Earthquake

Earthquake Source Orientation of Fault Slip Focal Mechanisms Earthquake Size Magnitude Seismic Moment Energy Fault Models
Main source: J. Moris KAGI 2006 lecture notes

What is the cause of Earthquakes ?

- Associated with faults (source or cause?) - Associated with magma?

Magnitude and intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes :

Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. It is determined from measurements on seismographs and is commonly measured using the Richter scale. Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment. In Indonesia it is measured by using the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (after Bold, 1999)

Intensity I II Ground acceleration ( 1g = cm.sec-2/980) Effects Magnitude

Shaking no felt, no damage : not felt Shaking weak, no damage: felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Vibration like passing of truck. 0.015 - 0.02 g Shaking light, no damage: during the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by very few. At night some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound. Shaking moderate, very light damage: felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes, windows and so on broken; cracked plaster in a few places; unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop. Shaking strong, light damage: felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster.

1.0 - 3.0 3.0 -

III

- 3.9

IV

4.0 -

0.03 0.04 g

- 4.9

VI

0.06 0.07 g

5.0 -

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (cont.)

Intensity VII Ground acceleration ( 1g = cm.sec-2/980) 0.10 0.15 g Effects Magnitude

Shaking very strong, moderate damage: everybody run outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structure; considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures. Shaking severe, moderate to heavy damage: damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in poorly built structures. Falls of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Sand and mud ejected in small amount. Changes in well water. Shaking violent, heavy damage: damage considerable in specially designed structure; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb; great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously. Underground pipes broken.

- 5.9

VIII

0.25 0.30 g

6.0 -

IX

0.50 0.55 g

- 6.9

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (cont.)

Ground acceleration ( 1g = cm.sec-2/980) > 0.60 g Effects Magnitude

Intensity X

Shaking extreme, very heavy damage; some well-built wooden structure destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations; ground badly cracked. Rails bent. Land slides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud. Water splashed, slopped over banks. Few, if any, (masonry) structure remains standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Line of sight and level destroyed. Objects thrown into the air.

> 7.0

XI

XII

What can we Learn about the Source from Seismic Waves?

Location Fault orientation and Slip Direction Earthquake size Magnitude and Seismic Moment Energy Fault length Rupture Directivity

Types of faults
Normal fault

Thrust (Reverse) fault

Strike-slip fault

Thrust fault 1999 Chi-Chi Taiwan earthquake

Nojima Fault Kobe Earthquake, 1995

Okada, 1999

Examples of P-wave radiation pattern

Left-lateral strike-slip
E

Thrust fault

Right-lateral strike-slip
E

Normal fault

Focal Mechanisms

The March 26, 1997, Kagoshima earthquake

N8E

Aftershocks

N98E

Earthquake Size Magnitude

Charles Richter 1900-1985

M = log A log A0
Richter, 1958

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range Ml Mj mb Ms Mw Local magnitude (California) JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency) Body wave magnitude Surface wave magnitude Moment magnitude 0.1-1 sec 5-10 sec 1-5 sec 20 sec > 200 sec

Earthquake size - Seismic Moment

Area (A)

Slip (S) Seismic Moment = (Rigidity)(Area)(Slip)

M 0 (t ) = S u (t )

Seismic moments and fault areas of some famous earthquakes

2004 Sumatra 400 x 1027 dyne-cm Mw 9.0

A Small Earthquake, M3.8

Hanore Fault

Thrust Fault

M3.8 May 21, 2000

1 km

Kyoto Univ.

West

East

Fault Areas of Damaging Earthquakes

1995 Kobe Mw 6.9

Deaths
1944 1946 1995 1223 1330 6310 1946 Nankai Mw 8.1 1944 Tonankai Mw 8.1

Aftershocks of the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake Mw9.3 stretch for about 1300 km

Conclusions Earthquake sources are a double couple force system which is equivalent to Fault Slip The moment tensor describes the Force System for earthquakes and other physical processes From earthquake waves we can determine earthquake moment, orientation of faulting, fault size

Additional notes

Radiated Energy

Log10(E) = 1.5Mw + 11.8

Kanamori, 1977

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range Ml Mj mb Ms Mw Local magnitude (California) JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency) Body wave magnitude Surface wave magnitude Moment magnitude 0.1-1 sec 5-10 sec 1-5 sec 20 sec > 200 sec

Summary: Magnitude and Energy M = log A log A0 (Richter, 1958) Log10 E = 1.44Ms + 5.24 (Bath, 1966) Log10 E = 1.5Mw + 11.8 (Kanamori, 1977) Mw = 2/3 Log10 M0 16.3 (Hanks and Kanamori, 1979)

Earthquake size - Seismic Moment

Area (A)

Slip (S) Seismic Moment = (Rigidity)(Area)(Slip)

M 0 (t ) = S u (t )