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The 1960s Black power

1. The nation of Islam and Malcolm X The black power movement of the 1960s did not develop out of nothing. The black separatist tradition emerged in the nineteenth century, when some blacks advocated back to Africa. Marcus Garveys separatist Black Nationalist movement flourished in the 1910s and 20s. When Garveys (UNIA) Universal Negro Improvement Association went into decline, the nationalist and separatist ideology was taken up by the Black Muslim movement or Nation of Islam. a) Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam (1930) The Nation of Islam (NOI) was founded by Wallace Fard in 1930. In 9134 leadership of the new religious group passed to Elijah Poole. Under his adopted name of Elijah Muhammad, Poole led the NOI from 1934-1975. Although Poole claimed he was the prophet of Allah, his teachings frequently differed from those of orthodox Islam. He claimed God originally created people black and white people were created by an evil scientist Yakub. He believed Allah would return to end their suffering. The NOI provided an alternative to the white mans religion to encourage separatism, they also encouraged blacks to improve their economic situation. In the 1950s the NOIs preacher Malcolm X attracted the attention of the ghetto dwellers with this call for separatism. The television programme The hate that hate produced brought the NOI national media attention, in which Elijah Mohammed in 1959 attacked the nonviolent approach of Martin Luther King. (He advocated armed defence!) In the west in the early 60s there was still segregation enforced in theatres, restaurants, hotels and schools, and unemployment was also an issue. b) Achievements of the NOI Negative Some of the Nations solution to black problems a return to Africa or a separate black state in the South were unrealistic. NOI call for separatism increased black and white divisions. The NOIs image suffered when Elijah Muhammads sons left and Malcolm X due to the hypocrisy of their teachings which differed from the original Islamic faith. The assassination of Malcolm X decreased Elijahs popularity amongst some blacks; there was a threat of a black nationalist Civil war. Many people began to leave for the Black power movement.

i)

Both the NOI and the black power movement favoured separatism, however Elijahs dismissive attitude towards non-Muslim African culture alienated some members. Most black power advocates respected Elijah Muhammad and the NO1 as forerunners of the new Black Nationalism. (separatism) ii) Positive In the Ghettos membership was possibly as high as 100,000 in 9160. The NOI attracted ghetto dwellers because of its emphasis on economic selfhelp. Elijah Mohammed and his son Wallace created many businesses such as restaurants, bakeries and grocery stores these symbolised black success and gave rare employment opportunities in the ghettos. Elijah Mohammed was praised for turning the lives around of many drug abusers, outlaws and poverty stricken people. The NOI split into two groups following Muhammads death, one led by Wallace Muhammad (a more orthodox teaching), and the other retaining the NOI original teachings led by Louis Farrakhan. c) The aims, Methods and Achievements of Malcolm X i) Aims and Methods Malcolm X aimed to improve the lives of Black Americans. His main methods were to advertise (through Sermons, speeches and writing) Encourage critical thinking on race problems. (Encourage violence and hatred?) Malcolm X claimed he put forward the extremist approach to make Martin Luther Kings demands more acceptable to the Whites ii) Achievements Thurgood Marshall was particularly critical of the NOI and of Malcolm. (run by a bunch of thugs) Malcolm X advocated violence too often (seen as unhelpful and irresponsible) Malcolm X never established lasting organisations such as the NAACP or the SCLC. However he drew early attention to the dreadful conditions in American ghettos, and he brought oppressed black people throughout the world together. Malcolm inspired the new generation of black leaders such as the SNCCS Stokely Carmichael and CORES Floyd McKissick and the black power movement in general. He was the first really prominent advocate of separatism and what became known as Black power. Established the Organisation of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) which aimed to unite all people of African descent and promote political, social and economic independence for blacks. (moved towards socialism looking at economic rights)

2.

The Rise of Black Power in the 1960s The Ghettos i) What was the problem in the Ghettos? Although the Civil Rights movement of 1954-65 effected change in the South, it did nothing for problems in the North and west. Housing conditions, social amenities, and employment chances were poor. Ghetto schools did not provide a solid education foundation for good jobs, and increased machinery meant the factory jobs for unskilled labour declined massively in the 1950s and 60s leading to increased black unemployment. From 1964 to 1968 Americas ghettos erupted into violence each summers, increasing riots developed the idea of black radicalism. ii) What Solutions were suggested? Leaders of the Black community had differed lover how to improve ghetto life. The NAACO had worked through law courts for integrated education hoping it would provide better quality education for blacks and enable them to escape from the ghettos. A.Phillip Randolph (civil rights leader) encouraged unionisation and pressure on federal government for equal pay and employment opportunities. The ghettos although had improved still remained centres of poverty, unemployment, poor housing and schooling and increasing violence. (violence often caused by reaction to what were perceived as oppressive police policies) Reports such as the Kerner Report recommended increased expenditure on the ghettos, but this was unlikely. (most whites were unwilling to help, money and attention was on the Vietnam War) iii) Why were Whites unwilling to help American Cold War anti-communism ensured that sympathy for the poor was often equated with sympathy for communist ideology. Anyone who protested against ghetto poverty was likely to end up hated. It was though black children from a deprived social background might hold man white children and damage their employment prospects. Black entry into a white neighbourhood would cause housing prices to plummet, which increased opposition. White voters did not want to pay extra taxes to end ghetto poverty, particularly after the Vietnam War had caused taxes to increase. (too expensive responsibility for the State) Blacks regarded whites as unsympathetic and so black radicals emerged demanding more social and economic rights.

iv)

The Ghetto riots The first major riots were in Watts in 1965. With 34 deaths, 1000 injuries, 3500 rioters and looters arrested and $40 million damage done largely to white businesses. (It gained national attention) There were 238 other race riots in over 200 US cities from 1964 to 1968. Virtually every large US city outside the South had a race riot: o Newark, New Jersey (1967) o Detroit, Michigan (1967) o Oakland, California (1965 and 1966) o Cleveland, Ohio (1966 and 1968) o Chicago, Illinois (1966 and 1968) Riots led to over 250 deaths, most from police shootings, and also caused a great deal of damage to ghetto businesses. B) Ghetto rejection of the Civil Rights Organisations Martin Luther King and the SCLC went to Chicago in 1966 and initiated the poor peoples campaign from 1967. From 1964 CORE established Freedom Houses in the ghettos to provide information and advice on education, employment, health and housing. Whitney Youngs national Urban League (NUL) launched a programme to develop economic self-help methods in the ghettos. (1968) Many ghettos felt that organisations such as the NAACO and the SCLC knew little about ghetto life and were of little help in improving matters. Many criticised Martin Luther King, rejecting his emphasis upon the south, the white mans Christian religion and the rejection of violence. They began to look to more radical leaders such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael who advocated violence. C) The Radicalisation of the SNCC and CORE By 1966 SNCC members were impatient with what they considered to be the slow progress of blacks, and felt there was a lack of federal intervention. They turned to a more militant leader John Lewis who replaced Stokely Carmichael. Similarly when James Farmer resigned his leadership of CORE in1965 the radical Floyd McKissick was elected in his place. Divisions between SNCC and CORE and the SCLC and the NAACP was seen in the Meredith march earlier and continued to grow. In July 1966 the CORE convention endorsed black power and declared non-violence INAPPROPRIATE if they needed to DEFEND themselves.

The 1967 CORE convention removed the word multicultural from their constitution. (soon whites were expelled in 1968) Similarly in 1966 the SNCC voted to expel whites In 1968 Mckissick resigned and was replaced by an even more radical leader. Blacks began to ally with other blacks globally to extend their support. In May 1967 Carmichael was replaced by Henry Rap Brown who advocated armed self-defence. He urged them in 1967 to take over white owned stores in the ghettos using violence if needed. Soon after there was a race riot in Cambridge. At a race rally in Oakland in 1968 the SNCC combined with the Black Panthers (VERY RADICAL!!) 3) Black power and the Black Panthers The term Black power first came to fame in the Meredith March when Stokely Carmichael shouted Black power (it meant different things to different people) From some it meant Black supremacy (domination) In 1968 Elijah said Black power means the black people will rule the white people on earth. During 1968-9 black car workers thought black power meant a black working class revolution. They united black power union, the League of revolutionary workers. (socialist-redistribution of wealth) Older generations of civil rights thought they were racist and no better than Hitler or the Ku Klux Klan. Martin Luther King called for stripped power, and tried to give black power more positive connotations, to seep supportive to avoid disintegration of civil rights groups. The SNCCs Floyd McKissick also tried to give it positive connotations, claiming it did not mean black supremacy, or advocating violence, but political power, economic power and a new self-image for Negroes. Black power meant economic power to some people. Conservative Black Republican Nathan Wright proposed a black power capitalist movement, organising a conference in 1968 winning the support of NUL and SCLC. Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon said black power meant more black ownership, leading to black pride, black jobs, black opportunity and black power! b) The Black Panthers- like a black panther it never attacks unless provoked then it will annihilate. i) Establishment In 1966 the SNCC had helped establish an all-black political party, the Lowndes Country Freedom Organisation. That partys logo the Black Panther became more established when used by The Black Panthers party for self-defence. (Established in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale.) ii) Aims Newton and Seale were greatly influenced by Malcolm X and by other radical communist revolutionists such as Che Guevara and Mo Zedong.

1969-1970: The Black Panthers aimed to tackle worldwide non-white working class struggles, forging links with Africa, Asia and south America, and linked with other radical groups such as Mexican Brown Berets and Puerto Rican. Demands were radical like Garvey and Elijah Payment for slavery by the federal government Freedom for imprisoned blacks or trial before a black court Exemption from fighting the Vietnam war (white mans war) Less police brutality Improvements to ghetto dwellings iii) Achievements/Methods Black panthers branches mainly situated in urban centres on the west coast such as Oakland, and major Northern cities such as New York, Boston and Chicago. The Black Panthers set up Clinics to advice on health, welfare and legal rights. In 1970 the Southern California branch served up over 1700 free meals to the ghetto poor per week! Others claimed citing the us constitution that they had to right to carry arms and followed police cars in ghettos with guns, often leading to shoot outs, they aimed to expose police brutality. In 1967 Black Panthers surrounded and entered the California State Capital building in Sacramento claiming oppressive legislation being passed. Some plotted to blow up major department stored in New York. c) Black Panther Leadership After the Black Panthers allied with SNCC in February 1968 Stokely Carmichael became prime minister In July 1969 the SNCC split from the Black Panther because of personality clashes and ideological tension. SNCC advocated separatism and nationalism, Blank Panthers advocates a multiracial working class struggle against oppression. d) The End of the Black Panthers The Black Panthers engaged in petty crime, and often killed and confronted violently the white police. Blacks such as Elridge Cleaver, a serial rapist excused his breaking of the lay by claiming he was rebelling against a white mans law. The Black Panthers were targeted by the police from 1967-1969, and by 1970 most of the Black Panther leadership was killed, imprisoned or exiled. 4) Why did Black Power Decline? a) Poor definition and organisation It was never properly defined, and consequently poorly organised. Initially the broad definition sparked a vast amount of support

However supporters had differing ideas as to what they wanted, increasing divisions. Some people (SNCC) advocated separatism others supported a multi-cultural programme. B) Unrealistic Aims The Black Panthers never produced an effective plan for change. The talk of violence brought down the wrath of the federal government upon their heads. Also the talk of socialism was rebuked by the USA The talk of a separate black nation within the USA was equally unrealistic. C) Sexism Feminism became very popular in the late 1960s and appealed to many black women. Male black power workers were often sexist. When women couldnt get involved they turned to feminist movements instead. D) Finance and the Collapse on the SNCC and CORE White liberals had initially financed certain movements and when SNCC and CORE became more militant and expelled white members funding was tight. In 1973 SNCC ceased to exist. E) Government opposition Opposed to movements, juries were biased, and government failed to intervene to prevent white violence but punished black violence! (double standards) the Ku Klux Klan and FBI bribed witnesses to ensure extended jail sentences. 5) What had the Black power Movement achieved? a) Positive achievements It enabled previous gang members, criminals, drug addicts to turn their life around. There was an establishment of black pride with courses on black history and culture. Ghetto dwellers given practical help (clinics) Power activists ensured ghetto problems were on the political agenda. It united blacks over the world It made Martin Luther Kings demands seem more responsible. b) Negative achievements Older generations of civil rights movements lost support (not radical enough) They pushed away white support (electoral suicide) Lead to the collapse on the SNCC Violence alienated potential supporters. No proper solutions (to ghettos) Evil twin of civil rights movements. Armed defence decreased white sympathy. Poor leadership (CORE)

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