Chapter 15 1.

Summarize the water problems throughout the world: Water distribution is low and requires a combination of regional cooperation of allocating water supplies, slowed population growth, efficiency in water usage, higher water prices, improved irrigation, and increased grain imports 2. Explain why there is a danger of water wars: Some countries or cities will build dams that block water paths for other people (Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt Ethiopia and Sudan block water ways to Egypt. Egypt can start war) 3. How much of the earths surface is covered by water? 71% 4. What percent of the earths water is saltwater? 97.4% Freshwater? 2.6% readily accessible fresh water? 0.014% 5. Where is the freshwater? Glaciers, ice caps, groundwaters, lakes, biota, rivers, atmospheric water vapor, soil moisture 6. Say something intelligent about the properties of water [hydrogen bonds, heat capacity, UV, freezing]: a. There are strong forces of attraction (Hydrogen bonds) between molecules of water b. Water exists as a liquid over a wide temperature range because of the strong forces of attraction between water molecules [high boiling point] c. Liquid water changes temperature slowly because it can store a large amount of heat without a large change in temperature and moderates the earths climate [large heat capacity] d. Evaporating liquid water takes large amounts of energy because of the strong forces of attraction [heat distribution and determine climate] e. Liquid water can dissolve into a variety of compound [carry dissolved nutrients, flush waste, all purpose cleaner, rove and dilute water-soluble wastes] f. Water filters out wavelengths of the suns UV radiation that would harm aquatic organisms g. Cohesive force capillary action h. Water expands [ice has low density] 7. Water saturated layers of porous underground rock are known as groundwater. 8. What is the water table? The water table is located at the top of the zone of saturation. 9. What happens to the water table during dry weather? Water table falls, and rises in wet weather 10. Distinguish the following: a. Surface runoff: the precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground, or evaporate b. Reliable runoff: Remaining 1/3 run off that we can use as

stable source of water c. Watershed/Drainage Basin: The region from which surface water drains into a river, lake, wetland, or other body of water d. Groundwater: The water stuck under porous soil and rock i. Ground water normally moves from points of high elevation and pressure to points of lower elevation and pressure: slow movement ii. Groundwater recharges slowly e. Zone of aeration/Zone of saturation/Water Table: Close to the surface is the zone of aeration, the pores of soil contain a mixture of air and some water. Lower layers of soil where the spaces are completely filled with water make up the zone of saturation. We drill shallow wells to tape into groundwater in this zone. The water table is located at the top of the zone of saturation. f. Aquifer: Deep down, porous, water-saturated layers of sand, gravel, bedrock through which groundwater flows g. Natural recharge: Replenished by precipitation that percolates downward (gravity) through soil and rock i. Lateral recharge: streams 11. Explain how the water in some aquifers can be depleted: Use faster than recharge, used up fossil aquifers that are nonrenewable, water mining 12. Distinguish between water withdrawal and consumptive water use: a. Water withdrawal: The total amount of water we remove from a river, lake, or aquifer for any purpose i. May be put back but causes thermal pollution b. Consumptive water use: Water withdrawn is not available for reuse in the basin from which it was removed due to evaporation, seepage underground, transported to another area, contamination 13. Throughout the world, the most water is used for agriculture. The greatest household use is for flushing toilets. 14. Irrigation is the biggest user of water (70%) followed by industries (20%) and cities and residences (10%) 15. Major water problems of the eastern United States include flooding, occasional urban shortages, and pollution. 16. Major water problems of the western United States include shortage of runoff, caused by low precipitation, high evaporation, and recurring prolonged drought. 17. Water scarcity during a period when precipitation is lower than normal and evaporation is higher than normal is called a drought. 18. We currently withdraw34% of the reliable surface runoff and

in 2025 we will withdraw more than 70%. 19. List four causes of water scarcity: a. Dry climate, drought, desiccation (drying of exposed soil because of deforestation and overgrazing), and water stress (low per capita availability of water) b. A country is water stressed when the volume of reliable runoff per person drops below 1,700 cubic meters per year (water withdrawal 20% higher). A country suffers from water scarcity when per capita water availability falls below 1,000 cubic meters per year. c. 41% of the worlds population lives in river basins located in 20 countries that suffer from water stress or water scarcity. 40 countries by 2020, 60 countries in 2050. 20. Identify ways that water supply can be increased (six ways): a. Build dams and reservoirs b. Bring in surface water from another area c. Withdraw groundwater d. Convert salt water to freshwater (desalination) e. Reduce water waste f. Import food to reduce water use g. Raising livestock 21. Discuss the controversy over whether freshwater resources should be owned and managed by governments or by private corporations: a. Private companies have the money and expertise to manage these resources better than government bureaucracies b. Governments hiring private companies to manage water resources must set standards and maintain strict oversight of such contracts c. Water is a public resource d. Once water is owned by foreign-based corporation, efforts to return the systems to public control can lead to severe economic penalties under World Trade Organization e. Private companies make money by delivering water, and have more incentive to sell as much water than conserve f. Lack of money to pay water bills, the poor will be left out 22. Dams a. Pros: i. Reservoir is useful for recreation and fishing ii. Can produce cheap electricity iii. Downstream flooding is reduced iv. Provides water for year-round irrigation b. Cons: i. Large losses of water through evaporation ii. Flooded land destroys forests or cropland and

displaces people iii. Migration and spawning of some fish are disrupted iv. Downstream cropland and estuaries are deprived of nutrient-rich silt c. The more large dams built, the more annual reliable runoff increased for humans. However it can reduce downstream flow to a trickle and prevent it from reaching the sea as a part of the hydrologic cycle. d. Colorado River Basin Las Vegas (Nevada), San Diego (California), Imperial Valley (California), Mexico i. Pros: 1. Provides hydroelectricity plants 2. Water for more than 25 million people in 7 states 3. Water used to grow about 15% of the nations produce and livestock 4. Supports a multibillion-dollar recreation industry ii. Cons: 1. Includes driest lands in the United States and Mexico 2. Legal pacts in 1922 and 1944 allocated more water for human use than the river can supply 3. Pact also allocated no water for environmental purposes 4. Withdrawals of water prevented river to go to Gulf of California which threatens the survival of species that spawn in the river e. Chinas Three Gorges Dam i. Pros: 1. Will generate about 10% of electricity 2. Reduce dependence on coal 3. Reduces air pollution 4. Reduces CO2 emissions 5. Reduces chances of downstream flooding for 15 million people 6. Reduces river silting below dam by eroded soil 7. Increases irrigation water for croplands ii. Cons: 1. Floods large areas of croplands 2. Displaces 1.9 million people 3. Increases water pollution because of reduced water flow 4. Reduces deposits of nutrient-rich sediments below the dam 5. Increases saltwater introduced into drinking water near mouth of river because of decreased

water flow 6. Disrupts spawning and migration of fish 7. High cost 23. How do dams relate to a. Soil Fertility: Downstream croplands are deprived of silt b. Air Pollution: Generates electricity, reduces need for energy by coal, reduces air pollution c. Flooding: Downstream flooding is reduced, but will flood lands and displace people upstream d. Farming: Regulates irrigation for cropland, but prevents silt to run downstream 24. Describe the cause and effects of the Aral Sea water transfer project in central Asia: It is a result of a large-scale water transfer project in an area of the former Soviet Union with the driest climate in central Asia. The water transfer was used to create irrigated areas for cotton and rice. This projected, coupled with droughts and high evaporation rates has caused a regional ecological, economic, and health disaster. The seas salinity has tripled. 25. Describe the controversy over: a. California Water Transfer Project i. Sending more water south would degrade the Sacramento River, threaten fisheries, and reduce the flushing action that helps clean San Francisco Bay of pollutants. b. James Bay Water Transfer Project i. Flood an area of boreal forests and tundra. It will displace thousands of indigenous Cree and Inuit, who have lived off of James Bay by subsistence hunting, fishing, and trapping. 26. List the advantages and disadvantages of supplying more water by withdrawing groundwater. Explain why excessive groundwater withdrawal can be viewed as an example of the tragedy of the commons. What is saltwater intrusion, where does it occur, and what harm does it cause? a. Pros: i. Aquifers are widely available and are renewable sources of water as long as the water is not withdrawn faster than it is replaced and as long as the aquifers arent contaminated b. Cons: i. Water tables are falling in many areas, groundwater is being drawn more than its replacement rate, and urban development cover aquifer recharge areas 1. Withdrawing lots of water sometimes allow the sand and rock in aquifers to collapse, causing

the land above the aquifer to subside or sink. Once an aquifer becomes compressed, recharge is impossible. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater can cause the roof of a cavern or underground conduit to collapse and create a large crater (sinkholes). Finally, groundwater overdrafts near coastal areas can contaminate groundwater supplies by causing intrusion of salt water into freshwater aquifers used to supply water for irrigation and domestic purposes. 27. Summarize the advantage and disadvantage of withdrawing groundwater from the Ogallala Aquifer (largest aquifer, overdraft) in the United States: a. Pros: i. Pumping large amounts of water from this fossil aquifer has helped to transform vast areas of arid high plains into a highly productive agricultural region. b. Cons: i. This aquifer is over pumped and it is gradually depleting. It has a slow recharge rate, and people are pumping faster than it recharges. 28. List nine ways to prevent or slow groundwater depletion a. Prevent i. Waste less water ii. Subsidize water conservation iii. Ban new wells in aquifers near surface waters iv. Buy and retire groundwater withdrawal rights in critical areas v. Do not grow water-intensive crops in dry areas vi. Reduce birth rates b. Control/Slow i. Raise price of water to discourage waste ii. Tax water pumped from wells near surface waters iii. Set and enforce minimum stream flow levels 29. What are two concerns about withdrawing water from huge, very deep aquifers? a. One is that we know little about the geological and ecological impacts of pumping from deep aquifers. The other is that no international water treaties govern the rights to and ownership of water that underlies several countries. 30. What are the problems associated with desalinization. List the advantages and disadvantages of increasing supplies of fresh water by desalinization of salt water. a. Two methods in desalinating water: Distillation (heating salt

water until it evaporates), Reverse osmosis (pumping salt water at high pressure through a thin membrane with pores that allow water molecules, but not dissolved salts, to pass through) b. Pros: i. Provides more water to water short areas c. Cons: i. High cost because it takes a lot of energy to desalinate water ii. Desalination produces large quantities of briny waste water that contains lots of salt and other minerals 31. How useful are cloud seeding and iceberg towing to increase water supplies? a. Cloud seeding i. Does not work well in dry areas where rain is needed most because there are few clouds to seed ii. Technology may not work iii. Introduces large amounts of cloud-seeding chemicals iv. Seeding has led to legal disputes b. Iceberg Towing i. Cost too much 32. We waste about 2/3 of the water we use but using water more efficiently could reduce wastage to about 15% a. Why we waste water i. We charge little for water subsidies keep price so low that users have no incentive to save water ii. Lack of government subsidies for improving the efficiency of water use 33. Describe three major irrigation systems and liste them in order of their efficiency of water use a. Drip irrigation/microirrigation system plastic tubing installed at or below ground level b. Center pivot low-pressure sprinkler uses pumps to spray water on crops c. Low energy precision application sprinkler center pivot irrigation d. Surge valves time controlled, gravity flow irrigation ditches in pulses e. DriWater 1-liter gel-encased water that releases slowly 34. How can irrigation systems lose water a. Water is delivered far more than the crops need and lose water through evaporation, seepage, runoff 35. List nine ways to reduce water waste in irrigation and eleven ways to reduce water waste in industry, homes, and businesses a. Nine ways

Lining canals bring water to irrigation ditches Leveling fields with lasers Irrigating at night to reduce evaporation Using soil and satellite sensors and computer systems to monitor soil moisture and add water only when necessary v. Polyculture vi. Organic farming vii. Growing water-efficient crops using drought-resistant and salt-tolerant crop varieties viii. Irrigating with treated urban waste water ix. Imported water-intensive crops and meat b. Eleven ways i. Redesign manufacturing processes ii. Landscape yards with plants that require little water (xeriscaping) iii. Use drip irrigation iv. Fix water leaks v. Use water meters and charge for all municipal water use vi. Raise water prices vii. Use waterless composting toilets viii. Require water conservation in water-short cities ix. Use water-saving toilets, showerheads, and frontloading clothes washers x. Collect and reuse household water to irrigate lawns and nonedible plants (gray water) xi. Purify and reuse water for houses, apartments, and office buildings 36. List five principles for reducing the use of water to remove industrial and household wastes a. Use pollution prevention and waste reduction to sharply decrease the amount of industrial wastes we produce b. Ban discharge of industrial toxic wastes into municipal sewer systems c. Rely more on waterless composting toilets that convert human fecal matter to a small amount of dry and odorless soil-like humus material that can be removed from composting chamber every year. d. Returns the nutrient-rich sludge produced by conventional waste treatment plants to the soil as fertilizer e. Shift to new ways to treat sewage that mimics the way nature breaks down and recycles nutrients 37. Floodplains a. Fertile soil, ample water for irrigation, availability of nearby rivers for transportation and recreation, flat land for suitable

i. ii. iii. iv.

cropping, buildings, high ways, and railroads b. People deliberately settle on floodplains then expect dams, levees, and other devices to protect them from floodwaters. 38. List the major benefits and disadvantages of floods. List four ways in which humans increase the damages from floods. a. Pros: i. Provide productive farmland, regularly covered with silt after floodwater recede ii. Recharge groundwater iii. Refill wetlands b. Cons: i. Kills people and cause tens of billions of dollars in property damage c. Four ways i. Removal of water-absorbing vegetation ii. Draining wetlands that absorb flood waters iii. Living on floodplains iv. Pave or build and replace water-absorbing vegetation with highways, parking lots, buildings 39. Bangladeshs Floodplain problem a. Increased flood problems begin the Himalayan watershed, where several factors rapid population growth, deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable farming on steep and easily erodible mountain slopes- have greatly diminished the ability of its mountain soils to absorb water. b. Cut down forests that absorb and slowly release water increases the runoff of soil, heaver monosoon rains. 40. Reduce risk of flood a. Think carefully were to live b. Identify and mange flood-prone areas c. Prevention 41. Sustainable water usage a. Not depleting aquifers b. Preserving water quality c. Raising water prices d. Wasting less water e. Slowing population growth f. Decrease government subsidies g. Marketing of water rights 42. Deforestation decreases evaporation. Increases flooding. Decreases diversity. Decreases nutrients in soil. Increases spawning areas. 43. Mulch is helpful waste or fertilizer and helps for agriculture. Chapter 22 1. Describe John Todds living machines used to purify sewage. What

are the steps? How is the water made pure enough to drink? a. Sewage flows into a passive solar greenhouse First tank: algae and microorganisms decompose organic wastes, with sunlight speeding up the process. Water hyacinths, cattails, bulrushes, and other aquatic plants growing in the tanks take up resulting nutrients Second tank: Artificial marsh of sand, gravel, and bulrush plants to filter out algae and remaining organic wastes. Some of these plants absorb sequester toxic metals such as lead and mercury and secrete natural antibiotic compounds that kill pathogens Third step: water flows into aquarium tanks. Snails and zooplankton in these tanks consume microorganisms and are in turn consumed by crayfish, tilapia, and other fish that can be eaten or sold as bait. After 10 days, the clear water flows into a second artificial marsh for final filtering and cleansing Lastly, the water is made pure by exposing it to UV light or passing it through an ozone generator. 2. What is water pollution? What are eight types of water pollutants, and what are the major sources and effects of each type? a. Infections Agents 1. Examples: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, parasitic worms ii. Major Human Sources: 1. Human and animal waste iii. Effects 1. Diseases b. Oxygen Demanding Wastes 1. Organic wastes ii. Sewage, feedlots, paper mills iii. Large populations of bacteria c. Inorganic Chemicals 1. Water soluble acids, compounds of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic, and selenium, salts such as sodium chloride in ocean water and fluoride ii. Surface Runoff, industrial effluents, household cleaners iii. Can make freshwater unusable, skin cancers, damage to neck and liver system, harm fish, lower crop yield d. Organic Chemicals 1. Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning, solvents, detergents ii. Industrial effluents, household cleaners, surface runoff from farms and yards iii. Threaten human health, threaten fish e. Plant nutrients

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1. Water soluble compounds containing nitrate and phosphate and ammonia ii. Sewage, manure, and urban fertilizer iii. Can cause excessive algae growth, eutrophication f. Sediment 1. Soil, silt ii. Land Erosion iii. Can cloud water and reduce photosynthesis, disrupt aquatic food webs, carry pesticides, destroy feeding spawning grounds, clog and fill lakes, eutrophication g. Radioactive materials 1. Radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium, thorium ii. Nuclear and coal burning, mining iii. Genetic mutations, miscarriages h. Heat pollution (electric powerplants) 1. Excessive heat ii. Water cooling of power plants iii. Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes aquatic organisms vulnerable to diseases, lowers dissolved oxygen levels Describe how a coliform bacteria count, measurement of dissolved oxygen, and biological indicators can be used to determine control? Why? a. Fecal coliform bacteria: measure the colonies and can measure water quality i. 100 milliliters for drinking and no colonies. 200 colonies, 100 milliliters for swimming. b. Dissolved oxygen: measure by oxygen demanding waste amount c. Indicator species: measure by removing aquatic plants such as cattails to analyze the surrounding pollution. Mussels that feed by filtering water can analyze their body and determine water quality The most commonly used herbicide can lead to developmental problems is Atrazine. Associated with Minamata Bay, dancing cat syndrome, and coal burning power plants: Methyl mercury. Water soluble gasoline additive that is a carcinogen: MTBE Point sources: a. Drain pipes, ditches, sewer lines, factories, treatment plants, underground mines, oil tankers Non point sources: a. Acid deposition, runoff, feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses Agricultural activities are by far the leading cause of water

pollution, along with industrial facilities. Mining is the third source. 10. In a flowing stream, the breakdown of degradable wastes by bacteria depletes dissolved oxygen and creates an oxygen sag curve. This reduces organisms. a. Depends on volume, flow rate, temperature, ph level 11. Eutrophication: a. Cultural eutrophication: urban or agricultural areas, human activities can greatly accelerate it (nitrate and phosphate containing effluents) i. During a drought, nutrient overload produces blooms: of organisms such as algae. This dense colony can reduce lake productivity and fish growth by decreasing solar energy for photosynthesis. When algae die their decomposition by swelling population of aerobic bacteria depletes dissolved oxygen in the surface layer. This oxygen depletion leads to fish kill. 12. Prevent, Reduce, Clean up a. Waste treatment systems, limiting the use of phosphates, reduce nutrient run off, mechanically remove excess weeds, controlling undesirable plant growth, avoid oxygen depletion by pumping air 13. Preventing contamination is the most effective and cheapest way to protect groundwater sources 14. Parts of the worlds oceans are dump sites for a variety of toxic materials and sewage and garbage from ships a. Dredge spoils materials often laden with toxic metals scraped from the bottoms of harbors) b. Sewage sludge toxic chemicals c. Most oil pollution is from land 15. Crude petroleum (oil from ground) v Refined petroleum (fuel oil) a. More damaging is refined, taking 10-15 years b. Crude is 3 years 16. Nonpolar molecules are more likely biomagnified. These molecules are fat soluble. 17. Organisms at higher tropic levels are most vulnerable to biomagnifications. 18. Oxygen depleted zones (dead zones) are caused by excessive nonpoint inputs of fertilizers and animal wastes from run offs and deposition of nitrogen compounds from the atmosphere 19. Treatment plant a. Primary Sewage Treatment i. Physical process: uses screens, grit tank (A) to remove large floating objects. Removes about 60% of the suspended solids and 30-40% of the oxygen

b.

c.

d. e. f.

demanding organic wastes. (B, settling tank, sludge) Secondary Sewage Treatment i. Biological process: aerobic bacteria remove 90% of dissolved and bio-degradable, oxygen demanding organic wastes. This is done by trickling waste water through beds of gravel covered with films of aerobic bacteria or by passing it through an aeration tank (C) where air is pumped through a slurry of aerobic bacteria (D, settling tank, sludge) (F, sludge digester) (G, sludge drying bed) ii. Undergoes bleaching to remove water coloration, disinfection to kill disease-carrying bacteria chlorination (E, chlorine disinfection tank) Advanced/Tertiary Sewage Treatment i. Specialized chemical/physical process: Removes specific pollutants left in the water ii. Ozone and UV light is used Sludge is settled at the bottom, can be used as fertilizer or compost Clean Water Act

20. Wastewater garden: removes most of fecal coliform bacteria and nitrates and phosphates. Water can be used to irrigate gardens, flush toilets