Amps Theory

Ch3 Amplifier Basics. p.
1 ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation

Amplifiers and Analog Signal Processing
Most bioelect ric signals are small
volt ages in micro-volt s range
current s in pA and nA range common
Small signals require amplificat ion and filt ering
op-amp, resist ors and capacit ors
int egrat ed circuit and surface-mount t echnology
Most modern signal processing t asks (filt ering) are performed
on a digit al signal processor.
lit t le change in amplificat ion/ filt ering requirement s over last 40 years
but new int erest in put t ing DSP algorit hms int o analog circuit s
due t o demand for low power port able/ implant able inst rument s
Ch3 Amplifier Basics. p. 2 ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Ideal Op-Amp
Operat ional amplifier (op-amp) is a high-DC-gain different ial
amplifier
Design circuit s assuming op-amps are ideal
t hen verify/ modify using simulat ions/ prot ot yping
I deal op-amp model
open loop gain: A =
different ial input resist ance: R
d
=
out put resist ance: R
o
= 0
input current = 0
out put volt age:
v
o
= 0 when v
1
-v
2
= 0
0
0
=
=
=
=
o
d
o
R
R
v
A
ideal op-amp small signal model
ideal op-amp
Op-Amp Properties
Propert ies
open-loop gain: ideally infinit e: pract ical values 20k-200k
high open-loop gain

virt ual short bet ween + and - input s
input impedance: ideally infinit e: CMOS opamps are close t o ideal
out put impedance: ideally zero: pract ical values 20-100O
zero out put offset : ideally zero: pract ical value < 1mV
gain-bandwidt h product (GB): pract ical values ~ MHz
frequency where open-loop gain drops t o 1 V/ V
Commercial opamps provide many different propert ies
low noise
low input current
low power
high bandwidt h
low/ high supply volt age
special purpose: comparat or, inst rument at ion amplifier
Basic Op-Amp Principles
Open loop gain: v
o
= A (v
1
-v
2
)
since A is very large, v
1
-v
2
must be very small
When t he op-amp out put is in it s linear range
t wo input t erminals are at (essent ially) t he same volt age
i.e., virt ual ground bet ween op-amp input s
rely on t his for DC/ bias calculat ions
Single vs. Dual Supply Volt age
most modern I Cs use single supply
ground in a dual supply becomes VDD/ 2 in single supply
mid way bet ween VDD and Ground
t ypical op-amp schemat ic symbol
v
o
, v
1
, v
2
referenced t o ground
Basic Opamp Configuration
Volt age Comparat or
digit ize input
assumes very high DC gain
Vcc = supply volt age
Negat ive Feedback
out put t ied back int o negat ive input
t erminal
generally avoid posit ive feedback
Volt age Follower
buffer
prevent s input signal from being
loaded down by a low-resist ance
load
Rin =
Vr ef
Vout = Vcc ( si gn( Vi n-Vr ef ) )
Inverting/Non-Inverting Configurations
I nvert ing Amplifier (uses negat ive feedback)
Non-I nvert ing Amplifier (also uses negat ive feedback)
i
f
i
o
R
R
v
v
A

= =
f
f i
i
f
i
o
R
R R
R
R
v
v
A
+
= + = = 1
More Opamp Configurations
Summing Amp
weight ed sum of
mult iple input s
invert ing or non??
Different ial Amp
mat ch R
1
s and R
2
s
invert ing or non??
Single-Ended Amplifier Represent at ion
Noise Amplificat ion
even small int erference at input get s amplified at out put
in
V
out
V
gnd
gnd
in
out
v
V
V
A
A
A
=
si gnal
noi se
Differential vs. Common Mode Signal
Define
x
+
= input at + t erminal
x
-
= input at t erminal
c = common mode signal on bot h input s
Different ial input s
Add common mode input
c rej ect ed by different ial amplifier (not amplified)
c must be small enough t o keep op-amp biased in linear operat ion
+
= x x V
out
) ( ) ( c x c x V
out
+ + =
+
+
x

x
2
+
+
=
x x
c
Noise in Differential Amplifiers
Global int erference (e.g., supply volt age variat ions)
assumed t o be locat ed far away from amp. input t erminals
same int erference on bot h t he t erminals
appear as common mode dist urbance.
example: clock noise
Different ial amplifiers
amplify only t he difference
rej ect t he int erference (common-mode)
+
-
-
+
+
in
V
in
V
+
out
V
out
V
common-mode
i nput noi se
gone at
out put
Desirable Properties of Amplifiers
High different ial gain, A
v
Low common mode gain, A
cm
= high common mode rej ect ion
+
-
-
+
+
in
V
in
V
+
out
V
out
V
+
+
A A
A A
=
in in
out out
v
V V
V V
A
2
+
+
A + A
A A
=
in in
out out
CM
V V
V V
A
2
+
A + A
in in
V V
Common-mode signal
+
-
-
+
+
in
V
in
V
+
out
V
out
V
common mode r ej ect i on r at i o:
cm
v
CMRR
A
A
=
3-Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifier
Different ial amplifiers
low common mode gain = Great !
lower t han ideal input resist ance Bad!
3-op-amp st ruct ure
keeps low common mode gain
provides very high input resist ance
why?
call inst rument at ion amp
will discuss in det ail lat er
1
1 2
2
R
R R
A
+
=
1 =
com
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
3
4
1
1 2
d
2
R
R
R
R R
G
t ot al di f f er ent i al gai n
Comparator
Compare an input volt age v
i
t o a reference volt age v
ref
Out put digit al value (hi/ low)
low if v
i
> v
ref
why low and not hi?
high if v
i
< v
ref
Out put volt age = supply volt age
Op-amp comparat or
Add hyst eresis t o improve noise immunit y
hyst eresis = rising t ransit ion point different t hat falling t ransit ion point
R3 cont rols hyst eresis
Logarithmic Amplifiers
Uses non-linear current -volt age relat ionship of BJT in feedback
pat h
Useful for comput ing logarit hms and ant i-logs
for compressing and mult iplying/ dividing signals
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
S
C
BE
I
I
k V log
A= 1
A= 10
A= 10
A= 1
Integrating/Differentiating Configurations
I nt egrat ing Amp
Different iat ing Amp
}
=
t
o
dt i
C
v
1
f t e 2 =
dt
dv
C i =
Converting Configuration
Current -t o-Volt age
Volt age-t o-Current
Active Filters
Passive low pass filt er
Act ive low pass filt er
If Z1 is a resistor (R) and Z2 is a capacitor (1/sC) then
f f i
f
i
o
C R j R
R
j V
j V
e e
e
+
=
1
1
) (
) (
f f
C R
1
0
= e
0
i
f
i f f
f
i
f f
f f
i
f
i
o
1
1
) (1

] ) / 1 [(
) / (
) (
) (
e
e
e
e
e
e
s
R
R
R C R j
R
R
R C j
C j R
Z
Z
j V
j V
+
=
+
=
+
= =
Active Filters
Act ive high pass filt er
i i
i i
i
f
i
o
C R j
C R j
R
R
j V
j V
e
e
e
e
+
=
1 ) (
) (
i i
C R
1
0
= e
Active Filters
) 1 )( 1 ( ) (
) (
i i f f
i f
i
f
i
o
C R j C R j
C R j
R
R
j V
j V
e e
e
e
e
+ +
=
Band Pass Filter
High Q (narrow frequency) Band Pass Filter
2-stage Band Pass Filter
Non-ideal Characteristics
Offset volt age
out put not zero when t he input s t o t he amplifiers are equal
could be in order of millivolt s
cancel offset volt age by adding an ext ernal nulling pot ent iomet er
Temperat ure Drift
offset volt age can drift by 0.1 microvolt s over one degree variat ion
Finit e (lower t han infinit e) input impedance
can cause errors at input
High out put impedance
limit s load driving capabilit ies
Noise
Thermal noise or high-frequency noise
Flicker noise: low-frequency noise

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Ch3 Amplifier Basics. p.

1 ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation

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