T O W A R D A S Y M B I O S I S OF SOCIAL P S Y C H O L O G Y AND TOURISM STUDIES

Peter F. Stringer

University of Nljmegen. The Netherlands

Philip L. Pearce

James Cook University. Australia

ABSTRACT T h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y p a p e r i n d i c a t e s s o m e of t h e c h a r a c t e r istics of a sociopsychological perspective on t o u r i s m s t u d i e s . Brief p o i n t s a r e m a d e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of b o t h p s y c h o l o g y a n d social p s y c h o l o g y a s a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s w h i c h m i g h t serve t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h . More p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n is p a i d to the " m o d e l s of M a n " a r g u m e n t a n d to i s s u e s in the a p p l i c a t i o n o f social psychology. It is sugg e s t e d t h a t fruitful i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n social p s y c h o l o g y a n d t o u r i s m s t u d i e s m a y be a c h i e v e d by a n o n p a r a s i t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d b y a n i n c r e a s e in p r e - p a r a d i g m a t i c research. K e y w o r d s : t o u r i s m studies, psychology, social p s y c h o l o g y , applied social psychology, m o d e l s of Man, prep a r a d i g m a t i c research.

Peter Stringer is Professor and Head of the Department of Social Psychology (Montessorilaan 3, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands). l~lllp. P~uree is Senior Lecturer in Psychology.Their interests include in the application of social psychology to tourism.
A n n a l s of'l'oltfism Research. Vol. I i. pp. 5-17. 1984
l~Tint'd I n t h e USA. All f i g h t s rt'ser~,t.d 0 1 6 0 - 7 3 8 3 ; 8 4 $ 3 . 0 0 * .00 1984 J J a f a r i a n d P e r g a m o n P r e s s [.td

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AN[) TOURISM

RI~SUME Vers u n e s ym bi os e de la psychologie sociale et le tourisme. Cet article p r e l i m i n a i r e indiclue cmeklues-unes des charact e r l s t i q u e s d ' u n e perspective soclo-psychologlque s u r les e t u d e s de t our t s m e . On falt q u e l q u e s r e m a r q u e s somm a i r e s au sujet de la n a t u r e de la psychologie et de la psychologic sociale en t ant que disciplines academ i ques; ces r e m a r q u e s p o u r r a i e n t c o n t r i b u e r ~t la r e c h e r c h e en tourisme. On fair t out p a r t l c u l i e r e m e n t a t t e n t i o n a l'argum e n t des "modeles de l'Homme" e t a des q u e s t i o n s d a n s l'appllcatlon de la psychologle sociale. On suggt~re qu'll seralt possible de reallser u n e i n t e r a c t i o n f r u c t u e u s e e n t r e la psychologle soctale et les e t u d e s de t o u r l s m e p a r m o y e n d ' u n e relation n o n - p a r a s i t e et par u n e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n des r e c h e r c h e s p r e - p a r a d i g m a t i q u e s . M o t s Clef: e t u d e s de tourisme, psychologie, psychologie sociale, psychologie sociale appllqu6e, modules de l'Homme, r e c h e r c h e s preparadigmatiques.

INTRODUCTION Most t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h e r s seek to t h r o w light on a p a r t i c u l a r slice or c o m p o n e n t of t our i s t behavior. E c o n o m i s t s are c o n c e r n e d with the financial implications of t o u r i s t spending, a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s with broad-scale Impacts of cultural i n t e r c h a n g e , a n d sociologists with the societal imp a c t s a nd m e a n i n g s of the t ouri st experience. T he focus of th is special issue of A n n a l s qf Tourism Research is sociopsychological. T hi s i n t r o d u c t o r y p a p e r will briefly indicate some of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a sociopsychological perspective. As a preface, a case s t u d y m a y serve to highlight som e of the social, interactive a s p e c t s of t o u r i s t e x p e r i e n c e w hi ch are f u n d a m e n t a l to soclopsychologlcal interest. T he example com es from fieldnotes m ad e by one of the a u t h o r s while he was s t u d y i n g package t o u r s to Morocco from London. Th e first s h o c k of the trip was the realization t hat the part y was going to sleep o v e r n i g h t on the m i n i - b u s as the driver headed nonstop for Spain. T he sixteen t r a v e l e r s - - a n u n t i d y collection of relatively y o u n g " a d v e n t u r e r s " - - s p e n t t hei r first ni ght in a c h a o s of one a n o t h e r ' s elbows, faces, shoulders, a n d legs, c r a m p e d into a space t h a t co mf o r tab l y could have slept f our schoolboys. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the group, eight m e n a n d eight women, m i g h t have seem ed a b o u t r i g h t for c onvi vi a l i t y. T h e y h a d n o t b a r g a i n e d for t h e
6 1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

P E T E R S T R I N G E R AND PHILIP P E A R C E

Machiavellianism of the driver. At Tours he sent the women shopping. "O.K. everyone," he a n n o u n c e d , "'the well-built blonde, Karen, is mine. Anyone object?" Despite a couple of grumbles, their powerlessness was quickly appreciated. Here he was, their t r u s t y guide, translator, hotel-organizer, tent-dispenser a n d driver, offering, albeit implicitly, a most uncomfortable holiday for any would-be rival. It is remarkable how the t h o u g h t of a cold night in the worst tent could divert a t t e n t i o n from p r o m i s c u o u s or combative thoughts. After this incident, other individual identities quickly emerged. These included a s o m e w h a t aging alcoholic bricklayer, a pseudocamp y o u n g actor forever trying in bars and r e s t a u r a n t s to shock the locals, several d i t h e r i n g a n d disorganized New Zealand girls, a n d a paranoic y o u n g executive repeatedly a c c u s i n g people of insulting h i m - - n o t to m e n t i o n a fascinated social psychologist. Some of these c h a r a c t e r s appeared to enjoy the trip thoroughly: two others conducted an u n d e r g r o u n d c a m p a i g n of dissatisfaction a n d complaint. The trip proceeded at a hectic pace: hillside villages, coastal resorts, desert plateaux, and big cities were but glimpsed at t h r o u g h the s m o k y haze of m i n i - b u s travel. Complex games evolved in the group. These included wildly s h o u t i n g "Local Color!" whenever a "local" scene or person was s p o t t e d - - a parody of the terms In which the trip itself h a s been advertised. As a way of t u r n i n g three weeks into what seemed to be a lifetime, the j o u r n e y was w i t h o u t equal. Several features of this experience might be of interest to social psychologists: the organization a n d definition of tourist roles, group pressures in the s h a p i n g of individual behavior, a n d the influence of different cultural b a c k g r o u n d s on the o u t c o m e of t o u r i s t - n a t i v e contact and interaction. A psychological account would highlight the fact that travel can be unpredictable and that the same set of events can be interpreted and seen differently by individual tourists. The example necessarily specifies both a certain kind of tourist a n d holiday. It should not be inferred, of course, that social psychologists are especially interested in package tours a n d adventurestyle holidays for y o u n g e r people. Equally relevant examples could have been drawn from experiences of the solitary traveler, the retired couple, or the wealthy jet set. Irrespective of the type of tourist being studied, a sociopsychological approach essentially emphasizes the interaction of social context with individual a n d group behavior, experience, a n d relations. THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychological q u e s t i o n s are so varied t h a t it is doubtful w h e t h e r
1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM R E S E A R C H 7

SOCIALPSYC11OLOGYAND TOURISM they could ever be a n s w e r e d by a h o m o g e n e o u s discipline. What one calls "psychology" is an u n e a s y alliance of several qui t e different intellectual p r o j e c t s - - c o m p a r e , for example, physiological, developmental, mathematical, or personality psychology. T h e multiplex or f r a g m e n t e d n a t u r e of psychology s o m e t i m e s o b s c u r e s the cont ri bution it can make to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g a nd solution of everyday problems. Psychology is often popularly identified with psychodyn a m i c s (Freud. Jung, Adler), personality theory, clinical psychology, or, more narrowly if less often, with the core e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y of learning, perception, a n d memory. But to a p preci at e its full potential for application to a n o t h e r field of interest, one needs also to range aqross the d i s p a r a t e bodies of knowledge of (am ong others) cultural, developmental, educational, social, a n d work psychology. All have a c o n t r i b u t i o n to m a k e to t o u r i s m studies. To cite only one of m a n y examples, the use of medical a n d physiological psychology has e n ab led r e s e a r c h e r s to come to s om e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the complexities of travel sickness and jet lag (cf. Reason 1974). It is the view of psychology w hi ch sees it as paying special a t t e n t i o n to individuals and individual differences w hi ch has, in the past. colored the psychological a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m research. Social psychology as s u c h has not b e e n a s o u r c e of Ideas. Typical exam pl es are s tu d ies of to ur i s t m ot i va t i on which e m p h a s i z e such individual a p p r o a c h e s as psychoanalytic t heor y (Dichter 1967), individual life e x p er ien ces ( R u b e n s t e i n 1980), or pe r s o nal i t y traits (Crompton 1979). S t u d i e s by psychologists of g r o u p travel seem often to have ignored the social cont ext a n d s i t u a t i o n a l factors w hi ch affect individuals. Ex a m pl es of this r e s t r i c t e d Individualistic a p p r o a c h are s t u d i e s of the leadership style of t o u r c ouri ers (Lopez 1980, 1981) a n d the effects of c ul t ur e s h o c k on t o u r i s t s in Africa (Cort and King 1979). In b o t h these cases, r e s e a r c h e r s were Int ent on d e s c r i b i n g how personality variables, s u c h as a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m a n d i n t e r n a l e x ter n al locus of control, influenced tourists' reactions. Yet the very failure of these individual variables to explain the tourists' a t t i t u d e s highlights the need for a b r o a d e r e x p l a n a t o r y framework. MODELS OF MAN S u c h individualism in t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h ls not only a result of a limited s p an of a t t e n t i o n to the b r e a d t h of the discipline, but Is also a reflection of one of the m a n y and varied a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the n a t u r e of Man on w hi ch psychological t h e o r y a n d practice is based ( S h o t t e r 1975). Although they are usually implicit only, their moral a n d political force can c o m m u n i c a t e itself in s u c h a way as to m ake 8 1984 ANNALSOF TOURISM RESEARCH

PETER STRINGER AND PHILIP PEARCE t h e r e s u l t s of p a r t i c u l a r p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n q u i r i e s i n t u i t i v e l y u n a t t r a c tive. T h e m o s t i n f a m o u s " m o d e l o f M a n " is p r o b a b l y t h e m e c h a n i s t i c model, w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h S k i n n e r i a n b e h a v i o r i s m a n d is u s u a l l y s e e n a s in o p p o s i t i o n to s o m e f o r m o f h u m a n i s m . W h a t e v e r t h e m o d e l implied, its i m p o r t a n c e lles in t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h it c o n t a i n s o n s u c h i s s u e s ( W e r t h e i m e r 1972) a s w h e t h e r o r n o t M a n is t h e v i c t i m of h i s fate: is g o v e r n e d b y h i s m i n d o r body, h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n o r e n v i r o n m e n t : i s s u b j e c t i v e l y o r objectively k n o w a b l e , t h r o u g h b e h a v i o r o r e x p e r i e n c e : o r w h e t h e r h i s p r e s e n t is a c c o u n t e d for b y t h e p a s t , b y c o n c u r r e n t e v e n t s , o r b y a n o r i e n t a t i o n to t h e f u t u r e . A n o t h e r w a y of i n d i c a t i n g s u c h d i f f e r i n g m o d e l s m i g h t , for e x a m p l e , d i s t i n g u i s h a n i n f o r m a t i o n - p r o c e s s i n g a p p r o a c h , a biological a n d r e d u c t i o n i s t p o i n t o f view, a m e c h a n i s t i c f o r m of p r a g m a t i c b e h a v i o r i s m , a n d a h u m a n i s t i c , Man-is-selfdetermining position. A r e c e n t a n d d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e a n d o t h e r m o d e l s ( C h a p m a n a n d J o n e s 1980) l e a d s o n e to t h e view t h a t t h e c o m p l e x i t y of h u m a n b e h a v i o r m a y d e m a n d s u c h a m u l t i p l i c i t y of m o d e l s . S o m e m a y c e r t a i n l y p r o v e to b e u n f r u i t f u l , or, m o r e p r o b a b l y , a p p r o p r i a t e o n l y to l i m i t e d a s p e c t s of b e h a v i o r a n d e x p e r i e n c e . B u t a s F r u d e (1980) h a s c o m m e n t e d : If anyone thinks we have different models warring over the s a m e territory then he or she is absolutely missing the point. We need a different model of m a n to look at different problems .... I doubt whether Pavlov had very m u c h to say about h u m a n reactions to bereavement .... If there is a war it is because our various models of m a n are locked into our political endeavours. W h e n o n e c o n t e m p l a t e s a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a of b e h a v i o r , it is p o s s i b l e to r e s t r i c t t h e m o d e l s of M a n w h i c h a r e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e t o p i c of i n q u i r y . F o r e x a m p l e , m o d e l s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h a r e l a b o r a t o r y - b a s e d a n d d e e m p h a s i z e p e o p l e ' s a b i l i t y to c h o o s e , select, a n d d i r e c t t h e i r b e h a v i o r s w o u l d s e e m to b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e a r e a of l e i s u r e a n d t o u r i s m s t u d i e s . Similarly, m o d e l s of M a n w h i c h fall to c o n s i d e r t h e t e m p o r a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n h u m a n b e h a v i o r m a y h a v e l i m i t e d a p p e a l to r e c r e a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s w h o h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l nat u r e of t o u r i s m e x p e r i e n c e s (cf. C l a w s o n a n d K n e t s c h 1966). R a t h e r t h a n i s s u e n o r m a t i v e p r e s c r i p t i o n s , however, a s to a n a p p r o p r i a t e model, t h e p o i n t to b e m a d e h e r e is t h a t w h e n l o o k i n g to a n y p s y c h o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k for t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h , o n e s h o u l d first c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e a n d w e i g h its i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n s a l o n g a n u m b e r of d i m e n s i o n s (cf. S t r i n g e r , in t h i s issue). 1984 ANNALSOF TOURISM RESEARCH 9

SOCIALPSYCHOLOGYAND TOURISM SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY In his i n t r o d u c t i o n to the sociology of tourism, C o h e n (1979) advocated a contextual, processual, longitudinal, a n d emic a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s t studies. More r e c e nt t r e n d s in social psychology take a similar approach. Indeed sociology a nd social psychology have long been close cousins. However, this c o n s a n g u i n i t y has also stirred up fears of the disciplines' d i s s i p a t i o n a n d has led to a delineation, and a practice, of two types of social psychology. A more sociological social psychology is c o n c e r n e d with the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of individuals" b eh av io r an d experience by social i n s t i t u t i o n s and s t r u c t u r e s a n d with people's i n t e r a c t i o n as framed by roles and n o r m a t i v e expectations. Socialization pr oces s es a n d the effects of social or organizational s t r u c t u r e on role p e r f o r m a n c e are typical areas of interest. Survey methodology is preferred to the laboratory e x p e r i m e n t w hi ch c h a r a c t e r i z e s m u c h of psychological social psychology. In the latter variant, the e m p h a s i s is on b e h a v i o r a n d intra-individual cognition in social s itu ati ons , with very little a t t e n t i o n to s o c i o s t r u c t u r a l c o n s id er atio n s . Areas of Interest include a t t i t u d e c h a n g e and persuasion, aggression, p e r s o n perception, a t tract i on, conformity, and g r o u p dynamics. An alternative way of i n d i c a t i n g these possibilities for s c h i s m w i t h i n social psychology would be to refer to the poles of socloblology (Wilson 1976) a n d symbolic i n t e r a c t i o n l s m (Laurer a n d Handel 1977). A n o t h e r difficulty in defining social psychology is posed by a series ofso-called "crises" t ha t afflicted it d u r i n g the 1970s: di ssat i sfact i ons with its nature, progress, a nd possible role in society (cf. Duck 1980). T h e most p e r s i s t e n t of these was directed at its methodology. T he p r e d o m i n a n c e of positivistic e x p e r i m e n t s , it was argued, was philosophically w r o n g a n d not a useful model for social psychology. T h e y are m u c h mo r e difficult to design a n d i n t e r p r e t t h a n is normally recognized. In addition, they conceal the fact t h a t the p h e n o m e n a of i n ter es t are b o u n d in a cultural a n d historical context. Theoretical a nd m e t a t h e o r e t i c a l "crisis" also revolved a r o u n d the model-of-Man debate already referred to, as well as the d o u b t s a b o u t w h e t h e r social psychology is a science at all, is too American, or is too consensualist. Its capacity for social i m pact was q u e s t i o n e d , not only in relation to major social issues (such as violence, prejudice, sex-roles), b u t also to more specific problems, s u c h as the decision to stop smoking. Associated with this q u e s t i o n were a c c u s a t i o n s of "Irrelevance" In l a b o r ato r y e x p e r i m e n t s on social b e h a v i o r a n d experience. It was s u gg es ted t h a t there has be e n a d i s t i n c t lack of social theory u n d e r l y i n g the discipline. 10 1984 ANNALSOF TOURISM RESEARCH

P E T E R S T R I N G E R AND PHILIP P E A R C E

It may, however, be m or e fruitful to look for the d e s t i n a t i o n t h a t social psychology m i g h t reach if It were to steer an even c o u r s e between psychology a n d sociology. T he f orm er lures it to the h e a d y delights of f u n d a m e n t a l psychological pr oc e sses (such as motivation, perception, an d learning) for w hi c h the social e n v i r o n m e n t would be a m er e container: the latter p r o m i s e s to i m p r i s o n t hose processes w ith in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of social roles, norms, a n d expectations. T he middle c o u r s e leads to sociopsychological knowledge w hi ch is n e i t h e r too general n o r too specific, a n d w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d with the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of social b e h a v i o r b o t h t h r o u g h the basic processes a n d the social s y s t e m s w h i c h give it its form. It is in the s t u d y of the relationship, as such, be t w een the individual a n d the social t h a t social psychology can find a u n i q u e a n d less s c h i s m a t i c identity. T h e simplest escape from the trap of defining social psychology m i g h t seem to be to poi nt out reflexively t h a t everyone is a Social Psychologist, a n d allow each p e r s o n to arrive at his or h e r own definition. However, the job of the social psychologist is probabl y best s e en as ex p lain ing how people o p e r a t e as social psychologists: t h a t is, how they mak e sense of t he i r social world, of the relations bet w een themselves, others, society, a n d its i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e Social Psychologist's p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n will be the cont ext of those relations, the wider social a n d cultural backdrop. T h e s e i m p o r t a n t differences of e m p h a s i s w i t h i n social psychology itself (cf. Rosnow 1981; S a h a k i a n 1982) have implications for its p a r t n e r s h i p with t o u r i s m s t u d i e s . T h e si m pl i fi ed claim of t he p r e s e n t p a p e r is t ha t sociopsychological a p p r o a c h e s are necessary in t o u r i s m r es ea r ch if one is to pay sufficient a t t e n t i o n to interactive a n d c o n t e x t u a l a s p e c t s of t o u r i s t b e h a v i o r a n d experience. From a sociopsychological viewpoint, it is t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n in p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s t h a t one learns a b o u t t o u r i s m - - i t s e l f a social institut i o n - h o w to e x p e r i e n c e it, relate to it, a n d even modify it. T o u r i s m p h e n o m e n a are rarely e n c o u n t e r e d a nd i n t e r p r e t e d directly and individually, b u t r a t h e r t h r o u g h o t h e r people. APPIAED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY An obvious difference be t w een the two disciplines u n d e r discussion is th at only t o u r i s m s t u d i e s arise directly from and are conc e r n e d centrally with a specific field of everyday practice. Within psychology, social psychology Is a basic r a t h e r t h a n an applied subject. Nevertheless, there ha s always been som e e m p h a s i s on application. At the end of the 60s, one volume of The Handbook of Social Psychology (Llndzey a n d A r o n s o n 1969) was devoted to
1984 ANNALS O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C I I l 1

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TOURISM

a p p l i c a t i o n s - - i n e t h n i c relations, m a s s media, industry, economics. politics, education, i n t e r n a t i o n a l relations, religion, a n d mental health. More recently there has be e n an explosion of interest in application, with special a t t e n t i o n to the fields of e n v i r o n m e n t , h e a l t h b e h a v i o r , a n d law. As m a n y as t h r e e serials have b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in the space of two y e a r s (Bickman 1980: Kidd a n d Saks 1980: S t e p h e n s o n and Davis 198 I). While social psychology is c u r r e n t l y in a fram e of m i n d to cont r i b u t e to the more practical side of tourism, it m a y be w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t a n u m b e r of s t u m b l i n g blocks w hi ch have becom e a p p a r e n t in the realm of applied studies. T h e s e difficulties are probably relevant to a n y academ i c social science subject w hi ch seeks to j u s t i f y itself in t he "real world." T h e y need to be s q u a r e l y faced. What follows is d r a w n from a d i s c u s s i o n in S t r i n g e r (1982). l . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n as to w h a t is i n t e n d e d by "applied." S o me people would r equi r e t ha t applied research be t hat w h i c h is actually p u t into practice; o t h e r s r e q u i r e t hat results be potentially applicable. Weaker def i ni t i ons are satisfied by research w h ich is in s o m e u n d e f i n e d way "useful;" w hi ch shows an interest in social problems; or offers a t e c h n i q u e of d e c o m p o s i n g those problems. However, criteria for w h a t would c o n s t i t u t e "application" in a n y of these forms are not specified. 2. T h e r e is a rhetorical i n s i s t e n c e t h a t no useful d i s t i n c t i o n can be m a d e b etween "pure" a n d "applied" research. Little j u s t i f i c a t i o n is offered in support. A r g u m e n t s t h a t all "pure" research has practical implications, or that good applied research c a n n o t be done w i t h o u t a theoretical basis, serve to bolster the c o n f u s i o n above, and to s u p p o r t the existing academ i c e m p h a s i s on theoretically-oriented research. T h e r e is little e v i d e n c e t h a t theoretically-based research is in a n y s en s e mor e useful in practice. T h e fact t h a t p r a c t i t i o n e r s also have theories, however informal, is ignored. 3.A theoretical a n d h y p o t h e s i s - t e s t i n g o r i e n t a t i o n devalues the c o n t r i b u t i o n of descriptive r e s e a r c h w h i c h would give i n s i g h t into the " n a t u r a l history" of a problem. As a result, the social a n d historical context, w i t h i n w hi ch practice has ultimately to fit, is s u p p r e s s e d or ta ken for granted. 4. T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y for the selection of probl em s for s t u d y to be reactive, uncritical, o p p o r t u n i s t i c , and subject to fashion. For example, u n e m p l o y m e n t was relatively ignored as a probl em until it b e c a m e chronic. Now it is widely us e d as an a r e n a for c o n t i n u i n g to work on existing theoretical questions. O t h e r so-called "problems" are simply tak en over in w h a t e v e r form they are g i v e n - - p r o p a g a t e d , for example, by the m a s s media, politicians, or ineffective prac12 1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

PETER STRINGER AND PtlILIP PEARCE

titioners. T h e r e is a s h o r t a g e of a priori a n d critical problem-analysis before empirical research ls attempted. 5 . T h i s is in par t the result of the traditional p r e s c r i p t i o n of science as value-free, w hi c h in t u r n feeds the considerable reluctance to see or accept t h a t the s t r u c t u r a l i n s e r t i o n of practice into r e s e a r c h will entail a value c o m p o n e n t of a moral a n d / o r political nature. T h e personal involvement a nd c o m m i t m e n t w hi ch can s t i m u l a t e an applied researcher, a n d w hi c h are p r e s e n t in cert ai n forms of action research, is equally suspect. 6. One s u c h value choice c o n c e r n s the potential beneficiary of the research. Cynically, it is most often an academ i c career. Implicitly, b e c a u s e of f u n d i n g processes a n d the s t r u c t u r e of social science itself, it is likely to benefit g o v e r n m e n t agencies and industrialc o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s more t h a n the man-in-the-street. Science.for the People is a j o u r n a l w hos e influence ha s not p e n e t r a t e d very far into social psychology. 7. Allowing lay people "inside" one's research, in whatever role, only t h r e a t e n s to m u d d y the river. T h e goal is crisp and definitive p r o c e d u r e s a n d results. T he complexity a nd i n d e t e r m i n a t e n a t u r e of m o s t social problems, however, s u g g e s t s t h at single s t u d i e s or even p r o g r a m s can at best be only indicative. A m odest "'triangulation" a p p r o a c h is more realistic. 8. T h a t a p p r o a c h entails collaboration, j o i n i n g the fate of one's re sear ch to another's. The problem's complexity will probably suggest a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y collaboration. But a l t h o u g h lip-service is c e r tain ly paid to the principle, o t h e r disciplines are simply left to p u r s u e th eir own path. T h e i r priorities a n d p r o c e d u r e s are rarely allowed critically to intersect with one's skills and interests. TOURISM STUDIES AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Existing sociopsychological r es e a r ch on t o u r i s m is fragmentary. What s t u d i e s th er e are may be seen as the reflection of no more t h a n a casual e n c o u n t e r between t o u r i s m a n d social psychology r a t h e r t h a n the p r o d u c t of a s e r i o u s relationship. D o m i n a n t themes, to date, include a t t i t u d i n a l o u t c o m e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l travel a n d contacts (Smith 1955, 1957: St ei nkal k a n d Taft 1979; Pearce 1982), t o u r is t- g u id e relations (Taft 1977: Lopez 1980, 1982; Holloway 1981 ) a n d the effects of c u l t u r e s h o c k (Cort a n d King 1979; Pearce 1981 ). "Visitor evaluation" s t u d i e s have also been c o n d u c t e d w h i c h consider not only sociopsychological q u e s t i o n s (such as g r o u p size, g r o u p composition, a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships), b u t also design Issues (cf. B o r u n 1977: Z ube 1980; Hayward 1980). T h e inclusion of
1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH 13

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TOURISM

p a r t i c u l a r t o u r i s t s t u d i e s u n d e r the sociopsychological r u b r i c is s o m e w h a t problematic, however. A n u m b e r of s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d by sociologists, geographers, a nt hr opol ogi s t s , a n d leisure r e s e a r c h e r s also tackle sociopsychological questions, particularly in the general a rea of to u r is ts ' a n d locals" a t t i t ude s . (For a review of the r e s e a r c h broadly related to the social psychology of t ouri st behavior, see Pearce 1982). While the p ap e r s which follow in this special issue do c o n t r i b u t e to a developing relationship between t o u r i s m and social psychology, t h ey s h o u l d also be read as f o r e s h a d o w i n g som e of the f u t u r e d i rectio n s wh ich this r el at i ons hi p m i ght take. Whatever ki nds of sociopsychological t our i s t s t u d i e s evolve in the future, t hei r utility a n d acceptability is likely to be related to t h e i r symbiotic value. T h e re sear ch exercises s houl d be useful to b o t h scholarly c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e t o u r i s m setting can be a complicated and fascinating field l a bo r ato r y for the social psychologist, while t o u r i s m research may profit from i n c o r p o r a t i n g conceptual, methodological, and analytic skills from the psychological arena. It is i m p o r t a n t to place s u c h formative r e s e a r c h in an epistemological context. Social psychology needs to s how more clearly t hat it has s o m e t h i n g useful to say in the t o u r i s m field at the levels of b o t h c o n c e p t a n d action. T hi s d e m a n d could be satisfied by more prep a r a d i g m a t i c research; t h a t is, s t u d i e s w h i c h are descriptive, specific as to c o n t e x t and setting, a nd sufficiently detailed to be of practical significance. An example is Pearce's (1981) s t u d y of tourists' reactions to tropical holiday islands. He e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t hei r m oods a n d satisfaction with the holiday declined sharply on the third day of a six-day trip. It was d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t this di ssat i sfact i on could be related to the j o i n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the tourists' physical health a n d to t h e i r b o r e d o m with provided as oppos e d to self-initiated t ouri st activities. T h e significance of this r e s ear c h for the t ouri st operat ors of the islands was immediate. It s ugge s t ed the need to provide b e t t e r health-care facilities for the t r o u b l e s o m e i r r i t a n t s of tropical holidays ( s u n b u r n , bites, stings, etc.) a nd a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of resort activities to provide g r eater freedom for gues t s earlier in t hei r week-long vacations. T h e symbiotic value of the s t u d y for socio-psychological r e s e a r c h derived from an improved u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u l t u r e s h o c k (cf. F u r n h a m in this issue). It a p p e a r e d t h a t an I m p o r t a n t part of the d i s o r i e n t a t i o n associated with traveling may be due to " e n v i r o n m e n t s h o c k " as well as to the c h a n g e in roles w h i ch t o u r i s t s experience. (These roles are referred to f u r t h e r by S t r i n g e r in this issue). Pre-paradigmatic r e s ear c h is particularly likely to provide imm e d i a t e p o i n t s of i n t e r e s t a c r o s s the t o u r i s m - s o c i a l psychology
14 1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

P E T E R S T R I N G E R AND PHILIP PI~Z~kRCE

divide. One can envisage a range of endeavors in t o u r i s m - s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y i n q u i r y w h i c h m i g h t a c h i e v e t h i s end. A m o n g t h e a u t h o r s ' favorites are a s y s t e m a t i c appr a i sal of a c h o s e n t heory or model for a mat r i x of different t o u r i s t s i t u a t i o n s . For example, the application of ideas from h u m a n ethological s t u d i e s to a representative range of t o u r i s t - h o s t e n c o u n t e r s would c o n s t i t u t e one s u c h s y s t e m a t i c endeavor. O t h e r s o c c u r in the work with role theory of Small a n d K h a c h a t o o r i a n , or Woolley's use of personal c o n s t r u c t t h eo r y (see Stringer, this issue). Practical a v e n u e s for sociopsychological in q u ir y lie in the gr oup d y n a m i c s of t o u r i n g parties, advice on services for special g r o u p s s u c h as the h a n d i c a p p e d , the task of g u i d i n g people in s t r a n g e e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d the a s s e s s m e n t of host r e s p o n s e s to tourism. If th er e is to be a fruitful i nt er pl a y of sym bi osi s bet w een social psychology an d t o u r i s m studies, each will need to see its benefits a n d avoid c h a r g e s of parasitism. T he t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h e r can t em pt his psychological colleague's collaboration in a n u m b e r of ways. T o u r i s m offers a n a t u r a l i s t i c laboratory, a self-contained a n d limited set of social b eh a vi or s in w hi c h traditional topics s u c h as a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n an d c h a n g e or g r o u p d y n a m i c s are unavoidable. It invites a t t e n t i o n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to the e n v i r o n m e n t , cultural context, and (short-term) temporal processes more immediately t h a n do m a n y o t h e r applied fields. But the social psychologist will not want to try simply to a n s w e r a n y q u e s t i o n p r e s e n t e d to him, in w h a t e v e r form. He will prefer to select q u e s t i o n s w hi c h a p p e a r to give h i m a good c h a n c e of a d v a n c i n g at the s am e time som e aspect of his own subject. A p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n of soci opsychol ogi cal theory or m e t h o d is unlikely to be i n t e r e s t i n g to the academic. Reciprocal respect is also due. Social psychology can offer a u n i q u e collection of th e or i es a nd m e t h o d s lying between sociology a n d psychology. It is particularly rich methodologically: usi ng laboratory a n d field e x p e r i m e n t s , n a t u r a l e xpe r i m e nt s, controlled and particip a n t observation, a n d survey t e c h n i q u e s . It is difficult to see how its c o n c e r n with aspect s of h u m a n Interaction could not be a central p a r t of the c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y of tourism. But, at the s a m e time, it will not expect u n q u e s t i o n i n g a c c e p t a n c e of w h a t e v e r it has to offer, n or expect to exercise the imperialism of a basic discipline over a more practical study. [] [3

REFERENCES
B i c k m a n , L., ed. 1980 Applied Social P s y c h o l o g y A n n u a l 1. Beverly Hills: Sage.

1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM R E S E A R C H

15

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TOURISM

Borun, M. 1977 Measuring the Immeasurable. Washington: Association of Science Technology Centers. C h a p m a n , A.. and D. Jones. eds. 1980 Models of Man. Leicester: British Psychological Society. Clawson, M., and J. Knetsch 1966 Economics of Outdoor Recreation. Baltimore: J o h n s Hopkins Press. Cohen, E. 1979 Rethinking the Sociology of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 6:18-35. Cort, D.. and M. King 1979 Some Correlates of Culture Shock a m o n g American Tourists in Africa. International Journal of Intercultural Behaxiour 3:211-26. Crompton. J. 1979 Motivations for Pleasure Vacation. Annals of Tourism Research 6:408-24. Dichter. E. 1967 What Motivates People to Travel? Address to the Indian Government Departmcnt of Tourism, Kashmir, October. Duck. S. 1980 One of the Futures of Social Psychology. In The Development of Social Psychology. R. Gllmour and S. Duck. eds. London: Academic Press. Frude. N. 1980 Comment in C h a p m a n and Jones, op. cit., p. 12. t tayward. D.G. 1980 Visitor-oriented Rcseareh at Old Sturbridge Village. Unpublished Manuscript, The En~tronment Institute. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Holloway, J.C. 1981 The Guided Tour: A Sociological Approach. Annals of Tourism Research 8:377-402. Kldd, R.F., and M.J. Saks 1980 Advances in Applied Social Psychology. Volume 1. ttlllsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Lauer. R.H., and W.M. Handel 1977 Social Psychology: The Theory and Application of Symbolic Interactionism. Boston: Floughton Mifflin. Lindzey. G.. and E. Aronson, eds. 1969 The Handbook of Social Psychology, Volume 5. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. l,opez. E.M. 1980 The Effects of Leadership Style on Satisfaction-levels of Tour Quality. Journal of Travel Research 18:20-3. 1981 The Effect of Tour Leaders' Training on Travellers' Satisfaction with Tour Quality. Journal of Travel Research 19:23-7. Pearce, P.I,. 1981 E n v i r o n m e n t Shock: A Study of Tourists" Reactions to Two Tropical Islands. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 11:268-80. 1982 The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour. Oxford: Pergamon. Reason. J. 1974 Man in Motion. London: Weidenfeld and Nlcholson. Rosnow, R. 1981 Paradigms in Transition: New York: Oxford University Press. Rubenstein, C. 1980 Vacations. Psychology Today (Mayl:62-76. Sahakian. W.S. 1982 1[istory and Systems of Social Psychology. Washington: tlemisphere. 16 1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

PETER STRINGER AND PHILIP PEARCE

Shotter. J. 1975 Images of Man In Psychological Research. London. Methuen. Smith. H.P. 1955 Do Intercultural Experiences Affect Attitudes? J o u r n a l of Abnormal and Social Psychology 51:469-77. 1957 The Effects of Intercultural Experience: A Follow-up Investigation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 54:262-9. Steinkalk. E.. and R. Taft 1979 The Effect of a Planned Intercultural Experience on the Attitudes and Bcha~iour of the Participants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 3:187-98. S t e p h e n s o n , G.M.. and J.H. Davis 1981 Progress in Applied Social Psychology. Chlchestcr: Wiley. Stringer. P.. ed. 1982 C o n f r o n t i n g Social Issues: Applications of Social Psychology. Volumes l and 2. London: Academic Prcss. Taft. R. 1977 Coping with Unfamiliar Cultures. In Studies in Cross-Cultural Psychology. Volume I. London: Academic Press. Werthelmer, M. 1972 Fundamental Issues in Psychology. New York: IIolt. Rinehart and Winston. Wilson, E.O. 1976 Socioblology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge: IIarvard University Press. Zube. E. 1980 Environmental Evaluation. Monterey: Brooks/Cole.

1984 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

17