudspeaker drivers to divide the amplifier's signal into the necessary
15

frequency bands before being delivered to the individual drivers. Passive crossover circuits need no external power beyond the audio signal itself, but have disadvantages: high cost, large components (inductors and capacitors), limited ability to adjust the circuit as desired due to limited choice of high power level components, etc. They also cause substantial overall signal loss and a significant reduction in damping factor between the voice coil and the crossover.[23] An active crossover is an electronic filter circuit that divides the signal into individual frequency bands before power amplification, thus requiring at least one power amplifier for each bandpass. [23] Passive filtering may also be used in this way before power amplification, but it is an uncommon solution, being less flexible than active filtering. Any technique that uses crossover filtering followed by amplification is commonly known as bi-amping, tri-amping, quad-amping, and so on, depending on the minimum number of amplifier channels.[24] Some loudspeaker designs use a combination of passive and active crossover filtering, such as a passive crossover between the mid- and high-frequency drivers and an active crossover between the low-frequency driver and the combined mid- and high frequencies.[25][26] Passive crossovers are commonly installed inside speaker boxes and are by far the most usual type of crossover for home and low-power use. In car audio systems, passive crossovers may be in a separate box, necessary to accommodate the size of the components used. Passive crossovers may be simple for low-order filtering, or complex to allow steep slopes such as 18 or 24 dB per octave. Passive crossovers can also be designed to compensate for undesired characteristics of driver, horn, or enclosure resonances,[27] and can be tricky to implement, due to component interaction. Passive crossovers, like the driver units that they feed, have power handling limits, have insertion losses (10% is often claimed), and change the load seen by the amplifier. The changes are matters of concern for many in the hi-fi world.[27] When high output levels are required, active crossovers may be preferable. Active crossovers may be simple circuits that emulate the response of a passive network, or may be more complex, allowing extensive audio adjustments. Some active crossovers, usually digital loudspeaker management systems, may include facilities for precise alignment of phase and time between frequency bands, equalization, and dynamics (compression and limiting) control.[23] Some hi-fi and professional loudspeaker systems now include an active crossover circuit as part of an onboard amplifier system. These speaker designs are identifiable by their need for AC power in addition to a signal cable from a pre-amplifier. This active topology may include driver protection circuits and other features of a digital loudspeaker management system. Powered speaker systems are common in computer sound (for a single listener) and, at the other end of the size spectrum, in modern concert sound systems, where their presence is significant and steadily increasing.

Enclosures
Most loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure, or cabinet. The role of the enclosure is to provide a place to physically mount the drivers, and to prevent sound waves emanating from the back of a driver from interfering destructively with those from the front; these typically cause cancellations (e.g., comb filtering) and significantly alter the level and quality of sound at low frequencies.

16

The simplest driver mount is a flat panel (i.e., baffle) with the drivers mounted in holes in it. However, in this approach, sound frequencies with a wavelength longer than the baffle dimensions are canceled out, because the antiphase radiation from the rear of the cone interferes with the radiation from the front. With an infinitely large panel, this interference could be entirely prevented. A sufficiently large sealed box can approach this behavior.[29][30] Since panels of infinite dimensions are impractical, most enclosures function by containing the rear radiation from the moving diaphragm. A sealed enclosure prevents transmission of the sound emitted from the rear of the loudspeaker by confining the sound in a rigid and airtight box. Techniques used to reduce transmission of sound through the walls of the cabinet include thicker cabinet walls, lossy wall material, internal bracing, curved cabinet wallsor more rarely,viscoelastic materials (e.g., mineral-loaded bitumen) or thin lead sheeting applied to the interior enclosure walls. However, a rigid enclosure reflects sound internally, which can then be transmitted back through the loudspeaker diaphraghmagain resulting in degradation of sound quality. This can be reduced by internal absorption using absorptive materials (often called "damping"), such as glass wool, wool, or synthetic fiber batting, within the enclosure. The internal shape of the enclosure can also be designed to reduce this by reflecting sounds away from the loudspeaker diaphragm, where they may then be absorbed. Other enclosure types alter the rear sound radiation so it can add constructively to the output from the front of the cone. Designs that do this (including bass reflex, passive radiator, transmission line, etc.) are often used to extend the effective low-frequency response and increase lowfrequency output of the driver. To make the transition between drivers as seamless as possible, system designers have attempted to time-align (or phase adjust) the drivers by moving one or more driver mounting locations forward or back so that the acoustic center of each driver is in the same vertical plane. This may also involve tilting the face speaker back, providing a separate enclosure mounting for each driver, or (less commonly) using electronic techniques to achieve the same effect. These attempts have resulted in some unusual cabinet designs. The speaker mounting scheme (including cabinets) can also cause diffraction, resulting in peaks and dips in the frequency response. The problem is usually greatest at higher frequencies, where wavelengths are similar to, or smaller than, cabinet dimensions. The effect can be minimized by rounding the front edges of the cabinet, curving the cabinet itself, using a smaller or narrower enclosure, choosing a strategic driver arrangement, using absorptive material around a driver, or some combination of these and other schemes.

2.4 Specifications Speaker specifications generally include:

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Speaker or driver type (individual units only) Full-range, woofer, tweeter, or mid-range. Size of individual drivers. For cone drivers, the quoted size is generally the outside diameter of the basket.[31] However, it may less commonly also be the diameter of the cone surround, measured apex to apex, or the distance from the center of one mounting hole to its opposite. Voice-coil diameter may also be specified. If the loudspeaker has a compression horn driver, the diameter of the horn throat may be given. Rated Power Nominal (or even continuous) power, and peak (or maximum short-term) power a loudspeaker can handle (i.e., maximum input power before destroying the loudspeaker; it is never the sound output the loudspeaker produces). A driver may be damaged at much less than its rated power if driven past its mechanical limits at lower frequencies. [32] Tweeters can also be damaged by amplifier clipping (amplifier circuits produce large amounts of energy at high frequencies in such cases) or by music or sine wave input at high frequencies. Each of these situations might pass more energy to a tweeter than it can survive without damage.[33] In some jurisdictions, power handling has a legal meaning allowing comparisons between loudspeakers under consideration. Elsewhere, the variety of meanings for power handling capacity can be quite confusing. Impedance typically 4 (ohms), 8 , etc.[34] Baffle or enclosure type (enclosed systems only) Sealed, bass reflex, etc. Number of drivers (complete speaker systems only) two-way, three-way, etc. and optionally: Crossover frequency(ies) (multi-driver systems only) The nominal frequency boundaries of the division between drivers. Frequency response The measured, or specified, output over a specified range of frequencies for a constant input level varied across those frequencies. It sometimes includes a variance limit, such as within " 2.5 dB". Thiele/Small parameters (individual drivers only) these include the driver's Fs (resonance frequency), Qts (a driver's Q; more or less, its damping factorat resonant frequency), Vas (the equivalent air compliance volume of the driver), etc. Sensitivity The sound pressure level produced by a loudspeaker in a non-reverberant environment, often specified in dB and measured at 1 meter with an input of 1 watt (2.83 rms volts into 8 ), typically at one or more specified frequencies. Manufactures often use this rating in marketing material. Maximum SPL The highest output the loudspeaker can manage, short of damage or not exceeding a particular distortion level. Manufactures often use this rating in marketing material commonly without reference to frequency range or distortion level.

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2.5 Electrical characteristics of a dynamic loudspeaker

The load that a driver presents to an amplifier consists of a complex electrical impedancea combination of resistance and both capacitive and inductive reactance, which combines properties of the driver, its mechanical motion, the effects of crossover components (if any are in the signal path between amplifier and driver), and the effects of air loading on the driver as modified by the enclosure and its environment. Most amplifiers' output specifications are given at a specific power into an ideal resistive load; however, a loudspeaker does not have a constant resistance across its frequency range. Instead, the voice coil is inductive, the driver has mechanical resonances, the enclosure changes the driver's electrical and mechanical characteristics, and a passive crossover between the drivers and the amplifier contributes its own variations. The result is a load resistance that varies fairly widely with frequency, and usually a varying phase relationship between voltage and current as well, also changing with frequency. Some amplifiers can cope with the variation better than others can. To make sound, a loudspeaker is driven by modulated electrical current (produced by an amplifier) that pass through a "speaker coil" (a coil of copper wire), which then (through inductance) magnetizes the coil, creating a magnetic field. The electrical current variations that pass through the speaker are thus converted to varying magnetic forces, which move the speaker diaphragm, which thus forces the driver to produce air motion that is similar to the original signal from the amplifier.

2.6 Electromechanical measurements

Fully characterizing the sound output quality of a loudspeaker driver or system in words is essentially impossible. Objective measurements provide information about several aspects of performance so that informed comparisons and improvements can be made, but no combination of measurements summarizes the performance of a loudspeaker system in use, if only because the test signals used are neither music nor speech. Examples of typical measurements are: amplitude and phase characteristics vs. frequency; impulse response under one or more conditions (e.g., square waves, sine wave bursts, etc.); directivity vs. frequency (e.g., horizontally, vertically, spherically, etc.); harmonic and intermodulation distortion vs. SPL output, using any of several test signals; stored energy (i.e., ringing) at various frequencies; impedance vs. frequency; and small-signal vs. large-signal performance. Most of these measurements require sophisticated and often expensive equipment to perform, and also good judgment by the operator, but the raw sound pressure level output is rather easier to report and so is often the only specified valuesometimes in misleadingly exact terms. The sound pressure level (SPL) a loudspeaker produces is measured in decibels (dBspl).

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Chapter3 3. Horn loudspeakers

Horn loudspeakers are the oldest form of loudspeaker system. The use of horns as voiceamplifying megaphones dates at least to the 17th century,[40] and horns were used in mechanical gramophones as early as 1857. Horn loudspeakers use a shaped waveguide in front of or behind the driver to increase the directivity of the loudspeaker and to transform a small diameter, high pressure condition at the driver cone surface to a large diameter, low pressure condition at the mouth of the horn. This increases the sensitivity of the loudspeaker and focuses the sound over a narrower area. The size of the throat, mouth, the length of the horn, as well as the area expansion rate along it must be carefully chosen to match the drive to properly provide this transforming function over a range of frequencies (every horn performs poorly outside its acoustic limits, at both high and low frequencies). The length and cross-sectional mouth area required to create a bass or sub-bass horn require a horn many feet long. 'Folded' horns can reduce the total size, but compel designers to make compromises and accept increased complication such as cost and construction. Some horn designs not only fold the low frequency horn, but use the walls in a room corner as an extension of the horn mouth. In the late 1940s, horns whose mouths took up much of a room wall were not unknown amongst hi-fi fans. Room sized installations became much less acceptable when two or more were required. A horn loaded speaker can have a sensitivity as high as 110 dB at 2.83 volts (1 watt at 8 ohms) at 1 meter. This is a hundredfold increase in output compared to a speaker rated at 90 dB sensitivity, and is invaluable in applications where high sound levels are required or amplifier power is limited.

3.1 Megaphone
A megaphone, speaking-trumpet, bullhorn, blowhorn, or loud hailer is a portable, usually hand-held, cone-shaped horn used to amplify a persons voice or other sounds towards a targeted direction. This is accomplished by channelling the sound through the megaphone, which also serves to match theacoustic impedance of the voice cords to the air. The natural human voice tends to spread evenly in all directions, whereas when it is sent through a megaphone, the sound is concentrated in a given direction and the coupling of its energy to the air optimised, while if a listener is to the side, it is more difficult to hear what is being said.

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The initial inventor of the speaking trumpet is a subject of historical controversy, as both Samuel Morland and Athanasius Kircher lay claim to the device. Morland, in a work published in 1671, wrote about his experimentation with different horns and his most successful variant. This loudest horn was made of over 20 feet of copper and could supposedly project vocalizations as far as a mile and a half. Twenty years earlier, Kircher described a device that could be used for both broadcasting on one end and overhearing on the other. His coiled horn would be wedged into the side of a building, connecting a speaker or listener inside with the surrounding environment. Morland favored a straight, tube-shaped speaking device, where an initial sound would reverberate in waves through the instrument and gradually become louder. Kirchers horn, on the other hand, utilized a cochleate design, where the horn was twisted and coiled, unlike Morlands design. A later, papier-mache trumpet of special design was the Sengerphone. The term megaphone was first associated with Thomas Edisons instrument 200 years later. In 1878, Edison developed a device similar to the speaking trumpet in hopes of benefiting the deaf and hard of hearing. His variation included three separate funnels lined up in a row. The two outer funnels, which were six feet and eight inches long, were made of paper and connected to a tube inserted in each ear. The middle funnel was similar to Morlands speaking trumpet, but had a larger slot to insert a users mouth. ] With Edisons megaphone, a low whisper could be heard a thousand feet away, while a normal tone of voice could be heard roughly two miles away. On the listening end, the receiver could hear a low whisper at a thousand feet away. The size of the instrument, as one researcher noted, was too large. George Prescott wrote: The principal drawback at present is the large size of the apparatus.

3.2 Electric megaphones

In 1954, TOA Corporation developed the EM-202, the world's first electric megaphone. An electronic megaphone amplifies sound to a higher decibel level. It can be amplified from over 90 dB. It consists of a microphone, an amplifier and a loudspeaker. Common uses for megaphones are at sporting events, political functions, and generally when one needs to address congregations of people in open spaces. A vast array of modern electric megaphones are available to purchase, and characteristics like wattage, weight, price, and the presence of alarms and shoulder straps all contribute to a consumers choice. The shape of the megaphone directly affects the range of projection; narrower horns compensate lower wattage by concentrating sound much sharper than wide horns. Some megaphones even

21

include a detachable microphone, so speakers can address a crowd without the instrument obscuring their face.

3.3 Megaphone use

Besides its practical implications, the megaphone also had a social impact on society. The megaphone, along with other amplifying technologies like microphones and loudspeakers, helped promote womens participation in society. In events like the National Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1920, when the electric megaphone was first becoming popularized, women utilized these amplifying technologies during roll call of participants. Portable megaphones are widely used for crowd management and mass communication. When needing to transmit important information or to guide a large amount of people, an electric megaphone is valuable if other public announcement devices are not present. For decades, film directors have used electric megaphones to communicate with their cast and crew on sets where it was hard to hear. Cecil B. DeMille, director of epic movies like The Ten Commandments and The King of Kings, was the first director to use a megaphone during production. Many of his films were biblical epics set in vast open spaces that required communication across hundreds of feet. In many modern radio ads, producers look to utilize a megaphone effect without actually recording the instrument. In doing so, they digitize the recognizable characteristics of the electric megaphone and try to reproduce the qualities of distortion. On recording software like Logic and Pro Tools, selecting certain filters and settings will produce an artificial sound almost indistinguishable from an electric megaphone.

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Chapter4 4. Mono jack socket

A TRS connector (tip, ring, sleeve) is a common family of connector typically used for analog signals including audio. It is cylindrical in shape, typically with three contacts, although sometimes with two (a TS connector) or four (a TRRS connector). It is also termed an audio jack, phone jack, phone plug, and jack plug. Specific models are termed stereo plug, mini-jack, mini-stereo,headphone jack, tiny telephone connector and bantam plug. The TRS connector was invented for use in telephone switchboards in the 20th century and is still widely used, both in its original 14 in (exactly 6.35 mm) size and in miniaturized versions: 3.5 mm (approx. 18 in) and 2.5 mm (approx. 332 in). The connector's name is an initialism derived from the names of three conducting parts of the plug: Tip, Ring, and Sleeve hence, TRS. In the UK, the terms jack plug and jack socket are commonly used for the respective male and female TRS connectors. In the U.S., a stationary (more fixed) electrical connector is called a "jack". The terms phone plug and phone jack are sometimes used to refer to TRS connectors,[5] but are also sometimes used colloquially to refer to RJ11 and older telephone plugs and the corresponding jacks that connect wired telephones to wall outlets (the similar terms phono plug and phono jack refer to RCA connectors though both plug types are used in tandem when a computer or MP3 player connects to a stereo). In conversation, the diameter is often added to specify which size quarter-inch phone plug or 3.5 mm phone jack for the unbalanced twochannel three-contact version, and balanced TRS jack or TRS phone plug for the balanced onechannel three-contact version.

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4.1 Modern connectors

Modern TS and TRS connectors are available in three standard sizes. The original 14 in (6.35 mm) version dates from 1878, for use in manual telephone exchanges making it possibly the oldest electrical connector standard still in use. The 3.5 mm or miniature and 2.5 mm or subminiature sizes were originally designed as two-conductor connectors for earpieces on transistor radios. The 3.5 mm and 2.5 mm sizes are also referred to as 18 in and 332 in respectively in the United States, though those dimensions are only approximations. All three sizes are now readily available in two-conductor (unbalanced mono) and three-conductor (balanced mono or unbalanced stereo) versions. Four- and five-conductor versions of the 3.5 mm plug are used for certain applications. A fourconductor version is often used in compact camcorders and portable media players, and sometimes also in laptop computers and smartphones, providing stereo sound plus a video signal. Proprietary interfaces using both four- and five-conductor versions exist, where the extra conductors are used to supply power for accessories. The four-conductor 3.5 mm plug is also used as a speakermicrophone connector on handheld amateur radio transceivers from Yaesu and on some mobile phones. A three- or four-conductor version of the 2.5 mm plug is widely used on cell phone handsfree headsets, providing mono (three conductor) or stereo (four conductor) sound and a microphone input. Common stereo headphones with the 2.5 mm plug are often not compatible with this type of socket. A 3.5 mm version of this plug is now commonly available on mobile telephones as well. A 3.5 mm stereo-plus-mic jack is available that is compatible with standard 3.5 mm stereo headphones, e.g. Nokia has been widely using TRRS connectors with 3.5 mm diameter since 2006. The selected pin assignment, with ground on the sleeve, is as well standardized in OMTP [7] and has been accepted as a national Chinese standard YDT 1885-2009. TRRS plugs do not work properly with a TRS stereo jack if the ground contact in the jack connects to the microphone contact on the plug. It is thus a good practice to implement new TRS headphone jacks using a TRRS mechanical jack and connecting ground to sleeve and the second ring contact. This way such jacks will provide better compatibility with different TRRS cell phone headsets.
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Although relatively unknown in modern consumer electronics, the professional audio world and the telecommunication industry has used tiny telephone (TT) connectors in patch bays which are mid-size phone plugs with a 4.40 mm (0.173 in) diameter shaft. In the telecom world, this is termed a "bantam" plug. Though unable to handle as much power and less reliable as a 6.35 mm (0.250 in) jack,[8] TTs have been used for professional console and outboardpatchbays in studios and live sound applications, in which one patch panel needs hundreds of patch points in a limited space. The TRS versions of TT connectors are capable of handling balanced line signals and have been employed in pro audio installations. Recently, all-inone digital audio switching matrices and digital signal processors have reduced the need for physical patching and extensive patch bays.

4.2 Mono and stereo compatibility

In the original application in manual telephone exchanges, many different configurations of 6.35 mm (14 in) jack plug were used, some accommodating five or more conductors, with several tip profiles. Of these many varieties, only the two-conductor version with a rounded tip profile was compatible between different manufacturers, and this was the design that was at first adopted for use with microphones, electric guitars, headphones, loudspeakers, and many other items of audio equipment. When a three-conductor version of the 6.35 mm (14 in) jack was introduced for use with stereo headphones, it was given a sharper tip profile in order to make it possible to manufacture jacks (sockets) that would accept only stereo plugs, to avoid short-circuiting the right channel amplifier. This attempt has long been abandoned, and now the normal convention is that all plugs fit all sockets of the same size, regardless of whether they are balanced mono, unbalanced mono or stereo. Most 6.35 mm (14 in) plugs, mono or stereo, now have the profile of the original stereo plug, although a few rounded mono plugs are also still produced. The profiles of stereo miniature and subminiature plugs have always been identical to the mono plugs of the same size. The results of this physical compatibility are: If a two-conductor plug of the same size is connected to a three-conductor socket, the result is that the ring (right channel) of the socket is grounded. This property is deliberately used in several applications, see "tip ring sleeve", below. However, grounding one channel may also be dangerous to the equipment if the result is to short circuit the output of the right channel amplifier. In any case, any signal from the right channel is naturally lost. If a three-conductor plug is connected to a two-conductor socket, normally the result is to leave the ring of the plug unconnected (open circuit). In the days of vacuum tubes this was also potentially dangerous to equipment but most solid state devices tolerate this condition well. A 3-conductor socket could be wired as an unbalanced mono socket to ground the ring in this situation, but the more conventional wiring is to leave the ring unconnected, exactly simulating a mono socket.

4.3 Uses
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Some common uses of jack plugs and their matching sockets are: Headphone and earphone jacks on a wide range of equipment. 6.35 mm (14 in) plugs are common on home and professional component equipment, while 3.5 mm plugs are nearly universal for portable audio equipment. 2.5 mm plugs are not as common, but are used on communication equipment such ascordless phones, mobile phones, and two-way radios. Consumer electronics devices such as digital cameras, camcorders, and portable DVD players use 3.5 mm connectors for composite video and audio output. Typically, a TRS connection is used for mono audio plus video, and a TRRS connection for stereo audio plus video. Cables designed for this use are often terminated with RCA connectors on the other end. Hands-free sets and headsets often use 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm connectors. TRS connectors are used for mono audio out + an unbalanced microphone (with a shared ground). TRRS connectors are used to add an additional audio-out channel (i.e. stereo out + microphone). Microphone inputs on tape and cassette recorders, sometimes with remote control switching on the ring, on early, monaural cassette recorders mostly a dual-pin version consisting of a 3.5 mm TS for the microphone and a 2.5 mm TS for remote control which switches the recorder's power supply. Patching points (insert points) on a wide range of equipment. Personal computers, sometimes using a sound card plugged into the computer. Stereo 3.5 mm jacks are used for: Line in (stereo) Line out (stereo) Headphones/loudspeaker out (stereo) Microphone input (mono, usually with 5 V power available on the ring. Note that traditional, incompatible, use of a stereo plug for a mono microphone is for balanced output) Laptop computers generally have one line level jack for headphones and one mono jack for a microphone at microphone level. You can use an attenuating cable to convert line level or use a signal from an XLR connector, but it is not designed to record from a stereo device such as a radio or music player. LCD monitors with built-in speakers will need a 3.5 mm male-male cable from the sound card. Note: Higher end sound cards sometimes sport a breakout panel which supports 14 in plug devices as well. Devices designed for surround output may use multiple jacks for paired channels (ex. TRS for front left and right; TRRS for front center, rear center, and subwoofer; and TRS for surround left

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and right). Circuitry on the sound device may be used to switch between traditional Line In/Line Out/Mic functions and surround output. Electric guitars. Almost all electric guitars use a 14 in mono jack (socket) as their output connector. Some makes (such as Shergold) use a stereo jack instead for stereo output, or a second stereo jack, in addition to a mono jack (as with Rickenbacker). Instrument amplifiers for guitars, basses and similar amplified musical instruments. 14 in jacks are overwhelmingly the most common connectors for: Inputs. A shielded cable with a mono 14 in jack plug on each end is commonly termed a guitar cord or a patching cord, the first name reflecting this usage, the second the history of the jack plug's development for use in manual telephone exchanges. Loudspeaker outputs, especially on low-end equipment. On professional loudspeakers, Speakon connectors carry higher current, mate with greater contact area, lock in place and do not short out the amplifier upon insertion or disconnection. However, some professional loudspeakers carry both Speakon and TRS connectors for compatibility. Heavyduty 14 in loudspeaker jacks are rated at 15 A maximum which limits them to applications involving less than 1,800 watts. 14 in loudspeaker jacks commonly aren't rigged to lock the plug in place and will short out the amplifier's output circuitry if connected or disconnected when the amplifier is live. Line outputs. Foot switches and effects pedals. Stereo plugs are used for double switches (for example by Fender). There is little compatibility between makers. Effects loops, which are normally wired as patch points. Electronic keyboards use jacks for a similar range of uses to guitars and amplifiers, and in addition Sustain pedals. Expression pedals. Electronic drums use jacks to connect sensor pads to the synthesizer module or MIDI encoder. In this usage, a change in voltage on the wire indicates a drum stroke. Some compact and/or economy model audio mixing desks use stereo jacks for balanced microphone inputs. The majority of professional audio equipment uses mono jacks as the standard unbalanced input or output connector, often providing a 14 in unbalanced line connector alongside (or in a few cases in the middle of!) and as an alternative to an XLR balanced line connector.

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Modular synthesizers commonly use monophonic cables for creating patches.

4.4 Switch contacts

Panel-mounting jacks are often provided with switch contacts. Most commonly, a mono jack is provided with one normally closed (NC) contact, which is connected to the tip (live) connection when no plug is in the socket, and disconnected when a plug is inserted. Stereo sockets commonly provide two such NC contacts, one for the tip (left channel live) and one for the ring or collar (right channel live). Some designs of jack also have such a connection on the sleeve. As this contact is usually ground, it is not much use for signal switching, but could be used to indicate to electronic circuitry that the socket was in use. Less commonly, some jacks are provided with normally open (NO) or change-over contacts, and/or the switch contacts may be isolated from the connector. The original purpose of these contacts was for switching in telephone exchanges, for which there were many patterns. Two sets of change-over contacts, isolated from the connector contacts, were common. The more recent pattern of one NC contact for each signal path, internally attached to the connector contact, stems from their use as headphone jacks. In many amplifiers and equipment containing them, such as electronic organs, a headphone jack is provided that disconnects the loudspeakers when in use. This is done by means of these switch contacts. In other equipment, a dummy load is provided when the headphones are not connected. This is also easily provided by means of these NC contacts. Other uses for these contacts have been found. One is to interrupt a signal path to enable other circuitry to be inserted. This is done by using one NC contact of a stereo jack to connect the tip and ring together when no plug is inserted. The tip is then made the output, and the ring the input (or vice versa), thus forming apatch point. Another use is to provide alternative mono or stereo output facilities on some guitars and electronic organs. This is achieved by using two mono jacks, one for left channel and one for right, and wiring the NC contact on the right channel jack to the tip of the other, to connect the two connector tips together when the right channel output is not in use. This then mixes the signals so that the left channel jack doubles as a mono output. Where a 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm jack is used as a DC power inlet connector, a switch contact may be used to disconnect an internal battery whenever an external power supply is connected, to prevent incorrect recharging of the battery. A standard stereo jack is used on most battery-powered guitar effects pedals to eliminate the need for a separate power switch. In this configuration, the internal battery has its negative terminal wired to the sleeve contact of the jack. When the user plugs in a two-conductor (mono) guitar or

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microphone lead, the resulting short-circuit between sleeve and ring connects an internal battery to the unit's circuitry, ensuring that it powers up or down automatically whenever a signal lead is inserted or removed. A drawback of this design is the risk of inadvertently discharging the battery if the lead is not removed after use, such as if the equipment is left plugged in overnight. Configurations and schematic symbols

These examples are meant to illustrate each possible component of such jacks, but many other configurations using these basic components are available. All examples in the above figure are oriented so the plug 'enters' from the right. A. A simple two-conductor jack. The connection to the sleeve is the rectangle towards the right, and the connection to the tip is the line with the notch. Wiring connections are illustrated as white circles. B. A three-conductor, or TRS, jack. The upper connector is the tip, as it is farther away from the sleeve. The sleeve is shown connected directly to the chassis, a very common configuration. This is the typical configuration for a balanced connection C. This three-conductor jack has two isolated SPDT switches. They are activated by a plug going into the jack, which disconnects one throw and connects the other. The white arrowheads indicate a mechanical connection, while the black arrowheads indicate an electrical connection. This would be useful for a device that turns on when a plug is inserted, and off otherwise, with the power routed through the switches. D. This three-conductor jack has two normally closed switches connected to the contacts themselves. This would be useful for a patch point, for instance, or for allowing another signal to feed the line until a plug is inserted. The switches open when a plug is inserted. A common use for

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this style of connector is a stereo headphone jack that shuts off the default output (speakers) when the connector is plugged in. The most common circuit configurations are the simple mono and stereo jacks (A and B above), however there are a great number of variants manufactured.

Chapter 5

5. Circuit Discription

5.1 Introduction
This circuit is intended to be placed in the same box containing the loudspeaker, forming a compact microphone amplifier primarily intended for speech reinforcement. A device of this kind is particularly suited to teachers, lecturers, tourists' guides, hostesses and anyone speaking in crowded, noisy environment. The circuit's heart is formed by the TDA7052 Audio power amplifier IC, delivering a maximum output of 1.2W @ 6V supply. An external microphone must be plugged into J1, its signal being amplified by Q1 and fed to IC1. R1 acts as a volume control and C3 tailors the upper audio frequency band, mainly to reduce the microphone possibility of picking-up the loudspeaker output, causing a very undesirable and loud "howl", i.e. the well known Larsen effect. Therefore, C3 value can be varied in the 4n7 - 22nF range to ensure the best compromise from speech tone quality and minimum Larsen effect occurrence. Dynamic or electrets microphone is warmly recommended. It has a useful feature that can be used to momentarily mute the microphone by connecting SW1 shown in diagram.

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5.2 Circuit Diagram:

5.3 Parts:
P1 = 22K R1 = 1M R2 = 15K R3 = 470R R4 = 47K R5 = 4.7K R6 = 4.7K C1 = 100nF-63V C2 = 100nF-63V C3 = 10nF-63V
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C4 = 100nF-63V C5 = 220uF-25V C6 = 10uF-25V Q1 = BC547 IC1 = LM 386 J1 = Mono Jack Socket B1 = 6V Battery SW1 = SPST Slider Switch

5.4 Procedure of building the bull horn loudspeaker

Step 1: Circuit diagram of the proposed system is designed and finalized.(Refer to Figure 6.1 ) Step 2: All the components to be used are selected which are also mentioned above. Step 3: All the hardware components are soldered on their respective zero printed circuit boards with
the help of soldering ion, solder and flux according to the hardware schematic shown in the Figure

Step 5: : Testing is done at various levels to finalize the appropriate program for the most proper
working of the system

Notes:

Please note that hands-free, uni-directional headset or ear clip microphone types are very well suited for this device, as also are Clip-on Lavaliere or Lapel microphones. If a small electrets capsule is used for the microphone, R5, R6 and C6 must be added to the circuit to provide power supply. Choose a loudspeaker as large as possible, in order to increase circuit performance. You can use also two 4 Ohm loudspeakers wired in series or two 8 Ohm types wired in parallel in order to obtain better results.

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The box containing the amplifier and loudspeaker(s) can be fitted out with a belt and carried like a shoulder-bag or, if you build a smaller unit, it can be used as a Pick & Go Belt Clip Speaker.

Chapter -6 FUTURE WORK

If we need to boosts the volume at any public address like at any theatre or concert hall we use this project. Or if we want to enjoy at own home we use this project as domestic sound systems. And this circuit can be implemented as a chain in any hi-fi stereo sound system an also used as an instrument amplifiers include guitar amplifiers.

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REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

http://www.eleccircuit.com http://www.circuitstoday.com www.technologystudent.com http://en.wikipedia.org http://www.bcae1.com

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