1.

Formulate the Flow Problem

The first step of the analysis process is to formulate the flow problem by seeking answers to the following questions:
o o o o o o o o o

what is the objective of the analysis? what is the easiest way to obtain those objective? what geometry should be included? what are the freestream and/or operating conditions? what dimensionality of the spatial model is required? (1D, quasi-1D, 2D, axisymmetric, 3D) what should the flow domain look like? what temporal modeling is appropriate? (steady or unsteady) what is the nature of the viscous flow? (inviscid, laminar, turbulent) how should the gas be modeled?

2. Model the Geometry and Flow Domain

The body about which flow is to be analyzed requires modeling. This generally involves modeling the geometry with a CAD software package. Approximations of the geometry and simplifications may be required to allow an analysis with reasonable effort. Concurrently, decisions are made as to the extent of the finite flow domain in which the flow is to be simulated. Portions of the boundary of the flow domain conicide with the surfaces of the body geometry. Other surfaces are free boundaries over which flow enters or leaves. The geometry and flow domain are modeled in such a manner as to provide input for the grid generation. Thus, the modeling often takes into account the structure and topology of the grid generation.
3. Establish the Boundary and Initial Conditions

Since a finite flow domain is specified, physical conditions are required on the boundaries of the flow domain. The simulation generally starts from an initial solution and uses an iterative method to reach a final flow field solution.
4. Generate the Grid

The flow domain is discretized into a grid. The grid generation involves defining the structure and topology and then generating a grid on that topology. Currently all cases involve multi-block, structured grids; however, the grid blocks may be abbuting, contiguous, non-contiguous, and overlapping. The grid should exhibit some minimal grid quality as defined by measures of orthogonality (especially at the boundaries), relative grid spacing (15% to 20%

stretching is considered a maximum value), grid skewness, etc... Further the maximum spacings should be consistent with the desired resolution of important features. The resolution of boundary layers requires the grid to be clustered in the direction normal to the surface with the spacing of the first grid point off the wall to be well within the laminar sublayer of the boundary layer. For turbulent flows, the first point off the wall should exhibit a y+ value of less than 1.0.
5. Establish the Simulation Strategy

The strategy for performing the simulation involves determining such things as the use of space-marching or time-marching, the choice of turbulence or chemistry model, and the choice of algorithms.
6. Establish the Input Parameters and Files

A CFD codes generally requires that an input data file be created listing the values of the input parameters consisted with the desired strategy. Further the a grid file containing the grid and boundary condition information is generally required. The files for the grid and initial flow solution need to be generated.
7. Perform the Simulation

The simulation is performed with various possible with options for interactive or batch processing and distributed processing.
8. Monitor the Simulation for Completion

As the simulation proceeds, the solution is monitored to determine if a "converged" solution has been obtained, which is iterative convergence. Further discussion can be found on the page entitled Examining Iterative Convergence.
9. Post-Process the Simulation to get the Results

Post-Processing involves extracting the desired flow properties (thrust, lift, drag, etc...) from the computed flowfield.
10. Make Comparisons of the Results

The computed flow properties are then compared to results from analytic, computational, or experimental studies to establish the validity of the computed results.

11. Repeat the Process to Examine Sensitivities

The sensitivity of the computed results should be examined to understand the possible differences in the accuracy of results and / or performance of the computation with respect to such things as:
o o o o o o o o o o o o

dimensionality flow conditions initial conditions marching strategy algorithms grid topology and density turbulence model chemistry model flux model artificial viscosity boundary conditions computer system

Further information can be found on the pages entitled Verification Assessment andValidation Assessment.
12. Document

Documenting the findings of an analysis involves describing each of these steps in the process.

INTRODUCTION Siting of turbines in complex land is becoming more and more common, although these areas are not best sites, due to high shear and turbulence levels in the wind flow. Correct predictions compressible or incompressible, laminar or turbulent flows. Computational Fluid Dynamics or simply CFD is concerned with obtaining numerical energy output. That reasons can be cited for the increased importance simulation techniques heterogeneities add to the complexity of the flow. For forested hilly terrain, the prediction of in the recent years. landscape such as lakes and mires or due to clearings in the managed forests. These memory computers has allowed CFD to get solutions for many flow problems including normally characterized by large-scale heterogeneities, either due to the natural variation in the of flow are great importance for the wind energy production. Forested and hilly areas are Siting of turbines in complex land is becoming more and more common, although these areas solutions to the fluid flow problems using computers. The advent of high-speed and largethe flow field around the hill correctly to optimize turbines location in order to maximize the separation of the flow above and below the boundary layer may be critical for assessing

Question formulation How reliable is the CFD tool for estimation wind energy production specifically at forested hilly terrain? How accurate is the CFD tool to model wind flow over complex terrain? How reliable is the CFD tool for estimation wind energy production specifically at How well does forest module works to represent forest? Scientific methodology

There are mainly three parts in the thesis:

The theoretical part covers the theory about wind resource, boundary layer over complex terrain, turbulence and flow models based on a literature study. The set-up and simulations part consist software work based on the data from existing farm. The analysis part presents simulation results and includes comparison between energy estimation results with real production data.

obstacles
Obstacles will decrease the wind speed downstream from the obstacle. The decrease in wind speed depends on the porosity of the obstacle, i.e. how "open" the obstacle is. (Porosity is defined as the open area divided by the total area of the object facing the wind). A building is obviously solid, and has no porosity, whereas a fairly open tree in winter (with no leaves) may let more than half of the wind through. In summer, however, the foliage may be very dense, so as to make the porosity less than, say one third. The slowdown effect on the wind from an obstacle increases with the height and length of the obstacle. The effect is obviously more pronounced close to the obstacle, and close to the ground. When manufacturers or developers calculate the energy production for wind turbines, they always take obstacles into account if they are close to the turbine - say, less than 1 kilometre away in one of the more important wind directions.

WIND TURBINE SITE SELECTION

Wind is the fuel that drives a wind turbine. A windmill needs to be placed where the wind is; putting it on too short a tower is like installing solar photovoltaic panels in the shade. Neither will work very well. Not just any wind will do, a wind turbine needs air that moves uniformly in the same direction. Eddies and swirls, turbulence in short, do not make good fuel for a wind turbine. The rotor cannot extract energy from turbulent wind, and the constantly changing wind direction due toturbulence causes excessive wear and premature failure of your turbine. This means that you want to place your turbine high enough to catch strong winds, and above turbulent air. Since the tower price goes up quickly with height there is a limit to what is practical and affordable. This section is intended to help you decide what tower height works best.

The quick-and-dirty rule of thumb for turbine height is a minimum of 10 meters (30 feet) plus the length of a turbine blade above the tallest obstacle (trees, house etc.) in a 150 meter (500 feet) radius, with a tower height of at least 19 meters (60 feet). If the obstacle is more solid than a few trees (for example a whole tree line) then even more distance than 500' is needed, as will be described below. This should really be regarded as an absolute minimum for a wind turbine; at 10 meters above an obstacle there will still be some amount of turbulence and additional clearance is highly desirable. Keep changes in height of obstacles in mind as well.For example, if you have trees that are expected to grow up to 60 feet high, it is advisable to use a 100 feet tower. Likewise, a 60 feet tower should only be used when the terrain is very, very flat with no obstacles in a wide area around, for example at the edge of the sea, or on top of a cliff with a clear area around it, or in the tundra. For most situations a 60 feet tower will only save a little money up front, while short selling energy production in the long run.

To go beyond the rule of thumb, the airflow over any blunt obstruction, including a tree, tends to create a bubble of turbulent air of twice the height of the obstacle, extending 20 times the height of the obstacle behind it. So, your 30 feet high house disturbs the air up to 600 feet away. That tree line with 100 feet trees disturbs the air up to 200 feet high at a distance of 1000 feet away! The figure above illustrates this. Locate your wind turbine either upwind of the obstructions, or far enough downwind. Notice from the figure that preference should be given to a site upwind of obstructions, but keep in mind that tall features downwind of the turbine can also influence the wind going through the blades, as shown in the figure. Upwind and downwind are relative to the prevailing wind direction; where the wind blows from most of the time. A wind atlas can sometimes tell you what your prevailing wind direction is, and if there is one at all. Some sites have winds that did not read the rule book, and there it is equally likely to blow from more than one direction. When it comes to wind turbines, the bottom of a hill, valley, or ravine makes for a poor place to site a windmill. The wind tends to drop in speed at the bottom of a smooth hill, then speed up as it goes up the hill, reaching around twice the wind speed at the top of the hill. The figure below shows this. You can use this effect to your advantage if you have hills on your property.

For obstructions that are not smooth, such as a cliff (i.e. a sudden rise in the landscape) it gets trickier: Sharp edges create turbulence, as illustrated in the figure below. The airflow at the top of the cliff can be stronger than the average wind speed in the area, but close to the cliffs edge it may also be very turbulent, making it a poor site for a turbine. If you have a cliff edge on your property and want to use it for siting your turbine, you should still use a 60 feet high tower to get above turbulent air. Even if it seems that the wind is always blowing hard at the cliffs edge. The lee side (downwind of the prevailing winds) of a bluff object makes for a very poor wind turbine site. The bluff object will create large turbulence on its downwind side, and the average wind speed will drop off precipitously as well. This leaves no energy for the wind turbine to harvest.

There actually is a cheap way to visually find out at what height turbulent air ends, and smooth, laminar airflow begins. Just fly a kite at your proposed wind turbine location on a windy day, preferably when the wind is coming from the prevailing direction. To visualize airflow, use tape-streamers tied to the kites string every 15 feet or so (home improvement stores sell plastic marking tape in fluorescent colors for very little money). Wildly fluttering tape indicates turbulence, smoothly extended tape means smooth air. Be sure to take the angle of the kites string into account when calculating height.

The energy in the wind increases with the cube of the wind speed (P ~ v3), and wind speed increases with height. An increase of just 26% in wind speed means twice as much power available in the wind, and your wind turbine will produce almost twice as much. Double the wind speed and you an harvest almost eight times as much power! A small additional investment in tower height may therefore be well worth it, thanks to the increased energy production. If you know the annual average wind speed for your location (from weather data, a wind atlas, local weather station etc.) you can use theEoltec spreadsheet to get a good idea of the energy a Scirocco wind turbine will produce if placed in smooth, laminar airflow. Weather data usually reports wind speeds at 10 meters above ground level, the spreadsheet can take care of translating that to a wind speed at turbine height. For a quick idea of how changes in tower height affect the power in the wind for an unobstructed site see the figure below.

The Danish Wind Power Association made a very nice, interactive, calculator that allows one to plug in various obstacles (for example, a row of trees), set their height and distance to the wind turbine, and visually show what effect this will have on wind speed and energy. The calculator shows the percentage of the wind speed at various distances and heights behind the obstacle. Keep in mind though that the effect of obstacles is not just to diminish wind speeds, but they also make the air swirl, creating turbulence. Turbulence is an energy thief when it comes to wind turbines. If you have sufficient space for guy wires, we advise to use a tilt-up tower for your wind turbine. They are economical, costing only a little bit more than the cheapest type of tower (a fixed guyed tower), and allow the turbine to be installed on the ground. Maintenance can also be done on the ground, by tilting the tower down. This saves in crane expenses, and makes installation and maintenance much safer because the work does not have to be done at dangerous heights. Another aspect of proper windmill siting is the distance from occupied buildings. All wind turbines produce some amount of sound. Even though the Scirocco is one of the most quiet wind turbines on the market (no, this is not just marketing hype, it really is quiet), it too produces sound. Some people find its sound soothing, since it tells them they are making energy, while it drives others absolutely bonkers. For that reason it is a good idea to place your wind turbine some distance away from your house, 100 feet is a good number for minimum separation. That is not to say that closer cannot be done, but

you will have to honestly assess how the turbines sound will affect you. Generally, a Scirocco that is placed in smooth air will be almost inaudible unless the wind starts blowing hard. At that point the blades pitch to stall angle, causing the air to swirl across the blades instead of flowing smoothly, and this increases the audible sound. When this happens it can be heard over the wind when you are in close proximity (and downwind sound will carry further than upwind). There also is such a thing as too much distance, since the length and gauge of the wiring that is needed will increase. With the everincreasing price of copper this makes it more expensive to install your turbine. Since we are talking about buildings: Despite the current marketing pitch of many small wind turbine manufacturers and sales people, it is generally a very bad idea to mount a wind turbine (any turbine, not just a Scirocco) directly onto a building. The airflow that close to the building is generally very turbulent, leading to premature failure and poor power production. It is usually noisy too. Every wind turbine has some amount of vibration associated with it, and this too will betransmitted inside the house. We know, the thought of bolting a little turbine to the house, just over the roof line, to offset your electricity use (as that salesman put it) is appealing. The harsh reality is that it does not work: Several studies were done, involving dozens of roof-top-turbines. They all concluded that those turbines do not work. Their energy production is negligible, and some were even net-users of electricity (because their inverters draw power, even when nothing is going into the grid)! Just say "no" to building mounted turbines!

Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics

The physical aspects of any fluid flow (such as wind flow) are governed by three fundamental physical principles: Mass is conserved Newton's second law (force equals mass times acceleration) Energy is conserved

These fundamental principles can be expressed in terms of mathematical equations, which for fluid flow take the form of unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the science of determining a numerical solution to these equations whilst advancing the solution through space or time to obtain a numerical description of the complete flow field of interest.

In order to compute a numerical solution, the situation is discretized: Space is split into numer-ous small elements (boxes) for which the flow is determined for small time steps. In wind energy applications this procedure is repeated until a steady-state flow is found for certain boundary conditions.

It was decided to perform Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) wind modeling with WindSim, a PC-based commercial CFD software for wind assessments, in order to achieve the following goals: gain know-how on CFD modeling procedures in alpine terrain validate CFD modeling results for alpine terrain promote regional development by supplying state-of-the-art wind assessments for windenergy projects