Air-Water Flow Design Guide

A
WATER
RESOURCES
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATION
ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH 41 NO.
AIR-WATER HYDRAULIC
FLOW IN STRUCTURES
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OFTHEINTERIOR
WATER AND POWER RESOURCES SERVICE
MS-230 Bureau
(8.78) of Reclamation
TECHNICAL
RE3PORT STANDARD
3. RECIPIENTS CATALOG
TITLE
NO.
PAGI
4.
TITLE
AND
SUBTITLE
5.
REPORT
DATE
Air-Water
Flow in Hydraulic
Structures
6.
December 1980
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7.
AUTHOR(S)
8.
PERFORMING REPORT
ORGANIZATiON NO.
Henry T. Falvey
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Engineering Monograph
10. WORK UNIT NO.
No. 41
Water and Power Resources Service Engineering and Research Center PO Box 25007 Denver, Colorado 80225
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Il.
CONTRACT
OR
GRANT
NO.
13.
TYPE OF COVERED
REPORT
AND
PERIOD
Same
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
5.
SUPPLEMENTARY
NOTES
6.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this report is to summarize the work that has been completed on airentrainment and air-demand in both open- and closed-conduit flows. The intent was to produce a concise reference source from which design manuals, monographs, and charts for specific applications could be prepared. Areas that need additional research have been identified. The report was prepared from available reference material. In several areas, data from several references have been combined to produce generalized curves. Includes 64 figs., 74 ref,. 3 app., and 155 pp.
7.
KEY
WORDS
AND
DOCUMENT
ANALYSIS
2.
DESCRIPTORS--
/ *air demand/ *air entrainment/ *open channels/ *closed conduits/ *design criteria/ *air-water interfaces/ *shaft spillway/ air bubbles/ aeration/ vents/ vacuum breakers/ relief valves/ jet aerodynamics
).
IDENTIFIERS--
:.
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AvarIable Division.
from the Springfield,
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A WATER
Engineering
RESOURCES
Monograph
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATION
No. 41
AIR-WATER FLOW IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

By Henry T. Falvey Engineering and Research Denver, Colorado 80225 Center
United States Department of the Interior

Water and Power Resources Service ,&$qiy\
FRONTISPIECE.-High
velocity jet from a slide gate. PBOI-D-792 75
As the Nations principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has the responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in Island Territories under U.S. administration.
ENGINEERING MONOGRAPHS are published in limited editions for the technical staff of the Water and Power Resources Service and interested technical circles in Government and private agencies. Their purpose is to record developments, innovations, and progress in the engineering and scientific techniques and practices which are used in the planning, design, construction, and operation of water and power structures and equipment.
First Printing
1980
SI METRIC
U.S. GOVERNMENT DENVER,
PRINTING COLORADO
OFFICE
For Sale by the S perintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. I:04u2, or the Water and Power ResourcesService, Attention 922, P.O. Box 25007, Denver, Colorado 80225.
Preface
The material assembled in this report is the result of studies extending over many years by a large number of engineers. Ellis Picket at the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, supplied a reference list dealing with air-water problems. Personnel of the Water and Power Resources Service E&R Center, Water Conveyance Branch made their files and drawing on air design criteria in pipelines available for publication in this report. Prior to publication, the report was reviewed by Ellis Pickett and Ted Albrecht with the U.S. Army Engineers; and by engineers in the Dams, Mechanical, and Water Conveyance Branches, E&R Center, Water and Power Resources Service. The many constructive comments by these individuals and the assistance of Richard Walters who provided continuity and technical editing is greatly appreciated.
V
Letter
Symbol
Symbols
Quantity
and Quantities
Symbol Quantity Flow depth Bulked flow depth Deflector height Nappe thickness Orifice diameter Total depth of underlying and air free zones Bubble diameter for which 95 percent of the air, by volume, is contained in bubbles of this diameter or smaller Relative width of the frequency spectrum Napierian logarithm equal to 2.71828, approximately Darcy- Weisbach friction factor Gate opening Mass velocity of gas Mass velocity of liquid Gravitational constant (acceleration ) Hydraulic radius of prototype air vent Fall height of a water jet Head across orifice Net head across turbine Distance from channel invert to energy grade line Total potential and kinetic energy Mean wave height Height of airflow passage Distance from inlet to the water level in the vertical shaft Head loss per unit length Head across manometer Allowable head rise in penstock Entrance loss Singular (form) loss Von Karman universal constant equal to 0.4 Coefficient of roughness Sand grain roughness
A A AC Ad A0 4 -4
a
a0 al
B b bra bs c C?
cb cd
Cf Cl Gn
Cross sectional area of water prism Cross sectional area of airflow passage Cross sectional area of air core in a vertical shaft Cross sectional area of conduit Orifice area Cross sectional area of penstock Cross sectional area of vent Ratio of bubble terminal velocity in turbulent flow to terminal velocity in still water Mean air distribution function Mean air distribution constant Width of rectangular chute Width of flow channel Nappe width Empirical coefficient accounting for sand grain roughness Air concentration Actual air concentration Drag coefficient on a bubble Discharge coefficient based on 100 percent gate opening Local loss coefficient Air concentration at dJ2 Air concentration measured by a pitot tube sampler orifice discharge coefficient Drag coefficient on a sphere Air concentration at the bottom of the mixing zone Mean air concentration Waterhammer wave celerity Conduit diameter Smaller dimension of a rectangular conduit Diameter of water drop Equivalent bubble diameter Larger dimension of a rectangular conduit
d db de 4, do 4 d 95
E
=P
G&Y Gl fi
Hf & Hll H* Ht
h ha
hf
kr ks
vi
LETTER Symbol Quantity
SYMBOLS
and QUANTITIES-Continued Symbol rs s SO

Sf s
Quantity Relative roughness of conduit (rugosity to diameter ratio) Submergence depth Pipe slope Slope of energy grade line Root-mean-square value of wave height distribution Root-mean-square value of water surface distribution Top width of flow passage Pipe wall thickness Free stream velocity Velocity of water drop relative to air velocity Water jet velocity Local air velocity Mean flow velocity Terminal velocity of bubbles in turbulent flow Nappe velocity at impact Minimum velocity required to entrain air Maximum water surface velocity Terminal velocity of bubbles in slug flow Terminal velocity of bubbles in still water Wetted perimeter Distance from start of boundary layer growth Distance normal to channel bottom (flow depth) Distance from water surface Conjugate depth Effective depth Critical depth Normal distance to the bottom the mixing zone Elevation of
L LC L LS M MO m N n 4 P 5
ph PW
P Pa Patm PC Pin Pn
Q Qa QC Qr QW
Q 4a
R Rb RC Ri r
Length of conduit or vent Distance to start of self-aeration Prototype to model scale ratio Distance between stiffener rings Unit mass Maximum difference in elevation between a wave crest and the mean water level Air concentration distribution coefficient Safety factor Mannings roughness coefficient Velocity distribution power-law coefficient Energy dissipated Normal distribution function Probability that the wave height is equal to given height Probability that the water surface is equal to or greater than the given elevation Pressure intensity Allowable internal pressure Atmospheric pressure Collapse pressure Internal pressure Nappe perimeter Discharge Volume flowrate of air Critical discharge Discharge from reservoir Volume flowrate of water Unit discharge Insufflation rate of air per unit surface area Bubble radius Equivalent bubble radius Radius of curvature of the bubble cap Thickness of annular Water jet radius jet
SW
T ;
ud
K Vn K K K
W x
Y Ya Yc Ye yk Y 2
vii
LETTER Symbol Quantity
SYMBOLS
and QUANTITIES-Continued Symbol E E, Quantity
alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta kappa lambda mu nu Pi rho
sigma tau upsilon psi omega
Angle chute invert makes with horizontal Ratio of volumetric airflow rate to waterflow rate Specific force of water Boundary layer thickness Mass transfer coefficient of bubbles Air concentration distribution constant Normalized wave height Void fraction Gas constant Density ratio Dynamic viscosity Dynamic viscosity of air Dynamic viscosity of water Kinematic viscosity Water viscosity Ratio of the circumference of any circle to its radius, 3.14159... Density Air density Water density Gas density Liquid density Density of manometer fluid Inter-facial surface tension Wall shear stress Shear stress at water jet Specific volume of air at atmospheric pressure Shear velocity Multicomponent flow parameter Volume of gas bubble Volume of air Volume of water
Etitvijs number Euler number Froude number Prandtl velocity ratio Poiseuille number Reynolds number DctEb;rReynolds
=
=
-YD2
0 d!.lL BP
F
P
=-
V (gDP2 V
(f,/Q)2
P, R R,
= ha2 tdp/dx) 2PV = -VD

V
VX -i-
Weber number
Infinity
Vlll
.. .
Contents
Page
Preface ...................................................... Letter Symbols and Quantities ................................. Introduction ................................................. Purpose and Applications ..................................... Summary and Conclusions .................................... Open Channel Flow ........................................... Introduction .............................................. Bubble Dynamics ......................................... Terminal Velocity of a Single Bubble in Still Water ......... Bubble Size in Shear Flows ............................. Terminal Velocity of Bubbles in Turbulent Flow ........... Vertical and Longitudinal Flow Structure ..................... Design Parameters ........................................ Location of Beginning of Aeration ........................ Location of Fully Aerated Flow .......................... Air Concentration Profiles .............................. Definition of concentration .......................... Air distribution in the mixing zong ................... Air distribution in the underlying zone ................ Mean air concentration ............................. Water Surface Location ................................ Effect of Air Entrainment Flow on Stilling Basin Performance ........................................ Closed ConduitFlow ........................................... Classification of Flow ...................................... Flow in Partially Filled Conduits ............................. Model Predictions ..................................... Air vent not designed ............................... Aii vent designed .................................. Analytic Estimates ..................................... Flow Having a Hydraulic Jump That Fills the Conduit .......... Flows From Control Devices ................................ Flows From Valves .................................... Flows From Gates ..................................... Falling Water Surface ...................................... Air Vent Design Criteria for Closed Conduits .................. Purpose .............................................. Location ............................................. Maximum Airflow Rate ................................ Structural Considerations ............................... Physiological Effects ................................... Safety of Personnel ....................................
vi 1 3 5 7 7 8 8 10 12 14 16 16 19 19 19 21 22 24 28 36 37 37 41 41 42 44 44 48 51 52 54 54 57 57 57 57 57 57 59 ix
CONTENTS--Continued
Page
Freeze Protection ...................................... Cavitation Damage .................................... Water Column Separation .............................. Air Vent Design Criteria for Pipelines. ........................ Introduction .......................................... Gravity Systems ....................................... Vertical alinement criteria .......................... Horizontal alinement criteria ........................ Vent location ..................................... Pumping Systems ..................................... Vent Structure Design Considerations .................... Evacuation of air during filling ...................... Removal of air during operation ..................... Prevent pipe collapse during draining ................. Flows in Vertical Shafts .................................... Classification of Airflows ............................... Region I Airflow Rates ................................. Region II Airflow Rates ................................ Reverse Airflow in a Vertical Shaft ....................... Submergence ......................................... Free Falling Water Jets ....................................... Jet Characteristics ......................................... Airflow Around the Jet ..................................... Air Entraining Characteristics as a Falling Jet Enters a Pool ...... ................................................ Bibliography Appendix .................................................... I Probability Depth Probe ............................... II Mean Air Concentration, Free Surface Flow, Computer Program ................................ III Air Demand, Falling Water Surface, Computer Program ... Introduction ...................................... Junction Energy Equations ......................... Turbine Characteristics ............................ Geometry ........................................
59 59 59
60
60 61 61 62 62 65 65 65 66 69 77 77 79 80 80 80 81 81 82 83 87 93 95 97 113 113 113 115 118
CONTENTS-Continued FIGURES
Number Page
1 2 3
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Forms of air-entrainment on a spillway ..................... Large gas bubble in a liquid .............................. Terminal velocity of air bubbles in filtered or distilled water as a function of bubble size, Haberman and Morton [26] . . Terminal velocity of bubbles in turbulent flow ............... Structure of open channel flow, Killen and Anderson [42] ..... Air entraining flow regimes in open channel flow ............. Experimentally determined local loss coefficient Cf, Bormann [ll] ................................... Location of inception of air entrainment .................... Cumulative Gaussian probability and measured air concentration distributions in the mixing zone ........... Actual air concentration distribution in mixing zone .......... Air concentration distributions of channel flow on steep slopes Straub and Anderson [66] ....................... Interfacial tension ....................................... Air entrainment coefficient ............................... Air entrainment in open channel flow ...................... Examples of air entrainment in chutes ...................... Definitions of aerated flow depth .......................... Relation of aerated to nonaerated flow depth ................ Probability density distribution for different values of the width of the energy spectrum ......................... Probability description of water surface in a chute ............ Flow patterns in horizontal pipes, Baker [7] ................. Flow pattern sketches, Alves [P] ........................... Effect of conduit diameter on terminal velocity of a bubble, Collins [ 161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Influence of air pressure in conduit on airflow rate, Sikora hii: Model tests on a spillway, Sikora [65] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Discharge coefficients for orifice at end of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airflow above water surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air entrainment with hydraulic jump closing conduit . . . . . . . . Forces on a stationary bubble ............................. Bubble motion in closed conduits flowing full ................ Slug flow in inclined pipes, Runge, and Wallis [61] ........... Valve and gate data, Kohler [44] .......................... Airflow rate for two 1375-mm fixed-cone (Howell-Bunger) valves .............................. Falling water surface .................................... Comparison of field data with computer prediction ........... Air vent, Shadow Mountain Dam, Colorado-Big Thompson Project, Colorado .............
-9 10 11 13 14 15 18 20 22 23 24 26 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 38 39
41 40 43 45 47 49 50 51 52 53 55 56 58 60
xi
CONTENTS-Continued FIGURES-Continued
Number Page
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
Pipeline configurations .................................. Plan and profile of a gravity pipeline ....................... Vent structure .......................................... Typical irrigation system air valve installation ............... Vent location at changes in pipe slope ...................... Air binding in a pipeline .................................. Large-orifice air valve ................................... Performance curves for large-orifice air release valves ......... Typical small-orifice air release valve ....................... Performance curves for small-orifice air release valves ......... Typical frost protection installation ........................ Collapsing pressure of a steel pipe with stiffener rings ......... Performance curves for large-orifice vacuum relief valves ...... Specific volume and barometric pressure of air as a function of elevation ................................. Required air relief orifice diameter to prevent collapse of steel pipelines .................................... Observed air blowback in morning glory spillway at Owyhee Dam, Oregon ............................... Typical types of vertical shaft inlet structures ................ Vertical shaft spillway discharge characteristics .............. Breakup of a water jet from a hollow-jet valve ............... Water drop breakup ..................................... Velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate, Bormann [ll] ...
61 62 63 64, 65 66 67 68 69 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 78 M 85 86
APPENDIX
I-l I-2 I-3 111-l III-2 III-3 III-4 III-5 Electronics schematic .................................... Probe schematic ........................................ Controls in utility box .................................... Definition sketch at penstock intake ....................... Typical turbine characteristics of runner specific speed 230 .... Turbine loss coefficient .................................. Aii vohune in penstock ................................... Water surface area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 96 96 114 116 117 118 118
xii
Introduction
In many engineering projects a strong interaction developes between the water flowing through a structure and the air which is adjacent to the moving water. Sometimes the interaction produces beneficial effects. However, more often than not, the effects are not beneficial and the remedial action required to reduce the effects can be costly. Cases in which air-water interaction develop include: l Open channels with fast flowing water that require depths adequate to contain the air which is entrained within the water l Morning-glory spillways that must have a capacity to convey the design flood and its entrained air l Vertical shafts that entrain large quantit& of air at small water discharges l Measuring weirs that need adequate ventilation to prevent false readings and to eliminate surging l Outlet gates that require adequate aeration to prevent the development of low pressures-which can lead to cavitation damage l Emergency gates at penstock entrances that require ventilation to prevent excessive negative internal pressures during draining or emergency gate closures Sag pipes (inverted siphons) that can be damaged due to blowback of entrained air l Long pipelines that require air release and vacuum relief valves From these cases it is noted that air-water flows can be generalized into three basic flow types: 1. Air-water flows in open channels, 2. Air-water flows in closed conduits, and 3. Free-fall water flows. The first type usually is called air-entraining flow because air is entrained into the water mass. The second basic flow type generally is referred to as air-demand. The term airdemand is both misleading and technically incorrect, since an air vent does not demand air any more than an open valve demands water. However, since the term has been in common use for over 20 years, efforts to improve the nomenclature seem rather futile. The third type is referred also to as air-entraining flow.
l
siphon, inverted-A pipe line crossing over a depression or under a highway, railroad, canal, etc. The term is common but inappropriate, as no siphonic action is involved. The suggested term, sag pipe, is very expressive and appropriate. Nomenclature for Hydraulics, Comm. on Hyd. Str., Hyd. Div., ASCE, 1962.
Purpose
and Application
l
The purpose of this report is to summarize the work that has been done on air-entrainment and air-demand regarding the most recent theories and to suggest ways in which the results can be applied to design. The intent was to produce a concise reference of material from which design manuals, nomographs, and charts for specific applications could be prepared. Although many generalizations of the data can be made, some types of flow conditions that are encountered in practice can be treated only by individual studies with physical models. These cases are identified when they occur. Additional studies are needed in many areas. Some of the most critical areas requiring further research include the following:
Effects of turbulence and air concentration on bubble dynamics Fluid dynamics in the developing regime of free-surface flow aeration
Effects of hydraulic and conduit properties on probabilistic description of water surface in free-surface, high-velocity flow Effect of pressure gradients on air flow in partially-filled, closed conduits Bubble motion in closed-conduit flows for conduit slopes exceeding 45degrees Effects of ambient pressure levels on cavitation characteristics of gates and valves discharging into a closed conduit
l
Interaction
between
the air and a free jet
Summary
and Conclusions
rates. Experimental methods are discussed. A computer program (app. III) is presented which can be used to predict the airflow rate with a falling-water surface. Design charts are presented for sizing air relief valves and vacuum valves on pipelines. The airflow rate in vertical shafts was found to be extremely dependent upon the flow conditions at the shaft inlet. Equations are included for estimating the airflow rate having various inlet conditions. Factors influencing the airflow rate around free falling jets are discussed. This area is identified as one needing additional research. Equations are presented from which the air entraining characteristics of a jet entering a pool can be estimated.
5
Methods have been developed to predict the mean air concentration and the concentration distribution with open channel flow. A new description of the free water surface in high velocity flow is proposed which more accurately represents actual conditions in high velocity flow. The effect of air entrainment on the performance of a stilling basin can be estimated using a bulked flow concept. A computer program (app. II) is presented with which the mean air concentration in steep chutes and spillways can be estimated. With exception of a falling-water surface and decreasing flow in pipelines, closed conduit flows require model studies. When properly conducted and analyzed, model studies will yield accurate data for estimating air-flow
Open Channel
INTRODUCTION In observing flow in a chute or on an overflow spillway, one normally observes a region of clear water where the water enters the chute or spillway. Then-at some distance downstream-the water suddenly takes on a milky apperance. Lane [46] suggested that the white water begins when the turbulent boundary layer from the floor intersects the water surface. The validity of this assumption has been verified by many researchers. The cases in which the boundary layer creates the air entrainment are referred normally to as selfaerated flows. However, this is not the only way in which air entrainment can begin on chutes and spillways. The American Society of Civil Engineers Task Committee on Air Entrainment in Open Channels [512 has summarized tests in which air entrainment is generated by the boundary layer on the side walls of chutes. They also reported tests in which air entrainment was observed downstream of piers on overflow spillways. This latter case is the result of the flow rolling over on itself as it expands after passing through the opening between the
Numbers in brackets refer to the bibliography.
Flow
piers. Levi [49] reported on longitudinal vortices on spillway faces. These vortices can entrain air if they intersect the water surface. All of these forms of air entrainment are apparent in figure 1. Air entrainment implies a process by which air enters into a body of water. Normally, the appearance of white water is considered to be synonmous with entrainment. This is not always true. For instance, if the water surface is rough enough and moving at a sufficiently high velocity, the surface will appear to be white even though the water volume contains no air. The whiteness of the water is caused by the large number of reflections coming from different angles off the rapidly moving highly irregular surface (refer to frontispiece). For high water velocities, ones eye does not respond rapidly enough to observe each individual reflection. Instead, these individual reflections blur into a fuzzy mass which appears white. High speed photography of white water demonstrates this effect very well. This leads one to the obvious conclusion that a flow could conceivably appear frothy but actually does not entrain any air! With air in the water, reflections also come from the surface of the bubbles. These reflections produce the same impression
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYnRAULIC
STRUCTURES
of white water as the water surface reflections. Experiments have shown that flow in channels with mild slopes do not entrain air even though the boundary layer intersects the water surface. Thus, some degree of turbulence must be exceeded for the entrainment process to begin. The turbulence causes the water surface to become irregular enough to trap bubbles of air. These bubbles of air are then diffused downward into the body of water if the vertical water velocities induced by the turbulence in the flow are larger than the terminal velocities of the bubbles. The terminal velocity K of a bubble is defined as the rate of rise of a bubble in a liquid in which the effects of turbulence, walls, other bubbles, and acceleration are negligible. The interaction of the terminal velocities of bubbles and the turbulence are considered in the following section. BUBBLE DYNAMICS of a Single Bubble in
determined the terminal velocity as a function of the bubble size (fig. 3). Assuming the bubble to be a rigid sphere, the terminal velocity K of small bubbles can be written as
v=~
t 9
R2gI1-(eg/e,)l
1 vf i
(1)
where gcgravitational constant (acceleration), 9.81 m/s2 R = bubble radius, mm vfr= water kinematic viscosity, 1.5X10b6 m2/s at 10 OC eut=water density, 1000 kg/m3 at 10 cc eg=air density, 1.29 kg/m3 at 10 OC This also is known as Stokes solution.3 Substituting the respective values for air, water, and gravity into equation 1 gives the terminal velocity of a small air bubble in meters per second as K=1.45 R2
(2)
Terminal Velocity Still Water.
In still water, surface tension is the predominant effect on the shape of very small bubbles. Therefore, small bubbles tend to be perfect spheres. The motion of these bubbles through a fluid can be described by a balance between the buoyant forces and the viscous forces. However, as the bubbles become larger, surface tension effects become small with respect to shear forces. The shape of these larger bubbles can be approximated by a spherical cap having an included angle of about 100 degrees and an unstable relatively flat base (fii. 21. Because different effects predominate at different bubble diameters, one can expect the correlation between the bubble size and its terminal velocity to vary as the bubble diameter varies. Haberman and Morton [26] have experimentally
Theoretically, this relation is valid only for bubble radii R smaller than 0.068 mm. For bubble radii between 0.068 and 0.40 mm, the empirical relation V,=O.625 R2 (3)
fits the data. With bubble radii between 0.40 and 10 mm, the terminal velocity is about equal to 0.25 m/s. As the bubble diameter increases from 0.4 to
3G.G. Stokes was the fist investigatorto analytically determine the drag on a slowly moving sphere in a viscous fluid falling as a result of its mass relative to the fluid mass.
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW
FIGURE l.-Forms
of air entrainment
on a spillway-Canyon
Ferry
Dam,
Montana.
P801-D-79276
10
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Using the above values for various constants gives ~=[0.01Rb+(0.079/Rb)]2 (5)
For bubbles larger than 10 mm, the terminal velocity is only a function of the ratio between the buoyant and inertial forces. Davies and Taylor [18] show the terminal velocity is v,=
+igR,P12
(6)
\ \ L
\
= radius of curvature af I the bubble cap, millimeters,/ Wake region-, /
where R, is the radius of curvature of the bubble cap. Using this relation and the spherical segment geometry of figure 2, the terminal velocity in terms of an equivalent radius can be shown to be equal to v= (&)l (7)
-c\ ---
A
in a liquid.
FIGURE Z.--hrge
gas bubble
10 mm, its form changes from a sphere to a spherical segment. When the diameter is about 2 mm, an instability in the bubble path can be observed. This instability gives the bubbles an irregular or spiral trajectory. Comolet [I?] argues that in this region both buoyant and surr face tension forces are significant with respect to inertial forces, and proposes the equation , ,m s where Rb = the radius of a sphere whose volume equals the volume of the gas bubble, mm 30 13 ( iG ) g=gravitational constant =9.81 m/s9 0 = interfacial surface tension o=O.O728 N/m for air-water ew= water density =988 kg/m3 o = volume of gas bubble, mm3 =
or K=o.lo Rb (8)
for Rb in millimeters and K in meters per second. This equation approaches Comolets relation (eq. 4) asymptotically when the bubble radius becomes large.
(4)
Bubble Size in Shear Flows

The mean bubble size in flowing water or in mechanically agitated systems is determined primarily by the shearing stresses within the fluid. Thii effect can be visualized by examining the two extreme conditions. Assume that very small bubbles are introduced into a turbulent flow. As the bubbles rise, they tend to form into a mass or agglomerate because of entrainment in each others wake. As the individual bubbles touch they coalesce to form a
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW
11
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
EQUIVALENT
FIGURE L-Terminal
Morton 1261. velocity of air bubbles in filtered
BUBBLE
or distilled
RADIUS
Rb, mm
of bubble size, Haberman and
water as a function
larger bubble. This process continues until larger and larger bubbles are formed. At the other extreme, assume that a very large bubble is introduced into a turbulent flow. The turbulence of the flow field introduces shear stresses which tends to tear or fracture the bubble into smaller and smaller bubbles. Due to the simultaneous action of agglomeration and fracture, it can be inferred that some critical bubble size is reached which represents a balance between surface tension forces and fluid stresses. This relation is expressed through a suitably defined Weber number W. The only equation available for estimating the
critical bubble size was developed by Hinze [35]. The equation is
where dg5= bubble diameter for which 95 percent of the air, by volume, is contained in bubbles of this diameter or smaller P/M=rate of energy dissipation per unit mass e, = fluid density u = inter-facial surface tension
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
The rate of energy dissipation per unit mass for flow in pipes can be estimated in the following manner; Rouse [59] showed that the rate of energy dissipation in a lengtb of conduit L is given by P=Qvh where Qzdischarge hp= head loss through a length of conduit L Y = specific force of fluid The unit mass is given by (10)
The first dimensionless ratio yD2/o is known as the Bond, Eotvos or Laplace number. The second ratio Dg/Q is another form of the Froude number V/(gD)12. Additional information concerning the mean concentration distribution of the bubbles and the direction of their motion in nonhorizontal flows can be found in this chapter (Design Parameters -Air distribution in the mixing zone) and in the following chapter (Flow in Partially Filled Conduits-Analytic Estimates).
Terminal Flow
Velocity of Bubbles in Turbulent
&+Qw &2q
where A = cross sectional area of conduit Y=mean flow velocity
(11)
Therefore, for flow in conduits, the rate of energy di&pation per ~unit mass is given by
P -= A4
where Sf=slope
- i&V L
=gsfv
(121
of energy grade line=hl/L
Even though a bubble diameter can be determined for turbulent flow from equation 14, the terminal velocity of these bubbles cannot be determined simply from figure 3. The fiie can be used only to estimate the terminal velocity of single bubbles in still water. Both turbulence and the presence of other bubbles modify the terminal velocity shown on figure 3. As with sediment particles, turbulence tends to keep the air bubbles in suspension. Thus, the effect of turbulence is to reduce the terminal velocity of the bubbles. If 6 is the terminal velocity of bubbles in still water, then 6 is the terminal velocity in a turbulent flow. Their relation can be expressed as Pj=aV;
Substitution of the rate of energy dissipation per unit mass of equation 12, into 9 gives
(15)
where a is an empirically determined variable. In dimensionless terms equation 13 can be written as Haindl [28] determined the relation between the variable a and a form of the Froude number F applicable to annular jumps. By making appropriate assumptions, the Froude numbers were converted to equivalent quantities of the dimensionless discharge parameter. The relation between the variable a and the dimensionless discharge parameter is given on figure 4.
+l658
[(&)
3 @)(+)I
diameter
(14,
where D=conduit
OPEN
CHANNEL
FLOW
13
DIMENSIONLESS
FIGURE L-Terminal
DISCHARGE
in turbulent
= flow.
cl2 gDs
velocity of bubbles
The effect of turbulence on the bubbles can be visualized by considering the buoyant and the turbulent diffusion forces acting on the bubbles. The bubbles tend to move upward because of buoyancy. Whereas turbulence tends to move bubbles from areas of high concentration into areas of low concentration. The balance between mass flow rates caused by these two forces is given-normal to the channel bed by
where C= local air concentration Vf=terminal velocity of bubbles in turbulent flow y = vertical direction ~=mass transfer coefficient of bubbles If a functional relation could be obtained for V, and e, then the air concentration as a function of depth could be determined. References could not be found that indicate the magnitude of the effect of air concentration on the terminal velocity of a bubble. Further
dC
cv,=E &
(16)
14
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
research into the effects of turbulence and air concentration on air bubble dynamics definitely is needed. VERTICAL AND LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURE FLOW
The vertical structure of the flow in open channels with highly turbulent flows can be divided into four zones, Killen [41] and Killen and Anderson ([42], fig. 5). These are: 1. An upper zone of flying drops of water, 2. A mixing zone where the water surface is continuous, 3. An underlying zone where air bubbles are diffused within the water body, and 4. An air free zone.
0
O Upperzone
E
ti : 2
Miiing zone
DISTANCE
ALONG
CHANNEL and
FIGURE S.-Structure
Anderson 1421.
of open
channel flow, Killen
The upper zone consists of water particles that have been ejected from the mixing zone. These particles can rise a considerable distance above the mean water surface. Normally, this region is neglected in engineering considerations since its mass is small. The mixing zone consists of a region of surface waves having random amplitudes and frequencies. A knowledge of the characteristics in
the mixing zone is extremely important since all air ingested into the main body of the water or released from the flow must pass through this zone. Also, the maximum wave heights that occur in the mixing zone determine the height of the open channel sidewalls if overtopping is to be prevented. The underlying zone is a region into which the waves do not penetrate. The air concentration at any depth in this zone is determined by the number of air bubbles and their size. The primary factor influencing the air concentration distribution is the turbulence intensity distribution throughout the flow. Using turbulent boundary layer theories, it has been possible to develop correlations for the air concentration distribution in this zone. However, the problem has not been solved completely since the air bubbles tend to inhibit the turbulence. The interrelations between air concentrations, bubble size distribution, and turbulence intensities have not been determined yet. An air-free zone exists only in that section of the channel where aeration is still developing. In most practical applications, the boundary between the air free zone and the underlying zone cannot be determined accurately. At the interface, the air concentration has a very small value and the rate of change in concentration with depth is small. Halbron et al., [31] noted extremely fine bubbles which could not be detected near the bottom of their channel by the air concentration measuring apparatus; this indicates that the location of the interface may in fact be a function of the sensitivity of the measuring instrument. In addition to defining the flow structure in a vertical plane, it also is possible to identify flow regimes in a longitudinal direction for flow in a wide channel. Here, a wide channel is defined as one in which the chanel width is greater than five times the flow depth. Borman [ll] identifies three distinct regions in self-aerating flows in wide channels. They are:
OPEN CHANNEL 1. A regime of no air entrainment where the turbulent boundary layer has not reached the water surface, 2. A regime of developing air entrainment in which the air concentration profiles are not constant with distance, and
FLOW
IS
Energy
grade line 1
3. A regime of fully developed air entrainment in which the air concentration profiles are constant with distance. Keller, Lai, and Wood [39] divide Bormanns middle regime into two sections. The first is a region where the aeration is developing, but the air has not reached the bottom of the chute. The second is a region where the air has reached the bottom of the chute, but the air concentration profile continues to vary with distance (fig. 6).
Reninninn
of areation
FIGURE 6.-Air
entraining
flow regimes in open channel
flow.
16 DESIGN
AIR-WATER
PARAMETERS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
From an engineering viewpoint, the significant parameters in the design of a conveyance structure are: l Distance to the beginning of aeration l Distance to fully develop aerated flow l Mean air concentration in the flow l Flow depth of the aerated flow l Water and air velocities in the aerated flow The results of investigations concerning these parameters are presented in the following sections.
Location of Beginning of Aeration
where L,=distance to start of self-aeration q = unit discharge, cubic feet per second per foot of width, and Beta et. al., [lo] who recommended values of 1 between 0.016 and 0.01. Schlichting [63] applied the results of measurements made in a pipe directly to a flat plate and found that the boundary layer thickness was given by
The point at which white water begins in a wide channel generally is accepted to be the location where the turbulence effects generated at the channel floor first reach the water surface. Many different investigators have proposed equations for the location of this so-called critical point. Many of the early predictions were rather poor. However, as the understanding of boundary layer growth over smooth and rough surfaces has improved, predictions of the critical point location also have improved. Although some questions concerning the theory still exist, present methods yield results that are sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes. Typical examples of early correlations for the boundary layer thickness d are those by Annemuller [4] who gave d=O.Ol x where x=distance growth, from start of boundary layer
-d co.37 5 -.2 x ( )
where x=distance measured from the chute entrance U= free stream velocity d = distance from the boundary at which the velocity equals 99 percent of U uf= kinematic viscosity of water The free stream velocity is u=[2g(A.z+Ho-d where co9 a,y2
(19)
(20)
d= water depth of computational point

g = gravitational constant (acceleration 1
Ho = total head on crest

A z = difference in elevation from crest to computational point a = angle channel makes with horizontal Equation 19 is also the expression used by Rouse [59] for flow over smooth surface. In
Hickox [34] who gave L,=14.7

qo.53
(18)
OPEN
CHANNEL
FLOW
1;
analyzing the results of Bauer [S], Halbronn [30] showed that the value of the coefficient for open channel flow should be equal to 0.16 instead of 0.37. Equation 19 neglects two important considerations: 1. The surface can be hydraulically rough, and 2. Intermittent turbulence is present at a distance of up to 1.2d from the channel floor. A hydraulically rough surface is one in which
parametric term through which the other parameters are related. The appealing aspect of this approach is that it can be compared with the presently available equations for flow over smooth and rough boundaries. The correlations relating the boundary layer thickness d and the local loss coefficient Cf are
Cf Z
=3.85 log
smooth surfaces, and
for hydraulically
u+k,
7
where
> 70
cy2 f
=3.85 log
(23)
sand grain roughness eul = water density T, = wall shear stress u*= shear velocity=(r,/e,)12 If the surface is rough, then the effect of the roughness height must be included in the computations. The second consideration means that white water generally will occur before~the boundary layer, as previously defined, actually reaches the water surface. Bormann [ 1 l] circumvented this difficulty by redefining the boundary layer thickness. Keller and Rastogi [40] recognized the same problem. Their point of incipient air entrainment also occurs at a location which lies somewhat above the previously defined boundary layer thickness. Thus, these methods account for the intermittant turbulence that occurs outside the conventionally defined boundary layer thickness. Bormann [ 1 l] used a rather novel method of determining the critical point. Bormanns method involves the simultaneous solution of equations relating local loss coefficient Cf, boundary layer thickness 6, and the distance Reynolds number R,. In Bormanns scheme the local loss coefficient can be viewed as a
k,= equivalent
for hydraulically rough surfaces. The correlation between distance Reynolds number and the local loss coefficient was determined empirically from
(24) where R,=distance Reynolds number=? by
The b, value (fig. 7) can be approximated b,=0.32+8.15 where coefficient accounting for sand grain roughness k, = equivalent sand grain roughness, mm Alternatively, imated by
k,o.47
(25)
b, = empirical
the value of b, can be approx-
b,=0.66 k, o.23
(26)
For this approximation, the sand grain roughness must be equal to or greater than 0.01 mm; any smaller values represent a smooth surface.
Cf % 1000
Q) w I I
/ I I
EMPIRICAL
COEFFICIENT
b3
II
If-
1 I
OPEN
CHANNEL
FLOW
10
To solve these equations it is necessary to use the following trial and error procedure. a. Determine the energy grade line elevation I-&, where yk equals the critical depth from f&,=1.5 (,)12 (27)
integrating the equations of motion using a finite element scheme. The calculated velocity profiles agree very well with the experimentally determined values. However, their studies have not been put into a form that is useful for designers.
Location of Fully Aerated Flow
b. Estimate the water depth d at a given distance x from the entrance C. Calculate the freestream velocity U from
u=[2gwox+
sin a-d
cos CI)]~~
(29)
d. Determine the local loss coefficient Cf as a function of the boundary layer thickness d using equations 22 or 23 as appropriate. In these equations the flow depth assumed in b. is used for the boundary layer thickness. e. Calculate the local loss coefficient as a function of distance Reynolds number from equation 24 where the distance Reynolds number is defined as
Rx= ux = V
u3
2g u sin a
(30)
f.
Repeat steps b. through e. with revised values of depth until the same values are obtained for the local loss coefficients in equations 22 or 23 and 24.
The location at which the flow becomes fully aerated has not been studied. Straub and Lamb 1671 show that a constant air concentration distribution can be achieved, but the distance required for its development is not specified. Bormann [ 1l] measured the location of the airwater interface, but not the concentration profile. For Bormanns results one can imply that the length of the developing aeration regime is of the same order as the length of the developing boundary layer regime. Keller, Lai, and Wood [39] indicate that the length of the developing aeration region can be defined in terms of the air concentration. In their definition, the length of the developing region is at least as long as the distance from the critical point to a location where a 5-percent air concentration has reached middepth of the total flow depth. The data by Straub and Lamb [67] show that this criterion is inadequate. The length of the developing aeration regime cannot be determined analytically. This is one area in which additional research could be pursued gainfully.
As an example, this procedure was applied to a surface having a sand grain roughness k, which corresponds to a float finish concrete surface. This finish is equivalent to a Mannings roughness coefficient of 0.013. The results are presented in a set of design curves shown on figure 8. Similar curves can be prepared for other values of Mannings coefficients. Finally, the latest development in calculating the distance to the point of air entrainment is by Keller and Rastogi [40]. Their method involves
Air Concentration
Profiles
Definition of concentration. -The conventional definition of concentration is the quantity-usually measured by volume-of a material A either dissolved or suspended in another material B. Thus, if material A is air and material B is water, air concentration would be the volume of air in a given volume of water.
20
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
10
50
100
DISTANCE
TO
START
OF
SELF-AREATION
of air entrainment.
L,,
meter
FIGURE &-Location
of inception
However, when the amount of suspended materia1 becomes large, the reference volume is the sum of the volume of material B and the volume of material A. In this case the average air concentration ?? is given by Cc Oa
Oa+Ww
where
(311
where wa=vohme WW =volume
of air of water
This latter definition of concentration is used throughout this report. The concentration also can be expressed in terms of volumetric flow rates as
&
Qa Qa+Qw
=-
B 8+1
(32)
The early method of measuring the concentration of air-water flows used a pitot-tube-type sampler developed by Viparelli [ 721. This type of device gives accurate results in the underlying zone (fig. 4). However, in the mixing zone, the sampler records not only air in water, but also the air between the waves. Therefore, the measurements indicate air concentrations that are too large in the mixing zone. It should be noted that in some cases the total air discharge and not air concentration is desired. For instance, in closed conduit flow, the total air discharge is required for proper vent sizing. In this case, the pitot tube sampler would yield the desired air flow quantities in all four air flow zones.
<
. . . .
OPEN
CHANNEL
FLOW
21
Killen and Anderson [42] showed that the air concentration-as indicated by a pitot tube sampler-is related to the actual air concentration in the water by
c a PW =Gn--I+P,
Gaussian law of normal probability, since this is also the law for the wave height distribution. They found the relation is given by
G,
(33)
where C,=air
= CEY
2(1-C,]
hn,,2
exP
where C, = actual air concentration in percent of volume measured by a C m = air concentration pitot tube sampler P, probability that the water surface is equal to or greater than the given elevation (refer to the following sec.-Air distribution in the
mixing zone)
The water surface probability in equation 33 can be measured with electrical probes described by Killen [41]. He also reported on an electrical device that measures the actual air concentration directly. Almost all references to air concentration in the bibliography include values for the amount of air between the waves. Therefore, values for the amount of air in flowing water generally are excessive. Unless noted otherwise, the term air concentration refers only to the amount of air actually entrained in water.
concentration (including the air between the waves) at any elevation in percent of total volume C, = air concentration at the bottom of the mixing zone h = mean wave height = 2 l% s = standard deviation of the wave height distribution y=distance normal to the channel bottom y = distance normal to the bottom of the mixing zone, figure 5 form of the equation is
The integral
s=--&
LTexp
[-($)
d(c)]
(351
This equation is almost identical to the cumulative Gaussian or normal distribution function
Air distribution in the mixing zone.-Many investigators have observed that measured air concentration distribution obeys one law in the r&&g zone and another in the underlying zone. Apparently, these two laws were discovered by Anderson [Z] who examined the results of a large number of experiments. Investigators reasoned that in the making zone the air concentration should follow a
where ye= y /s The air distribution equation, equation 35, includes a factor of 2 because the relation applies to positive values of y ; whereas equation 36 applies to both positive and negative values
22
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
of y.
By reversing the limits of integration in equation 36, it can be shown that
--j-T-s=standard deviation of kvave ) height distribution
Combining gives
equation 35 with equation 37
l-C, -=2(1--P,) 1-ct
(38)
Values of the normal distribution function Ps can be found in statistics texts. A graphical representation of the normal distribution function and the air concentration distribution is given in figure 9. The actual air concentration in the waves is a function of the wave height probability and the air concentration at the bottom of the mixing zone. The relation is given by c _ &-2(1-CJ(l-4)
aPUJ
(39)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.0
For the wave height distribution given in this chapter (Design Parameters- Water Surface Location), a family of curves can be derived for the actual air concentration distribution in the mixing zone (fig.10). The maximum upper limit of these curves is discussed in the following subsection Mean air concentration. These distributions are valid for both the developing and the fully developed aerated flow regimes. They can be used for the determination of the air concentration at any elevation if the standard deviation of wave height distribution and the air concentration at the bottom of the mixing zone are known. Unfortunately, these parameters can neither be predicted in the developing aerated flow regime nor in the fully developed aerated flow regime. Therefore, the equations only can be used to fit experimental data. Additional research is needed in this area.
I-Cm AIR CONCENTRATION MSTRIBUTION I-C+

Or
CUMULATIVE GAUSSIAN PROBABILITY

FIGURE 9.-Cumulative
measured ing zone. air concentration
PO
Gaussian probability and distributions in the mix-
Air distribution in the underlying zone.-The underlying zone consists of a region into which waves do not penetrate. Straub and Anderson [66] were successful in deriving an equation that describes air distribution in this zone (also refer to Streeter [68]). They defined the bubble mass transfer coefficient E as
4-y ~=5h(Too/e#2 - ) ( 4
OPEN CHANNEL where d, = total depth of underlying and air free zones k = Von Karman universal constant equal to 0.4 (= air concentration distribution constant el= liquid density T,= wall shear stress
FLOW
23
40 for the mass transfer coefficient E into equation 16-and assuming the terminal velocity of bubbles is constant-upon integration one obtains
ccc,
where
Yrn ( 4-y
>
(41)
Vf v, m= <k(To/Q#2 = 5kv, C = local air concentration C1 = air concentration at d,/2 u, = shear velocity=(ro/e#2
This equation fits the data well for fully developed aerated flows by properly selecting C,, dt, and m (fig. 11). The measured air concentration distribution in the mixing zone given by equation 38 also will give good results. The satisfactory fit of the data with these two equations implies that turbulent diffusion and buoyancy are the two most important factors affecting the determination of the air concentration distribution in the fully developed aerated flow zone. In the developing aerated flow regime, equation 41 is not valid. In the developing aeration regime two conditions must be considered. The first condition is where air is being insufflated into the flow. For this case, the governing equation is
0.5
qa
C,
in distribution
E-cvf dy
(42)
ACTUAL
FIGURE lO.-Actual the mixing zone.
AIR CONCENTRATION
air concentration
where q,=insufflation rate of air per unit surface area The other condition is that of excess air being present in the water. In this condition, air is released from the flow until an equilibrium state is reached. Equation 42 also is valid for this condition except the sign qa will be negative which indicates that air is leaving the water.
This relation makes E equal to zero at both the channel floor and at the interface between the mixing zone and the underlying zone. Actually, the expression is not valid at the interface since air is transported across the boundary. However, by substituting equation
AIR-WATER cl=
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
AIR CONCENTRATION
I-C*
I-C,
=2 (I-Pg
L ----* -Ct
i 1
AT
STRUCTURES
dt/2
I-Cm l-C+
I
=2(-pg)l
=Cl dfy
I ( )
y 40
(xl22
ii
MEASURED
FIGURE Il.-Air
concentration
20
Slope 1 80
450
AIR
CONCENTRATION
C,,
percent
1661.
distributions
of channel flow on steep slopes, Straub and Anderson
Killen [ 411 measured air concentration distributions for the first condition of air insufflation. However, no one has developed equations for the observed distribution; This is another area needing additional research. Mean air concentration.-The mean air concentration for the entire flow stream is defined bY
(43)
The depth d,,, represents some upper bound for the water surface. Straub and Anderson [66]
define the depth as representing that point where the measured air concentration is 0.99. A more reasonable reference depth would be the depth which is exceeded by only 1 percent of the waves. The air concentration C, in equation 43 is the actual air concentration and does not include air moving between the waves (in this chap., Design Parameters-Definition of concentration). However, all the published data were measured with a pitot-tube-type sampler and, thus, include the interwave air motions in the mixing zone. The mean air concentration r based on the actual air concentration C, distribution can be estimated by the following
OPEN CHANNEL reasoning. The upper limit of the air concentration can be approximated by assuming the bubbles to be spherical. If thay retain a spherical shape, Gardner [23] showed that the air concentration for the bubbles packed in their most dense configuration is about 75 percent. The upper limit for the Straub and Anderson data [66] is about 84 percent. Thus their data are roughly 12 percent too high. Since the air concentration is obtained from an integration of the local air concentration distribution, buoyancy and turbulent diffusion must be the most significant parameters which influence the mean concentration for any flow. The buoyant forces are governed primarily by the bubble size. With respect to turbulence, Hinze [35] indicates that bubbles tend to be broken up by both viscous shear forces and turbulent shear forces. This tendency to be broken up is resisted by interfacial tensile forces. For high enough degrees of turbulence, the viscous shear forces are insignificant with respect to the turbulent shear forces. With solid boundaries the significant parameter defining the turbulent shear forces is the wall shear stress, T,. The following presents the development of an empirical equation to predict the mean air concentration in the fully developed aerated flow zone. The development is based upon the classical methods of dimensional analysis. Assuming that buoyancy and turbulent diffusion are significant, it is possible to express the volume flow of air QB as a function of:
l l l l l
FLOW
where QB= V= b= d= g=
volume flow of air, m3/s water velocity, m/s width of flow channel, m water depth, m gravitational constant (acceleration)=9.81 m/s2 p = dynamic viscosity, N *s/m2 e = density, kg/m3 o = interfacial surface tension, N/m T, = wall shear stress, Pa fC l=denotes a function of
Subscripts a and w refer to air and water, respectively. Using V, d, and e, as the repeating variables results in the following dimensionless parameters.
Qa v2
By examining the magnitude of these dimensionless terms and transforming some of them, it is possible to develop parameters that should be used for correlating the available model and prototype data. For instance, the dependent parameter can be written as
Q-z&
Vd2 Since
(;)= g(s)
(46)
Gravity Turbulent shear stress Inter-facial forces Fluid properties of both air and water Characteristic flow dimensions
fi=Q" and C= B B+l QW

by definition, the mean concentration is also a function of the same dimensionless terms given above.
The expression is
26
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
The first independent parameters in the parenthesis of equation 47 can be written as 1 -= P* *o
The Weber number represents the ratio of the inertial forces to the inter-facial tensile forces. The surface tension is only a function of temperature (fig. 121
pew
V
WewP2
where P=Prandtl
velocity ratio=
The Prandtl velocity ratio represents the ratio of the inertial force to the wall shear force. For the condition of uniform flow on a wide, steep chute, the wall shear stress T, is given by
q,=yd sin
(471
0.0651 -10 I 20 I 4.0
where d=flow depth a = angle chute invert makes with horizontal y = specific force of fluid substituting this into the Prandtl velocity ratio P gives -=
Vzg,
10
30
TEMPERATURE,
FIGURE 12.-Interfacial
OC
surface tension.
TO
yd sin a
vfh
gd
sina
=y vz
l (4)
The bubble size is determined by the ratio of turbulent shear forces to the interfacial tensile forces. In terms of the previously developed parameters, the ratio is (501
where F=Froude
number =w
Thus for uniform flow on wide, steep chutes, the parameters sin a/F2 represents the ratio of turbulent shear forces to the inertial forces. The tensile force parameter, o/(Vzde& is simply the reciprocal of the Weber number
.9Cpld
Reducing this ratio to the first power of V and generalizing results in bin a)lW F (511
(491
The ratio of viscous forces to inertial forces can be written as

(52)
where W= Weber number =
V
WedW
OPEN where R = Reynolds number
CHANNEL
FLOW
2;
The use of channel width b and flow depth d in the list of variables implies the use of a rectangular cross section. More generality can be obtained by the use of the hydraulic radius as the significant length parameter. The hydraulic radius is defined by
H=A/
where
(53)
A = cross sectional area of water prism W = wetted perimeter

With the exception of the Froude number, the hydraulic radius seems to be the most ap propriate characteristic length to correlate air entrainment for any cross sectional shape. The effective depth is the characteristic length to be used with the Froude number. The effective depth ye is defined as
y,=A/B
where
A=cross sectional area of water prism B = top width of water prism

By using the above transformations, mean air concentration can be written as (sin a)W F the
temperature range normally existing in the field and laboratory (fig. 12). Therefore, the tensile force parameters, W, of equation 49 can be neglected. Neglecting the tensile force parameter does not mean that the ratio of the turbulent shear to interfacial tensile force parameter also can be neglected. This latter ratio, which governs the bubble diameter, must be retained. For flows that are turbulent enough to entrain air naturally, the dynamic pressure forces determine the size of the largest air bubbles. These dynamic forces are a result of changes in velocity over distances that are about the same scale as the diameter of the bubble. For typical flows on spillways and in steep chutes the dynamic forces predominate over the viscous forces. Therefore, the dimensionless terms involving viscosity are not significant with respect to the magnitude of the other terms. Finally, the dimensionless density ratio varies almost linearly from 0.0012 at 4 OC to 0.0011 at 30 OC. Therefore, this term also can be considered as unimportant for the temperature range that is typical in hydraulic structures. The reduced form of equation 54 is
T=f(
(sin a)2 W
F F)
(55)
&f
, W, $2
R,
F)
(541
Equation 54 represents a seven-dimensional surface. Determining relations between all the variables is practically impossible. However, the problem can be made simpler by neglecting those independent variables which have either a small range of values or a negligible effect on the mean air concentration. For example, the tensile force varies less than 10 percent over the
This equation represents a three-dimensional surface which can be defined from experimental and field investigations. The Straub and Anderson [66] data from model studies and data from prototype studies of Michels and Lovely [ 541 as well as Thorsky et. al., [ 701 were used to determine the functional relations between the mean air concentration c, Froude number F, and turbulent-interfacial tension force ratio. The variation of the mean concentration as a function of Froude number was determined
28
AIR-WATER
FLOW
IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
from the model data. For this correlation the turbulent-interfacial tension force ratio was approximately constant. With mean air concentrations less than 0.6, the correlation had the form
i? =a,,+alF 66)
where a0 is a function of the turbulent to interfacial tension force ratio. The values of a1 for turbulent to interfacial tension force ratios of 0.166, 0.114, and 0.085 are 0.0469, 0.0436, and 0.0556, respectively. Although the value of al apparently increases as the turbulent to interfacial tension force ratio decreases, the data are insufficient to support the conclusion. Therefore, a1 was taken to be equal to the mean of the values or 0.050. The function a0 was determined from both the model data and tests on prototype chutes and spillways. The prototype values correspond with the initiation of air entrainment. The values of a,, were determined from the equation a,=c-0.05F
(57)
The curve ao=(sin Q)~W 63F
(58)
With the exception of the spillway data, the Froude and Weber numbers were calculated using the relation for normal depth without aeration. The model tests correspond with fully developed aerated flow. In the absence of any better information, these curves also can be used to estimate the mean air concentration in developing flow. For this case, the Froude and Weber numbers are calculated from the depth and velocity values that result from the gradually varied flow computations without considering aeration of the flow. The use of these curves are illustrated by an example. l Example Given a rectangular chute 15 meters wide, calculate the development of the air entrainment along the length of the chute. The discharge is 20 m3/s. The channel is built on a 1:3 slope and has a Mannings n value of 0.0100. The computer program HFWS (app. II) was used to compute the water surface profile and the mean air concentrations (fig. 15). The program can be used with either drawdown or backwater curves for rectangular, trapezoidal, circular, and transitional cross sections.
Water Surface Location
approximately fits the data (fig. 131. Therefore, the mean air concentration correlation is given by ??=O.OSFfor (sin a)W 63F
(59)
One of the fist concepts that developed in self-entraining flows was bulking. With this concept, the air was considered to be evenly distributed throughout the flow. As a result, the depth of the mixture was increased by a predictable amount (fig. 161. The relation is given
bY 0 < i? < 0.6

db=Ld 1-C where
(60)
If c is greater than 0.6, the air concentration values must be taken from the empirical curves on figure 14.
d = flow depth (without aeration 1 db = bulked flow depth
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW
0 ----
15, o
a 22.5O
0 37.5O -
Michels-Lovely [54] n Big Hill Chute

l
Spring Gully Chute Glenmaggie Spil I wq
t z
-0.6
Thorsky, Tilp, Haggman [ + Pasco Chute -
-0.7
-0.8
- .a u. IU
TURBULENT TO INTERFACIAL TENSION FORCE RATIO
0.20
- -F (sin a) I2 W
FIGURE 13.-Air
entrainment
coefficient.
AIR- WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
= gravitational constant = mean flow velocity w = weber number = v/(~+y,)'/~ depth Ye = effective ci =angle chute invert makes with P = density of water surface tension u = interfacial
9
horizontal
IO
20
FROUDE
NUMBER
entrainment
OF
FLOW
F=
-!!6
FIGURE 14.-Air
in open channel flow.
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW
////
Discharge Q= 20 m3/s Chute width B = 15m Mannings n = 0.010
- 20 DISTANCE
40 FROM CHUTE
60 ENTRANCE
in chutes.
80 x, meters
100
FIGURE 15.-Example
of air entrainment
32
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Air-
7///////l/////
Nonaerated flow
Elulked -
flow
C = 0.60
Actual flow condition
True mean depth
3.0
2.0
I .o
- 0
MEAN
20 AIR
40 CONCENTRATION c,
60 percenl-
FIGURE 16.-Definitions
of aerated flow depth.
OPEN For chutes having rectangular equation 60 can be written as
CHANNEL
FLOW
33
cross sections,
Ccl-
vdB
Vd/,B
(61)
where B=width of rectangular V= velocity of air-water
chute mixture
Thomas [69] used the bulked depth concept indirectly to determine the air content on the Kittitas chute*. He measured the bulked depth (with some difficulty), total water-flow and the velocity of the air-water mixture. The velocity of the air-water mixture was determined by the salt velocity method. Thomas measured db, V, and Q. He calculated the air concentrations using equation 61 by setting
Q= VdB
(62)
The determination of airflow rates by this method raises two questions that need to be considered in some detail. These are: 1. Does the air content influence the flow velocity and hence, the true mean depth,? 2. How accurate are the measurements of the bulked flow depth? Straub and Anderson [66] found that the depth of the flow actually decreases as the air concentration increases above a value of 25 percent (fig. 17). In other words, as the air concentration increases, the flow velocity increases. For instance, at the 74-percent air concentration, the flow velocity is about 1.8 times the
The Kittitas chute is the common name given to describe the Main Canal - Sta. 1146+30 (feet) Wasteway in the Kittitas Division, Yakima Project - Washington. The care with which the tests were conceived and executed have made them a valuable reference source-even up to the present time.
nonaerated flow velocity. Therefore, the Standard Step Method and Mannings equation can be used to estimate the true depth up to air concentrations of about 25 percent. For higher concentrations the values must be adjusted by figure 16. The bulked flow depth virtually is impossible to measure accurately because the surface is highly turbulent (note frontispiece). Thomas [69] noted the following: The choppy water surface and the large amount of spray rendered it difficult to determine where the point of the gage should be to give a reading that would be indicative of the actual depth of flow. The surface conditions also made it difficult to observe the point of the gage. The depth of flow was considered to be at the base of the loosely flying spray and drops of water. The top of the main portion of the flow included numerous small waves or rollers. The vibration of the point gage was relied upon more than visual observation to insure that the point was at relatively the same position in the flow for successive readings. The practical difficulties of determining accurate measurements indicate a need to reexamine the actual flow conditions (fig. 16). A careful consideration of actual flow conditions, such as the frontispiece and the preceeding note, reveals that the entire concept of a bulked flow depth is a poor representation of reality. Thus, other means of describing the location of the water surface should be considered. Water surface fluctuations that occur in open channels can be described by several methods. Longuet-Higgins [50], in studies of ocean waves, based his analysis on a probability distribution of wave heights. He defined a wave height as the difference in elevation between a crest (maximum) and its succeeding trough (minimum). Relatively good correlations were
:s4
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
0.9
5 B
-0.8
Iulu
0.6
T, =shear stress of air/water mixture ~=shear stress of nonaerated flow d=mean water depth of aerated flow d-computed normal depth without aeration
0.5 0 0.1
I
0.2
I
0.3
I
0.4
I
0.5
I
0.6
I
0.7
MEAN
FKXJRE I?.-Relation
AIR
CONCENTRATION
to nonareated flow depth.
of aerated
obtained between the data and a Rayleigh probability density function. This function can be written as: Ph=q exp-($/2)
(63)
where q=normalized wave height=M,/s AI,= wave height amplitude, (half crest to trough distance) s =root-mean-square value of the wave height amplitudes Ph = probability that the wave height is equal to the given height Cartwright and Longuet-Higgins [13] used another description of the fluctuating water
surface. They based their analysis on the maximum difference on elevation between a wave crest and the mean level of the water surface for a given wave period. These differences can be normalized by dividing them by the root-meansquare value of the water surface fluctuation about the mean water surface elevation. Since a crest can occur at an elevation below the mean water surface, the dimensionless crest elevations can have negative values. The specific shape of the distribution depends upon the relative width of the frequency spectrum E. This parameter defines a series of probability distributions that range from a Rayleigh to a Gaussian distribution (fig. 18). The value of the parameter E for ocean waves is about 0.6
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW
xi
I( -E2)lE
Ph=
i&z
[E exp(-~z/2E2)+(1-E2)12yl
exp (+/2)
Jmrn
exp ( -x~/~)cJ!x] --I
Gaussian distribution
0.6
Rayleigh distribution -Ph=v) exp t-+/2)
,Ph=
- \1In exp( -n2/2) c-.
NORMALIZED
FIGURE 18.-Probability density distribution
WAVE HEIGHT
for different
values of the width of the energy spectrum.
A third method of describing the water surface fluctuations is not based upon a definition of wave heights. Instead, the difference between the instantaneous water surface and the mean value of the water surface is used. This probabilistic description of the water surface is probably the most useful in hydraulic structures since designers require a knowledge of the mean flow depth and a measure of how frequently the water surface exceeds some specified elevation above the mean depth.
Unfortunately, very little research has been concerned with a probabilistic description of the water surface in open channel flow. Preliminary investigations in the laboratory indicate that the distribution of the water surface in fully developed, rough, open-channel flow is nearly Gaussian. If the distribution is Gaussian, a plot of the cumulative probability distribution versus flow depth will be a straight line on arithmetric probability paper (fig. 19). A wave depth probe of the type described by
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Mean depth =34 mm Root mean square of surface distribution s,= 17 mm Slope = 4 percent Width = 2440 mm Discharge = 87 liters/second
Q lv)
99.9
99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
IO
0.5 0.2
PROBABILITY
THAT
GIVEN
DEPTH
description
IS EQUALLED of water
OR EXCEEDED
P,
FIGURE 19.-Probability
surface in a chute.
Killen [41] or the circuitry given in appendix I can be used to measure the cumulative probability directly. The root-mean-square value of the water surface fluctuation can be read from the plot. The root-mean-square value is the difference between the depth having an 84.13-percent probability and the mean depth (50% probability). Alternatively, the mean depth and the 15.87-percent probable depth can be used. Effect of Air Entrained Basin Performance Flow on Stilling
hydraulic jump could be determined from nonaerated flow equations. Rajaratnam [ 571 followed with some investigations that indicated a significant effect might be produced by the air entrainment. However, later studies by Herbrand [33] showed that the coefficients used in Rajaratnams equations produced too large an effect on the result and that they were not necessary. Therefore, in rectangular channels the conjugate depth yc can be calculated with sufficient accuracy from -0.5y, YCp/mTi -1)
(64)
The effect of air entrained flow on the performance of stilling basins has been considered for many years. Gumensky [25] concluded that for all practical purposes the conjugate depth of the
where the depths and Froude numbers are calculated with the appropriate bulked flow depths (fig. 16).
.-
Closed
CLASSIFICATION
Conduit
OF FLOW
Flow
patterns in horizontal conduits have been defined by Baker [7], (fig. 20). The correlation can be applied to other gases and liquids by substituting appropriate quantities into the following parameters: Gg=mass velocity of gas, kg/(m2*s) G1 =mass velocity of liquid, kg/(m2 *s)
The conventional term for the concurrent flow of air and water is two-phase flow. Here, phase refers to one of the states of matter (gas, liquid, or solid). Technically the term twophase flow should be reserved to describe the motion of a substance which is present in two of its phases, such as a flow of ice and water. The word mukicomponent is a better description of flows which do not consist of the same chemical substance, such as air and water. If both components move in the same direction, the flow is termed concurrent frow. If the components move in opposite directions, the flow is countercurrent. Closed conduit flow can be classified according to the type of pattern that develops. The flow patterns which develop depend upon the airflow rate relative to the water-flow rate and the slope of the conduit. For example, the flow
A= [(eg/ea)(eJew)ll
)J= dynamic viscosity, Pa *s eg= gas density, kg/m3 e,=air density (at 101.3 kPa and 20 OC)=1.20 kg/m3 el = liquid density, kg/m3 eiu= water (at 101.3 kPa and 20 OC)=988 kg/m3 ocinterfacial surface tension, N/m uQW=air-water surface tension (at 101.3 kPa and 20 oC)=0.0728 N/m ty = (e w /el &..4e,/el j2Y3, Pall3 - s1j3
38
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
I \
ISpray
I/
Gl =mass
0.1 0..Ol
velocity X -density ratio JI-multicbmponent

0.1
of
liquid flow parameter

IO GLAJI Gg
I\
IO0 1000
FIGURE 20.-Flow
patterns
in horizontal
pipes, Baker 171.
These various flow patterns were described by Alves [l] according to the physical ap-0 pearance of the flow as follows (fig. 21): l Bubble flow.-The air forms in bubbles at the upper surface of the pipe. The bubble and water velocities are about equal. If the bubbles are dispersed through the water, the flow is called froth flow. l Plug flow.-For increased airflow rates the air bubbles coalesce with plugs of air and water alternately flowing along the top of the pipe. l Stratified flow.-A distinct horizontal interface separates the air and waterflows. l Wave flow.-As the airflow rate is increased, surface waves appear on the stratified flow interface. l Slug flow.-Wave amplitudes are large enough to seal the conduit. The wave
forms a frothy slug where it touches the roof of the conduit. This slug travels with a higher velocity than the average liquid velocity. Annular flow.-For greater airflow rates the water flows as a film on the wall of the pipe, while the air flows in a high-speed core down the axis of the pipe. Spray flow.- For very great airflow rates the annular film is stripped from the pipe walls and is carried in the air as entrained droplets.
A similar set of flow pattern descriptions exist for vertical flows. They are: l Bubble flow.-The air is distributed in the water as spherical or spherical cap bubbles which are small with respect to the conduit diameter.
CLOSED CONDUIT
l
FLOW
39
Slug flow.-As the air flow increases, alternate slugs5 of air and water move up the pipe. The transition from bubble flow to slug flow is shown on figure 22. This transition occurs when the bubble diameter is about one-half the conduit diameter.
where 0, = volume of water A =cross sectional area of conduit L= length of conduit over which the volume o, is determined
Bubble
If the vertical conduit is rectangular instead of cylindrical, the appropriate relation for slug flow is given by Wallis [73] as Ds)(z) where
D,
D, -12 s
(65)
Plug
D, = larger dimension of a rectangular

conduit Db = smaller dimension of a rectangular conduit D, = bubble diameter K = terminal velocity of air bubbles in slug flow K=terminal velocity of air bubbles in still water With respect to the flow quantities, Martin [52] found that the transition from bubbly to slug flow occurs at a void fraction somewhere between 19 and 23 percent. The void fraction 8 is the average volumetric concentration in a length of pipe (assuming uniform flow) and expressed as
Stratified
Wave
(66)
51t is not clear whether the term shtg refers to a slug of air or a slug of water. The air bubble could be called a slug due to its bullet or slug shaped form. The water could be called a slug due to its similarity in form to the terrestrial gastropod in horizontal flows or due to its impact properties iu vertical flow. The author prefers the reference to slugs of air.
FIGURE 21.-Flow
pattern
sketches,
Alues [l].
40
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
I.1
Vs h 14A
2 I.0 r (3 0.9 3 ;: 0.8
/d\-"2
= slua flow
: 0.6 3 0 J 0.5 w 0.4 > ; 0.3 a = 0.2

K 0. I
1 I
Air
velocity in still water velocity vs =terminal in slug flow
V+ -terminal
of
bubbles
of bubbles
0.1
0.2
0.3 RELATIVE
0.4
0.5
0.6 OF
velocity
0.7 SLUG
of a bubble,
0.8 d/D
Collins [16].
0.9
DIAMETER
diameter on terminal
FIGURE 22.-Effect
l
of conduit
Froth flow.-As the airflow increases, the slugs break up into a turbulent disordered pattern of air and water. The annular and spray flow patterns are identical in both vertical and horizontal pipes. In hydraulic structures, the conduits may also be placed on a slope. The additional complexities in the flow patterns caused by slope will be discussed later. From a designers viewpoint, air-water flows in closed conduits can be classified into four general categories. Each category may contain only one or a combination of the flow patterns enumerated previously. These categories are: 1. Flow in partially filled conduits,
2. Flow having a hydraulic jump that fills the conduit, 3. Flow from control devices, and 4. Falling water surface. Each category listed above is considered in detail in the following subsections. In addition to the four categories of flow, two others are considered separately. These are: l Flow in pipelines and siphons l Flow in vertical shafts The pipelines and siphons require special consideration because of their length. Vertical shafts present special problems because of the various types of flow which can exist in the shaft.
CLOSED
CONI~UIT
FLOW
41
FLOW IN PARTIALLY CONDUITS Model Predictions
FILLED
Flow in a partially filled conduit can be thought of as open-channel flow in a closed conduit. The air flows through the passage which is formed above the water surface. The total volume flow of air, which enters at the upstream end of the air passage, equals the sum of the air that is insufflated into the flow and that which flows above the water surface as a result of the air-water shear forces. The quantity of air insufflated into the flow can be estimated from equation 59. The quantity of air that flows above the water surface is a function of the waterflow properties and the pressure drop in the air vent. This can be expressed as
The interrelation between these parameters can be found for a specific geometry through the use of model studies. There are many literature references that indicate model predictions often underestimate in the quantity of air which actually flows in prototype structures. However, very careful model tests in which all air- and waterflow passages were modeled in their entirety have shown good agreement between model and prototype measurements. For instance, Sikora [65] showed that the airflow rates could be accurately predicted from model studies. His tests were with three geometrically similar models having scales of l:l, 1:2, and 1:4 (fig. 231. The pressure values on the figure refer to the difference between atmospheric pressure and the air pressure at the .upstream end of the waterflow passage.
Qa=f(b
V, g, P, ye,
ew)
(67)
where A = cross sectional area of water prism g=gravitional constant (acceleration) L = conduit length p = pressure intensity Qa = total airflow rate T= top width of flow passage V= mean water velocity ye = effective depth=A / T ew = water density Applying dimensional analysis to equation 67 with ye, V, and ew as the repeating variables gives
II
I./b---l
FROUDE NUMBER OF FLOW F= 2
(68)
FIGURE 23.-Influence
flow rate, Sikora 1651. ?f air pressure in conduit in air-
where
F = Froude number
Qw = waterflow rate y = specific force of water
Harshbarger, Vigander, and Hecker conducted 1:20 scale model and prototype of a gated tunnel discharge. Free-surface
. [ 321 tests flow
42
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC where
STRUCTURES
existed in the tunnel for all discharges. A scale effect was not detectable in their investigations. These studies clearly indicate that for estimating airflow rates using models, it is necessary to accurately reproduce the entire airflow passage above the water surface. In those cases where air enters the water conduit through a vent, two options are available for measuring the airflow rates. The options depend upon whether or not the air vent has been designed.
A, = cross sectional area of vent

f=Darcy-Weisbach friction factor gzgravitational constant (acceleration) Hchydraulic radius of prototype air vent K, = entrance loss K ,=singular (form) loss in vent,. the greatest of which is the entrance loss
K,=O.S L = vent length pl =pressure at vent exit Patm = atmospheric pressure AZzdiiference between vent intake and vent exit elevations y = specific force of water ea= air density ew = water density
Volume flowrate of water can be expressed as
Air vent not designed. --If the air vent design has not been determined, it is necessary to measure the airflow rate while controlling the air pressure at the upstream end of the water conduit. These tests must be performed for a series of flow depths and flow rates in the water conduit. The upstream air pressures can be controlled by incorporating an air pump into the airflow measuring device. To be applicable for all possible designs, the pressure should be varied over the maximum possible range. The lowest end of the range corresponds with the condition of no airflow through the vent. The upper end of the range is achieved when the upstream air pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. A good example of this procedure is the work by Sikora [65] who developed a set of curves for the airflow in the horizontal leg of morningglory spillway (fig. 24). Once the family of curves for the airflow rates has been experimentally determined it is possible to investigate the effect of adding various size air vents to the structure. This is done by first developing an expression for the air vent characteristics in terms of the dimensionless parameters on figure 24. For air velocities less than 100 m/s and values of fLI4H 2 4, the volume flowrate QB through a vent can be expressed as
Qa 169)
Qw=+
(E)]"'
(70)
where A =cross sectional area of water prism Y=mean waterflow velocity in conduit Using these two expressions, the dimensionless airflow rate /3 can be expressed as
Qa P=Qw
=&i 4tJQa [
(71)
A 1tK,+fL/4H
when AZ Qa 1s negligible. e, . The first ratio inside the brackets is a fuuction of the fluid properties, the singular losses, and the flow geometry. The second ratio is in the form of a pressure factor or Euler number. By using this equation, the characteristics of a given vent can be plotted on the dimensionless airflow curves (fig. 24). The intersection points
~e,/e,#Cp,,,/v)-(pl/y)+~(e~/elu)l z K,+fL/4H
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
43
= Ad = de = F = P = 9 =
A
=
Lp= QJ = Qw = v = ye =
cross section01 area of water prism cross sectional area of conduit deflector height Froude number = A!GEair density gravltational constant pressure at end of air vent pressure drop across vent volume flowrate of air volume flowrate of water mean flow velocity effective depth -----Y& n p1 Hydraulic jump with Outlet submerged ree surface flow
!5 r nQ0.20 3 20.15 LL
Jump in conduit
W - / r
Cuutlet I I
9 FLOW
suPmerged I
IO F-l
Sikora 1651.
ta
Y
0
n"
I
II
I
12
I
13
6 OF
FROUQE
NUMBER
FIGURE 24.-Model
tests on a spillway,
44
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC Analytic
STRUCTURES Estimates
of the two sets of curves gives the pressures and airflow rates for a given set of air vent parameters. If the resulting values are not satisfactory, another set of vent characteristics is chosen and the process repeated.
Air vent designed.- For some studies the design of the air vent is available. In these cases it is necessary to calculate the total loss for the vent and to simulate this loss in the model air vent. The loss for the prototype and the model must include both frictional and form losses. Normally, the air vent velocities are kept low enough so that incompressible loss coefficients are valid. The model air vent is simulated correctly when the loss coefficients in the model and prototype vents are made equal. If devices such as nozzles or orifices are installed into the model air vent for flow measurement purposes, the loss across them must be included in computing the total model air vent loss coefficient. In the case of an orifice, its loss coefficient often constitutes the entire loss for the model air vent. It is possible to express the required orifice size as
In many instances, model tests for predicting the airflow rates have not been performed. For these cases, the airflow rates often can be estimated closely enough by an approximate method. For this estimation three rather gross assumptions must be made, namely: 1. The amount of air flowing through the vent is a function of only the air insufflated into the flow and the air that is induced to flow by the moving water boundary, 2. The amount of air insufflated into the flow can be predicted by open channel flow equations, and 3. The air motion above the water surface is determined solely by the boundary layer d thickness at the most downstream conduit location. These assumptions neglect the fact that air actually can enter from the downstream end of the conduit. Schlichting [63] showed that with Couette-Poiseuille6 flow in the laminar region, a flow reversal occurs when
-p--ha2
where
( O 2&d%
dp G-1
>
(73)
A, = orifice area A, = prototype air vent area

co= orifice discharge coefficient f= Darcy- Weisbach factor for prototype air vent H= hydraulic radius of prototype air vent K, = singular losses (including entrance, bends, and changes in area) L=length of prototype air vent L,=prototype to model scale ratio If the orifice is placed on the end of the model air vent pipe, its discharge coefficient is obtained from fiie 25.
6The dimensionless parameter PO is known as the Poiseuille number. Its primary use is in the laminar fluid friction field. For example, in a round circular pipe, the Poiseuille number is equal to 32. In this case the pipe diameter is substituted for the height of the airflow passage iu equation 73. Couette flow exists between two parallel walls when one wall is moving and the other is stationary. The motion is due solely to the shear field created by the relative movemeut of the two walls. Couette flow has no pressure gradient in the direction of flow. Couette-Poiseuille flow describes a Couette type flow having a longitudinal pressure gradient:Turbulent CouettePoiseuihe flow should describe the air motion above a moving water surface in a closed conduit.
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
4.5
area A0 = orifice area Hm= head across orifice

Hm = hrn( P m/Pa cl >
Ad = conduit
do 1 r-
= volume flowrote of air pa = density of air ph= density of manometer fluid Vena contracta
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
RELATIVE
FIGURE 25.-Dkcharge
ORIFICE
coefficients
AREA
-A0 Ad
for orifice at end of pipe.
46
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
where
u = local air velocity
h, = height of airflow passage dp/dx= pressure gradient in the air

V, = maximum water surface velocity cc= dynamic viscosity of air Leutheusser and Chu [48] have investigated Couette flow in the turbulent region. Insufficient tests have been made to determine the magnitude of the dimensionless parameter P, for the turbulent Couette-Poiseuille flow. However, some laboratory. tests indicate that with turbulence, reverse flow begins when Pp1000
V0-maximum water surface velocity ya = distance from the water surface

d = boundary layer thickness The value of the coefficient n, varies between 10 for flow over smooth surfaces to 5.4 for flow over rough surfaces when the Reynolds number is about 106. Normally n, is assumed to be equal to 7. This approach is similar to that used by Campbell and Guyton [12] except they assumed the boundary layer always coincided with the roof of the conduit. The boundary layer entrains the maximum amount of air at the extreme downstream location in the conduit. To maintain continuity, flow at upstream locations consists of boundary layer flow plus some mean flow (fig. 26). The air velocity at the water surface must be equal to the water velocity. Therefore, at the upstream locations, the air velocity above the water surface may have a larger magnitude than that at the water surface. Careful laboratory experiments by Ghetti [24] of the Vaiont Dam (Italy) gated outlets show that the maximum air velocity near the water surface at the vent can be as much as four times the water velocity. For some flow conditions the boundary layer will reach the roof of the conduit. When this happens the roof will begin to retard the flow. If the water surface and the roof of the conduit had equal roughness values, the maximum flow rate would he given by turbulent plane Couette flow. For this case the maximum airflow rate Qm is
(74)
The amount of air flowing above the water surface can be visualized by considering a boundary layer which increases in thickness from a value of zero at a gate+ to a maximum value at the end of the conduit (fig. 26). The growth of a turbulent boundary layer that is induced by a moving rough boundary has not been studied. As a first approximation it is assumed that d=O.Olx where d = boundary layer thickness x = distance from gate
(75)
The velocity distribution within the boundary layer is assumed to obey a power law of the order:
l/n,
u=v,
0
$
(77)
(76)
where
where nv =velocity distribution coefficient
A, = cross sectional area of airflow passage

power law (rectangular 1 Y, = maximum water surface velocity
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
411
Volume flowrate of air, Qa Boundary layer L - __- - ---*
_---
--
A.
Profile
sketch
Superposition of mean flow with
At
Boundary layer depth greater than flow passage depth
6. Velocity
distribution
above water surface.
FIGURE 26.-Airflow
4-8
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Actually the roughness of the water surface is greater than that of the conduit roof. This increased roughness will produce higher air velocities near the water surface which result in airflow rates greater than those given by equation 77. Sikora [65] reasoned that the mean air velocity could not exceed the mean water velocity. This leads to the expression for the maximum possible airflow rate in a closed conduit, which is
V F=
where
(gu,)l/2
(801
A =cross sectional area of water prism

D=conduit diameter !&top width of flow passage=2[y(D-yl]12 g= gravitational constant (acceleration 1 V= mean flow velocity ye = effective depth=A/ T y = flow depth Equation 79 is good only if all air entrained is passed downstream. Prototype tests-for which a hydraulic jump formed in the conduit and in which the conduit velocities were large enough to convey all the entrained air out of the conduit-confirm the experimentally derived curve (fig. 27). If the conduit is horizontal or sloping upward in the direction of flow then all the entrained air will move with the flow. However, if the conduit slopes downward in the direction of flow air bubbles can either move upstream or downstream relative to the pipe wall. The direction of movement taken by the bubbles can be examined by considering the relative magnitudes of the buoyant and drag forces upon a stationary bubble in the flow (fig. 28). For example, the bubble will move perpendicular to the pipe axis only when the upstream component of the buoyant force vector equals the drag force component. This can be written as
-1 s&? =A_d A ( )
Q
Wlll.4X
(781
where Ad= cross sectional area of conduit A = maximum cross sectional area of water prism Application of equation 78 without regard to the boundary layer thickness will result in excessively large values of the airflow rates. However, for design purposes, this approach may be satisfactory since the resulting air vent will be oversized.
FLOW HAVING A HYDRAULIC THAT FILLS THE CONDUIT
JUMP
Kalinske and Robertson [38] studied the special case of two-layer flow in which a hydraulic jump fills the conduit. From dimensional analysis and model studies, they determined that the amount of air entrained by the jump is given by Q=()
Qw *
0()&j (F-1)1.4
(791
where F=Froude number upstream of the hydraulic jump. In a circular pipe the Froude number can be calculated conveniently from the flow depth y using
where Cb = drag coefficient on bubble 0, = equivalent bubblg diameter . S,=pipe slope=sin a
CLOSED CONDUIIFLOW
I I 11111 I I I I / / 1.00 * l/l I
Ikarl Dam, Mura et al.,[53] l Navajo Dam,WPRS, (not published) A Pine Fiat Dam, USCE, [7l] (prototype)
l
i / A 8 / a /c /
0.01
=m V-mean velocitv of water g-gravitational constant ye-effective depth
8 Kalinske & Robertson tests,

[38] (model)
0.005
IU . .
FROUDE FIGURE 27.-Air

entrainment
NUMBER
OF FLOW,
jump
F-l
with hydraulic
closing conduit.
50
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
diameter is a function of the interfacial surface tension and the friction slope. In terms of dimensionless parameters, the critical discharge required to move the bubbles can be expressed as
QeB= gD f(
5
NW
VDa
FIGURE P&-Forces on a stationary bubble.
Rearranging terms and dividing by the conduit diameter gives
v2 = $ [l-+&J] I@
or
s@)
(82)
g = ; P--(Q~&JI go5
where
2 @
(83)
QC=critical
discharge needed to carry bubbles with the flow D = conduit diameter
This relation shows that the critical discharge for bubble motion is a function of the effective bubble diameter D,, the densities, Q, the drag coefficient Cd of the bubble, and the pipe slope S,. Unfortunately, the drag coefficient and effective bubble diameter can not be predicted for flow in a pipe. Therefore, the techniques of dimensional analysis must be used to determine the significant parameters for correlations. As was shown under Design ParametersMean air concentration, the effective bubble
is designated frequently 0 as the Eijt,;;s number E. Kalmske and Bliss [37] found relatively good correlations for the initiation of bubble movement by using only the pipe slope S, and the Eiitviis number. Data by Colgate [15] also fits their curves relatively well (fii. 29). Additional studies are required to define the bubble motion curve (fig. 29) for slopes greater than 45 degrees. Martin [52] showed that a stationary air pocket forms when the dimensionless discharge Qw2/gD5 is equal to 0.30 for vertically downward flow. Therefore, the increasing trend of the curve in fiie 29 probably does not continue past the 45-degree slope. As the bubbles travel downstream in sloping conduits, they tend to rise to the top of tbe conduit and form large pockets of air. Runge and Wallis [61] discovered that the rise velocity of these pockets is greater in sloping conduits than it is in vertical conduits (fii. 30). For a specific range of discharge, a flow condition can exist whereby bubbles will move downstream and form into pockets that move against the flow in an upstream direction. Sailer [62] investigated prototype cases in which large air pockets moved against the flow with sufficient violence to completely destroy reinforced concrete platforms. The reverse flow region has been delineated on fiie 29 using the data of Colgate [ 151 and the slug-flow curve of figure 30. The five structures pointed out by Sailer as having experienced blowbacks are indicated by crosses on fiie 29. It is noted that
The parameter -
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
51
Structures
(+) with
0.1
= gravitational c = interfacial
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
constant tension
1.2 1.4 0 1.6 1.8 2.0
DIMENSIONLESS
FIGURE 29.-Bubble motion
FLOWRATE
in closed conduits flowing
-% 9D
full.
two of these structures lie within the blowback zone at design discharge. The other three must pass through the hlowback zone in coming up to the design discharge. For pipe slopes less than 0.1, the width of the blowback zone is so small that problems normally are not experienced .
FLOWS FROM CONTROL
DEVICES
Flows from control devices refer to cases in which the primary cause of the air demand is due to the waterflow conditions at a control device. Two types of flow control devices that will be considered are gates and valves. These
devices also induce air movement in open channel flows. However, in unconfined flows the water movement does not cause low pressures which must be relieved by air vents. A distinction is made in the field of hydraulic machinery between valves and gates even though both serve as flow control in a closed conduit. A valve is a device in which the controlling element is located within the flow (fig. 31). A gate is a device in which the controlling element is out of the flow when it is not controlling and which moves transverse to the flow when controlling (fig. 31). The jets from gates are different than those from valves; therefore, the two cases are considered separately.
52
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Air pocket or slug
> I3f
o\ a >> gz cn t $5 K (3
V+=terminol velocity in still water

1.8 I .6 I .4 1.2 l.OW 90 I 75 I 60
of bubble
I 45
I 30
I 15
I 0
ANGLE
FIGURE 3Q.-Slug
OF CONDUIT
flow in inclined
WITH
HORIZONTAL
and Wallis [61].
pipes, Runge
Flows
From
Valves
Around the beginning of the 20th century, many outlet valves were placed on or near the upstream faces of the dams. Nearly all were severely damaged by cavitation erosion. Since a satisfactory method could not be found to reduce or eliminate the damage at all gate positions, the operating ranges of these valves were severely restricted. Because of this limitation, the location of the throttling valves was shifted to the downstream side of the dam. Present practice is to avoid placement of throttling valves within the conduit. Nevertheless, from time to time it is necessary to place the valves within the conduits. This is especially true when the downstream conduit is a tunnelwhen spray could cause icing problemsand when a flow control station is placed in a pipeline.
If stratified or wave flow exists downstream of the valve, air is induced to move by a relatively low water velocity acting over a large surface area. However, if the flow from the valve impinges on the downstream conduit walls, the airflow is induced by high velocity waterjet acting over a relatively small surface, area. In this case, the significant airflow parameters are the:
l l l
Kinetic energy of the water-flow, Gate opening, and Air pressure at some characteristic tion.
loca-
Parameters such as length of conduit downstream of the valve and the Froude numbers of the downstream flows are obviously of lesser importance.
..
_..
CLOSED CONDUIT
SERVICE CLASSIFICATION
FLOW
VALVES
53
THROTTLING
SCHEMATIC FLOW
DIAGRAM
DIRECTION
NAME Maximum D&charge Submerged Throttling Spray Leakage Nominal Availability Maintenance COMMENTS required AND NOTES: size range, diameter (b) head (approximate1 coefficient operation limitations (a)
FIXED-CONE 300 0.85 Yes None Very heavy
VALVE
HOLLGW-JET 300 0.70 11) Avoid (2) NO
VALVE
NEEDLE 300
VALVE
TUBE
VALVE 90m
SLEEVE 75 0.80 Yes
VALVE
0.45 To 0.60 (1) NO Nle Small NCe 250 to 2440. Special design Paint (11 (1) Spray
0.50 To 0.55 Yes NOlIe Moderate NOIE 910. to 2440. Special design (11
Ill
very small discharge Moderate None 7M)- to 2740.
NOIX Nle NOIE 310. to 610-m Special design Paint at ( 11 Valve is designed for we only in fully submerged conditions. (2) Larger sizes see and will probably developed. feasible be
NOIE 200. to 274Q-mm Commercial Paint (1 I Air-venting required. standard (31
Special design Paint (1) Submergence to centerline of valve is permissible.
Paint is heavest
(81 Coefficients are approximate and may vary so-what with specific designs. (bl Size ranges shown are representative, and are not limiting.
(21 Spray rating will change to moderate if a downstream hood is added. (3) Valves are not stock items but standard commercial designs are available.
I1 I If water operation is used, disassembly at 3 to 5 year intervals for removing scale deposits unecesaary. is usually
openings of less than 35%. At the larger openings the rating would be better than moderate.
SERVICE
CLASSIFICATION
THROTTLING
GATES
SCHEMATIC FLOW
DIAGRAM
DIRECTION
UNBONNETED NAME Maximum Discharge Submereed Throttling Spray Leakage Nominal Availability Maintenance COMMENTS required AND NOTES: size range lb) 3660.wide Commercial head (approximate) coefficient ooeration limitations Avoid (a) SLIDE 25 0.6 To 0.8 NO very small discharge Minimum Small 8 3660-m standard Paint (1) Gates are readily available from several commercial 8owceB. They me not a off-the-shelf item, however. high (11 1830~wide Avoid GATE HIGH
BONNETED PRESSURETYPE 60 0.95 No very small discharge Minimum Small 8 2740-m design high
SLIDE
GATES TYPE JET-FLOW 150 0.80 To 0.84 III Y.. NOW Small Nle high 250. to 3050.mm Special design (2) Paint ( 1 I Air vents required dia. 111 GATE TOP-SEAL RADIAL 60.75 m 0.95 NO Nle Minimum Small to moderate 4570~wide d 9140-m design (1) in 5-15 high GATE
STREAMLINED 150 0.97 v-s Avoid
very small discharge Minimum Small
3050- to 6100-m Special design Paint
Special
Social Paint-se&
Paint
(a) Coefficients are approximate and may vary somewhat with spemfic designs. lb) Ske rangea shown are representative, and are not limiting
( 1 I Air vents required 121 Use of stainless steel BUTfaced fluidways, will reduce painting requireen@ and cavitation damage hazard.
(1) Seal replacement
years is probable depending on design and we.
FIGURE
31.-Valve
and gate data, Kohler
[GM].
54
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Colgate [14] made model studies of airflows in valves having a fixed-cone. His results were given in terms of gate opening and discharge. Transforming these values into the appropriate dimensionless parameters results in good correlations for all conditions that were tested (fii. 32). In this case, the kinetic energy of the flow is proportional to the total upstream head. Thus
$=f(G,F)
W
(85)
where G= gate opening in percent H,=total potential and kinetic energy (upstream) b/V= differential between atmospheric pressure and air pressure at end of vent Y= specific force of water Once curves like those presented in figure 32 are developed, it is possible to determine the airflow rates through any air vent that is connected to the structure by using equation [71]. To perform the determination, equation 71 is plotted on figure 31. The intersections of the two sets of curves give the airflow rates for any particular vent.
Flows From Gates

At small gate openings, a considerable amount of spray is produced by flow which impinges in gate slots. This spray induces considerably more air movement than that produced by stratified or wave flow. In a sense, the effect of spray in producing air movement is similar to that of flow from valves. However, with spray the jet does not impinge on the walls
The f&d-cone valve is also called a Howell-Bunger after its inventors. valve
of the downstream conduit; therefore, a seal ,does not form. The significant parameters for flow with spray are the same as those for flow from valves; i.e., l Gate opening, l A reference air pressure, and l The total upstream energy. Model studies can be used to obtain estimates of the airflow rates which can be expected when spray is present. As the gate opening increases, the amount of spray decreases. Typically, spray is not significant for openings greater than 10 or 20 percent. The exact percentage depends upon the design of the gate. For the larger openings, the airflow rate is controlled by the two-layer flow relations. That is, the significant parameters are: l Length of conduit, l Froude number of the flow, and l Air pressure at some reference location. For jet-flow gates a point is reached-as the gate opening increases above some valuewhere the flow impinges on the downstream conduit. Typically this occurs at a SO- to 60-percent opening. With impinging flow, the airflow rate is correlated with the parameters used for flow from fixed-cone valves. For this type of flow, the length to diameter ratio of the conduit is significant only if the downstream conduit length is less than the distance to the impingement point or if the adverse pressure gradient is large.
FALLING
WATER
SURFACE
A falling water surface in a closed conduit induces airflow in the conduit. This flow is analogous to that induced by a piston in a cylinder; the water corresponds to the piston. A typical example of this type of flow occurs during an emergency closure of the intake gate to a penstock (fig. 33). As the gate closes, water flowing into the penstock from the reservoir is
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW 9 Ht hm P CT 2 > = = = = Pin = Qa = Qw =. v = Y = gravitational constant total potential and kinetic energy head across manometer pressure intensity internal pressure of air volume flowrate volume flowrate of water flow velocity mean specific force of water
ii-
/Air
vent 10,675mmdiameter
III(
-47 2100
2-1375mmf ixed cone valves 3.7m c. to c.
mm
310 mm JO0
mm
30 mm
RELATIVE
AIR
PRESSURE
AT VALVE
100 (pin /Y 1 t
fixed-cone (Howell-Bunger) valves.
FIGURE S2.-Airflow
rate for two 137.5mm
56
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
a.
ENERGY IN
AND PENSTOCK
PIEZOMETRIC AND DRAFT
GRADE TUBE
LINES
Loss across gate 7
Piezometric
grode
Loss due to flow entering from f gate chamberj
.a
.I
-I
b.
ENERGY
AND AT
PIEZOMETRIC GRADE INTAKE STRUCTURE
LINES
FIGURE 33.-Falling
water surface.
CLOSED CONDUIT gradually stopped. However, water in the penstock continues to flow through the turbine in the powerplant. Eventually the gate becomes fully closed. For water to continue flowing from the penstock, air must be allowed to enter the system through a vent located just downstream from the intake gate. The airflow and waterflow relationsthrough the penstock and gate chamber-can be simulated analytically by the appropriate mathematical model, Falvey [22]. This model, based upon momentum and continuity equations, yields the airflow rates, etc., as a function of time. With relatively long penstocks; i.e., length to diameter ratios exceeding 30, the maximum airflow rate occurs slightly after the emergency gate closes completely. The magnitude of the airflow rate is equal approximately to the penstock discharge prior to the start of the gate closure. These observations provide rules of thumb which can be used for the design of the air vent structures on dams. The computer program presented in appendix III should be run if a time history of the air-water flow relation is required or if shorter penstocks are being analyzed. This program is a generalized version of the original program and includes typical turbine characteristics. Good correlations have been found between the computer model calculations and prototype measurements (fig. 34). AIR VENT DESIGN CRITERIA CLOSED CONDUITS Purpose The design of air vents for closed conduits requires careful consideration. The preliminary step is to decide the purpose that the vent is to perform. For instance, air vents can permit air to enter a structure to prevent collapse or to prevent the formation of low pressures within the flowing water which could lead to cavitation FOR
FLOW
57
and its possible attendant damage. Conversely, air vents can permit air to escape from a structure. In this case the purpose is to bleed air from a conduit prior to operation. Location The next step is to locate the vent properly. General rules cannot be delineated for all cases other than the vent usually is placed where the pressure in the conduit is the lowest. For instance, in gates the appropriate location is immediately downstream of the gate (fig. 31B). For valves the air vent is upstream from the point where the water jet impinges on the conduit walls (fig. 32). In some cases the location must be determined by intuition or carefully conducted model studies. Maximum Airflow Rate
After the vent is located, the maximum airflow rate through the vent must be estimated. This estimate should be based upon a consideration of the various types of flow which are possible in the water conduit. The previous sections have presented in detail some methods of estimating the maximum airflow rates for specific types of closed conduit flows.
Structural
Considerations
The pressure drop across the air vent causes a reduced pressure in the penstock and gate structure. Each part of the structure which is subjected to reduced pressure should be analyzed to determine if it will withstand the imposed loads.
Physiological
Effects
The effects of noise produced by high air velocities as well as the structural integrity must
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
below transducer
TIME,
seconds
TIME, E
seconds
TIME,
seconds
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
00
90
IO0
110
-120
130
TIME. FIGURE 34.-Comparison
seconcts
prediction.
of field data with computer
CLOSED CONDUIT be considered in the design of air vents. The limiting air velocity-with respect to noise-in a vent has been established (by the Water and Power Resources Service) to be about 30 m/s. Above this velocity an objectionable whistling sound occurs. The intensity of the sound and not its mere presence is the governing factor. For instance, ear protection is required for exposure times greater than eight hours and pressure levels above 85 dB (decibels) Beranek and Miller [9].* For pressure levels above 135 dB, ear protection is required for any exposure time. Field measurements 5 meters from an air vent having an 80-m/s velocity produced sound level intensities of 105 dB. With this sound intensity, ear protection is required for exposure times exceeding 7 minutes. Since sound level intensities increase by the 6th to 8th power of velocity Davies and Williams [19], a ZOO-m/s air velocity would have produced a sound level intensity between 128 and 136 dB which is damaging to the ears for any exposure time. Based upon this limited result, a 90-m/s flow velocity appears to be a good value to use as a design criterion for air vents that operate for a short duration. If the air will flow through the vent for extended periods, the upper limit on the air velocity should be restricted to the 30-m/s value.
Tonstruction Safety Standards, Water and Power Resources Services, pp. 27-28, rev. 1979. The standard states * * *. Protection against the effects of noise exposure shall be provided when the sound levels exceed those shown below when measured on the A-scale of a standard Type II sound level meter at a slow response. Sound level, dBA, Duration per day, hours slow response 8 90 6 92 4 95 3 97 2 100 102 1.5 1 105 0.5 110 0.25 or less 115
FLOW
59
Safety of Personnel Another design consideration concerns the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the vent when it is operating. Generally, personnel barriers should be placed around vents at locations where the air velocities exceed 15 m/s. This will prevent personnel and loose objects from being swept either through the air vent or held on the air vent louvers. Freeze Protection In areas where the vents operate in cold weather for prolonged periods, the vents should be protected from freezing. Icing occurs when supercooled air passes through the louvers and screens at the vent intake. In some cases ice buildup was sufficient to completely block the flow area (fig. 35). Icing protection includes using heating elements on the louvers, rerouting the vent to place the intake in a warm portion of the structure, or redesign of the intake to eliminate ice buildup areas. Cavitation Damage
The pressure downstream of gates discharging into conduits should be prevented from becoming too low. If the pressure does drop excessively, cavitation damage may result during prolonged periods of operation. Unfortunately, general guidelines concerning minimum acceptable pressures cannot be given. Each gate or valve design has its own particular characteristics. Some designs are more susceptible to cavitation damage than others. Research studies are needed to define minimum pressure values for the different classes of gates and valves. Water Column Separation
If the pressure in the water column reaches vapor pressure of the water a possibility exists
60
AIR-WArrER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
that the column will separate.Depending upon the geometryof the conduit, the separationcan occur at either one location or at severallocations. If water column separation is indicated, special waterhammer computations should be performed to determine the overpressures when the water columns rejoin. AIR VENT DESIGN CRITERIA PIPELINES
Introduction
FOR
A.-View of the vent pipe installed to provide air for a square slide gate in an outlet works. Initial installation had a cap which required removal after frost plugged the screen. P801-D-79278
Flow in long pipelines presents a separate class of considerations from those already discussed. One of the reasons for the new set of considerations is the fact that the pipeline profile normally follows the ground surface topography vary closely. This causes intermediate high locations which provide an opportunity for the collection of air pockets. To assure troublefree pipeline operation, details of alinement, location, and sizing of vent structures must be considered. There are essentially four main categories of pipelines. They-are: I. Gravity pipelines in which the water flows from a higher elevation to a lower one through the effect of gravity (fig. 36A). 2. Sagpipes (inverted siphons)9 in which the flow from one canal to another is passed under a road or across a valley (fig. 36B ). 3. Pump lifts in which the water flows from a low elevation to a higher one through pump action (fig. 36C). 4. Siphons in which some portion of the pipe is designed to operate at subatmospheric pressures (fig. 36D ). This type of stmcture is used frequently to prevent water from the upper reservoir from passing back through the pump if. a loss of electrical power occurs.
B.-Closeup
view of the screen for a vent pipe after rePBOI-D-79277
movalofthecap.
FIGURE
35.-Air
vent,
Shadow
Mountain
Dam,
9See footnote I.
Colorado-Big Thompson Project, Colorado.
CLOSED CONDUIT Gravity systems, figures 36A and B, normally have different alinement problems than pumping systems (fig. 36C and D); therefore, the two are considered separately.
/Energy grade line f Energy grade line
FLOW
01
is below the downstream vent structure. Therefore, it is submerged by the pool which forms at the no-flow condition. To prevent difficulties during startup operations, certain criteria should be followed regarding both the vertical and horizontal alinement at the upstream vent structure and at intermediate summits whose elevations lie above the downstream open vent structure. Vertical alinernent criteria.-The pipe invert should be placed on a uniform slope between the vent or summit and the adjacent downstream pool. If this cannot be achieved then the pipe should be placed on continuingly steeper slopes so that during filling the flow continues to accelerate to the pool level. If the flow were allowed to decelerate, the water depth in a circular pipe could gradually increase until the pipe was about 82 percent full. At this depth the flow could become unstable, alternating between full conduit flow and the 82-percent depth. At less than design discharge, the flow downstream of nonsubmerged summits passes from free-surface to closed-conduit flow. An airentraining hydraulic jump always forms when the flow makes this transition. The entrained air can form large air pockets under certain circumstances which move against the direction of flow. This condition is commonly referred to as blowback (refer to previous section-Flow Having a Hydraulic Jump That Fills the Con duit). If the alinement cannot be planned to avoid either operating in or passing through the blowback region delineated in figure 29, then the pipe diameter should be altered to avoid the region. Some attempts have been made to collect the large air bubbles which form on the crown of the pipe and lead them away from the pipeline (fig. 38). In the example, the flow conditions never entered the blowback flow region. the complicated air coiiection Therefore,
A.-Gravity
pipeline GRAVITY SYSTEMS
B.-Sag-pipe
C.-Pressure
pipeline PUMPING
D. Siphon SYSTEMS
pipeline
FIGURE 36.-Pipeline
configurations.
Gravity Systems A vertical section through a typical gravity system is shown on figure 37. The same type of layout also applies to sag pipes if the open vent structures are replaced by canal sections. Two types of summit configurations are depicted. In one case the intermediate summit is above the downstream vent structure. This forms a pool upstream of the summit at the no-flow condition. In the other case, the intermediate summit
AIR-WATER
. Upstream
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
open vent structure
stream open vent structure
_____-------------downstream vent structure
-------------
I
-Pipe
Blowoff valves located at low points
i on tangent
I
Intermediate summit elevation I, below downstream vent structure
PROFILE
-Approximately 10 pipe diameters.
-1
Approximately
10 pipe diameters-
Vent
PLAN
FIGURE 37.-Plan
and profile
of a gravity
pipeline.
system was not needed. If flow had entered the blowback region, this structure probably would not have worked. Colgate [15] found that an unsteady flow condition develops when large air bubbles are bled from a pipeline with too small a vent. To minimize the unsteady flow it is necessary for the vent diameter to equal the pipeline diameter. The design of antiblowback structures like the type shown on figure 38 should not be attempted without hydraulic model studies. Horizontal alinement criteria.-At the open vent structures and at the intermediate summits
higher than the downstream vent, the pipe should not contain bends for 10 pipe diameters upstream of the location. In addition bends should be avoided in the section between the vent on the summit and the adjacent downstream pool. These criteria prevent transverse waves from being formed on the free water surface which can exist downstream of the vent or summit at partial flows. These transverse waves could roll over with enough amplitude to intermittently seal the pipeline. Vent location. -The type of air release structure to be used at a summit is determined by the
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
63
64
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
distance from the pipe invert to the hydraulic grade line at the summit. For summits higher than the downstream vent, an open vent is desirable. The maximum allowable vent height is determined from topographic, aesthetic, and economic considerations. Normally, open vents at intermediate summits are not feasible if the distance to the hydraulic grade line Hi exceeds 6 to 10 meters. F or summits lower than the downstream vent, the type of air release structure is more difficult to determine. If the distance to the hydraulic grade line H2 is less than about 6 meters, an open vent should be used. However, if the distance exceeds 6 meters an air valve installation should be used (fig. 39). Since mechanical air valves tend to chatter and spit water if their operating pressures are too low, the top of the air valve should be set at least 3 meters below the pool level. To provide desirable operating characteristics at all discharges, vents also are required at locations other than at the intermediate summils. If the water velocities are of sufficient magnitude to carry air bubbles with the flow, then vents are needed downstream of chan~es from negative to positive pipe slopes. Without the vents the air slugs, which collect on the crown of the pipe, will attain very high velocities in areas with large positive slopes. These slugs can damage the vent structures at intermediate locations, at downstream connecting canals, and can cause slamming of air valves. These vents should be located less than 30 meters downstream from the negative to positive pipe slope change. If the distance from the intersection of the pool with the negative slope and the proposed vent exceeds 20D, where D is the conduit diameter, then the vent should be placed at the greater of the two distances (fig. 40). The criterion for the vent type is the same as for vents placed at intermediate summits below the downstream vent structure. If the distance between the upstream and downstream vent structures is very great,
FIGURE ation.
39.-Typical PBOI-D-79279
irrigation
system
air valve
install-
CLOSED
CONDUIT
FLOW
05
Vent
20
Diameters
FIGURE 40.-Vent
location
at changes in pipe slope.
Lescovich [47] recommends that air valves be placed every 500 to 1000 meters along descending, horizontal, or ascending stretches that have no intermediate summits.
Pumping
Systems
the shutoff head of the pump will have been reached (fig. 411. One obvious solution to the problem of air collection at summits is to provided air release valves or vent structures at these locations. Another solution is to aline the pipeline so that all intermediate summits are eliminated.
All intermediate summits are potential locations for the collection of air pockets. If these pockets begin to develop, the hydraulic gradient downstream of the summit will equal approximately the pipe slope in the area where the air pocket has formed. For a pipe slope greater than the full-flow hydraulic gradient, the air pocket will require a greater head differential to produce a given discharge. Conversely, for a constant head differential, the presence of the air pocket will result in decreased discharges. The limiting condition is a complete blockage of flow. In pumping systems this blockage is known as air binding [58]. With air binding
Vent Structure
Design
Considerations
Vent structures have three primary purposes: 1. Evacuation of air during filling, 2. Removal of air during operation, and 3. Prevent pipe collapse during draining. Each is considered in detail. The size of the vent and the piping connecting the vent to the pipeline is determined by the purpose for which the vent is installed.
Evacuation of air during filling. -The

rate of pipelines usually
filling is set at 5 to 15 percent
66
Reservoir
AIR-WATER
+o+b+c Energy gradient with oir binding
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Lescovich [47] indicated that large orifice air valves should be used to permit air escape during filling (fig. 421. In this case a large orifice refers to diameters greater than 25 millimeters. This type of air valve is designed to remain closed after the pipeline is filled. Thus, they cannot be used to release small amounts of air that accumulate during operation. These valves will open immediately when the pipeline pressure drops below atmospheric. This allows air to reenter the pipeline and prevents a vacuum from forming. Normally, air velocities discharging from an air valve should not exceed 30 m/s. The primary reason for limiting the velocity is to prevent the air valve from being blown shut. Some air valves are designed to eliminate this problem. With the 30-m/s velocity limitation, the air can be considered to be incompressible. The equation for the airflow rate is
FIGURE 41.-h
binding
in a pipeline.
(87)
of the design discharge. The actual rate is governed by the maximum waterhammer pressures that the pipeline and valves can withstand. These pressures are generated when the water column in the penstock reaches the air release valve. Based on waterhammer considerations the filling rate of pipelines can be computed from
(86)
where
A,= orifice area,~n+

C,=orifice coefficient z 0.6 & = pressure differential across the orifice, kPa =air density (at 20 OC and a pressure Q.9 of 101.3 kPa, e,=1.204 kg/m31 From this equation, performance curves for large-orifice air valves can be derived (fii. 431. If the desired capacity cannot be achieved with a-single air valve, thevalves canbe placed in clusters-up to four valves-on a single vent pipe from the pipeline.
where QB= penstock filling rate equals airflow rate through vent Ap=cross sectional area of penstock c=celerity of waterhammer wave in penstock g= gravitational constant (acceleration) hw =allowable head rise in penstock due to waterhammer pressures
Removal of air during operation.-Two types of structures are used to remove air during operation. These are an open-vent structure and small-orifice air valves. In either case the connection to the pipeline must be large enough
CLOSED CONDUIT
/Orfice
FLOW
Wat
A.-Lowered position - Float allows air to flow into or out of pipeline
B.-Raised position - Air cannot enter or leave pipeline
FIGURE 42.-Large-orfice
air valve.
to collect the slugs and bubbles of air which are traveling on the crown of the pipeline. Colgate [15] investigated the sizing criteria for open-vent structures. He found that if the collection port was too small, portions of large air slugs would pass by the vent. To trap all the air it was necessary for the diameter of the collection port to be equal to the pipe diameter. Additional tests were made to investigate the size of the vent structure itself. It was found that if the air vent diameter was less than the pipeline diameter, an unsteady flow was established in the vent as large air bubbles exited from the vent. This unsteady flow pumped air back into the pipeline. To minimize pumping it was necessary to make the vent diameter equal to the pipeline diameter.
Colgate [ 151 concluded that the collection and evacuation of air from a pipeline can be best accomplished by a vertical air vent which is connected directly to the pipeline. The diameter of the vent should be at least equal to the diameter of the pipeline. From access considerations, the minimum vent diameter usually is set at about 1 meter. Removal of air is promoted if the pipe slope immediately downstream of the vent is made steep enough to cause the air bubbles to return upstream. Figure 29 can be used to determine the required slope for a given discharge. For the case in which the hydraulic grade line is too far above the pipeline to economically install an open vent, air valves are used to remove the air. Investigations concerning the design of
68
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Air at 20 OC and 101.3 kPo
AIR FLOW THROUGH

FIGURE ES.-Performance
curves for large-orfice
VALVE
m3/s
air release valves.
a collector have not been performed. Based upon the design of open vents it can be assumed that the diameter of the collector should be at least equal to that of the pipeline. The height of the collector also should be one pipeline diameter. In many cases, manholes in the pipeline can serve as collectors. To release air from pipelines under high pressures, small-diameter orifice installations are used (fig. 44). The small orifice assures that the opening force of the float is not exceeded by the closing force whose magnitude is equal to the internal gage pipe pressures times the orifice area. The volume flow of air relation through an orifice with a back pressure is given
bY
and Qa= 1l.8AO[pin(pin/pBtm)0.71]2 for Patm d 0.53

Pin
(89)
QB=LP60AO[(~in/~Btm)0.2~5-1]2 for Patm >0.53

P cn
WI
These equations are presented as performance curves (fig. 45). To prevent the air valves from freezing, frequently they are placed in concrete structures located below the frost line (fig. 46). In this case it is necessary to provide adequate ventilation into or out of the structure. The required ventilation area is based upon a 2.5-m/s maximum air velocity through the gross area of a fixed louver vent. If wire mesh screen is used, the maximum air velocity is 6.6 m/s through the gross area of the screen.
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
60
Prevent pipe collapse during draining. The venting criteria discussed thus far are based upon the need to remove air from the pipeline. In several instances above-ground steel pipelines have collapsed because vacuum formed during rapid draining operations or because of breaks in the pipeline. Parmakian [56] developed criteria for the size and location of air valves to be placed in steel pipelines to protect them against collapse. On steel pipes, the collapse pressure can be estimated from (Parmakian [ 561) pc=3.5X108 k3
(901
A. High water level Aii release
POfl
/
where D = conduit diameter, mm patm=atmospheric pressure, kPa pC = collapse pressure, kPa pin = internal absolute or gage pressure, kPa t = pipewall thickness, mm With stiffener rings, the appropriate equation is
PC=
5.1X108(t/D12~5 (L,lD)
(911
Float
where LS=distance between stiffener rings.
These two equations are presented graphically in figure 47. Applying a safety factor N to the internal collapse pressure pC gives the allowable internal pressure pa as
B. Low water level
FIGURE 4L-Typical
small-orifice
air release valve.
If the ratio of the internal to atmospheric pressure is greater than 0.53 then the volume
70
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
flow of air into the pipeline through an orifice is given by
where A o=orifice area, m2 Qa=airflow area, m3/s
If the ratio is equal to or less than 0.53 then the airflow rate into the pipeline through an orifice is given by
These equations are presented as performance curves for various size vacuum relief valves (fig. 48). Parmakian presented an alternate method of determining the required air vent size in terms of a dimensionless ratio. The ratio is in the form of an Euler number and is given by
Qa=Cdo($JA~~
(l*x)]
12 (94) A.vz c2 0
Patm vatm
114
Using cd= 0.6 patm=101.3 kPa I(= 1.4 eatm= \ 1.20 kg/m3 in equations 93 and 94 results in
1 COW2 &l/4
(97)
for
.!fk
Patm
> 0.53
where Co = orifice discharge coefficient E, = Euler number=p,,,/e,Fn Patm = atmospheric pressure AV= change in water velocity approaching and leaving air vent e, = density of air at standard atmospheric pressure Uatm = specific volume of air at atmospheric pressure
and Qa=119A, for

(96)
Pin
Q 0.53
Patm
The pressure and specific volume of the atmosphere are both functions of elevation (fig. 49). This alternate method results in the required air vent orifice diameter as a function of the pipeline diameter (fig. 50). Normally, air valves are placed at the crests in the pipeline profile and at locations where the nineline beains a Steen downward slone.
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
71
60
40
2c
IO 0.001
. 7
/
0.002
/ /
0.004
/ /iv
1
ndard atmosphere
/
0.006 0.008 0.01 0.02
-I1
AIR FLOW THROUGH VALVE m/s
1
0.04
FIGURE &-Performance
curves for small-orifice
air release valves.
i2
AIR-WATER
DrC.
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
-:-Air vent, see Vent Detail -Insulated cover not shown

b FLOW -A
Short radius return bend Std. steel pipe
Wire mesh /;d pe well ---~--I L_- G Air valve, air vent and man hole
VALVE
Vent pipe 4.r

..,I. ..
D) PLAN-AIR
Precast concrete ..... .

Ep VENT DETAIL
c rruy damper
see Section E-E
Locate manhole on upslope
SECT
I ON C-C Cut insulation to fit around vent pipe Adhere galvanized sheet me one side of rigid styrofoam for cover and drop in pan Flexible foam i
INSULATED COVER DETAIL SECTION E-E (Valve not shown)
insul
FIGURE #.-Typical
frost protection
installation.
CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
73
Stiffener
ring
Shell thickness,t
.-. \
2 1 w&
0 0
32 09
No stiffener rings-j I- not effective or p,=3.5x108(t/D)3 I I IIll: I I I I IIll
--I
IIIII
I I
I
J
4 5 6 78910
iAll dimensions 1 in millimeters \\. 1 I I I

2 3 4 5
I I I
6 789100
FIGURE 47.-Collapsing
pressure of a steel pipe with stiffener
rings.
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Sonic velocity
in orifice,
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
AIR FLOW THROUGH VALVE,

FIGURE d&-Performance
curves for large-orifice vacuum
m3/8
relief valves.
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE kilo pascals SPECIFIC VOLUME Uatm, meters 3 / kilogram
pat,,, ,
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
PC = cotlapse pressure Potm = atmospheric do+,+do= pressure
-41,
orifice co= orifice
diameter in air valve. discharge coefficient=O.5
[
FIGURE 50.-Required
potm
AV2 "4 Pam
c:
1
collapse of steel pipelines.
air relief orifice diameter
to prevent
CLOSED FLOWS IN VERTICAL of Airflows SHAFTS
CONDUIT
FLOW
ii
Classification
Three types of hydraulic structures that use a vertical shaft to convey water from one elevation to another are: l Spillways l Intakes l Drop shafts The air entrainment properties of these structures are important since at certain flowrates explosive air blowbacks are possible (fig. 51). Often extensive studies are necessary to design vent structures to remove the air which is entrained in the vertical shaft Anderson [3] and Babb [6].
The amount of air entrained in the shaft is strongly dependent upon the type of flow into the shaft and upon the water level in the shaft. The inlet flow can vary from radial to tangential with flow entering around the circumference of the shaft. Typical types of inlet structures (fig. 52) are: l Circular weirs l Vortex inlets l Radius elbows The effect of water surface (reservoir) elevation at the entrance to a shaft can be examined by considering the discharge characteristics of a vertical shaft spillway (fig. 53). For low water surface levels the discharge is proportional to the three-halves power of the total head on the crest. The flow in the shaft clings to the walls in
FIGURE 51.-Observed air blowback
in morning
glory spillway
at Owyhee Dam,
Oregon. P801-D-79280
78
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
PLAN
PLAN
PLAN
SECTION
A-A
SECTION
A-A
SECTION
A-A
A. Circular
Weir
FIGURFL%---ljpicd
B. Vortex
types of vertical shaft inlet structures.
C. El bow
Air passage at lower end /

of shaft sealed
WATER DISCHARGE
FIGURE 53.-Vertical
AIR DISCHARGE
shaft spillway discharge characteristics.
CLOSED CONDUIT a relatively thin sheet. The volume flow rate of air is determined primarily by the shear action of the air-water interface and by entrainment into the mass of the water. This type of flow has been designated as region I on figure 53. As the water discharge increases with increasing reservoir elevation, a point is reached when the sheet of water is sufficiently thick to completely fill the upper end of the conduit. This water discharge separates region I from region II type flows. Region II type flows are characterized by an annular hydraulic jump. Further increases in reservoir elevation merely cause the location of the jump to move upward in the vertical shaft. When the jump reaches a point near the top of the shaft, the flow is said to become submerged. For reservoir elevations in excess of that required to produce the submerged water flow, all inflow of air to the shaft ceases. The discharge for this flow range is proportional to the one-half power of total energy over the crest. If the bottom of the shaft is always submerged, then a region I type flow will not develop. Instead, the air motion will be described by a region II type flow up to the point when the vertical shaft is submerged. The airflow rates discussed above should not be confused with those that are present in the portions of the structure downstream of the vertical shaft. The methods discussed in this chapter-Flow in Partially Filled Conduitsshould be used to analyze the flow of air in the horizontal sections of vertical shaft spillways and similar structures. Mussalli and Carstens [55] studied surging problems that develop as the horizontal conduit seals [fig. 21 (511. However, they did not develop any air entrainment criteria for the vertical shaft.
FLOW
79
a. The water flow on the shaft walls is similar to open chanel flow, and b. The lower end of the shaft is open to the atmosphere. If the inlet is not designed to keep the water flow attached to the wall, the airflow rate cannot be calculated. Several methods are available to estimate the airflow rate when the water forms in a sheet on the walls. For instance, the air insufflated into the flow can be estimated from equation 59 using open channel flow relations. The amount of air flowing on the core of the pipe can be determined from
Qa=K',Ac
where
(98)
A,= cross sectional of air in core

V, = maximum water velocity in vertical shaft Hack [27] recommends that the total airflow be determined from Q,=0.35+16.1~
(99)
where C =mean air concentration The mean air concentration is estimated from
~=(l+[4(1--ek~(F043-F43))]-1}-1 (100)
where
D = conduit diameter
F= Froude number at end of shaft F, = Froude number at point where
boundary layer intersects water surface k,= 1.8 r,+O.O108 k, = equivalent sand grain roughness r, = relative roughness= k,/D
Region
I Airflow
Rates
The airflow rate down the vertical shaft can be calculated by assuming:
Th e point where the boundary layer intersects the water surface is found through the application of equations 27 through 30.
80
AIR-WATER Rates
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES in a Vertical Shaft
Region II Airflow
Reverse Airflow
Various investigators have studied the entrainment of air by an annular jet. Haindl [29] found that the air entrainment obeys a law very similar to that found by Kalinske and Robertson [38] for a hydraulic jump in a conduit. The relation is
All the preceeding relations assume that the waterflow rates are sufficient to remove all the entrained air from the system. Martin [51] showed that slug flow begins when the dimensionless airflow fl exceeds 0.223. It was shown earlier that these slugs move up the shaft for
= !2! =(j.()2
Qw
(F-l)036
(101)
Q <0.3 go5
(104)
where F= Froude number
Therefore, for dimensionless water flow ratios less than 0.3, the airflow quantities given by equations 101 and 103 are too large. In addition, it is possible that blowback will occur in the shaft.
(102)
Qw I"=Rj~ [1-(R,/D)l(gRj)"2
Submergence D=outside jet diameter (conduit diameter) g = gravitational constant (acceleration 1 QB= volume flowrate of air Q,= volume flowrate of water Rj= thickness of annular jet The water depth which causes a vertical shaft to flow submerged has been determined only for the case of radial inflow. Jain, Raju, and Garde [36] determined that the submergence at which airflow down the shaft ceases is given by
; =0.47 F12
Kleinschroth [43] found a correlation for flows in vertical shafts having a vortex inlet. The relation is where
(105)
D = shaft diameter F= WgDP2

g = gravitational constant (acceleration 1 S= submergence depth V=mean water velocity in shaft flowing full For a vortex inlet or for approach flow having some circulation, the required submergence would be greater than that given by equation 105.
/3=0.022
g 35
where +distance from the inlet to the water level in the vertical shaft D = shaft diameter
Free Falling
c
Water
Jets
Free falling water jets have important aeration effects in the case of unconfined flow discharging from gates and valves. Three main areas of concern are: 1. Jet characteristics, 2. Airflow around the jet, and 3. Air entraining characteristics as a falling jet enters a pool of water. Each of these subtopics will be considered in detail.
Jet Characteristics
Dodu [20] and Rouse et. al., [60] have shown that the jet characteristics are a function of the conduit geometry and flow dynamics upstream from the point where the jet begins. For instance, a laminar jet exiting from a carefully shaped orifice connected to a large tank of quiescent water can have such a smooth surface that the jet appears to be made of glass. If the
81
water surface in the tank is disturbed, however, waves will form on the surface of the jet. For turbulent flow, the jet always disintegrates somewhere along its length if it is allowed to travel far enough. However, the distance to the point at which the breakup occurs is controlled by the turbulent intensity within the jet. By changing the flow geometry upstream of the jet, its turbulent intensity is varied. It should be emphasize that the breakup of the jet is caused primarily by turbulence internal to the jet and only secondarily by the action of the air into which the jet discharges [60]. Tests by Schuster [64] in which a jet discharged into a vacuum show exactly the same jet texture and breakup characteristics as observed by Dodu [20] of a jet discharging into air. From this, one can conclude that physical models should accurately predict the spr,ead and energy content of prototype jets if the turbulent intensity in the model is similar to that in the prototype.
82
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
When comparing model and prototype jets near their origin, the prototype jet apparently is surrounded by much more spray than the model,(fig. 54A). This difference is due partially to the time scale relations between the two jets. The prototype represents, in essence, a high-speed photograph of the model. The many small drops in the model (fig. 54A) appear as a frothy spray when photographed at a much faster camera speed. The effect of the air on the jet becomes significant only after the jet atomizes into individual drops. In the region far from the origin of the jets, their trajectory is affected by air resistance and a large portion of the stream falls vertically downward as spray (fig. 54B). Hinze [35] studied the breakup of individual falling drops. His results have been replotted in the form of Weber and Reynolds number relations (fig. 55). Here the Weber number is defined as
w2- -- UdDd
The fall velocity of spheres can be determined from a form of the Stokes equation (eq. 1). The relationship is
V= $[(ew/ea) 8 * - llg2
where C, drag coefficient of a sphere
(108)
o/ef
(106)
where Dd = diameter of water drop Of Water drop relative ud= Velocity velocity ef= water (drop) density 0 = interfacial surface tension The Reynolds number is defined as
to air
The drag coefficients of spheres can be found in fluid mechanics texts [ 591. The maximum stable drop diameter usually is not observed in nature because the larger free falling drops have some survival time associated with them. As small drops atomize they pass from a spherical shape to a torus with an attached hollow bag-shaped film. As this bag bursts, the entire torus breaks up. A certain time is required for this process to take place. Komabayasi et al., [45] found that drops of ?-and 5-millimeter diameters took 10 and 200 seconds: respectively, to break up. Thus, a ?-mm-diameter-drop would have to fall more than 85 meters at a terminal velocity of 8.5 m/s to breakup into smaller drops. A distance of more than 1300 meters would be required for the 5-m-diameter drop to breakup at a terminal fall velocity of 6.7 m/s.
Airflow
Around
the Jet
(107) where u=kinematic viscosity of the drop
The airflow around a jet depends primarily upon the velocity of the jet and roughness of the jet. Dodu [20] found that the velocity distribution in the air around the jet was approximately logarithmic up until the point where the jet breaks up. The velocity distribution should follow a law expressed by
Vi-U
From figure 55 and fall velocity equation for a rigid sphere, it is possible to estimate the maximum stable drop diameter as about 0.4 mm.
-=
u*
f(
Ya-r d
(109)
FKEE FALLING where r=water jet radius Ui= water jet velocity u = air velocity at a point located ya distance from the jet centerline ya = distance from water surface d = boundary layer thickness u*=shear velocity=(T/ea)112 ea= air density ~j= shear stress at water jet
WATEX J ICIS
Air Entraining Characteristics Jet Enters a Pool as a Falling
83
Ervine and Elsawy [21] studied the air entrained by a rectangular jet falling into an open pool. They developed an empirical relation that predicts the relative quantity of air taken into the water by the jet. The relation is
The functional relation should be very similar to that for flow over a flat plate as studied by Bormann [ll] (fig. 56). Unfortunately, data are not presently available that will allow the computation of the shear velocity and boundary layer thickness in the air surrounding a jet for a given jet geometry and flow rate.
where b, = nappe width d, = nappe thickness Hf= fall height of a waterjet pn = nappe perimeter Q,=volume flow of air Qw = volume flow of water K = nappe velocity at impact V, = minimum velocity required to entrain air=l.l m/s
84 Model
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Prototype
A.-Jet characteristics
near the valve.
B.-Jet characteristics FIGURE 54.-Breakup
far from the valve. valve. P801-D-79281
of a water jet from a hollow-jet
FREE FALLING
WATER JETS
85
Drops atomize
-Drops remain intact

0
Lower
limit
of curve/
1
0
IO
15
20
25
so
REYNOLDS
FIGURE 55.-Water
NUMBER
drop breakup.
UdDd y
AIR-WATER FLOW IN HYIlRAULIC S'I'RUC'I'URES
= freestream velocity = Uj water jet velocity shear velocity = boundary layer thickness
Test configuration with water
Corresponding in air
configuration
I
4 3
-.
I1
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
2 + log
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
I.8
1.9
Y
Bormann Ill].
FIGURE 56.-Velocity
distribution
for flow over a flat plate,
Bibliography
[l] [2] Alves, G. E., Chemical Engineering Progress, vol. 50, pp. 449-456,1954. Anderson, A. G., The Distribution of Air in Self Aerated Flow in a Smooth Open Channel, University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory Project, Report No. 481955. Anderson, S. H., Model Studies of StormSewer Drop Shafts, St. Anthony Falls Hydrauic Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Technical Paper No. 35, Series B, 1961. Annemuller, H., Luftaufnahme Durch Fliessendes Wasser, Theodor-Rehvock Flussbaulaboratorium Universitat Fridericiana Karlsruhe, Heft 146,22 p., (Air Entrainment in Flowing Water) 1958. ASCE Task Committee on Air Entrainment.in Open Channels, Aerated Flow in Open Channels, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 87, No. [6] HY3, pp. 73-86, May 1961. Babb, A. F., Schneider, J. P., Thompson, K., Air Flow in Combined Intake and Shaft Spillways, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 99, No. HY7, pp. 1097-1108, July 1973. [7] Baker, O., Oil Gas J., vol. 53, No. 12, pp. 185-190, 192, 195, July26, 1954. [8] Bauer, W. J., Turbulent Boundary Layer on Steep Slopes, Trans, Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 119, pp. 1212-1234, 1954. [9] Beranek, L. L., Miller, L. N., The Anatomy of Noise, Machine Design, vol. 39, No. 21, September 1967. [lo] Beta, G., Jovanovic, S., Bukmirovic, V., Nomographs for Hydraulic Calculation, Part 1, Trans., Jaroslav Cerni Institute for Development of Water Resources, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, vol. X, No. 28, Transl. from Serbo-Croat, OTS 63-11451/3, p. 163,1963.
[3]
[4]
[5]
87
88
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Bormann, K., Der Abfluss in Schussrinnen Unter Berucksichtigung der Luftaufnahme, Versuchsantalt fur Wasserbau der Technischen Hochschule Munthen, Bericht Nr 13, (Discharge in Chutes Considering Air Entrainment) 1968. [12] Campbell, F. B., Guyton, B., Air Demand in Gated Outlet Works, International Association for Hydraulic Research, American Society of Civil Engineers Joint Conference, Minneapolis Minnesota, pp. 529-533, 1953. [ 131 Cartwright, D. E., Longuet-Higgins, M. S., The Statistical Distribution of the Maxima of a Random Function, Proc. Royal Society of London, Series and Physical A., Mathematical Sciences, vol. 127, pp. 212-232, November 1956. [14] Colgate, D., Hydraulic Model Studies of the River Outlet Works at Oroville Dam, Hydraulic Laboratory Report HYD-508, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, fig. 19, 10 p., October 1963. [15] Colgate, D., Hydraulic Model Studies of the Flow Characteristics and Air Entrainment in the Check Towers of the Main Aqueduct, Canadian River ProjHydraulic Laboratory ect, Texas, Report HYD-555, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, 12 p., 1966 [16] Collins, R., The Effect of a Containing Cylindrical Boundary on the Velocity of a Large Gas Bubble in a Liquid, J. Fluid Mech, vol. 28, part 1, pp. 97-112, 1967. [l?] Comolet, R., Sur le mouvement dune bulle de gaz dans un liquide, La Houille Blanche, No. 1, pp. 31-42. (On the Movement of a Gas Bubble in a Liquid) 1979. [ll]
[18] Davies, R. M., Taylor, G. I., Proc. Roy. Sot. (London), vol. 200, ser. A, pp. 375-390,195o. [19] Davies, H. G., Williams, J.E.F., Aerodynamic Sound Generation in a Pipe, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 32, part 4, pp. 765-778,1968. [20] Dodu, J., Etude de la couche limite dair autour dun jet deau a grande vitesse, Seventh Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, Lisbon, Portugal, (Study of the Boundary Layer Around a High Water Jet) 1957. [21] Ervine, D. A., Elsawy, E. M., Effect of a Falling Nappe on River Aeration, 16th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, Brazil, vol. 3, pp. 390-397,1975. [22] Falvey, H. T., Air Vent Computations, Morrow Point Dam, Hydraulic Laboratory Report HYD-584, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, 39 p, 1968. [23] Gardner, M., Reflections on the Packing of Spheres,-Mathematical Games,-Sci. Am., vol. 202, No. 5, pp. 174- 187, May 1960. [24] Ghetti, A., Elementi per lo studio idraulice degli organi di scarico profondo da serbatoi desunti da ricerche sperimentali, studi e ricerche N. 211, Instituto di irdraulica e costruzioni idrauliche, Delluniversita di padova, Italy, 1959. (Data for Hydraulic Studies of Deeply Submerged Discharges at Reservoirs, Derived from Experimental Research). [25] Gumensky, D. B., Air Entrained in Fast Water Affects Design of Training Walls and Stilling Basin, Civ. Eng. vol. 889, pp. 35-37 and 93,1949. [26] Haberman, W. L., Morton, R. K., David Taylor Model Basin Report 802,1953.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[27] Hack, H. Lufteinzug in Fallschachten mit Ringformiger Stromung durch Turbulente Diffusion, Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau, Technischen Universitut Munchen, Bericht Nr. 36, Germany, (Air Inflow in Vertical Shafts with Circular Flow Through Turbulent Diffusion) 1977. [28] Haindl, K., Zone Lengths of Air Emulsion in Water Downstream of the Ring Jump in Pipes, 13th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, August 31-September 5, vol. 2, pp. 9-19, Kyoto, Japan, 1969. [29] Haindl, K., Transfer of Air by the Ring Jump of Water, 14th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, France, vol. 1, pp. 365-372, 1971. [30] Halbronn, G., Discussion to Turbulent Boundary Layer or Steep Slopes, by W. J. Bauer, Trans., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 119, pp. 1234-1242,1954. [31] Halbronn, G., Durand R., Cohen de in Steeply Lara, G., Air Entrainment Sloping Flumes, International Association for Hydraulic Research American Society of Civil Engineers, Joint Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp. 455-466,1953. [32] Harshbarger, E. D., Vigander, S., Heckin High er, G. E., Air Entrainment Head Gated Conduits, Discussion of paper by H. R. Sharma, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 93, No. HY12, pp. 1486-1489, December 1977. [33] Herbrand, K., Der Wechselsprung unter dem Einfluss der Luftbeimischung, Die Wasserwirtschaft, Heft 9, pp. 254-260, (The Hydraulic Jump under the Influence of Air Mixtures) 1969. [34] Hickox, G. H., Air Entrainment on Spillway Faces, Civ. Eng., vol. 9, pp. 89-96,1939.
80
[35] Hinze, J. O., Fundamentals of the Hydrodynamic Mechanism of Splitting in Dispension Processes, Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. J., vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 289-295, September 1955. [36] Jain, A. K., Raju, K.G.R.. Garde, R. J., Air Entrainment in Radial Flow Toward Intakes, Proc. Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 104, No. HY9, pp. 1323-1329, September 1978. [37] Kalinske, A. A., Bliss, P. H., Removal of Air from Pipe Lines by Flowing Water, Civ. Eng., vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 480-482, 1943. [38] Kalinske, A. A., Robertson, J. M., Closed Conduit Flow, Trans., Am. sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 108, pp. 1435-1516, 1943. [39] Keller, R. J., Lai, K. K., Wood, I. R., Developing Region in Self Aerating Flows, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 100, No. HY4, pp. 553-568, April 1974. [40] Keller, R. J., Rastogi, A. K., Prediction of Flow Development on Spillways, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 101, No. HY9, pp. 1171-1184, September 1975. [41] Killen, J., The Surface Characteristics of Self Aerated Flow in Steep Channels, Minn. Univ., thesis, University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., 69-6824,138 pp. 1968. [42] Killen, J. M., Anderson, A. G., A Study of the Air-Water Interface in Air Entrained Flow in Open Channels, 13th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, Japan, vol. 2, pp. 339-347,1969. [43] Kleinschroth, A., Stromungsvorgange im Wirbelfallschacht, Institut fur Hydraulik und Gewasserkunde, Technische Universitut Munchen, Mitteilungen Heft Nr. 8, Germany, (Flow
90
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Conditions in a Vortex Vertical Shaft) 1972. [44] Kohler, W. H., Selection of Outlet Works Gates and Valves, preprint 1057, Annual Meet., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng. Chicago, Illinois, October 1969. [45] Komhayasi, M., Gonda, T., Isono, K., Lifetime of Water Drops Before Breaking and Size Distribution of Fragment Droplets, Meteorol. Sot. Japan, vol. 42, pp. 330-340,1964. [46] Lane, E. W., Entrainment on Spillway Faces, Civ. Eng. vol. 9, pp. 89-96, 1939. [47] Lescovich, J. E., Locating and Sizing Air-Release Valves, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 64, No. 7. pp. 457-461, July 1972. [48] Leutheusser, H. J., Chu, V. H., Experiments on Plane Couette Flow, Proc., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., J. Hyd. Div., vol. 97, No. HY9, pp. 1169-1283, September 1971. (491 Levi, E., Macroturhulence Produced by Vortex Breakdown in High Velocity Flows, 12th Congress of the Intemational Association for Hydraulic Research, vol. 2, pp. 54-60, September 1967. [50] Longuet-Higgins, M. S., On the Statistical Distribution of the Heights of Sea Waves, J. Mar. Res., vol. XI, No. 3, pp. 245-266,1952. [51] Martin, C. S., Characteristics of an AirWater Mixture in a Vertical Shaft, Proc. Hyd. Div. Specialty Conference, Am. Sot. Ciu. Eng., Bozeman, Mont., August 15-17, pp. 323-334,1973. Downward [52] Martin, C. S., Vertically Two-Phase Slug Flow, J. Fluids Eng., Trans. Am. Sot. Mech. Eng., vol. 98, series I, No. 4, pp. 715-722, December 1976. [53] Mura, Y., Ijuin, S., Nakagawa, H., Air Demand in Conduits Partly Filled with
Flowing Water, Eighth International Association of Hydraulic Research Congress, vol. II, Montreal Canada, 1959. [ 541 Michels, V., Lovely, M., Some Prototype Observations of Air Entrained Flow, International Association for Hydraulic Research - American Society of Civil Engineers, Joint Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, p. 403,1953. [55] Mussalli, Y. G., Carstens, M. R., A Study of Flow Conditions in Shaft Spillways, School of Civil Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Report WRC-0669,1969. 1561Parmakian, J., Air-inlet Valves for Steel Pipelines, Trans. Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 115, pp. 438-444,195O. [57] Rajaratnam, N., Hydraulic Jumps, Advances in Hydroscience, vol. 4,. Ven Te Chow, ed., 1967. [58] Richards, R. T., Air Binding in Water Pipelines, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., pp. 719-730, June 1962. [59] Rouse, H., ed., Engineering Hvdraulics, John Wiley 81Sons, 1949. [60) Rouse, H., Howe, J. W., and Metzler, D. E., Experimental Investigation of Fire Monitors and Nozzles, Proc. Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 77, pp. 1147-1175, October 1951. [61] Runge, D. E., and Wallis, G. B., Atomic Commission Report Energy NYO-3114-8 (EURAEC - 1416) 1965. [62] Sailer, R. E., Air Entrainment in Siphon Barrels, Civ. Eng., vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 268-271,1955. [63] Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1968. [64] Schuster, J. C., Hydraulic Model Studies of the Eucumbene-Tumut Tunnel JuncHydraulics Laboratory tion Shaft, Report HYD-392, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, August 1954. [65] Sikora, A., Zavdusnenie Sachtovych Priepadov, Vyskumny Ustav
BIBLIOGRAPHY Vodohospodarsky, Bratislava, Prace a studie 37, p. 112, (Air Entrainment in Shaft Spillways, Czechoslovakia), 1965. Straub, L. G., Anderson, A. G., Self Aerated Flow in Open Channels, Trans., Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., vol. 125, pp. 456-486, 1960. Straub, L. G., Lamb, 0. P., Experimental Studies of Air Entrainment in Open Channel Flow, International Association for Hydraulic Research, American Society of Civil Engineers, Joint Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota , pp. 425-437, 1953. Streeter, V., Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1961. Thomas, C. W., Progress Report on Studies of the Flow of Water in Open Channels with High Gradients, Hydraulic Laboratory Report No. HYD-35, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, 30 p, 1938.
01
[66]
[67]
[68] [69]
[70] Thorsky, G. N., Tilp, P. J., Haggman, P. C., Slug Flow in Steep Chutes, Report No. CB-2, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, 91 pp., February 1967. [71] Vibration, Pressure and Air Demand Tests in Flood-Control Sluice, Pine Flat Dam, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Misc. Pap. No. 2-75, February 1954. [72] Viparelli, M., The Flow in a Flume with 1:l Slope, International Association for Hydraulic Research, American Society of Civil Engineers, Joint Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp. 415-423,1953. [ 731 Wallis, G. B., One-dimensional Twophase Flow, McGraw-Hill, 1969. [74] Wisner, P., Air Demand and Pulsatory Pressures in Bottom Outlets, High Velocity Flow Symposium, Bangalore, India, 1967.
Appendix
I - Probability II - Mean III - Air Air Demand, Depth Probe Free Water Surface Flow, Computer Computer Program Program Concentration, Falling
Surface,
93
Appendix Probe
I - Probability
Depth
A water surface probe was developed by Killen [41] at the St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic laboratory (University of Minnesota) which permits a direct determination of the probability that the water surface is greater than or equal to a given elevation. The original probe circuitry has been modernized to function with operational amplifiers (fig. I-l). Experiments showed that a probe consisting of two parallel wires separated by a short distance exhibited a temperature drift when the probe was removed from the water. By connecting one wire to a metal point gage and the other to an electrode in the body of water, the drift was eliminated (fig. I-2).
The electronics, battery, and controls are conveniently mounted in a utility box (fig. I-3). The following steps are necessary to put the unit in operation: l Zero integrating voltmeter with zero control on box (within about 5 millivolts acceptable) l Set gain control on box for 10 volts when probe is shorted (in water). Note reading on digital voltmeter, l Repeat steps one and two (if necessary repeat twice 1. l Take reading. Voltage -read should indicate percentage of the probe shorted (i.e., in water).
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC p A747 FAIRCHILD
STRUCTURES
IC
-v I
5. I Mfl
c + IN 2 f
0 1
,d 8 3-Y d iiT h
1
IOOK ZERO
I
(45) r+j+y I-t = 21 Y

(229
Ikn +v 18V -------c7 TERMINAL CJ STRIP ,
-L f-1
1 P 1
41 T 18V
-V
.ALL RESISTORS 0.5 W A AND B ARE DUAL p A747 OP AMP IN AND 0uT ARE DUAL BANANA JACKS
schematic.
FIGURE I-l .-Electronics
n
INTEGRATING DIGITAL VOLTMETER
FIGURE 1-2.-Pr0&
schematic.
FIGURE I-3.-Controls
in utiZity box.
Appendix II - Mean Air Concentration, Free Surface Computer Program

proThe data
Flow,
A detailed description of the computer gram input is given in the program listing. program was written to read the input from a file called HSPWY.
An example of the input format and its output is presented at the end of the computer listing.
98
PROGRAM HFWS
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
PROGRAM COMMON DIMENSION C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
HFWS(HSPWY=/sO,OUTPUT,TAPE2=HSPWY,TAPE3=OKJTPUT) A,B,HR,W,SS,R,IS,PI.ELINV,SB,ELC,Rl,T,G,JIC TITL(10)
10
THIS PROGRAM COMPUTES THE AMOUNT OF AIR INSUFFLATED INTO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW. THE CHANNEL CAN HAVE A TRAPEZOIDAL, CIRCULAR, OR A TRANSITIONAL CROSS SECTION. THE PROGRAM IS GOOD FOR RESERVOIR, DRAWDOWN,AND BACKWATER CURVES. IF A HYDRAULIC JUMP FORMS IN THE CIRCULAR OR TRANSITION SECTIONS, THE AIR CONTENT OF THE WATER IS COMPUTED WITH EQUATIONS GIVEN BY KALINSKI AND ROBERTSON. A KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR OF 1.1 IS APPLIED TO EVERY STATION .
15
THE PROGRAM ALSO CHECKS FOR THE FORMATION OF DAMAGING CAVITATION. IF A POTENTIAL FOR DAMAGE EXISTS, THE PROGRAM INDICATES THE SITE AND THE HEIGHT OF THE OFFSET. IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE OFFSETS ARE INTO THE FLOW.
20
25
THE REQUIRED INPUT IS ; 1) DISCHARGE,INITIAL DEPTH, COMPUTATION, METRIC, INITIAL TO DISTANCE HORIZONTAL). TYPICAL CONCRETE STEEL TUBING DIRECTION ___--------------------UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM DIMENSIONAL _______---------METRIC ENGLISH 2) THE 0 1 TITLE, CENTERED IN A RUGOSITIES 0.3-3.0
0.05 0.0015
RUGOSITY, BOTTOM
DIRECTION OF SLOPE (DISTANCE
VERTICAL
30
MM MM MM COMPUTATION
OF 0 1
35
UNITS
40
FIELD
OF
60
CHARACTERS
45
3)
THE
NUMBER
OF
STATIONS
50
4) THREE DESCRIPTION THESE CONSIST OF THE CARD _----1
CARDS ARE FOLLOWING;
REQUIRED
FOR
EACH
STATION.
55
SHAPE OF CROSS 1=0-RECTANGULAR I=l-CIRCULAR 1=2-TRANSITION SLOPE OF IS=l-SECTION IS=Z-SECTION CROSS
SECTION OR TRAPEZOIDAL
60
SECTION VERTICAL NORMAL TO
AT
TRANSITION
FLOOR
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFWS
II
99
65
CARD -------
2.
IS
ONE
OF
THE
FOLLOWING;
70
A) RECTANGULAR OR TRAPEZOIDAL STATION, INVERT ELEVATION, CHANNEL SIDE SLOPE (DISTANCE VERTICAL).
BOTTOM WIDTH, HORIZONTAL
TO
UNITY
75
CIRCULAR SECTION B) STATION, INVERT ELEVATION, CIRCULAR SECTION.
RADIUS
OF
80
C C 85 C C
TRANSITION SECTION C) THE TRANSITION SECTION WITH CIRCULAR FILLETS A CENTER SUPPORT WALL. SECTION INCLUDES;
IS IN
ESSENTIALLY A SQUARE THE FOUR CORNERS AND THE DATA TO DESCRIBE THIS
90 C C
THE STATION, INVERT ELEVATION, WIDTH OF SECTION, RADIUS OF UPPER (IF NOT CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW, SET ELEVATION OF CENTERLINE OF UPPER SET (IF NOT CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW, RADIUS OF LOWER FILLETS, THICKNESS WALL.
FILLETS, EQUAL TO ZEROI, RADIUS POINT, EQUAL TO ZERO), OF SUPPORT
CARD 95
3 LOSS FACTOR, RADIUS, THE THE BEND BEND LOSS ANGLE. IS EQUAL TO THE DIFFERENCE HEADS. THE
THE TRANSITION FACTOR, THE
BEND
100 C
THE HEAD LOSS DUE TO TRANSITIONS THE TRANSITION LOSS FACTOR TIMES IN UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM VELOCITY THE LOSS AND C C C C C C C C C C C C THE OF IF ONE SO TO
105
HEAD LOSS DUE TOO VERTICAL BENDS FACTOR TIMES ONE HALF THE SUM DOWNSTREAM KINETIC ENERGIES. BEND ANGLE IS EQUAL THE VERTICAL CURVE, THE VERTICAL RADIUS STATION TO ANOTHER, THAT THE RUN BETWEEN THE BEND ANGLE*ABS(BEND
IS EQUAL TO THE OF THE UPSTREAM
BEND
110
TO THE INCLUDED ANGLE OF IN RADIANS, BETWEEN STATIONS. OF CURVATURE VARIES FROM ADJUST THE BEND ANGLE THE STATIONS IS EQUAL RADIUS)
115
THE SIGN OF THE IF THE INVERT MOVES AWAY FROM THE FLOW, VERTICAL RADIUS OF CURVATURE IS NEGATIVE. IF THE SECTION SET THE VERTICAL RADIUS OF BETWEEN STATIONS IS STRAIGHT, CURVATURE EQUAL TO 0.
120 THE INPUT IS READ WITH A FREE FORMAT. THIS MEANS THAT THE DATA FOR EACH CARD MUST BE ON A SINGLE LINE AND OR BY A COMMA OR A SEPARATED BY ONE OR MORE BLANKS, EITHER OF WHICH MAY BE PRECEEDED OR FOLLOWED BY SLASH, BLANKS ARE NOT ALLOWED AS ANY NUMBER OF BLANKS. SUBSTITUTES FOR ZERO. A DECIMAL POINT OMITTED FROM A REAL CONSTANT IS ASSUMED TO OCCUR TO THE RIGHT OF THE RIGHTMOST DIGIT OF THE MANTISSA. EXTRANEOUS DATA ON A CARD W.ILL BE READ ON
125
100
PROGRAM HFWS
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
130
135
140
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
SUBSEQUENT *ERROR DATA
READ COMMANDS. INPUT'DIAGNOSTICS.
THIS
WILL
RESULT
IN
THE INITIAL OR SMALLER COMPUTATIONS. THE C= AIR
DEPTH MUST BE THAN THE CRITICAL
AT
LEAST DEPTH
0.5 TO
PERCENT INITIATE
LARGER THE
CONTENT
IS
COMPUTED
FROM
O.O5*F-SQRT(SINE(ALPHA))*W/(61'F) F= V/SQRT(G*Y(EFF)) W= V/SQRT(SIGMA/RHO*HR) HR= HYDRAULIC RADIUS SIGMA= INTERFACIAL TENSION RHO= DENSITY OF WATER G= ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY Y(EFF)= EFFECTIVE DEPTH = AREA/TOP WIDTH OF RATIO IS DEFINED AS BETA= JUMP FORMS IN THE
WHERE
145
150
THE IF A
AIR
WATER PRISM Q(AIR)/Q(WATER)= CONDUIT,
C/(1-C)
HYDRAULIC BETA=
O.O066*(F-1.)**1.4
155
160 1
INITIALIZATION s= -0.1 v= 0.0 HV= 0. ELINV= 0. STA= 0. BGL= 0. F= 0. TOTAL= 0.0 BETA= 0.0 PI= 3.1415926 JIC= 0 K= 0 NL= 1 DIA= 0. DT= 0. INPUT OF FLOW
OF
DATA
165
170
175 C C C 180
DATA
2 3 185
190 C C C
READ (2,') Q,DN,RUG,NCURV,MST,SB IF(MET.EQ.O)RUG=RUG/lOOO. IF(EOF(2))2,3 CALL EXIT G= 9.807 IF(MET.BQ.l)G= 32.2 VIS= 1.4E-05 IF(MET.BQ.O)VIS= 1.31-06 DNO= DN RSAD(2,4)(TITL(I),I=l,lO) FORMAT(lOA6) READ (2,') NS LOOP WHICH INCREMENTS THE STATIONS
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFWS
II
101
200
CHECK= EGL DO 68 NT=l,NS SAVE=STA STORE=S STOREl=ELINV EGL= CHECK HIDEl=HV IF(NT.NE.Z)GO COMPUTATION OF
TO
14 PROPERTIES 5 OF FIRST STATION
HYDRAULIC GO TO
205 IF(BENDR.EQ.0.)
210 C 5 6 215 C C C 7 220 8 + 225 9 + + + + + +
HYDROSTATIC DEPTH WITH BEND D= DN/SQRT(l.O+SB*SB)+Z.O*HV*DN/BENDR GO TO 6 HYDROSTATIC DEPTH D= DN/SQRT(l.O+SB*SB) TOTAL= ELINV+D+HV WRITE STATEMENTS WITHOUT BEND
FOR
TITLES
WRITE(3,7)(TITL(I),I=l,lO) FORMAT(1H1,28X,10A6/2BX,2OH-------------------40H----------------------------------------
,,)
230
10 235 11 + + + + + 12 245 + +
240
250
13 14
255
15
IF(MET.EQ.l)WRITE(3,s)Q,DN,RUG,CN FORMAT(19X,3HQ =,F7.1,4H CFS,3X,lSHINITIAL DEPTH =,F6.2, 3H FT,3X,lOHRUGOSITY =, F8.6,3H FT,3X,3HN =,F6.4//) IF(MET.EQ.l)WRITE (3,9) FORMAT(66X,6HENERGY,33X,5HDEPTH/ 47H STATION INVERT ELEV SLOPE DEPTH VEL 42HOCITY PIEZ GRADE LINE Q AIR/Q WATER, 27H PROFILE NORMAL CRITICAL / 4X,2HFT,9X,2HFT,20X,2HFT,6X,6HFT/SEC,6X,2HFT,9X,2HFT, 32X,2HFT,7X,ZHFT/) IF(MET.EQ.O)RUG= RUG'lOOO. IF(MET.EQ.O)WRITE(3,lU)Q,DN,RUG,CN IF(MET.EQ.O)RUG= RUG/lOOO. FORMAT(19X,3HQ =,F9.3,4H CMS,3X,15HINITIAL DEPTH =,F6.3, 2H M,3X,lOHRUGOSITY =,F8.4,3H MM,3X,3HN =,F6.4//) IF(MET.EQ.O)WRITE (3,ll) FORMAT(66X,6HENERGY,33X,5HDEPTH/ INVERT ELEV SLOPE DEPTH VEL 47H STATION 42HOCITY PIEZ GRADE LINE Q AIR/Q WATER, PROFILE 27H NORMAL CRITICAL / 3X,2H M,lOX,ZH M,19X,2H M,6X,6H M/SEC,6X,2H M,9X,2H 33X,lHM,EX,lHM/) WRITE (3,121 STA,ELINV,SB,DN,V,D,TOTAL,BETA,AN,M,YN,YC FORMAT (1X,F7.2,F12.3,F10.4,F10.3,F9.3,3X,F10.3,F12.3 ,9X,Al,Il,lX,F9.3,F9.3/) IF(SIG.GT.SIGl.AND.SIG.GT.SIGR)GO TO 14 IF(SIGl.GT.SIGR.AND.SIG)GO TO 13 WRITE(3,64) GO TO 14 IF(MET.EQ.l)WRITE(3,66)HO,NSL IF(MET.EQ.O)WRITE(3,67)HO,NSL ILOOP= (NL-1)/21-K IF(ILOOP.NE.l)GO TO 15 K= Kc1 WRITE(3,7)(TITL(I),I=1,10) IF(MET.EQ.l)WRITE(3,9) IF(MET.EQ.O)WRITE(3,11) READ (2,*) 1,IS IF(EOF(21171.16
M,
AIR-WATER
PROGRAM HFWS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
260 C C
16
IF
(I-1)
17,18,19 OR TRAPEZOIDAL STA,ELINV,W,SS TLF,BLF,BBNDR,BENDA CHANNELS
17 265 C C 18 770
RECTANGULAR READ (2,*) READ (2,') CALL TRAP(DN) GO TO 22
CIRCULAR CONDUITS READ (2,*) STA,ELINV,R READ (2,*) TLF,BLF,BBNDR,BENDA DIA= 1.99999'R CALL CIRC(DIA) GO TO 22 CIRCULAR TO RECTANGULAR TRANSITIONS READ (2,') STA,ELINV,W,R,ELC,Rl,T READ (2, l ) TLF,BLF,BBNDR,BENDA IF(ELC.LT.ELINV)GO TO 20 sB= (ELINV-STORR~)/ABS(SAVE-STA) IF(NCURV.EQ.l)SB= -SB WMIN= (W-T)/2. IF(R.GB.WMIN.AND.IS.EP.1)DT= 0.99999*(ELC-ELINV+SQRT( R*(W-Tl-O.Z5*(W-T)'(W-T))) IF(R.GE.WMIN.AND.IS.EP.2)DT= 0.99999'((ELC-ELINV)*SQRT(SB*SB +l.)+SQRT(R*(W-T)-O.Z5*(W-T)*(W-T))) IF(R.LT.WMIN.AND.IS.EQ.lJDT= 0.99999'((ELC-ELINV)+R) IF(R.LT.WMIN.AND.IS.EQ.2lDT= 0.99999*((6LC-ELINVl'SQRT(SB*SB +l.)+R) GO TO 21 DT= DN CALL TRANSCDT) USING EQ MACMILLAN, 4-13 1970. FROM OPEN THIS CHANNEL THE FLOW BY COLEBROOK HENDERSON, EQUATION.
275
C C 19
280
205
290 C C C C
20 21
IS
295
22
300 23 24 305 C
REY= Q.*HR*(Q/A)/vIs FRICO= 0. DO 23 N=1,20 FRICT= -2.*ALOGlO(RUG/(12.'HR)+2.5'FRICO/RBY) IF(ABS(l.-FRICO/FRICT).LE.O.Ol~GO TO FRICO== FRICT CONTINUE IF(MET.EQ.O)CN=(HR*'O.l66667~/~SQRT~8.*G~*FRICT~ IF(MBT.EQ.l1CN=(HR*'O. 166667)*1.49/(SQRT(s.tG)"FRICT) COMPUTATION OF BOTTOM SLOPE
24
310 C C C 25 315 C C C 320 26
IF(NT.EQ.l)GO TO 25 SB= (ELINV-STOREl)/ABS(SAVB-STA) IF(NCURV.EQ.l)SB= -SB CHECK FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE IN CLOSED CONDUITS
IF(I.EQ.O)GO TO 26 QMAX= A*SQRT(ABS(SB))*HR**O.66667/CN IF(MET.EQ.l)QMAX= 1,49*QMAX COMPUTATION DY= YC= DO DN/2. DN 31 NN=1,25 IF(I-1)27,28,29 CALL TRAP(YC) OF CRITICAL DEPTH BY NEWTONS METHOD
27
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFWS
II
103
325 28
330
29 30
335
340
31 345 C C C 32
DBDY= 2.*SS GO TO 30 CALL CIRC(YC) DBDY= (DIA-Z.*YC)/SQRT(YC*DIA-YC*YC) GO TO 30 CALL TRANS(YC) DBDY= 0. VC= Q/A HVC= VC*VC/(2.+G) HVCK= A/(2.*B) DHVC= HVC-HVCK IF(ABS(DHVC/HVCK).LE.O.OOl)GO DFDY= DBDY*HVCK/B-O.S*(l.+Z.*B*HVC/A) YCO= YC YC= YC-DHVC/DFDY IF(YC.LE.O.)YC=ABS(YC) IF(I.EQ.l.AND.YC.GT.DIA)YC= IF(I.EQ.Z.AND.YC.GT.DT)YC= CONTINUE COMPUTATION OF NORMAL DEPTH TO BY
TO
32
(YCO+DIA)/Z. (YCO+DT)/Z.
NEWTONS
METHOD
350 33
355 34 35 360 C C C C 365 37 36
IF(I.EQ.O.AND.SB.GE.o.)GO AND.QMAX.GT.Q)GO IF(SB.GT.0.. YN= 1000. IF(SB.LT.O.)YN= -1000. GO TO 41 DY= -DN/Z. YN= ABS(DN) DO 40 NN=1,25 IF(I-1)34,35,36 CALL TRAP(YN) GO TO 37 CALL CIRC(YN) GO TO 37 CALL TRANS(YN) USING EQ MACMILLAN, 4-13 1910. FROM OPEN THIS
33 TO
33
CHANNEL IS THE
FLOW BY COLEBROOK
HENDERSON, EQUATION.
370 38 39
375
380
385
40
REY= 4.'HR*(Q/A)/VIS FRICO= 0. DO 38 N=l,ZO FRICT= -2. *ALOGlO(RUG/(12.*HR)+2.5*FRICO/REY) -FRICO/FRICT).LE.O.Ol)GO TO IF(ABS(l. FRICO= FRICT CONTINUE IF(MET.EQ.O)CN=(HR**O.l66667~/(SQRT(S.*G~*FRICT~ IF(MET.EQ.l)CN=(HR**O. 166667)*1.49/(SQRT(S.*G)*FRICT) PM= A*SQRT(SB)*HR**0.66667/CN IF(MET.EQ.l)QM=1.49*QM DHDY= HR/YN-Z.*HR/(B+Z.*YN) FUN= Q-PM IF(ABS(FUN/Q).LE.O.OOl)GO TO 41 DFDY= -B*QM/A-2,*PM*DHDY/(3.*HR) YNO= YN YN= YN-FUN/DFDY IF(YN.LE.O.)YN=ABS(DY) IF(I.EQ.l.AND.YN.GT.DIA)YN= (DIA+YNO)/Z. IF(I.EQ.Z.AND.YN.GT.DT)YN= (DT+YNO)/Z. CONTINUE DETERMINATION OF TO PROFILE 42 TYPE
39
41
IF(YN.LT.YC)GO
AIR-WATER
PROGRAM HFWS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
390
IF(YN.EQ.YC)GO IF(SB.BQ.O.)GO IF(SB.LT.O.)GO C C C MILD SLOPE
TO TO TO
43 44 45
395
400 C
AN= 1HM IF(DN.GE.YN)M=l IF(DN.LT.YN.AND.DN.GT.YC)M=2 IF(DN.LB.YCIM=3 GO TO 46 STEEP C 42 SLOPB
405
AN=lHS IF(DN.GE.YC)M=l IF(DN.GT.YN.AND.DN.LT.YC)M=2 IF(DN.LE.YN)M=3 GO TO 46 CRITICAL SLOPE
410
C C C 43
415 C c c 44 420
AN= 1HC IF(DN.GB.YN)M=l IF(DN.LT.YN)M=3 GO TO 46 HORIZONTAL AN= 1HH IF(DN.GB.YC)M=I IF(DN.LT.YC)M=3 GO TO 46 ADVERSE
425
C c C 45
AN= 1HA IF(DN.GE.YC)M=2 IF(DN.LT.YC)M=3 COMPUTATIONAL LOOP TO DETERMINE WATER DEPTH
430
C C C c 46 c C C c C C C 47 c C c
DO
60
J=l,lOO
435
COMPUTATION IF (I-1)
OF 47,48,49
HYDRAULIC
PROPERTIES
440
HYDRAULIC CALL FRUD= TRAP(DN1 F
PROPERTIES
FOR
RECTANGULAR
SECTION
445
450 C
NOTB THE FROUDB NUMBER AND ENBRGY CORRECTION F=(Q/A)/(SQRT(G*A/B)) IF(NT.EQ.l)GO TO 50 CKFRUD= (FRUD-l.)/(F-1.1 GO TO 50 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES
IS NOT FACTOR
CORRECTED
FOR
SLOPE
FOR
CIRCULAR
SECTION
C 48 CALL CIRC(DN)
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFWS
II
105
455
460
IF(JIC.EQ.l)GO TO 69 FRUD= F F=(Q/A)/(SQRT(G*A/B)) IF(NT.EQ.l)GO TO 50 CKFRUD= (FRUD-l.)/(F-1.) GO TO 50 HYDRAULIC 49 PROPERTIES IN TRANSITION
465
CALL TRANSCDN) IF(JIC.EQ.l)GO TO 69 FRUD= F F=(Q/A)/(SQRT(G*A/B)) IF(NT.EQ.l)GO TO 50 CKFRUD= (FRuD-~.)/(F-~.) COMPUTATION OF DEPTH BY STANDARD STEP METHOD
470
50 475
V=Q/A HV=
l.l*V*V/(Z.*G) MANNINGS FROM OPEN 1970. THIS OF N VALUE FROM THE RUGOSITY CHANNEL FLOW BY HENDERSON, IS THE COLEBROOK EQUATION.
COMPUTATION USING EQ MACMILLAN, 480
4-13
485 51 52 C C C
REY= 4.*HR*(Q/A)/VIS FRICO= 0. DO 51 N=l,ZO FRICT= -2. l ALOG1O(RUG/(12.*HR)+2.5*FRICO/REY) IF(ABS(1. -FRICO/FRICT).LE.O.Ol)GO TO FRICO= FRICT CONTINUE IF(MET.EQ.O)CN=(HR**O.l66667)/~SQRT~6.*G~*FRICT) IF(MET.EQ.l)CN=(HR**O, 166667)*1.49/(SQRT(8.*G)*FRICT) 1.1 IS THE KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION
52
490
FACTOR
495
HT= TLF*ABS(HV:HIDEl) HB=BLF*(HV+HIDE1)/2.0 S=(CN*CN*V*V)/(HR**1.3333) D= DN/SQRT(l.O+SB*SB) IF(MET.EQ.l)S=S/2.208 NT= 1 IS THE CONDITION FOR THE FIRST STATION
500
IF(NT.EQ.~)DYDX= IF(NT.EQ.l)CHECK= IF(NT.EQ.l)GO AVGS=(STORE+S)/Z.O IF(BENDR.NE.O.)GO COMPUTATION OF
TO
(SB-S)/(l.-F*F) ELINV+HV+DN/SQRT(l.+SB*SB) 63 TO 53 LOSS WITHOUT BENDS
505 HEAD
+ 510
RUN= SQRT((STA-SAVE)*(STA-SAVE)+(STOREl-ELINV)*(STOREl-ELINV) 1 HF=RUN*AVGS SUM=HF+HT+HB GO TO 54 COMPUTATION OF HEAD LOSS WITH BENDS
C c 515 53
RUN= BENDA*ABS(BENDR) HF= RUN*AVGS SUM= HF+HT+HB D= DN / SQRT(l.O+SB*SB)+2.0*HV*DN
BENDR
AIR-WATER
PROGRAM HFWS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
520
C C C 54
COMPUTATION TOTAL=BLINV+D+HV CHECK= EGL+SUM IF(NCURV.EQ.l)CHECK= DETERMINATION
OF
ENERGY
GRADE
LINE
525 C C C 530
BGL-SUM OF FLOW DEPTH USING NEWTONS METHOD
535 C C C 540
BGLCK= TOTAL-CHECK DTDY= l./SQRT(l.+SB*SB)-2.*HV*B/A DCDY= 2.*(HF+HB+HT)*B/A+4.*HF*B*B/ (3.*HR*(B+2.*DN)*(B+2.*DN)) IF(NCURV.EQ.l)DCDY= -DCDY DEDY= DTDY+DCDY DING= EGLCK/DEDY CHECK TO ENSURE THAT NEWTONS JUMP ACROSS NORMAL DEPTH IF TOWARD THE NORMAL DEPTH. IF(AN.EQ.lHM.AND.NCURV.EQ.O)GO IF(AN.EQ.lHS.AND.NCURV.EQ.l)GO GO TO 58 IF(M.EQ.3)GO TO 58 IF(ABS(DINC).GT.ABS(DN-YN))GO GO TO 58 IF(M.EQ.l)GO TO 58 IF(ABS(DINC).GT.ABS(DN-YN))GO GO TO 58 DING= ABS(DN-YN)*DINC/(ABS(DINC)*2.) DN= DN-DINC IF(DN.LE.O.)DN= CHECK ON THE METHOD DOES COMPUTATIONS NOT ARE CAUSE A PROCEEDING
TO TO
55 56
55 545 56
TO
57
TO
57
550 C
57 58 C C C
(DN+DINC)/2. ACCURACY OF COMPUTATIONS
555
560 C C C 59 565
PCTEL= lOO.*((TOTAL-CHECK)/(ABSo+D+HV)) IF(CKFRUD.LT.O.O)GO TO 73 IF(ABS(PCTEL).LT.O.Ol~GO TO GO TO 60 COMPUTATION OF AIR CONTENT
59
WITH
OPEN
CHANNEL
FLOW
570
575 C
60 61
IF(SB.LE.O.)C=O. IF(SB.LE.O.)GO TO 61 ALPHA= ATAN W= lOO.'V/SQRT(0.74/HR) IF(MBT.EQ.l)W= V/SQRT(O.O0257/HR) C= 0.05*F-SQRT(SIN(ALPHA))*W/t63.*F) IF(C.LT.O.)C= 0. IF(C.GE.O,74)C= 0.74 BETA= C/(1.-C) GO TO 61 CONTINUE IF(J.GE.lOO)GO TO 73 WRITE OUTPUT STA,BLINV,SB,DN,V,D,CHECK,BETA,AN,M,YN,YC
580
WRITE (3,12) NL= NL+l CHECK (THIS
ON SPACING KEEPS ERROR
OF STATIONS IN DEPTH
TO
LESS
THAN
l-PERCENT)
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFWS
II
107
585
+ + 590
62 + 595 C 63 600
DYDX= (SB-S)/(l.-F'F) IF(DYDX.LE.l.E-1O)GO TO 63 ERRY= lOO.*O. 5*(RUN/DNO)*(RUN/DNO)'ABSo/( (l.-FRUDO*FRUDO)*(~ .-FRUDO*FRUDO))*(lO./3.*STORE-3.*(SB-STORE)* FRUDO*FRUDO/(l .-FRUDO*FRUDO))) IF(ERRY.LT.l.O)GO TO 63 DX= RUN/Z. WRITE(3,62)ERRY,DX FORMAT(15X,22HERROR IN DEPTH EXCEEDS ,F4.0,9H 4X,42HPLEASE ADD INTERMEDIATE STATIONS NL= NL+l CHECK ON CAVITATION FORMATION
PERCENT, WITH DX
=',F6.0)
605
C C 610 64
DNO= DN FRUDO= F PABS= 33.9*(1 .-ELINV/145400.)**5.255-0.39 IF~MET.EQ.O)PABS=lO.33*(1.-ELINV/44303)f*5.255-O.13 SIG= 2.'G*(PABS+D)/(V*V) SIGl= 0.061*(V*DN/VIS)**0.196 SIGR= 32.*G*CN*C~/HR**0.33333 IF(MET.EQ.l)SIGR= SIGR12.208 IF(SIG.GT.SIGl.AND.SIG.GT.SIGR)GO CAVITATION OF BOUNDARY ROUGHNESS IF(SIGl.GT.SIGR.AND.SIGl.GT.SIG)GO WRITE(3,64) FORMAT(25X,38HSURFACE NL= NL+l GO TO 68
TO
68
TO SUFFICIENTLY
65 TO CAVITATE /)
ROUGH
615
C C C 65 C C C C C
ASSUME BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS CIRCULAR ARC ASSUMPTION l DN*(SIG**2.9l)*(VIS/(V*DN))**O.776 HO= 10800. CHECK THAN KEEP TO THE RUGOSITY. IF(RUG.GE.HO)HO= OFFSETS RUG 0 CHAMFER GREATER
FLOW
DEPTH
620
TO
OR
EQUAL
625
630
635
COMPUTATION OF REQUIRED ALPHA= 18.762"SIG NSL= INT(l./TAND(ALPHA))+l IF(MET.EQ.l)HO= 12.*HO IF(NT.EQ.l)GO TO 68 IF(MET.EQ.l)WRITE(3,66)HO,NSL 66 FORMAT(l6X,4lHCAVITATION + 5H THAN,F6.2,4H + 4Hl TO,I3,1EH IF(MET.EQ.O)WRITE(3,67)HO,NSL 67 FORMAT(1EX,41HCAVITATION + 5H THAN,F7.3,4H + 4Hl TO,I3,1EH NL= NL+l 68 CONTINUE NORMAL GO TO 1 TERMINATION OF TERMINATION OF
WILL OCCUR FOR IN, ,3x, CHAMFERS REQUIRED/) WILL OCCUR FOR M, ,3x, CHAMFERS REQUIRED/)
OFFSETS
GREATER,
OFFSETS
GREATER,
640
PROGRAM
C 645 C 69
ABNORMAL
PROGRAM
COMPUTATION IF(F.GT.O.)BETA=
OF
AIR
CONTENT O.O066*(F-1.)**1.4
WITH
HYDRAULIC
JUMP
AIR-WATER
PROGRAM 650 HFWS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
IF(F.LE.O.)BETA=O. WRITE (3,701 STA,BETA 70 FORMAT (lX,F10.3,10X,29H + 4X,6HBETA= GO TO 76 C C c 71 72 INSUFFICIENT DATA
HYDRAULIC ,F5.2)
JUMP
FILLS
CONDUIT,
655
660 C C C 665 73 74
WRITE (3,721 STA FORMAT(40X,35HINSUFFICIENT GO TO 76 IMPOSSIBLE FLOW CONDITION
DATA.
LAST
STATION
WAS
,FS.O)
SPECIFIED
670
675
680
WRITE(3,74) FORMAT(lH0,43X,30HENERGY BALANCE WAS NOT REACHED/ + 38X,41HSBVERAL CONDITIONS CAN CAUSE THIS PROBLEM// + 3BX,40HCURVILINBAR FLOW MAY HAVE CAUSED PROBLEM/33X + ,50HOR YOU MAY HAVE SPECIFIED AN IMPOSSIBLE CONDITION.// + 33x, + 50HPLEASE REVIEW YOUR NORMAL DEPTH AND CRITICAL DEPTH / + 36X,41HCOMPUTATIONS AS WELL AS THE PROFILE TYPE. // + CHECK INPUT DATA FILE FOR MISSING 2SX.40HALSO. + 21HOR INCORRECT ENTRIES. //) FTEST= Q*Q*B/(G*A'A'A) WRITE(3,75)STA,DN,AVGS,FTEST,YC,YN 75 FORMAT(ZOX,5HSTA =,F7.2,9H DEPTH =,FS.4,20H AVG SLOPE OF EGL =, + FROUDE NO =,F6.2/47X,16HCRITICAL DEPTH =,F8.3/ ,FS.5,13H + 47X,14HNORMAL DEPTH =,F8.31 76 CONTINUE END
SUBROUTINE
TRAP
1 C C C 5
SUBROUTINE HYDRAULIC
TRAP(DN) PROPERTIES OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTIONS
10
COMMON A,B,HR,W,SS,R,IS,PI,ELINV,SB,ELC,Rl,T,G,JIC A=W'DN+SS'DN'DN B= W+Z.'SS'DN HR= A/(W+2.0'SQRT(DN*DN+((SS*DN)'o))) RETURN END
SUBROUTINE
CIRC
1
C
SUBROUTINE HYDRAULIC
CIRC(DN) PROPERTIES OF CIRCULAR SECTIONS
C 5 C C C COMMON A,B,HR,W,SS,R,IS.PI.BLINV,SB,BLC,R~,T,G,JIC IF (DN-R) 1,2,3 LKSS THAN HALF FULL
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE CIRC
II
109
10
15
ROOT= SQRT(R*R-(R-DN)*(R-DN)) TERM=ROOT/(R-DN) ANGLE= ATANtTERM) A=((R*R)'ANGLE)-(CR-DN)*ROOT) HR=A/(Rf2.0*ANGLE) B= 2. *ROOT RETURN EXACTLY HALF FULL
C 20 2
A=(PI*R'R)/2.0 B= 2.*R HR=R/Z.O RETURN GREATER THAN HALF FULL
25
C 3
30
35 C C 4 40
IF(DN.GT.Z.*R)GO TO 5 IF(DN.EQ.Z.*R)GO TO 4 ROOT= SQRT(R*R-(DN-R)*(DN-R)) TERM=ROOT/(DN-R) ANGLE= ATANCTERM) A=(PI*R*R)-((R*R*ANGLE)-((DN-R)*ROOT)) B= 2. *ROOT HR=A/((2.O'PI*R)-(R*z.O*ANGLE)) RETURN EXACTLY A= PI*R*R B= 0. HR= R/2. RETURN FLOW FILLS CONDUIT FULL
C C 45 5
JIC= 1 RETURN END
SUBROUTINE
TRANS
1 C C C
SUBROUTINE HYDRAULIC SECTIONS
TRANSCDN) PROPERTIES WITH AND OF WITHOUT CIRCULAR DIVIDER TO RECTANGULAR WALLS
10 C C 15 C C C
COMMON A,B,HR,W,SS,R,IS,PI,ELINV,SB,ELC,Rl,T,G,JIC SEC= Cl.-PI/4.) IF(ELC.LE.ELINV)GO TO 3 DELV= ELC-ELINV IF(IS.EQ.l)GO TO 1 SECTION DELV= DIFFl= GO TO SECTION NORMAL TO FLOOR
(ELc-BLINV)*SGRT(SB*SB+~.) DN-DELV 2 VERTICAL
110
SUBROUTINE
AIR-WATER
TRANS
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
20
1 2 C C C 3
DN= DN*SQRT(SB*SB+l.l DIFFl=DN-DLLV IF (DIFF~.GT.O.)GO EQUAL TO OR LESS
TO THAN
7 THE DEPTH OF THE RECTANGULAR SECTION
25
30 C C 35 C C C C 5 4
IF(DN.LT.Rl)GO TO 5 A= DN*(W-T)-2.*SEC*Rl*Rl B= W-T IF(T.GT.O.)GO TO 4 HR= A/(W+Z.'DN-4.*SEC*Rl) RETURN WITH DIVIDER WALL
HR= A/(W-T+4.*DN-4.*SEC*Rll RETURN EQUAL TO TRANSITION OR LESS THAN DEPTH OF RADIUS IN THE BOTTOM CORNER OF
40
45
ROOT= SQRT(Z.'DN*Rl-DN'DN) TERM=ROOT/(Rl-DN) ANGLE= ATANCTERM) A= Rl*R1'ANGLE-ROOT'(R1-DN)+(W-2.'R1-T)'DN B= W-T-2.*R1+2. *SQRT(Rl*Rl-(Rl-DN)*(Rl-DN)) IF(T.GT.O.)GO TO 6 HR=A/(W-2.0fRl+2.0*Rl*ANGLE) RETURN
50
C C C 6 C C C 7 8
WITH DIVIDER WALL HR=A/(W-2.0*Rl+2.0*Rl*ANGLE-T+2.0*DN) RETURN GREATER THAN THE DEPTH

OF
55
THE
RECTANGULAR
SECTION
60
IF(R-DIFFll 12,9,8 ROOT= SQRT(R*R-DIFFl*DIFFl) ARGZ= DIFFl/ROOT PHIl= ATAN (ARGZ) TW= W-2.O'R IF(TW.GE.T)GO TO 10 CHECK WITH UPPBR RADIUS GREATER THAN HALF OR WITH RADIUS POINT INSIDE CEN9'ER PIER DBPTH= SQRT(R*(W-Tl-0.25*(W-T)*(W-T)) IF(DIFFl.GT.DBPTH)GO TO GO TO 10 WIDTH OF SECTION
65
C C C C
12
70 C C 9 75 C C FLOW PHIl= ROOT= DEPTH PI/2. 0. WIDTH OF WATER SURFACE + EQUAL CONDUIT DEPTH
LO
80
COMPUTATION OF AREA AND TOP A= DN*(W-T)-DIFF1*(W-TW)-2."SgC*R1'R1+R'R'PHIl +ROOT*DIFFl B= TW+2.*ROOT IF(T.EQ.O.)GO TO 11 HR= A/(W-4. "SEC'Rl-T+2.'(DN-DIFFl)+2.*DN +Z.O*R*PHIl) RETURN 11 HR= A/(W-4.*SEC*R1+2.*(DN-DIFFl~+2.*R*PHIl)
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE TRANS RETURN C C C FLOW FILLS CONDUIT
II
111
85
12
90
95
13
JIG= 1 A= DN*(W-T)-DEPTH*(W-TW)-2. 'SEC*R1*Rl+R*R*PHI1+ROOT*DEPTH B=O. IF(T.EQ.O.)GO TO 13 *SEC*Rl-T+2.*(DN-DEPTH)+2.*DN+2.*R*PHIl) HR= A/(W-4. RETURN HR= A/(W-4.*SEC*Rl+2.*(DN-DEPTH)+Z.*R*PHIl) RETURN END
DATAFILE-HSk'WY 20., 0.563,0.01,1,0,0.33333 O,l

11.593,96.136,15.,0. 0 o.,o., 0. 0:; 18.034,93.9E9,15.,0. 0 o.,o.,o. 0:; 24.22,91.927,15.,0. 0 ..o.,o.,o. O,l 37.454,87.515,15..0. 0 0. ,c. ,o. 0:; 60.687,79.771.15.,0. o.,o..o., 0. 0.1
11 O,l 0.,100.,15.,0. o.,o.,o.,o. 091 0.720,99.76,15.,0. o.,o.,o.,o. O,l 1.385,99.538,15.,0. o.,o.,o.,o. 091 2.618,99.127,15.,0. o.,o.,o.,o. 0 ,, 1 5.132,98.289,15..0. o..o.,o..o.
75.667,74.778.15.,0. o.,o.,o., 0.
Appendix III - Air Demand, Falling Water Surface, Computer Program

INTRODUCTION
The original version of the falling water surface computer program contained simplifications that could have led to significant errors in the flow simulation. The present program was modified to represent more realistically the flow conditions at the gate and to include a better representation of the hydraulic turbine characteristics. The complicated prototype geometry is input into the program through the use of a few parameters which approximate the actual geometry. created by the closing gate-would be the formation of a submerged hydraulic jump downstream from the gate (fig. 111-1). Writing the moment-um equation in the horizontal direction on the prism of water between points V and P gives:
Pv-Y- (Ap?GAC) [(y)(Az:Pl

+MP VP2 ----em AG 2g
111
AP2 Ve
2g
CcGp-4~~
where
JUNCTION
ENERGY
EQUATIONS
6=
GP~GCc
QR
and
Sk VP- - Ap,
figure III-I
The original study assumed that the relation between the flow from the reservoir and gate chamber could be described by the junction flow equations for a pipe tee. A more realistic flow description-considering the varying area
H. T. Falvey, Air Vent Computation-s, Morrow Point Dam, Hydraulic Laboratory Report HYD-584, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, 39 p., 1968.
The contraction coefficient C, is related to the discharge coefficient Cd through ]59]

c c =(Cd/Gp)2(G/Hr)
2
(2)
+ (cd/Gp)4tG/Hr)2+4(cd/Gp)2
113
114
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
Go = Gp = g= H,= rU, = PGC = pp = pv = Q= Qp = QR = QII = VGC= Vp = Vv
STRUCTURES
full gate opening (G/G&percent gate opening gravitational constant (acceleration) reservoir head on gate turbine loss coefficient pressure at lower end of gate chamber penstock pressure pressure at vena contracta discharge penstoclc discharge reservoir discharge specific discharge through a turbine velocity in gate chamber penstock velocity velocity at vena contracta
Gate chamber
v
Penstodd
W=ga&width Y= specific force of water

n = 3.14159... The forces
F are defined
as
Ap=pemt&area AG =totalareaofgateopening
Cc Cd Dp D3 F, coefficient coefficient diameter diameter of runner force Fp = penstock force F3 = force of walls on jump G = partial gate opening = = = = = contraction discharge penstock Discharge upstream
F, =7t~pvlr-G&)
Fz = y(py/y-Dpl2)
AG
Ap
F3 = ~llpyl~+pply~(A~--Ap~+~DpAp-G~~)l
The velocities
V are defined
as
Vy= QR/(CcGoW~=Q~/(Cc Gp AG) VP = QPIAP let& at penstodc intake.
FIGURE III-l.-Definition
The discharge coefficient in equation 2 is based on the area of the fully open gate. If the kinetic energy in the submerged hydraulic jump is assumed small, the pressure at the lower end of the gate chamber is given by
PP-
QR
~-gCCc2
AG Ap
.2vpz +Dp
2g 2
(41
PGC PVm+ -=-
(3)
The pressure at point V, which is also the water depth at that point, is determined from the air volume in the penstock and assuming a 1:7 slope for the free water surface of the hydraulic jump. If the hydraulic jump is not submerged, the pressure at V is given by
When all water has drained from the gate chamber, but the gate is still submerged, the pressure at point P is given by
APPENDIX
III a dimensionless defined by parameter known
115
TURBINE
CHARACTERISTICS
as + (phi)
The head loss coefficient across the turbine was arbitrarily assumed constant in the original study.2 The validity of the assumption is investigated in the following paragraphs.
(9)
where n is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute. Typical turbine characteristic curves for a runner having a specific speed3 of about 230 show that the specific discharge is not significantly affected by changes in the rotational speed (fig. 111-2). The maximum change in specific discharge between the maximum efficiency and the runaway condition at a constant gate opening amounts to about 3 percent. The corresponding change in the loss coefficient is about 6 percent. Loss coefficient curves can be prepared for any turbine runner. These curves will be a function of the wicket gates opening and the phi value (fig. 111-3). If the generator unit remains connected to the electrical system during a closure of the emergency gate, the turbine will operate at a constant speed. The condition with the turbine at synchronous speed but with no flow is called motoring.* During motoring the turbine will develop a head in the penstock. The magnitude of this head must be input into the computer program. For reaction turbines the magnitude
The energy loss across the turbine hd=K, VP %
is given by
(6)
The loss coefficient &=
K, can be written
2 (7al
or
where Dt is a characteristic turbine runner.
dimension
of the
The quantity
o,2~,
is a basic parameter
used in describing the turbine characteristics. The quantity is known as the specific discharge and usually is written Qll. The subscripts signify the discharge from a one-meterdiameter runner having a one-meter head across thebturbine runner. Thus, the loss coefficient also can be written:
3The specific speed of a turbine
is given by
(8)
where
The discharge through a turbine is dependent upon the head across the unit, runner speed, and wicket gate opening. The runner speed and head across the unit are described by
Ibid.
hd = turbine head, m n = rotational speed, r/min Pd = turbine power output, kW 4Power requirements for motoring can be minimized by depressing the water surface in the draft tube. This is used for either power factor adjustment or for spinning reserve. During an emergency, depression of the water surface in the draft tube cannot be assumed to occur.
116 2.: ir
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Q = discharge,k3/s i
/ ' speed, r/min n = rotational g = gravitational constant, mjs2 hd= head across turbine, m of runner D3= discharge diameter I
l-
)- --
60
Rundway
sp
ed I -4
Om
50
TnD,
#PEED
FIGURE III-L.-T@d
COEFFICIENT
f# =
SO-
turbine characteristics of runner specific speed230 in m-k W units.
APPENDIX
III
117
Da = discharge
diameter of runner, m g = gravitational constant (acceleration), hd = head across turbine, m n = rotational speed, r/min n, = specific speed = n(pd)2 =230
m/s*
(hd)54
Pd = turbine power output, kW VP = penstock water velocity, m/s coefficient=
nnDJ
w3&
+=0.8.
10
15
25
30
35
WICKET
GATE POSITION
loss coefficient.
degree
FIGURE III-S.-Turbine
118
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
of the motoring head is about ZO-to 25-percent of the turbine net head.
GEOMETRY
The two most significant geometric effects which must be calculated for free surface flow in the penstock are the air volume in the penstock and the water surface area as a function of water surface elevation. The actual variation of the air volume in the penstock is a complicated function due to the
circular section of the penstock and vertical bends. The air volume must be computed as a function of elevation for enough points to define the prototype curve. Two straight lines are fitted through the prototype values Ki. 111-4). The coefficients of these two straight lines are input into the program. A similar procedure is used for the water surface area as a function of elevation. However, the prototype curve is fitted with a sine wave and a vertical line instead of two straight lines (fig. 111-5).
CF
(ELCS-WSMVOLC2) Prototype geometry Area= CAREA (ELCl-WS)(VOLCl) 9 NOTES: Points denoted by 0 are from prototype data. Solid lines are approximations to true curve. GCLP is computed in the program HFVENT I
IJOTE: :apitalized symbols are computer input names. The linear equations are used to approximate the prototype geometry
AIR VOLUME,
FIGURE III-4.-k
AVOL
WATER SURFACE
FIGURE III-S.-Water
AREA,
SURAR
volume inpenstock.
surface area.
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFVENT
III
C C 5
PROGRAM HFVENT(INPUT=65,0UTPUT=65,TAPE3=OUTPUTl COMPUTATION OF AIR FLOW INTO GATE CHAMBER CLOSURE OF GATES FOR THE PENSTOCK INTAKE
DURING AN STRUCTURE
EMERGENCY
IO
15
REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV.ABSPGC.PATM,PGC,WSREF,HCOL,WS,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3(50),J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG,EK,GCR,PGO,JFIRST,WTFLA(50) +.MACHA~5O~,MACHGA~5Ol,AVOL,PIN,CVEL.T~5O~,JCK,GCLP,RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELC1,VOLC2,ELC2.CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP~SO).SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVl,DELX,DELY +.ACURAC.ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN DIMENSION QGA(5O),AR(5O),AP(50),AS(50l,AGC~50), +VIN~5O~,VOUT~5Ol,PA~50~,PGA~50~,CA~5O~,ERTAGC~5O~, +RHOAG(5O),SPVOL(SO),DX(50),DY(50), +CKB~50~,X~50~,Y~50l,VP~50~,VGC~5OI,DPL~5O~,DVC~5O~.JCT~50~ WRITE(3,l) 1 FORMAT(lHl,//) INPUT DATA
20
COMPUTATION 25 SYSTEM METRIC, ENGLISH, METRIC= 30 INITIAL T(l)= TIME DELT= TIME 0. INTERVAL 1.
CONTROLS
OF UNITS SET METRIC SET METRIC 1
= =
1 0
BETWEEN
CALCULATIONS
(SEC)
35
MAXIMUM TIME TMAX= YO. LiO C C C
WHICH
IS
TO
BE
CALCULATED
(SEC1
Lt5 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 65 C
THE TITLE AND AIR VENT bESCRIPTlON ARE INPUT IN THE FORMAT STATEMENTS. THEY CAN CONTAIN UP TO 60 CHARACTERS EACH. BOTH DESCRIPTIONS MUST BE CENTERED IN THE FIELD. 2 FORMAT(GX,GOH MORROW POINT DAM + 1 3 FORMAT(GX,GOH ONE 840MM BY 915MM AIR VENT + I
WATER
FLOW
QUANTITlES
50
TURBINE TLOSS=
LOSS 111.2
COEFFICIENT
55
60
TYPE OF TURBINE OPERATION DURING CLOSURE (IF UNIT RUNS AT CONSTANT SPEED, SET NSPEED = IF THE CIRCUIT BREAKERS ARE OPEN SO THAT THE SPEED CAN VARY, SET NSPEED = 0. BOTH TYPES OF OPERATION ASSUME A BLOCKED OF THESE GATE OPERATION.) NSPEED = 1 HEAD DEVELOPED (SPEED NO LOAD1 HMOTOR= 27.5 BY TURBINE DURING MOTORING
1.
120
PROGRAM
AIR-WATER
HFVENT
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
C C C C C 75 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
GATE GCR=
CLOSING 0.9901
RATE
(PERCENT/SEC)
70
DARCY-WIESBACH FP= 0.009 SINGULAR EK= 0.3 AIR FLOW ------------------TEMPERATURE TEMP= 4.5 ATMOSPHERIC PATM= 77.6 LOSS
FRICTION
FACTOR
IN
PENSTOCK
BETWEEN
UPPER
AND
LOWER
GATE
CHAMBER
QUANTITIES
80
PRESSURE
(PSI
OR
KPA)
85
INCOMPRESSIBLE THE DUCT (FL/D) FRICT= 0.93 COMPRESSIBLE AT DUCT INLET CINC= 0.5 GEOMETRY -------RESERVOIR WATER RES= 2181.69 TAIL TW= WATER 2059.23 LEVEL
FRICTION
FACTOR
FOR
THE
AIR
FLOW
IN
DISCHARGE
COEFFICIENT
OF
AIR
90
95
LEVEL
100
C C C C C C
ELEVATION UGCLGC=
UPPER 2168.0% INVERT
GATE
CHAMBER
TO
LOWER
GATE
CHAMBER
105
ELEVATION ZP= 2155.93
AT
GATE
ELEVATION OF TGC= 2183.89 AREA AU= UPPER 13.80
TOP
OF
GATE
CHAMBER
110
C C C C
GATE
CHAMBER
115
C C C C C C 125 C C c C C C
AREA LOWER AD= Lt.33 AREA GATE AG= 20.6% CROSS-SECTIONAL AVENT= 0.766 NUMBER NVENTS= CONSTANTS OF
GATE
CHAMBER
120
AREA
OF
EACH
AIR
VENT
VENTS
1.
WHICH DESCRIBE OF FOR THE THE THE VOLUME OF THE
130
PENSTOCK AS A FUNCTION SEE THE DOCUMENTATION THESE CONSTANTS VOLCl= Lt6.16 VOLC2= 13.3
WATER SURFACE DEFINITION OF
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFVENT
III
121
ELCl= ELC2= 135 C C C C 140 C C C C C C I .5 0 C C C C C
2155.93 2170.21 LENGTH
PENSTOCK PL= 143.56 PENSTOCK PENLEN= PENSTOCK DP= 4.12 HEIGHT OF so= 5.01 HYDRAULIC HYDDIA= CONSTANTS
LENGTH 2016.48 DIAMETER
AS
A FUNCTION
OF
WATER
SURFACE
PARAMETER
195
GATE
DIAME 1.41 WHICH
TER
OF
LOWER
GATE
CHAMBER
DESCRIBE
THE
FREE
WATER
SURFACE FOR THE
AREA
155
IN THE PENSTOCK. SEE THE DOCUMENTATION DEFINITION OF THESE CONSTANTS CF= 48.83 PER= 8.23 CAREA= 13.5 END OF INPUT DATA
160
C C C C C C
COMPUTED
CONSTANTS
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
PI= 3.14159 K= INT((TMAX-T(~))/(~O.*DELT)I+~ GRAV= 32.2 GASCTE= 53.3 PTOHD= 2.30769 VAPOR= PTGHD*0.0256*10.**(0.O162*TEMPl AGCCTE= 144. ACURAC= .Ol PGCINC= 0.01 ABSTEM= TEMP+459.67 RHOA= AGCCTE*PATM/(GASCTE*ABSTEM) CD= 0.9303 IF(METRIC.EQ.OlGO TO 4 GASCTE= 287. PTOHD= 0.000102 VAPOR= PTOHD*.582*10.**(0.0292*TEMP+3.1 AGCCTE= 1000. PATM= PATMXAGCCTE ACURAC= 0.003 PGCINC= 50. GRAV= 9.807 ABSTEM= TEMP+273.15 RHOA= PATM/(GASCTE*ABSTEM 4 ABSPGC = PATM AREAP= PI*DP*DP/t. HEAD= RES-TW PGD= 1. BH= SO/(RES-ZP) CC= (CD*CD*BH+SQRT(CD**4*BH**2+4.*CD**2))/2. CONST= TLOSS-l.+FP*PL/DP+(AREAP/(AG*CDll +(AG+AREAP)*CC*PGD*AG)+4.*AREAP/(AG+AREAPl QR= AREAP*SQRT(2.*GRAV*HEAD/CONST) VHP= (QR/AREAP)**2./(2.*GRAV) VHR= VHP PR= RES-ZP-VHR*IAREAP/AG/CD)**2
**2-4.*ARc*4REAP/l
122
PROGRAM
AIR-WATER
HFVENT
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
200
205
210
215
220 C c C c C C C c c C C C c C c C c c C C C
WS= ZP+PR PP= PR+2.*AG/lAG+AREAP)*(2./CC*VHR*(AREAP/AG)**2-2.*VHP*AREAP/AGl WSREF = WS HCOL= WSREF-UGCLGC GCLP= ZP+DP GCLL= UGCLGCGCLP QP = QR QGC = 0. AVOLRE= (TGC-WSIAU WTAIR = RHOA l AVOLRE AVOL= AVOLRE PIN = PATM PGC = PTOHD*PATM CONST = PATM / RHOA**l.4 CKA= 0. JFIRST= 1 DELTIM= 0. JCK= 1 NT= 1 If(NSPEED.EQ.O)HMOTOR= 0. SLOSS= l.-HMOTOR/(TLOSS*VHPl PVAPOR= VAPOR-PGC
225
230
235
SIGNIFICANCE OF JFIRST 1 - FIRST TIME THRU MAIN LOOP 2 - SECOND TIME THRU MAIN LOOP, WATER SURFACE IN UPPER GATE CHAMBER 3 - LAST TIME INCREMENT IN UPPER GATE CHAMBER 4 - FIRST TIME INCREMENT IN LOWER GATE CHAMBER 5 - WATER SURFACE IN LOWER GATE CHAMBER 6 - LAST TIME INCREMENT IN LOWER GATE CHAMBER 7 - fIRST TIME INCREMENT IN PENSTOCK 8 - WATER SURFACE IN PENSTOCK 9 - WATER ELEVATION LESS THAN TAIL WATER SURFACE ELEVAT I ON 10 - VAPOR PRESSURE FORMED AT GATE 11 - SONIC VELOCITY IN AIR VENT
240
*** DO
COMPUTATIONS 48 NTIM=l,K IFtNTIM.GE.2lNT= IfINTIM.LE.I)GO
IN 2 TO
MAIN
LOOP
**
5 FOR SUBSEQUENT PASSES THRU MAIN LOOP
245
c C
250
255
260
DATA INITIALIZATION T(l)= Ttil) QGAtl)= QGA(41) AR(l)= ARC411 AP(l)=,AP(+ll VP(I)= VP(41) VGC(l)= VGC(41) X(11= X(411 Y(l)= Y(411 AS(l)= AS1411 AGC(13= AGC(411 VIN[ll= VIN(411 VOUT(l)= VOUTltl) PGA(l)= PGA(41) CA(l)= CA(4l) ENRTAPtll= ENRTAP141) ERTAGCIl)= ERTAGC(41) DPL(l)= OPL(41) DVCtll= DVC(41)
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFVENT
III
123
265
270
PA(l)= PA(41) MACHA( MACHA(Ltl1 MACHGA(l)= MACHGA(41) RHOAG(l)= RHOAG(4l) SPVOL(l)= SPVOL(41) WTFLA(l)= WTFLAlLtl) CKB(l)= CKEI(41) P3(l)= P3(41) JCT(l)= JCT(tl1 C C 5 COMPUTATIONAL DO LOOP FOR 40 TIME INCREMENTS
275
285 C C C 290
25 M=NT,Ltl J= M JN= J-1 IF(NTIM.EQ.2.AND.J.LE.3)GO GO TO 7 JM2= J+38 IF(J.GE.3)JM2= J-2 JMl= J+39 IF(J.GE.2)JMl= J-l TRIAL DETERMINATION OF WATER
TO
SURFACE
295 8
300 9
IF(JFIRST.EQ.11 GO TO 19 IF(JFIRST.GE.61 GO TO IO IF(JFIRST.GE.3)GO TO 8 IF(J.LE.%)GO TO 17 WSTEST= AS~J-2)-(5.*VGC~JNl+VGC(J-2l+DELT*FUNCT2lY~JN~, VP(JN),VGC(JN)))*DELT/3. GO TO 9 lF(JFIRST.EQ.3) WSTEST= AS(JN)-(DELT-DELTIM)*VGC(JN)*AU/AD IF(JFIRST.EQ.3)GO TO 9 WSTEST= AS(JN)-DELT*(VGC(JNl+DELT*FUNCT2~Y(JN),VP(JN), VGC(JN))/2.1 IFtJFIRST.EQ.4)WSTEST= AS(JN)-(DELT+DELTIM)XVGCo IF(WSTEST.LE.GCLP)GO TO 10 IF(WSTEST.LE.UGCLGC)GO TO li GO TO 17 WATER SURFACE IN PENSTOCK
305
C C 10
310
IF(JFIRST.EQ.G)GO TO 11 IF(JFIRST.EQ.7)GO TO 12 IF(JFIRST.EQ.8)GO TO 13 LAST INCREMENT BEFORE PENSTOCK FLOW VOLGC= (AS(JN)-GCLPI IF(J.GE.3)JM2= J-2 TOUT= T(JN)+VOLGC*2./(VGC(JN)+VGC(JM2)) IF(JFIRST.EQ.9) TOUT= T(JN)+VOLGC*2.*AU/(AD*(VGC(JM2)) IF(TOUT.GE.(T(JN)+DELT))TOUT= T(JN)+VOLGC/VGC(JN) VEL2= VGC(JN)+FUNCT2(Y(JN),VP(JN),VGC(JN))* (TOUT-T(JN)) IF(JFIRST.EQ.4)DELT= DELT+DELTIM DELTIM= VOLGCX2./(VEL2+VGC(JN)) IF(DELTIM.GT.DELT)GO TO 17 IF~DELTIM.LE.O.lDELTIM= TOUT-T(JN) JFIRST= 6 CALL DE2(X,Y,VP,VGC,T,DELTIM,JN AS(J)= UGCLGC-Y(J) IF(AS(J).LT.GCLP)AS(Jl=GCLP WS= AS(J) X(J) = 0. CALL AMACH(CINC,FRICT,AVENT,DEL .IM,PGCINC,WTAIR,CONST, CKAI
315
320
325
330
124
PROGRAM
AIR-WATER
HFVENT
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
C 11 335 12 13 340 C C C 14 395 C
TIME INCREMENT GO TO 20 DELT= DELT-DELTIM JFIRST= 7 GO TO 13 DELT= DELT+DELTIM JFIRST= 8 CALL DEl(X,VP,DELT) AS(J)= WS GO TO 18 WATER SURFACE
AS
WATER
ENTERS
PENSTOCK
IN
LOWER
GATE
CHAMBER
350
355
4 360 C 15
365 16 C C C 17
IF(JFIRST.EQ.3)GO TO 15 IF(JFIRST.EQ.9)GO TO 16 IF(JFIRST.EQ.S)GO TO 17 LAST INCREMENT IN UPPER GATE CHAMBER VOLGC= (AS(JN)-UGCLGC) TOUT= T(JN)+VOLGC/VGC(JN) VEL2= VGC(JN)+FUNCT2(Y(JN),VP(JNI,VGC(JN))* (TOUT-T(JN)) DELTIM= VOLGC*2./(VEL2+VGC(JN)) JFIRST= 3 CALL DE2(X,Y,VP,VGC,T,DELTlM,JNl AS(J)= WSREF-Y(J) WS= AS(J) CALL AMACH~CINC.FRICT,AVENT.DELTIM,PGCINC,WTAIR,CONST, CKA 1 GO TO 20 TIME INCREMENT AS WATER ENTERS LOWER GATE DELT= DELT-DELTIM JFIRST= Lt WSREF= UGCLGC JCK=2 GO TO 17 DELT= fDELT+DELTIMI JFIRST= 5 WATER SURFACE IN UPPER OR LOWER GATE
CHAMBER
CHAMBER
370
CALL DE2(X,Y,VP,VGC,T,DELT,JN) AS(J)= WSREF-Y(J) WS= AS(J) DETERMINATION OF AIR FLOW RATE IN VENT
375
C C C 18 4
380 C C C 19 385
CALL AMACH(CINC,FRICT.AVENT,DELT,PGCINC.WTAIR,CONST, CKA I IF(JFIRST.GE.7)P3(J)= PTOHD*(ABSPGC-PATM) GO TO 20 ASSIMILATION OF RESULTS FOR FIRST TIME THRU
390
395
QGA(l)= QGC AR(l)= QR AP(l)= QP VP(l)= AP(l)/AREAP VGC(l)= 0. X(l)= 0. Y(l)= 0. DX(l)= 0. DY(l)= 0. AS(l)= WS AS(2)= WS AGC(l)=ABSPGC IFIMETRIC.EQ.l)AGC(ll=
AGC(l)/AGCCTE
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFVENT
III
125
400
405
410
915 C C
L
VINlI)= 0. VOUT(I)= 0. ENRTAP(l)= FUNCTl(VP(L!,VGC ERTAGCll)= FUNCT2(Y(I),VP(l DVC(ll= P3(l)+DP PGAll)= PGO CA(I)= CD PA(l)= PP MACHA( 0. MACHGA(l)= 0. RHOAG(ll= RHOA SPVOL ( 1) = 1 /RHOA WTFLAll)= 0. CKB(l)= 0. JCT(I)= JCK VOLR= 0. JFIRST= 2 DPL(l)= TLOSS*SLOSS*(AP(ll/ GO TO 25 ASSIMILATION 20 OF RESULTS FOR
l),T(Il) .VGC(I))
.785*DP*DP)
)**2,/(2.*GRAV)+HMOTOR
REMAINING
TIME
INCREMENTS
420
425
Lt30
435 21 22 440 +
tt5
450
955 +
460 23 2Lt
CALL Q(QGC.VP,VGCl QGA(Jl= QGC PCHECK= ABS(P3tJ)-PVAPORI IF(PCHECK.LE.0.0001)JFIRST=lO IF(JFIRST.EQ.lO)GO TO 26 IF~JFIRST.EQ.IIlGO TO 26 IF(WS.LE.TW.OR.QP.LT.O.)JFIRST= 9 IF(JFIRST.EQ.S)GO TO 26 AR(J)= QR AP(Jl= QP AGC(J)=ABSPGC IF(METRIC.EQ.IlAGC(J)= AGC(J)/AGCCTE IF(JFIRST.GE.7) GO TO 21 ENRTAP(J)= FUNCT1(VP(JI.VGC(JI,T(Jll ERTAGC(J)= FUNCT2(Y(J),VP(J),VGC(Jll IF(JFIRST.GE.4)ERTAGC(J)= ERTAGC(J)*(GCLP-WS)/GRAV GO TO 22 ENRTAP(J)= FUNCT3(X(J),VP(J),T(J)) ERTAGC(J)= 0. WTAIR= WTAIR+(WTFLA(JN)+WTFLA(J))*DELT/2. IF(JFIRST.EQ.~.OR.JFIRST.ECJ.~~WTAIR= WTAIR+(WTFLAlJN) +WTFLA(J))*(DELTIM-DELT)/2. RHOAG(J)= WTAIR/AVOL SPVOL(J)= l./RHOAG(J) VOLR= VOLR+(QR+AR(JN) )*DELT/2 IFIJCK.LT.4)VOLR= 0. DPL(J)= TLOSS*SLOSS*~AP~J~/~.785*DP*DP~~**2./~2.*GRAV~+HMOTOR DVC(J)= PR PGA(J)= PGO PA(J)= PP CA(J)= CD JCT(Jl= JCK DXIJ)= DELX DY(J)= DELY VOUT(J)= MACHGA(J)*SQRT(GRAV*SPVOLoX1.4*AGC(J)*AGCCTE) IFIMETRIC.EQ.l)VOUT(J)= VOUT(J)/SQRT[GRAVl IFfPIN.GE.PATM)GO TO 23 VIN(Jl= CVEL*SQRT[7. l GASCTE*GRAV*ABSTEM* (I.-(PIN/PATM)**(2./7.)11 IF(METRIC.EQ.l)VIN(Jl= VIN(J)/SQRT(GRAVl IF(MACHA(J).LT.O.)VIN(J)= (-l.)*VIN(J) GO TO 24 VIN(J)= VOUT(J) CKE(J)= CKA
126
PROGRAM
AIR-WATER
HFVENT
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
25 465 C C C 26
CONTINUE *** WRITE STATEMENTS FOR OUTPUT OF RESULTS ***
470 C
J= JN+l IF(JFIRST.EQ.101 IF(JFIRST.EQ.lI)J=J-I IFtJFIRST.EQ.S)J=J-1 IF(METRIC.EQ.llPATM= FLOW QUANTITIES
J=J-1
PATM/AGCCTE
C 475 IF(METRlC.EQ.l)GO TO 38 WRITE(3.27) WRITE(3.21 WRITE(3,28)PATM,RHOA WRITE(3.31 FORMAT (lHl,EIX, 48H COMPUTATION OF AIR FLOW INTO THE GATE CHAMBER D EHURING AN / 16X. 40H EMERGENCY GATE CLOSURE IN THE PENSTOCK/ 27X. 18H INTAKE STRUCTURE 1 FORMAT(// 8X,2lH ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ,1+x, 23H SPECIFIC MASS OF AIR / 13x , F6.2, 5H PSI ,23X,F6.4,llH Li/CU.FT. //) WRITE(3,29)(T(N),PGA(N),CA(N),AR(N),QGA(N),AP(N),N=l,Jl FORMAT(28X.15HFLOW QUANTITIES // 8X. GATE 34H TIME COEFF Q 20H Q Q / 16X 49H OPENING DISCH. RESERVOIR GATE PENSTOCK 48X.EHCHAMEER / 8X,46H(SECl (O/O) (CFSI (CFS) 9H ICFS) / ~5X,F8.1.2X,F8.1,1X,F8.2,4X,F8.1,1X,F8.1,3X,F8.11~ IF(JFIRST.EQ.lO)WRITE(3.30)T(J+l) FORMAT(4X.FE.1.5X.38H VAPOR PRESSURE FORMED IN GATE CHAMBER IF(JFIRST.EQ.lllWRITEoT(J+1) FORMAT(4X,FE.l,9X,23H SONIC VELOCITY IN VENT1 WATER PRESSURES
480
27 +
485
28
490
29
+
495
+ + +
30 31 C C
500
505
510 32 +
WRITE(3,27) WRITE(3.2) WRITE(3,28)PATM,RHOA WRITE13,3) WRITE(3,32)[T(N),AS~N),DPL(Nl,P3(N),DVC(N).PA(N),N=I.J) FORMAT(2BX,lSHWATER PRESSURES //
515
+ + + + + + +
33 34
8X.
45H TIME ws HEAD END GATE VENA 12H PENSTOCK / ELEV ACROSS CHAMBER CONTRACTA / 16X,LtOH 29X,tHUNIT / (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) EX,46H(SEC) (FT) / 9H ~5X.F8.1.3X,F8.2.2X,F8.2,2X,F8.2,2X,F8.2,2X,F8.2~~ IF~JFIRST.EQ.IOlWRITE(3,33)T(J+l) FORMAT(7X.FE.l,5X,38H VAPOR PRESSURE FORMED IN GATE CHAMBER IF(JFIRST.EQ.ll)WRITE(3,34~T~J+I) FORMAT(7X.F8.1,9X,23H SONIC VELOCITY IN VENT 1 AIR FLOW PROPERTIES
520
525
C C
WRITE(3,271 WRITE(3.21
APPENDIX
PROGRAM HFVENT
III
127
530 +
535
35 +
540
+ +
+
+ + 545 C C
L
WRITE 3,281PATM.RHOA WRITE 3.3) WRITE 3,35~~T~Nl,VIN~Nl,VOUTIN~,WTFLA~N~.RHOAG~N~,AGC~N~, N=l ,J IF(JF RST.EQ.lO)WRITE(3,33)T(J+l) IF(JF RST.EQ.lIlWRITE~3.34)T(J+l) AIR FLOW PROPERTIES // FORMA -(24X,2lH 8X. 47H TIME INLET OUTLET AIR 8H GATE / 16X. 48H AIR VEL AIR VEL RATE 48X.17HOF AIR PRESSURE / EX,50H(SEC) (FT/SECl (FT/SEC) 7H (PSIAI / (5X.F8.1,3X,F8.1,2X,F8.1,2X,F8.2,2X,F8.4,2X,F8.2)) COMPUTATIONAL PROPERTIES
FLOW
SPECIFIC
MASS (LBM/SEC)
CHAMBER (LB/CU
/ FT)
550
36 + 555
+
+ + + +
560
37 565 + + + + + +
570
WRITEI3,27) WRITE 3,2) WRITE 3,28)PATM,RHOA WRITE 3,31 WRITE 3.36~~T~NI.CKB~NI.DY~Nl,DX~N~.JCT~Nl.N=l.JI FORMAT(24X,24HCOMPUTATIONAL PROPERTIES // ltX.44HTIME ACCURACY INTEGRATION ERROR FLOW / 20X,4lH GATE GATE PENSTOCK CONDITION / 20X,39H CHAMBER CHAMBER (* SEE / 20X,4OH PRESS LEGEND1 / 12X.36H (SEC) (PSI 1 (FTI (FT) / ~1OX,F8.1,2X,F8.3,3X.F8.4.2X,F8.4,4X,I4)) IF(JFIRST.EQ.10lWRITE(3,33)T(J+1) IF(JFIRST.EQ.Il)WRITE~3,34)T(J+l) IF(NTIM.EQ.K.OR.JFIRST.EQ.S)WRITE(3,37) FORMAT(lHl,29X,6HLEGEND// 8X,49H* 1 WATER SURFACE IN UPPER GATE CHAMBER / BX,49H 2 WATER SURFACE BELOW TOP OF GATE I 3 WATER SURFACE JUST ENTERING PENSTOCK / 8X,49H 4 HYDRAULIC JUMP FILLS PENSTOCK, GATE SUBMERGED/ 8X.49H 5 HYDRAULIC JUMP FILLS PENSTOCK, GATE FREE FLOW/ 8X,49H 8X,48H 6 WATER SURFACE IN PENSTOCK /I IF(NTIM.EQ.K.OR.JFIRST.EQ.S)GO TO 49 GO TO 48 METRIC WRITE STATEMENTS
2:
L
575
38
580
39 + + + 40
WRITE(3.27) WRITE(3.2) WRITE(3,39lPATM,RHOA WRITE(3.3) WRITE~3,~0~~T~N~,PGA~N~.CA~Nl,AR~N~,QGA~Nl,AP~NI,N=l,J~ FORMAT(// 8X.21H ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 23H SPECIFIC MASS OF AIR / 13x , F6.2, 5H KPA , //I ,23X,F6.4,11H KG/CU.M. FORMAT(28X,lSHFLOW QUANTITIES //
,14X,
585
+
+
8X,
34H TIME GATE COEFF 20H Q Q 1. 16X. 49H OPENING DISCH. RESERVOIR 48X,8HCHAMBER / 8X.46HtSECl (O/O) 9H (CMS) / L5X,F8.1,2X,F8.1,1X,F8.2,4X.F8.3,1X,F8.3,3X,F8.3~1 IF(JFIRST.EQ.IO)WRITE(3,41)T~J+l) FORMAT(4X.FE.l,5X,38H VAPOR PRESSURE FORMED Q GATE (CMS) PENSTOCK (CMS) /
590
+ + + + + + 41
IN
GATE
CHAMBER
128
PROGRAM
AIR-WATER
HFVENT
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
595
42 C
IF(JFIRST.EQ.:11WRITE~3,42~T~J+ll FORMAT(tX,FE.l,9X,23H WATER PRESSURES
SONIC
VELOCITY
IN
VENT)
C 600 WRITE(3.27) WRITEt3.2) WRITE(3,39lPATM,RHOA WRITE(3.31 WRITE~3,43~~T~Nl,AS~N~,DPL~N~,P3~N~,DVC~N~,PA~N~,N=l,J~ FORMAT(28X,lSHWATER PRESSURES //
605
43
8X.
53H TIME 4HTOCK / lGX,LtOH 29X,4HUNIT 8X.45HISECl ws ELEV / ACROSS HEAD END CHAMBER GATE VENA / (Ml PENS CONTRACTA (Ml
610
+
615 44 45 C C
(Ml (Ml (Ml / ~5X,F8.1,3X.F8.2,2X,F8.2,1X,F8.2,2X,F8.2,2X.F8.2~1 IF~JFIRST.EQ.lOlWRITE(3,44lT(J+1l FORMAT(7X.FE.l,5X,38H VAPOR PRESSURE FORMED lFIJFIRST.EQ.l11WRITEI3,45lT~J+ll FORMATI7X,FE.l,9X,23H SONIC VELOCITY IN VENT
9H
IN 1
GATE
CHAMBER
AIR
FLOW
PROPERTIES
620
625
46 630
+ + + +
635
c
640
WRITEI3,271 WRITE(3.21 WRITE(3,39lPATM,RHOA WRITE(3.31 WRITE~3.46~~T~Nl.VIN~N~,VOUT~N~,WTFLA~N).RHOAG~N~,AGC~N~~ N=I ,Jl IF(JFIRST.EQ.IOIURITE~3,44lT(J+ll IF(JFIRST.EQ.l1lWRITE(3,45lT~J+Il FORMAT(24X.21H AIR FLOW PROPERTIES // 8X, AIR 47H TIME INLET OUTLET 9H GATE /, 16X, RATE 48H AIR VEL AIR VEL 4BX,17HOF AIR PRESSURE I EX,48H(SECl (M/SEC) (M/SEC) 7H (KPAl / ~5X,F8.1,3X,F8.1.2X,FB.1,2X,F8.3,2X,FB.4,2X,F8.2~~ COMPUTATIONAL PROPERTIES
FLOW MASS (KG/SEC)
SPECIFIC CHAMEER (KG/CU / Ml
645
650
655
660
WRITE13,271 WRITE13.21 WRITE(3.39lPATM.RHOA WRITE(3.31 WRITE(3,47l(T(Nl,CKB(N).DY(N~,DX1N),JCT(N~,N=l,J) FORMAT(24X,24HCOMPUTATIONAL PROPERTIES // 47 + INTEGRATION 14X,44HTIME ACCURACY + PENSTOCK 20X.LtlH GATE GATE * 20X;39H CHAMBER CHAMBER + 20X ,4OH PRESS (Ml 12X.36H (SEC) (PA1 + ~10X,F8.1,1X,F8.0,4X.F8.4,2X,F8.4,4X~1411 IF(JFIRST.EQ.1OlWRITE(3,44lT(J+ll IFIJFIRST.EQ.ll1WRITE~3,45)TO IF(NTIM.EQ.K.OR.JFlRST.EQ.9lWRITE(3,371 IF(NTIM.EQ.K.OR.JFiRST.EQ.S)GO TO 49 PATM= AGCCTEPATM 48 CONTINUE 49 CALL EXIT END
ERROR CONDITION (LAST PAGE1 (Ml /
FLOW / / /
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE Q
III
129
1 C C C C C
SUBROUTINE
Q(QGC,VP,VGC)
THIS PROGRAM COMPUTES THE DISCHARGE THROUGH THE EMERGENCY GATE AS A FUNCTION OF GATE OPENING, RESERVOIR ELEVATION, DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE (FREE OR SUBMERGED). AND THE FREE FLOW DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT. REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS DIMENSION VP(50).VGC(501 COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,WSREF,HCOL,WS,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +~~.~~~~~~,N,~L,F~.TL~SS,AU.AD.AREA~,AG,EK,GCR,PGO,JF~RST,WTFLA~~O~ +,MACHA~~~),MACHGA(~O~,AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T(~~I ,JCK,GCLP.RES,ZP,DP.TW. +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLC~.ELC~,VOLC~,ELC~.CF,PER.CAREA,HMOTOR, +NvENTS,TGC,ENRTAp~50~,SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVI,DELX,DELY +,ACURAC,ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS~METRIC,PENLEN QP= VP(N)*AREAP IF(JFIRST.GT.G)GO TO 1 QGC=VGC(Nl*AU IF(JFIRST.GT.3)QGC= VGC(N)*AD GO TO 2 1 QGC=O. 2 QR= QP-QGC IF(JFIRST.GE.~)QR=AG*CD*SQRT(~.*GRAV*((RES-ZP)+PGC-PTOHD*PATM)I IF(JCK.EQ.+lQR= AG*CD*SQRT(2.*GRAV*((RES-ZP)-PR+PGC-PTOHD*PATM)) IF(JFIRST.GE.7.AND.QR.GE.QP)QR= QP IF(QR.LE.O.lQR=O. RETURN END
IO
15
20
25
SUBROUTINE
DE2
1 C C C C C C C C
L
SUBROUTINE
DE2
(X.Y,VX.VY,U,DELT,N)
THIS PROGRAM SIMULTANEOUSLY. AND FUNCT2. VELOCITY (VX
SOLVES TWO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION THE TWO EQUATIONS ARE DEFINED BY FUNCTI THE OUTPUTS ARE DISTANCE (X AND Yl AND AND VYI. SEE . ..LEVY.H.,BAGGOTT.E.A., OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, P103, 1950.
10
FOR THE MATHEMATICS NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS DOVER PUBLICATIONS,
15
20
L
REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS DIMENSION X(50),Y(50),VX(501,/Y(501,RKT~5).RKX~51, +RKY(5),RKVX(5),RKVY(5),FI5),G(5l.U(50) COMMON CD.CKV,ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,WSREF,HCOL.WS,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3~50l,L,PL,FP.TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG,EK,GCR,PGO,JFIRST,WTFLA~5Ol +,MACHA(SO),MACHGA(SO),AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T(50),JCK,GCLP,RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL.HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELCI,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP~5Ol,SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAV1,DELX,DELY +,ACURAC.ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS.METRIC.PENLEN C C C C C C RKX(l)= X(N) EACH TIME INTERVAL IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR EQUAL INCREMENTS. THIS PORTION OF THE PROGRAM DETERMINES THE INITIAL VALUES THAT IS, OF THE INTEGRAL FOR THE FIRST FOUR VALUES. TO (KNOWN)TI.T2,T3,AND Tt. THESE ARE DETERMINED USING KUTTAS SIMPSONS RULE
25
AIR-WATER
SUBROUT I NE DE2
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
15
80
RKY(l)= Y(N) RKVX(l)= 4X(N) RKVY(i)= VYcN1 IF(JFIRST.EQ.4)RKVY(ll= RKVY(I)AU/AD lFLJFIRST.EQ.t)RKY(l)= 0. RKT(l)= T(N) H= DELT/Lt. f(l)= FUNCTt(RKVX(l),RKVY(t),RKT(t)) G(t)= FUNCT2~RKY(ll,RKVX(l),RKVY(l)l DO 1 K=l,Lt AKl= RKVX(K)H ALI= RKVY(K)*H AMt= H*FUNCTl(RKVX~K).RKVY~Kl,RKT(Kl) API= H*FUNCT2(RKY(K),RKVX(K),RKVY(K)) AK2= tRKVX(K)+AMl/2.)*H AL2= (RKVY(Kl+AP1/2.l*H Bi= RKYfKl+ALl/2. Cl= RKVX(K)+AMi/2. Dl= RKVY(Kl+AP1/2. El= RKT(K)+H/2. AM2 = FUNCTl(Ci,Dl,El)*H AP2 = FUNCT2(Bt,Ci,Dl)*H AK3= (RKVXfKt+AM2/2.l*H AL3= (RKVY(K)+AP2/2.)*H B2= RKY(K)+AL2/2. C2= RKVX(K)+AM2/2. D2= RKVY(K)+AP2/2. E2= RKT(Kl+H/2. AM3 = FUNCTl(C2,tl2,E21+H AP3 = FUNCT2(82.C2,D2)*H AK+= LRKVXfKl+AM31*H AL45 (RKVY fK)+APS) fH B3= RKY(K)+AL3 C3= RKVXcKl+AM3 D3= RKVY (K) +AP3 E3= RKT(K)+H AM9 = FUNCTl(C3.D3,E3)*H iI4 = FUNCT2(83.C3,D3)*H DELTX = (AKL+2.AK2+2.*AK3+AKbI/6. DELTY = fAL1+2.*AL2+2.*AL3+AL+I/6. DELTVX= tAMl+2.*AM2+2.*AM3+AM4)/6. DELTVY= (API+2.*AP2+2.*AP3+AP4)/6. RKT(K+lI= RKT(K)+H RKX(K+l)= RKX(Kl+DELTX RKY(K+l)= RKY(K)+DELTY RKVX(K+lI= RKVX(Kl+DELTVX RKVY(K+l)= RKVY(K)+DELTVY IFlJFIRST.EQ.Ei.AND.K.EQ.4)JCK= 3 F(K+l)= FUNCTl(RKVX(K+l),RKVY(K+l),RKT(K+t)) G(K+l)= FUNCT2(RKY(K+I),RKVX(K+lI,RKVY(K+l)) tF(K.EQ.2tFSAVt= G(K+l> IF(K.EQ.3)FSAV=G(K+l) CONTINUE C c C CORRECTION OF INITIAL VALUES
85
90
DELXS= 0. DELYS= 0. JCK= 2 CALL DELTD (F,DELF,DELi?F,DEL3F,DEL4F) CALL DELTD (G,DELG,DEL2G,DEL3G,DELiGI RKVX(21= RKVXLt)+H*IF(l)+DELF/2.-DEL2F/l2.+DEL3F/2~.-DEL~F/~O.) RKVY(21= RKVY~tl+H~(Gtl)+DELG/2.-DEL2G/l2.+DEL3G/2~.-DEL~G/~O.l RKX12)= RKX(li+H*LRKVX(ll+RKVX(2))/2. RKY(2)= RKY(l)+H*(RKVY(ll+RKVY(2))/2.
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE DE2
III
131
95
100
105
110
115
2 120 C C C
2 J=1,3 F(J+l)= FUNCTl(RKVX(J+l),RKVY(J+l),RKT(J+l)) G(J+l)= FUNCT2(RKY(J+l),RKVX(J+l),RKVY(J+l)) RKVX(J+2)= RKVX(J)+(F(J+2l+t.*F(J+1)+F(J))*H/3. RKVY(J+2)= RKVY(J)+~G(J+2~+4.*G(J+1)+Gol*H/3. RKX(J+2)= RKX(J)+(RKVX(J+2l+~.*RKVX(J+lltRKVX(J))*H/3. RKYlJ+2)= RKY(J)+(RKVY(J+2)+4.*RKVY[J+1)+RKVY(J))*H/3. IF~JFIRST.EQ.6.AND.J.EQ.3)JCK= 3 FC= FUNCTl(RKVX(J+2l,RKVY(J+2),RKT(J+2)1 GC= FUNCT2(RKY(J+2),RKVX(J+2l,RKVY(.+211 IF(J.EQ.l)FSAVl= GC OLDX= RKX(J+21 OLDY= RKY(Jt2) IFlJ.EQ.2)FSAV= GC RKVX(J+2)= RKVXLJ+2l+(FC-F(J+2)l*H/3. RKVYIJ+2)= RKVY(J+2)+(GC-GtJ+2))*H/3. RKX(J+2)= RKX(J+I)+H*(RKVX(J+2)+RKVX(J+1))/2. RKY(J+2)= RKY(J+1)+HX(RKVY(J+2)+RKVY(J+ll)/2. DELX= ABS(OLDX-RKX(J+2Jl DELY= ABS(OLDY-RKY(J+21) IF(DELXS.GE.DELX)DELX= DELXS IF(DELXS.GE.OELXlDELY= DELYS F(J+2)= FC G(J+2)= GC CONTINUE VALUES VX(N+I)= VY(N+ll= X(N+l)= Y(N+l)= T(N+l)= AT END OF INTEGRATION PERIOD
DO
125
RKVX(5) RKVY(51 RKX(51 RKY(5) T(N)+DELT
130
C C C C C
IF THE INTEGRATION ACCURACY IS EXCEEDED, THE PREVIOUS VALUE OF VX AND OR VY IS USED TO EXTRAPOLATE THE NEW VALUE OF X AND OR Y. IF(DELX.LE.O.Ol)GO TQ 3 VX(N+l)= VX(N)+DELT/(T(Nl-T(N-l))*(VX(Nl-VX(N-1)) P3(N+l)= P3(N)+DELT/(T(N)-T(N-l)l*(P3(N)-P3(N-l1) X(N+l)= (VX(Nl+VX(N+l))*DELT/2.+X(Nl IF(DELY.LE.O.Ol)GO TO 4 VY(N+l)= VY(N)+DELT/(TIN)-T(N-lll*(VY(N)-VY(N-1)) P3(N+l)= P3~Nl+DELT/(T(N)-T(N-l))*(P3(N)-P3(N-1)1 Y(N+I)= (VY(Nl+VY(N+l))*DELT/2.+Y(N) END OF EXTRAPOLATION
135 3
140 C C C 195
4 CKV= VY(N+l) CKX= X(N+l) RETURN END
132
SUBROUTINE
AIR-WATER
DELTD
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
I C C C C
SUBROUTINE
DELTD(A,B.E,D,DELb) THE 4TH DIFFERENCE QUANTITIES OF A SERIES
THIS PROGRAM COMPUTES OF FIVE EQUALLY SPACED
10
15
20
25
REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,WSREF,HCOL,~S,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3~50~,J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG,EK~GCR.PGO.JFIRST.WTFLA~5O~ +,MACHA(50),MACHGA~5O),AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T(5O),JCK,GCLP,RES,Z~,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELCl,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP(50),SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVl,DELX,DELY +.ACURAC,ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS,METR~C,PENLEN DIMENSION A(5),DEL(+),DEL2(3),DEL3(2) DO 1 1=1,4 I DEL(I)= A(I+I)-A(11 DO 2 K=1,3 2 DEL2(K)= DEL(K+l)-DEL(K) DO 3 JK=l,2 3 DEL3(JK)= DEL2(JK+l)-DEL2cJKl B= DEL(l) E= DEL2(1) D= DEL3(11 DELq= DEL3(2)-DEL3(1) RETURN END
FUNCTION
FUNCTI
FUNCTION
FUNCTl(CA.DA,EAl GIVES THE VALUE OF THE SECOND ORDER EQUATION OF FLOW DISTANCE WITH RESPECT WATER IN THE PENSTOCK.THE VALUE OF THE IS FUNCTI.
i
5 C C C C
THIS PROGRAM DIFFERENTIAL TIME FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL
TO
10
15
20
25
30
REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC.PATM,PGC,WSREF,HCOL,WS.QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3(50),J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG.EK,GCR,PGO,JFIRST.WTFLA(50) +,MACHA~50~.MACHGA~5OI.AVOL,PIN.CVEL.T~5O~.JCK.GCLP.RES.ZP.DP.TW. +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA.VOLCl.ELC1,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMO;OR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP(SO) ,SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVl,DELX,DELY +,ACURAC,ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN PGO= lOO.-GCR*EA CD= ~1.049E-0~~+~7.062E-03l*PGO-~5.B3OE-O5~*PGO**2+~2.39BE-O6~ +*PGO**3-(3.578E-0Bl*PGO**~+~l.9B7E-IO)*PGO**5 VHP= CA**2/(2.*GRAVl VHR= (CA-DA*AU/AREAP)**2/(2.XGRAV) IF(JFIRST.GE.q)VHR=(CA-DA*AD/AREAP)**2/(2.*GRAV) PR= RES-ZP-VHR*(AREAP/AG/CD)**2 PGD= PGO/lOO. BH= PGD*SO/(RES-ZP) CC= (BH*(CD/PGD)**2+SQRT((CD/PGD)**4*BH**2+~.*oXX2))/2. PT= PR-DP PP= PR+2.*AG/(AG+AREAP)*(2./CC/PGD*VHR~(AREAP/AG)**2-2.*VHP*AREAP +/AG) PVAPOR= VAPOR-PTOHD*PATM IF(PT.GT.PVAPORlGO TO 1 PT= PVAPOR 1 P3(J)= PT FUNCTl= GRAV/PL*~PP-VHP*~TLOSS*SLOSS-l.+FP*PL/DP~+ZP-TW-HMOTOR~ RETURN END
APPENDIX
FUNCTION FUNCT2
III
133
FUNCTION
FUNCT2(BB.CB.DB) SECOND ORDER RESPECT TO TIME THE VALUE OF THE
c
5 C C C C
THIS PROGRAM GIVES THE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF DEPTH WITH FOR THE WATER IN THE GATE CHAMBER. DIFFERENTIAL IS FUNCT2.
10
15
20
REAL MACHA,MACHGA.NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV.ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,WSREF.HCOL,WS,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP.P~(~~),J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD.AREAP,AG,EK,GCR.PGO,JFIRST,WTFLA~~O~ +,MACHA~~O~,MACHGA~~O~,AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T~~O~,JCK,GCLP.RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELCI,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTDR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP~50),SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVI,DELX,DELY +.ACURAC,ABSTEM.GASCTE,VAPOR,AGCCTE,SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN VHGC= D0**2/(2.*GRAV) VHR= (CB-DB*AU/AREAP)**2/0 IF(JFIRST.GE.4)VHR= (CB-DB*AD/AREAPl**2/0 PR= RES-ZP-VHR*(AREAP/AG/CD)*X2 PT= PR-DP PVAPOR= VAPOR-PTOHD*PATM IF(PT.GT.PVAPOR)GO TO 1 PT= PVAPOR 1 P3(J)= PT IF(JFIRST.GE.4)GO TO 2 C C C WATER SURFACE IN UPPER GATE CHAMBER
25
30 C C
L
FUNCT2= GRAV/(HCOL-BB+GCLL*AUlAD)*(PGC-PTOHD*PATM-PT+HCOL-BB ++GCLL-VHGC*((l.+FP*GCLL/HYDDIA+EK)XoXXZ-I.)/2.) RETURN WATER 2 SURFACE IN LOWER GATE CHAMBER
35
IF(JCK.EQ.3)GO FUNCT2= GRAV*( +VHGC*FP/HYDDIA) IF(DB.LT.O.)FUNCTZ= +VHGC*FP/HYDDIAl RETURN
TO 3 (PGC-PTOHD*PATM-PT)/(GCLL-BB)+l.OGRAV*((PGC-PTOHD*PATM-PT)/(GCLL-BB)+l.O+
40 C C C C q5 3 EXTRAPOLATION OF FUNCT2 TO ENTRANCE (ZERO LENGTH OF WATER COLUMN) JCK=3 MORE WATER IN GATE CHAMBER FUNCT2= RETURN END 2.*FSAV-FSAVl OF PENSTOCK SIGNIFIES NO
SUBROUTINE
DE1
1 C C C C
SUBROUTINE
DEI(X,VX,DELT)
THIS PROGRAM SOLVES THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF MOTION FOR FLOW IN THE PENSTOCK WHEN THE WATER SURFACE IS IN THE THE OUTPUTS ARE DISTANCE(X) AND VELOCITY (VX), PENSTOCK. REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS DIMENSION X[50l,VX150),RX(5),RVX(S),RT(5),RF(5) COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,~SREF,HCOL,WS.QR.QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3(50),M,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG,EK,GCR,PGO,JFIRST,WTFLA~50~
10
AIR-WATER
SUBROUTINE DE1
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
+,MACHA~5O~,MACHGA~5O~,AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T~5O~,JCK,GCLP,RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELCl,VOLC2.ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP~50~,SO,VOLR,CKX.PR,FSAV,FSAVI.DELX,DELY +,ACURAC,ABSTEM.GASCTE,VAPOR.AGCCTE,SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN 15 C C DETERMINATION OF INITIAL VALUES
20
25
30
35
40
N= M-l RX(l)= X(N) RVX(l)= VX(N1 RT(ll= T(N) H= DELT/4. RF(l)= FUNCT3(RX(l).RVX(1l,RT~l)) DO 1 K=l,t AKl= FUNCT3(RX(K),RVX(Kl,RT(K))*H Al= RX(K)+RVX(K)*H/2.+AKl*H/8. Bl= RVX(K)+AK1/2. Cl= RT(K)+H/2. AK2= FUNCT3~Al,BI.Cl)*H B2= RVX(K)+AK2/2. AK3= FUNCT3(AI.B2,Cll*H A3= RX(K)+RVX(K)*H+AK3*H/2. 83= RVX(K)+AK3 C3= RT[K)+H AK4= FUNCT3(A3,B3,C3)*H DELTX= H*(RVX(K)+(AKl+AK2+AK31/6.) DELTVX= (AK1+2.*AK2+2.*AK3+AK41/6. RX(K+l)= RX(K)+DELTX RVX(K+l)= RVX(K)+DELTVX RT(K+l)= RT(K)+H RF(K+l)= FUNCT3(RXLK+l),RVX(K+l),RT(K+ll) CONTINUE C CORRECTION OF INITIAL VALUES
45
50
55
2 60 C C C
DELY= 0. DELXS= 0. CALL DELTD[RVX,DELF,DEL2F,DEL3F,DEL4F) RX(2)= RX(1)+HX(RVX(I)+DELF/2.-DEL2F/12.+DEL3F/24.-DEL4F/4O.) CALL DELTD(RF,DELF,DEL2F,DEL3F,DEL4Fl RVX(2)= RVX~1~+H*~RF~1~+DELF/2.-DEL2F/12.+DEL3F/24.-DEL4F/40.1 DO 2 J=l.3 RF(J+l)= FUNCT3(RX(J+l),RVX(J+ll,RT(J+l)) RVX(J+21= (RF(J+2)+4.*RF(J+l)+RF(J))*H/3.+RVX(Jl OLDX= RX(J+21 RX(J+2)= (RVX(J+2)+4.*RVX(J+l)+RVXLJ))*H/3.+RX(JI DELX= ABSCOLDX-RX(J+2)) IF(DELXS.GE.DELX)DELX= DELXS CONTINUE VALUES AT END OF INTEGRATION PERIOD
65
VX(N+I)= RVX(5) XtN+ll= RX(51 CKX= X(N+l) CKV= VX(N+l) T(N+l)= T(N)+DELT RETURN END
APPENDIX
FUNCTION FUNCT3
III
135
FUNCTION C C C C
FUNCT3(AC,EC,DC) GIVES THE VALUE OF THE SECOND ORDER EQUATION OF FLOW DISTANCE WITH RESPECT A FREE WATER SURFACE IN THE PENSTOCK.
THIS PROGRAM DIFFERENTIAL TO TIME FOR
10
15
20
25
30
REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC,PATM,PGC,~SREF,HCOL,~S,QR,QP.GRAV,PTDHD, +PP,P3~50~,J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD.AREAP,AG,EK,GCR,PGO.JFlRST,WTFLA~5O~ +.MACHA~5Ol,MACHGA~5Ol,AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T~5Ol,JCK,GCLP,RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELCl,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP~5Ol,SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVl,DELX,DELY +,ACURAC,ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR.AGCCTE,SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN JN= J-l VHP= BC**2/(2.*GRAV) PGO= lOO.-GCR*DC IF(PGO.LE.O.)GO TO I CD= ~1.049E-O~l+~7.062E-03~*PGO-~5.83OE-O5l*PGO**2+~2.398E-O6~ +*PGO**3-(3.57BE-08)*PGO**4+~l.987E-10l*PGO**5 PGD= PGO/lOO. BH= PGD*SO/(RES-ZP) CC= (BH*(CD/PGD)**2+SQRT((CD/PGDl **q*BH**2+4.*(CD/PGD)**2))/2. GO TO 2 1 PGO= 0. CD= 0. PGD= 0. cc= ,611 2 HVC= SO*CC*PGD lF(WS.LE.ZP)GO TO 6 AVOLCK= AC*AREAP-QR*cDC-T(JNl)-VOLR IF(AVOLCK.LT.O.)AVOLCK= .lE-30 CKWS= GCLP-AVOLCK/VOLCl IF(JCK.EQ.G)GO TO 6 IF(JCK.EQ.5lGO TO 3 C C JUMP IN CONDUIT, GATE SUBMERGED
35
40
45
DEPT= SQRT(AVOLCK/3,5/DP) 0 PR= DP-DEPT QR= AG*CD*SQRT(2.*GRAV*((RES-ZP)-PR+PGC-PTOHDXPATM)) IF(PR.LT.HVC)GO TO 3 JCK= 4 IF(PGD.LE.O.)GO TO 4 PP= QR**2/(CC*PGD*AG*AREAP*GRAV)+PR*(DP-DEPT)/(2.*DPl-2.*VHP ++DP/2.+PGC-PTOHD*PATM GO TO 5 C C JUMP IN CONDUIT, GATE NOT SUBMERGED
50
55
65 C
3 PR= HVC JCK=5 IF(PGD.LE.O.)GO TO 4 PP= (2.*CD**2*AGX(RES-ZP+PGC-PTOHD*PATM))/(PGD*CC*AREAP) ++PR*CC*AG*PGD/(2.*AREAP)-2.*VHP+DP/2.+PGC-PTOHD*PATM DEPT2= QR*QR/~16.1*DPXDP*CC*SO*PGDl+HVC*HVC-QP*QP/~l6.I*DP*AREAP~ IF(PP.LE.DP.AND.DEPT2.GT.O.)PP= SQRT(DEPT2)+PGC-PTOHD*PATM IF(DEPTE.LE.O.)GO TO 6 GO TO 5 4 PP= PR+PGC-PTOHDPATM 5 WS= ZP+PR IF(PP.LE.DPIWS= ZP+PP PL= WS-PENLEN IF(CKWS.LT.(ZP+PRl.AND.JFIRST.EQ.8lGO TO 6 FUNCT3= GRAV/PL*(PP-VHP*(TLOSS*SLOSS-I.+FP*PL/DP)+ZP-TW-HMOTOR) RETURN
AIR-WATER
FUNCTION FUNCT3
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
C C 6 70
WATER
SURFACE
BELOW
GATE
SEAT
75
80
85
90
95
QRTST= AG*CD*SQRT(2.*GRAV*(RES-ZP+PGC-PTOHDXPATMll IF(QRTST.GT.QP)QRTST= QP JCK= 6 DT= (DC-T(JN)) IF(DT.LE.O.lGO TO 7 DQRDT= (QR-QRTST)/DT WS= ZP+DP-(ACXAREAP-(2.*QRTST-DQRDT*DT/2.-VOLR)/VOLCl IF(WS.LE.ELCl)WS= ELC2-(AC*AREAP-(2.*QRTST-DQRDT*DT)*DT/2.+VOLR)/VOLC2 7 IF(WS.GE.GCLP)GO TO 8 PL= WS-PENLEN SURAR= CF*SIN((GCLP-WS)/PERl IF(SURAR.LE.CAREA)SURAR= CAREA 8 IF(ABS(GCLP-WSI.LE.DP/q.lSURAR= AREAP VWS= (AREAP*BC-QRTST)/SURAR VHWS= VWS**2/12.*GRAVl IF(PGD.GT.O.1 GO TO 9 VHVC= 0. GO TO 10 9 VHVC= (QRTST/(AG*CC))**2/(2.*GRAV) 10 VHUS= SQRT(VHVC**2+VHWS**2) FUNCT3= GRAV/PL*(PGC-PTOHD*PATM+WS-TW-HMOTOR+VHUS-VHP* +(TLOSS*SLOSS+FP*PL/DP) 1 IF(WS.LT.ELCl)FUNCT3= GRAV/PL*(PGC-PTOHDXPATM-VHP* +(TLOSS*SLOSS+FP*PL/DP)+VHWS+WS+WS-TW-HMOTOR) PP= PTOHD*(ABSPGC-PATM) IF(WS.GE.ZP)PP= WSZP PR=HVC RETURN END
SUBROUTINE
AMACH
SUBROUTINE +CKA)
AMACH(CINC,FRICT,AVENT,DELT,PGCINC,WTAIR,CONST>
k
5 C C
THIS PROGRAM FUNCTION OF
GIVES THE AIR FLOW RATE IN THE WATER SURFACE ELEVATION
THE
AIR
VENT
AS
10
I5
20 C
25
REAL MlR,MlI.MACHIN.MACHGC REAL MACHA,MACHGA,NVENTS COMMON CD,CKV,ABSPGC,PATM.PGC,WSREF,HCOL,WS,QR,QP,GRAV,PTOHD, +PP,P3~50~,J,PL,FP,TLOSS,AU,AD,AREAP,AG,EK,GCR,PGO,JFlRST,WTFLA~5O~ +,MACHA(5O),MACHGA(5O),AVOL,PIN,CVEL,T~50),JCK,GCLP,RES,ZP,DP,TW, +UGCLGC,GCLL,HYDDIA,VOLCl,ELC1,VOLC2,ELC2,CF,PER,CAREA,HMOTOR, +NVENTS,TGC,ENRTAP(SO),SO,VOLR,CKX,PR,FSAV,FSAVl,DELX,DELY +,ACURAC,ABSTEM,GASCTE,VAPOR.AGCCTE.SLOSS,METRIC,PENLEN EQ(MACH)= (I.-MACH*MACH)/(1.4*MACHXMACHl+.8571* +ALOG((1.2*MACH*MACH)/(l.+.2*MACH*MACH)) JN= J-l MACHIN= MACHA MACHGC= MACHGACJNI IF~ABS(MACHA(JNl).LE.0.0001lMACHIN=.0001 IF(ABS(MACHGA~JN)).LE.0.0001lMACHGC=.0OOl SETS AIR FLOW DlRECTION INTO VENT CKSN= 1. IF(CKV.LT.O.)CKSN= -1. IF(CKSN.LT.O.)MACHIN= CKSN*ABS(MACHIN) IF(CKSN.LT.O.)MACHGC= CKSN*ABS(MACHGC)
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE AMACH MlI= 0.50 CKASAV= 0.001 DMII= -0.24999 30 C C C COMPUTATION OF AIR VOLUME IN
III
137
GATE
CHAMBER
AND
PENSTOCK
35
40 C C C C C
RC= 1./(1.2)**3.5 OVER= 0 AVOL= AU*(TGC-WS) AVOLU= AU*(TGC-UGCLGC) IF(WS.LE.UGCLGClAVOL= AVOLU+(UGCLGC-WSl*AD IF(WS.LE.GCLPlAVOL= AVOLU+AD*GCLL+(GCLP-WSl*VOLCl IF(JFIRST.EQ.GlAVOL= AVOLU+(UGCLGC-GCLPl*AD IF(JCK.GE.4lAVOL= AVOLU+AD*GCLL+AREAP*CKX-VOLR-QRXDELT IF(WS.LE.ELCl)AVOL= AVOLU+AD*GCLL+(ELC2-WS)*VOLC2 COMPUTATION COEFFICIENT, GIVEN THE DO OF THE PRESSURE RATIO,THE COMPRESSIBLE DISCHARGE THE REAL MACH NUMBER AT I,AND THE AIR FLOW RATE IDEAL MACH NUMBER AT THE BEGINNING OF THE DUCT REGION
45
50
1 2 55 C
60 C
C 65 C C 70 + + 15 C C C C
14 NDO=l,30 R= 1./(1.+.2*M11**2)**3.5 IF((R/RC).LE.l.)GO TO 1 COMPRESSIBLE DISCHARGE.COEFFICIENT C= l.-~I.-CINC~*~I.-.7*~CINC-.1~*~1./R-l.~/~l./RC-I.~~ GO TO 2 C= l.-~I.-CINC~*~I.-.7*~CINC-.1~-~.27+.I*C1NCl*~l.-~R/RC~**2ll RADICL= 1.+.B*C*C*(M1I*M1I+.2*M1I*MlI*M11*MII) ROOT= SQRT(RADICL1 TRUE MACH NUMBER AT AIR VENT MlR= SQRT((-l.+ROOT)/.4) IF(ABS(MlRl.LE.O.OO001)M1R= .lE-lO*CKSN IF(CKSN.LT.O.JMIR= -l.*MIR MACHIN= MlR ENTROPY INCREASE IN INLET REGION ENT= (C*MlI/MlR)**7. 1F(ABSlM1I).LE.0.001)ENT=l. STAGNATION PRESSURE AT END OF INLET PIN= ENT*PATM IF(CKSN.LT.O.)PIN= ENT*PGCTRL VELOCITY COEFFICIENT CVEL= fMlR/MlI)**2/C MASS FLOW RATE WTFLA(J)= AGCCTE/SQRT(AESTEM*GASCTE/(1.4*GRAV))*AVENT*PATM*ENTX MIR*NVENTS/(1.+.2*M1R**21**3 IF~CKSN.LT.O.)WTFLA(J)=AGCCTE/SQRT(ABSTEM*GASCTE/ll.4*GRAV))* AVENT*PGCTRL*ENT*CKSNX(1.+.2*MlR**2)**3 IF(METRIC.EQ.llWTFLAO= WTFLA(Jl/(AGCCTE*SQRT(GRAV)l COMPUTATION CONSIDERING OF MACH NO. THE FRICTION AT OUTLET OF AIR DUCT LOSSES IN THE DUCT
80
85 c
90
FMAX= EQ(MACHIN) IF(FRICT.GT.FMAX)GO TO 5 MACHGC= MACHIN CKM= -0.01 DM= MACHGC/2. IF(DM.GE.O.S)DM= (I.-MACHGC)/2. EQRH= FMAX EQLH= EQCMACHGC) THIS LOOP FINDS THE VALUE OF DO 4 K=1,35 EQLH= EQCMACHGC) CK= EQRH-EQLH-FRICT CALL NEWX(CK,CKM.MACHGC,DM) IF(K.EQ.I)GO TO 3
MACHGC
AIR-WATER
SUBROUTINE AMACH
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
95
3 Lt
Tl= ABS(CK/FRICT) IF(Tl.LE.0.002)GO CKM= CK CONTINUE GO TO 12 COMPUTATION OF AIR
TO
12
100
C C 5
FLOW
RAl E
WITH
MACH
1 AT
DUCT
OUTLET
105
110 6
115
120 8 9 125
130
10 11
135
MACHGC= 1. MACHIN = 1. DMIN= -0.25 c2= -0.01 DO 6 N=1,30 EQRH= EQ(MACHIN) Cl= EQRH-FRICT CALL NEWX(Cl,C2,MACHIN,DMIN) c2= Cl Tl= ABS(Cl/FRICT) IF(TI.LE.O.OO5)GO TO 7 CONTINUE MII= MACHIN DMIN= -0.25 c2= -0.01 MlI= I.0 DO IO MOON=l,30 R= 1./(1.+.2*M11**21**3.5 IF((R/RC).LE.I.)GO TO 8 C= l.-~l.-CINC~*~I.-.7*~CINC-.l~*~l./R-l.~/~l./RC-1.ll GO TO 9 C= l.-~l.-CINC~*~l.-.7*~CINC-.I~-~.27+.l*CINCl*~l.-~R/RCl**2~~ RADICL= l.+.B*C**2*(MlI**2+.2*Ml1**4l ROOT= SQRTCRADICL) MIR= SQRT((-l.+ROOT)/.4) Cl= MACHIN-MIR CALL NEWX(Cl,C2,MlI,DMIN) Tl= ABS(CI/MlRl IF~Tl.LE.O.OO5lGO TO 11 CONTINUE ENT= (C*MlI/MIR)**7. PIN= ENT*PATM CVEL= (MIR/MlI)**2/C WTFLA(J)= AGCCTE/SQRT(ABSTEM*GASCTE/(1,4*GRAVll*AVENT*PATM*ENT* MlR*NVENTS/(l.+.2*MlR**2)**3
140 C
IF(METRIC.EQ.l)WTFLA(J)= JFIRST= 11 GO TO 15 ADIABATIC CHAMBER EXPANSION OF PRESSURE PGCTST AIR
WTFLA(J)/(AGCCTE*SQRT(GRAV))
IN
THE
GATE
CHAMBER
GIVES
THE
GATE
145
12
+ 150 C C C
RHOA= (2.*WTAIR+(WTFLA(JN)+WTFLA(J))*DELT)/l2.*AVOLl PGCTST= CONST*RHOA**1.4 IF(JFIRST.EQ.4.OR.JFIRST.EQ.7)PGCTST= DELT)/AVOL)**1.4 COMPUTATION OF PRESSURE AT END OF DUCT
CONST*((WTAIR+WTFLA(J)
FLOW
SECTION
i55
PGCTRL= PIN*MACHIN/MACHGC*SQRT(((l.+.2*MACHGC**21/ (l.+.2*MACHIN**2))**6) IF(CKSN.LT.O.)PGCTRL= PATM/ENT*MACHIN/MACHGC*SQRT(((1.+.2*MACHGC **2)/(1,+.2*MACHIN**2)1**6) CKA = PGCTRL - PGCTST ABSPGC = (PGCTRL + PGCTST) / 2. PGC = PTOHD*ABSPGC
APPENDIX
SUBROUTINE AMACH
III
139
160
165
170
175
IFIABStCKAl.LE.PGCINC)GO TO 15 CALL NEWX(CKA,CKASAV,MlI.DMII) CKASAV= CKA IF(MlI.GE.O.O.AND.CKV.GE.O.O)GO TO 13 IF(MlI.LT.O.O.AND.CKV.LT.O.O)GO TO 13 MII= AEiS(MII)*CKSN/2. DMlI= DMlI/2. 13 IFIABSIMlI).GE.l.238)MlI= 1.238*CKSN 1Lt CONTINUE OVER= 1 15 MACHA( MlR MACHGA(J)= MACHGC IF(CKSN.LT.O.)MACHGA[J)= MlR IF(CKSN.LT.O.)MACHA(Jl= MACHGC IF~OVER.EQ.l)WRITE(3,16lWS 16 FORMAT(lHI,l9X,35HONE OR MORE LOOPS IN AMACH + 30X,LtHWS = ,F9.21 RETURN END
EXCEEDED
SUBROUTINE
NEWX
1 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
SUBROUTINE
NEWX(Cl,C2,X,D)
10
THIS SUBROUTINE DETERMINES THE NEXT TRIAL VALUE OF X WHICH SATISFIES A FUNCTION C= F(X). IF THE CORRECT ROOT LIES BETWEEN THE OLD VALUE OF THE FUNCTION (Cl) AND THAT VALUE JUST COMPUTED (C2), THEN THE INCREMENT IS HALVED. OTHERWISE, X IS INCREMENTED BY D. THE LOGIC OF THIS PROGRAM RESULTS IN INCREASES OF C AS X INCREASES. IF THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE THEN D MUST BE MADE NEGATIVE IN THE CALLING ROUTINE. IN THE CALLING ROUTINE THE,INITIAL VALUE OF Cl SHOULD BE EQUAL TO ZERO. Cl= PREVIOUS C2= VALUE OF X= INDEPENDENT D= INCREMENT IF(Cl.GT.O.)GO IF(C2.LT.O.lGO D= D/2. GO TO 3 1 X= X+D RETURN 2 IF(C2.GT.O.)GO D= D/2. GO TO 1 3 x= X-D RETURN END VALUE OF FUNCTION VARIABLE OF X TO TO 2 1 FUNCTION JUST COMPUTED
15
20
TO
25
140
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
COMPUTATION OF AIR FLOW INTO THE GATE CHAMBER EMERGENCY GATE CLOSURE IN THE PENSTOCKINTAKE STRUCTURE MORROW POINT DAM
DURING
AN
ATMOSPHERIC 77.60
PRESSURE KPA
SPECIFIC .9738
MASS OF KG1CU.M.
AIR
ONE
8tOMM FLOW COEFF DISCH.
BY 915MM QUANTITIES
AIR
VENT
TIME
GATE OPENING (O/O) 100.0 99.0 98.0 97.0 96.0 95.0 94.1 93.1 92.1 91,l 90. I 89.1 88.1 87.1 86.1 85.1 84.2 83.2 82.2 81 .2 80.2 79.2 78.2 77.2 76.2 75.2 74.3 73.3 72.3 71.3 70.3 69.3 68.3 67.3 66.3 65.3 64.4 63.4 62.4 61 ,t 60.4
Q RESERVO (CMS) 61 ,845 61 ,800 61 ,685 61 ,510 61 ,329 61.198 61.128 61.132 61 ,201 61 ,306 61.416 61 ,508 61 ,553 61 ,537 61 ,474 61 .371 61 ,262 61.175 61.114 61 ,089 61. 102 61.139 61.184 61 .203 61 ,210 61.194 61.154 61 .097 61 ,036 60.976 60.922 60.883 60.851 60.830 60.819 60.791 60.757 60.703 60.651 60.595 60.528
1R
(SEC1 0.0 1 .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 1 I .o 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21 .o 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31 .o 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0
93 :91 .89 86 :84 82 :81 79 :77 75 :74 72 :71 69 :68 67 165 64 :63 62 :61 .60 59 :58 57 :56 .55 .54 53 152 .51 .50 .49 .48 .47 .47 .46 .45 .44 .43 .43
Q GATE CHAMBER ICMSI 0.000 ,045 160 335 :515 .646 ,715 ,711 ,642 ,537 ,426 ,333 ,288 ,301 ,362 462 : 568 ,652 ,710 ,731 ,715 675 : 625 602 :590 60 1 1635 ,686 ,741 .794 .841 ,872 .897 ,909 .911 ,929 953 : 996 1.035 1.079 1.133
Q PENSTOCK (CMS) 61 ,845 61 ,845 61 ,845 61 ,845 61 .844 61 ,844 61 ,843 61 ,843 61 ,843 61 ,842 61 ,842 61.841 61.840 61 ,839 61 ,836 61 ,834 61 ,831 61 ,827 61 .824 61 ,821 61 ,817 61 ,813 61 ,809 61 ,805 61.800 61 ,795 61 ,790 61 ,784 61 ,777 61 ,770 61 ,763 61 ,755 61 ,747 61 ,739 61 ,730 61 ,720 61 .710 61 ,699 61 ,687 61 ,674 61 ,661
APPENDIX
III
141
DURING
AN
ATMOSPHERIC 77.60
PRESSURE KPA
SPECIFIC .9738
MASS OF KG1CU.M.
AIR
ONE
840MM BY 915MM WATER PRESSURES HEAD ACROSS UNIT (Ml 122.10 122. IO 122.10 122.10 122.10 122.10 122.10 122.09 122.09 122.09 122.09 122.09 122.09 122.08 122.07 122.07 122.06 122.05 122.04 122.03 122.02 122.00 121.99 121 .98 121 .96 121.95 121.93 121.91 121 .89 121 .87 121 .85 121 .83 121 .80 121 .78 121 .75 121 .72 121.69 121 .65 121 .62 121 .58 121 .54
AIR
I/ENT
TIME
ws
ELEV (Ml 2181.11 2181.11 2181.10 2181 .09 2181 .05 2181 .Ol 2180.96 2180.91 2180.86 2180.82 2180.78 2180.76 2180.73 2180.71 2180.69 2180.66 2180.62 2180.58 2180.53 2180.48 2180.42 2180.37 2180.33 2180.28 2180.24 2180.19 2180.15 2180. 10 2180.05 2179.99 2179.94 2179.87 2179.81 2179.74 2179.68 2179.61 2179.54 2179.47 2179.40 2179.32 2179.24
END GATE CHAMBER (Ml 21 .06 21.03 21.01 20.98 20.96 20.93 20.90 20.87 20.84 20.80 20.76 20.13 20.69 20.65 20.61 20.58 20.54 20.50 20.47 20.42 20.38 20.33 20.28 20.24 20.19 20.14 20.09 20.04 19.98 19.93 19.87 19.82 19.75 19.69 19.62 19.55 19.48 19.41 19.33 19.25 19.17
VENA CONTRACTA (Ml 25. 18 25.15 25. 13 25.10 25.08 25.05 25.02 24.99 24.96 24.92 24.88 24.85 24.81 24.77 24.73 24.70 24.66 24.62 24.59 24.54 24.50 24.45 24.40 24 36 24.31 24.26 24.21 24.16 24. 10 24.05 23.99 23.94 23.87 23.81 23.74 23.67 23.60 23.53 23.45 23.37 23.29
PENSTOCK
(SEC1 0.0 I .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21 .o 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31 .o 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0
(M) 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.55 24.54 24.54 24.54 24.54 24.54 24.53 24.52 24.51 24.51 24.50 24.48 24.47 24.46 24.45 24.44 24.43 24.41 24.40 24.38 24.36 24.34 24.32 24.30 24.27 24.25 24.22 24.19 24.16 24.13 24.10 24.06 24.02 23.98
142
AIR-WATER
FLOW IN HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
DURING
AN
ATMOSPHERIC 77.60
PRESSURE KPA
SPECIFIC .9738
MASS OF KG1CU.M.
AIR
ONE
8LtOMM BY 915MM AIR AIR FLOW PROPERTIES OUTLET AIR VEL lM/SEC) 0.0 .O .3 .3 .7 8 I:0 .9 .9 7 16 .4 .4 .3 .6 .5 .8 8 l:o 9 1:o 8 l:o 6 l:o 6 I:1 7 1:2 8 1:3 I .o 1.3 1 .o 1.5 9 1:6 8 I:8 1 .o 2.0 AIR FLOW RATE
VENT
TIME
INLET AIR VEL (M/SEC) 0.0 .O .3 3 :6 7 :8 .a .8 .6 .5 .4 .4 3 15 .4 .7 7 :8 8 :8 7 :8 .5 8 :5 .9 6 I:1 7 1:1 8 1:1 8 1:3 8 I:4 7 I:6 8 1:7
(SEC) 0.0 1 .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21 .o 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31 .o 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0
(KG/SEC) 0.000 000 :243 ,243 ,547 ,608 ,730 669 :669 ,486 ,425 ,304 ,304 ,243 ,425 ,365 ,608 ,608 ,730 ,669 730 :608 ,730 .425 ,730 ,425 ,790 486 :912 ,608 ,973 ,730 .973 730 I :095 669 1 :216 608 1:338 730 1:459
SPECIFIC MASS OF AIR (KG/CU Ml 9738 : 9734 .9741 .9742 .9737 .9739 .9739 .9739 9740 :9741 9738 : 9737 .9739 9736 : 9740 .9739 .9735 .9738 .9738 9737 : 9736 .9734 974 1 : 9737 .9737 9737 : 9739 .9738 .973B .9741 9739 : 9742 .9740 .9735 9740 : 9738 9742 : 9736 .9734 9735 : 9737
GATE CHAMBER PRESSURE (KPAI 77.60 77.58 77.62 77.62 77.59 77.60 77.60 77.60 77.61 77.61 77.60 77.59 77.60 77.59 77.61 77.60 77.58 77.60 77.60 77.59 77.58 77.57 77.62 77.59 77.59 77.59 77.60 77.60 77.60 77.61 77.60 77.62 77.61 77.58 77.61 77.60 77.62 77.59 77.57 77.58 77.59
APPENDIX
III
DURING AN
143
ATMOSPHERIC 77.60
PRESSURE KPA
SPECIFIC .9738
MASS OF KG/CU.M.
AIR
ONE 840MM BY COMPUTATIONAL TIME ACCURACY GATE CHAMBER PRESS (PA1 0. 44. -33. -93. 16. -7. -9. -6. -22. -26. 6. 11. -4. 20. -17. -5. 3Lt. 5. -2. 11. 28. 49. -3Lt. 9. 11. 13. -4. 6. -4. -27. -19. -45. -2Lt. 32. -21. 7. -96. 23. 47. 41. 5.
915MM AIR VENT PROPERTIES ERROR PENSTOCK FLOW CONDITION I *LAST PAGE 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
INTEGRATION GATE CHAMBER (Ml 0.0000 0000 :oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 : 0000 .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 :oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 :oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 : 0000 .oooo .oooo .oooo
(SEC1 0.0 1 .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 19.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21 .o 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31 .o 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0
(Ml 0.0000 .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 :oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 :oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 :a000 .oooo .oooo .oooo 0000 : 0000 .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo .oooo
LEGEND * 1 2 3 4 5 6 WATER SURFACE WATER SURFACE WATER SURFACE HYDRAULIC JUMP HYDRAULIC JUMP WATER SURFACE IN UPPER GATE CHAMBLH BELOW TOP OF GATE JUST ENTERING PENSTOCK F-ILLS PENSTOCK, GATE FILLS PENSTOCK, GATE IN PENSTOCK
SUBMERGED FREE FLOW
Printed on RecycledPaper
.+I, s GOVERNMENT
PRINTING
OFFICE
1993-839-572
On November 6, 1979, the Bureau of Reclamation was renamed the Water and Power Resources Service in the U.S. Department of the interior.
SELECTED
ENGINEERING
MONOGRAPHS
Monograph
No.
Title Multiple Correlation in Forecasting Seasonal Runoff Welded Steel Penstocks Design and Construction Stress Analysis of Concrete Pipe Friction Factors for Large Conduits Flowing Full Theory and Problems of Water Percolation
13 14 19 20 25 26 27 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38
Estimating Foundation Settlement by One-Dimensional Consolidation Tests Beggs Deformeter Stress Analysis of Single-Barrel Conduits Design Criteria for Concrete Arch and Gravity Dams Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators Rapid Method of Construction Control for Embankments Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates Stress Analysis of Hydraulic Turbine parts Ground-water Movement Stress Analysis of Wye Branches of Cohesive Soil
Control of Cracking in Mass Concrete Structures Effect of Snow Compaction on Runoff from Rain or Snow Guide for Preliminary Design of Arch Dams Hydraulic Model Studies for Morrow Point Dam Potential Economic Benefits from the Use of Radioisotopes in Flow Measurements through High-Head Turbines and Pumps Estimating Reversible Pump-Turbine Characteristics Selecting Large Pumping Units Air-Water Flow in Hydraulic Structures
39 40 41

Air-Water Flow Design Guide

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A

ENGINEERING MONOGRAPH 41 NO.

from the Springfield,

National Technical Information Virginia 22 16 I.

SECURITY CLASS (THIS REPORT)

AIR-WATER FLOW IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

United States Department of the Interior

velocity jet from a slide gate. PBOI-D-792 75

U.S. GOVERNMENT DENVER,

LETTER Symbol Quantity

and QUANTITIES-Continued Symbol rs s SO

LETTER Symbol Quantity

and QUANTITIES-Continued Symbol E E, Quantity

sigma tau upsilon psi omega

= ha2 tdp/dx) 2PV = -VD

60 61 61 62 62 65 65 65 66 69 77 77 79 80 80 80 81 81 82 83 87 93 95 97 113 113 113 115 118

the air and a free jet

Terminal Velocity Still Water.

= radius of curvature af I the bubble cap, millimeters,/ Wake region-, /

Bubble Size in Shear Flows

critical bubble size was developed by Hinze [35]. The equation is

Velocity of Bubbles in Turbulent

of energy grade line=hl/L

channel flow, Killen

flow regimes in open channel

d= water depth of computational point

Ho = total head on crest

Hickox [34] who gave L,=14.7

(24) where R,=distance Reynolds number=? by

the value of b, can be approx-

where wa=vohme WW =volume

By reversing the limits of integration in equation 36, it can be shown that

--j-T-s=standard deviation of kvave ) height distribution

equation 35 with equation 37

l-C, -=2(1--P,) 1-ct

I-Cm AIR CONCENTRATION MSTRIBUTION I-C+

CUMULATIVE GAUSSIAN PROBABILITY

Gaussian probability and distributions in the mix-

of channel flow on steep slopes, Straub and Anderson

fi=Q" and C= B B+l QW

The first independent parameters in the parenthesis of equation 47 can be written as 1 -= P* *o

The ratio of viscous forces to inertial forces can be written as

where W= Weber number =

OPEN where R = Reynolds number

A = cross sectional area of water prism W = wetted perimeter

A=cross sectional area of water prism B = top width of water prism

The curve ao=(sin Q)~W 63F

bY 0 < i? < 0.6

d = flow depth (without aeration 1 db = bulked flow depth

Michels-Lovely [54] n Big Hill Chute

Spring Gully Chute Glenmaggie Spil I wq

Thorsky, Tilp, Haggman [ + Pasco Chute -

in open channel flow.

Discharge Q= 20 m3/s Chute width B = 15m Mannings n = 0.010

Actual flow condition

True mean depth

of aerated flow depth.

OPEN For chutes having rectangular equation 60 can be written as

where B=width of rectangular V= velocity of air-water

exp ( -x~/~)cJ!x] --I

Rayleigh distribution -Ph=v) exp t-+/2)

- \1In exp( -n2/2) c-.