OF JOB SATISFACTION AND ITS RELATION TO AN EXAMINATION NEEDS AND SOME DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES IN MOTIVATION TWO DIFFERENT CULTURES

(SAUDI ARABIA AND THE UK)

PHD THESIS

FAHAD ALNOEIM

NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY 203 02872

------

LIBRARY

6
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School of Management Faculty of law, Environmental and Social Sciences University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne
November 2002

DEDICATED

TO
MY MOTHER FOR HER LOVE AND AFFECTION THROUGHOUT MY LIFE

MAY SHE REST IN PEACE

11

LIST OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT EXECUTIVE

.............................................................................. SUMMARY ...........................................................

IV V xi

DECLARATION

.......................................................................

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................ TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................. LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................... ....................................................................

XII xill xix XXIII

LIST OF FIGURES

III

ABSTRACT

This research considers job satisfaction in two different cultures using a quantitative perspective. Questionnaires were used to collect the data for this study. The questionnaire has four parts: a job satisfaction scale developed by the researcher specifically for this study, the consequencesof the level of job satisfaction part developed by the researcher, Manifest Need Questionnaire (MNQ), and the demographic part developed by the researcher.The subjects of this study were 406 middle managers from private organisations in Saudi Arabia, and 154 middle managers from in the North East region, England, UK. This thesis explores job satisfaction private organisations and its relation to the satisfaction with six job facets, satisfaction with co-worker, work itself, promotion, pay, supervision, and recognition. The six job facets were also examined in relation to the satisfaction with some variables associated with them. This thesis also examines the relationship between job satisfaction and motivation needs and some demographic variables. Significant positive relationships between the overall job satisfaction and the satisfaction with thesejob facets were hypothesized; and also significant positive relationships between job the four motivation needs (need for achievement, need for affiliation, need for satisfaction and dominance, and need for autonomy) were hypothesized in this study.

Factor analysisgaveus similar structurein the two samples. The two setsof factors contain in that using the items in this survey,managers the two exactly the sameitems, suggesting job in countriesconceptualise satisfactioncomponents the sameway. T-testsresults suggestthat thereare statistically significant differencesin the averagesatisfactionwith co-worker, work itself, promotion, and supervisionbetweenthe two samples, differencesin the and no significant averagesatisfactionwith pay, recognition,and overall job satisfactionwere found betweenthe two samples. The findings of this study supportthe notion that the level of job satisfactionhas an effect on the employee'sattitude towardsthe job and the organisation.It was found that satisfactionwith the job accompanied favourableconsequences vice versain the two samples.Job satisfaction and found to havevery weak correlationswith the four motivation needsin the two samples. was Positive significant moderatelyweak relationshipsbetween job satisfactionand age,annual salary,working in the sameorganisation,education,and numberof dependants; a very weak and relation with the length of servicein the Saudisample.In the UK sample,very weak correlations were found betweenjob satisfactionand the demographicvariables;correlation with education was a significant but negativeone and correlationwith numberof dependants was negativealso. Pearson Product-MomentCorrelationtest was employedto test the researchhypothesis. Significant positive relationshipsbetweenthe overall job satisfactionand the satisfactionwith the six job facetswere found, and hypotheses regardingthe relationshipbetweenthe four motivation needsandjob satisfactionwere rejected.

IV

EXECUTIVE

SUMMARY

1. Introduction issuesposemajor problemsto developingcountries(AlEconomicgrowth and development in salamah,1994).According to Al-salamah,one of the major causes economicbackwardness of developingcountriesas a whole and in SaudiArabia in particular is not a lack of resources or but specific geographicaldisadvantage, the lack of well qualified and experienced managers. in SaudiArabia to developeffective According to Alqonabet (1998),thereis a desperate need in management both private and public sectorsof the economy.He arguedthat industrialisation and economicdevelopmentof SaudiArabia depends the existenceof efficient and dedicated on managers who are motivatedto work hard to achievethe goalsof the organisation. facing management developingcountriessuchas SaudiArabia is One of the greatest in problems how to motivate and supporttheir work forcesin order to generate maximum individual and collective efforts (Machungwaand Schmitt, 1983;At-Twaijri et al, 1995).Problemsof motivation job satisfactionhavecontinuedto plaguemany developingcountrieslike SaudiArabia, and and are evident from the very low productivity, inefficiencies,and lack of will to work hard on the part of the work force of thesenations(Machungwaand Schmitt, 1983). The issuesof motivation andjob satisfactionin SaudiArabia havebeenthe subjectsof a in SaudiArabia are divided on this issue. controversy.Management expertsand scholars Proponents one school of thought arguethat Saudiemployees mainly motivatedby the use of are of monetaryrewards(e.g. Al-nimr, 1993).Theoristsfrom the other school arguethat Saudi employeescan be motivatedtowardshigherjob satisfactionby using non-monetaryrewardssuch as giving employeesmore autonomy,power, and responsibility (e.g. At-Twaijri et al, 1995). Thesescholarshave statedthat motivation of employees, by the useof monetaryor noneither monetarymeans,plays an important role in determiningemployees'job satisfaction. in Researchers the developedcountrieshave shownthat thereis a relationshipbetweenmotivation needsandjob satisfaction(e.g., Parkerand Chusmir, 1991; Herzberg, 1987;Herzberget al., 1959; Porter, 1961).In addition, other factors can also play an important role in determining employee job satisfaction.Overall job satisfactiondepends a large number of interactingvariables. on Family size is a cultural factor that may have influence on an employee'sjob satisfaction(Locke, 1976).Other factors suchas age,educationand income can also affect an individual's job satisfaction(Clark et al, 1996,Gruneberg,1981). This study is an attemptto improve our understanding job satisfactionand its relationshipwith of motivation needsand somedemographicfactors.Data for this study will be collected from a Saudi sample,where modem industrial organisations relatively new and the field appears are ripe for study, and from a UK sampleto use as a benchmark for comparison. The purposeof this research, therefore,is to explorefactorsthat affect job satisfaction,measure the level of satisfactionwith thesefactors and the overalljob satisfaction,and examinethe relationshipofjob satisfactionand motivation needsand somedemographicvariablesamong managers employedin the private sectorin SaudiArabia and in the UK.

2. Research Objectives

1. Examinethe extentof the overalljob satisfactionfor managers the Saudiand UK in samples. 2. Examinethe level of satisfactionwith: work group, work itself, promotion, pay, supervision,and recognitionand their relation to the overall job satisfactionin the two samples. 3. Explore the relationshipof job satisfactionand motivation needsin the two samples. 4. Explore the relationshipof job satisfactionand somedemographicvariablesin the two samples. 3. Research Questions This research will try to answerthe following questions: I. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith work group betweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 2. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith work itself betweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 3. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith promotion betweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 4. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith pay betweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 5. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith supervisionbetweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 6. Is there a significant differencein the averagesatisfactionwith recognition betweenthe Saudiand UK managers? 7. Is there a significant differencein the averageof overall job satisfactionbetweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 8. Doesjob satisfactionhave a similar relationshipwith someconsequences the level of of job satisfactionin the two samples? 9. To what extent do age,education,salary,length of service,and numberof dependants in to job satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples? contribute 10. To what extent do the four motivational needscontributeto job satisfactionamong in managers the two samples? 11. Are there any differencesin the importanceof job factors for managers the two different in cultures? 12. Is there a significant difference in the needfor achievement betweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 13. Is there a significant difference in the needfor affiliation betweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 14. Is there a significant difference in the needfor autonomybetweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 15. Is there a significant differencein the needfor dominancebetweenthe Saudi and UK managers?

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4. Research Hypotheses

be the basisfor the collection and analysisof data in this study. The The researchhypotheses will has six hypotheses: study I. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the work group andthe wholejob satisfactionin the two samples. 2. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith itself and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. work 3. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. promotion and 4. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. pay and 5. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. supervisionand 6. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. recognition and 7. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor achievementandjob in the two samples. satisfactionamongmanagers 8. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor affiliation andjob in amongmanagers the two samples. satisfaction 9. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor autonomyandjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples. 10. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor dominanceandjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples.

5. Research Methodology

5.1 Research Design This study will follow a cross-sectional According to Babbie (1998), a cross-sectional survey. designis the most appropriateand the most frequently usedresearchdesign.The survey method is the most important datacollection methodsin the social sciences, one of and as such, it is used extensivelyto collect information on numeroussubjectsof research(Nachmiasand Nachmias, 1996).If the researcher's aim is a single time description,then a cross-sectional survey is the most appropriate. 5.2 Data Collection Instrument The mail survey was usedto collect datafrom the assigned sample.Babbie (1998) statedthat surveyresearchis the best possiblechoice of researchinstrumentwhen attemptingto collect meaningful data on populationstoo large to observedirectly, and may be utilised effectively for descriptive,explanatory,or exploratory purposes. Dillman (1978) statesthat surveysare good vehicles for measuringthe attitude and orientationsof a large sample.The mail survey has been the most commonly utilised form of respondent (Dillman, 1978; self-administered questionnaire Churchill, 1987).

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5.3 The employed scales

The questionnaire four parts: (1) thejob satisfactionpart, (2) the consequences the level of has of job satisfaction,(3) motivation needspart, and (4) the demographic part. In the next section,we shedsomelight on eachpart.

Part (1): The job satisfaction part: This part is intendedto measure satisfactionand factorsassociated job with it. The questionnaire job that was usedin this study to measure satisfactionwas constructedand developedespecially for this researchmaking useof many books,articles,and thesesrelevantto job satisfaction. job This part of the questionnaire 32 items aimedto measure satisfaction.A six points comprised Likert scalewas used.Respondents were askedto rate their level of satisfactionon a scalestarting from very satisfied(1) through rathersatisfied,satisfied,rather dissatisfied,dissatisfied,to very dissatisfied(6).
Part (2): The consequences of the level of job satisfaction part

This part was developedby the researcher test someof the consequences the level of job to of included in this part. Respondents satisfaction.Four statements were askedto record their were responses a six point Likert scaleranging from I =strongly disagreeto 6=strongly agreefor the on first three statements, ranging from 1=stronglyagreeto 6=strongly disagreefor the fourth and statement. Part (3): The motivation needspart

TheManifestNeeds Questionnaire by (1976),wasused (MNQ),developed Steers Braunstein and in this partto elicit responses the strength motivationneeds. on of
Part (4): The demographic part

The demographicpart was developedby the researcher gatherinformation about respondents' to age,annual grosssalary,length of servicein the currentjob, length of servicefor the same organisation,the level of formal education,andthe numberof dependants. 5.4 Research population and sample The population for this study consistsof managers in organisationsin the private sector employed in the North East region of the UK and in the private sectorin SaudiArabia. The sampling frame for the UK samplewill be D&B BusinessRegister,North EastVolume, and for the Saudi sample will be the "A-Z" OrganisationalDirectory. Managerswere selectedas the subjectsof the empirical researchdue to their organisations. Total questionnaires sentin the UK were 1000,158 returned, 154 questionnaires were usable giving a response rate of 15.4%.Total of questionnaires sentin SaudiArabia were 800,415 questionnaires were collected; of them 406 were usablegiving a response rate of about 51%. Therefore,the result of data analysispresented this study is basedon 406 responses in from Saudi Arabia and 154 responses from the North Eastof England.

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6. Data analysis

The datafor this research for were analysed using the StatisticalPackage Social Science(SPSS). The analysiswas basedon two samples: Saudisample(N = 406); and the UK sample(N = the 154),which will be usedas a benchmark for comparison.During the courseof data entry, two checkswere madeto verify the accuracyof the dataentry, one in the middle of dataentry, and the bias, at the 0.05 level of significant, was found in the two secondat the end.No non-response by samplesas assessed two-samplet-testsof the measured meanson severalvariables suchas age, annualsalary,education,length of services,and numberof dependents. A numberof criteria are proposedby TabachnickandFidell (1989) to selectan appropriate statisticaltechnique,two of which arethe appropriateness the techniqueto the research of questions,and the characteristics data.Accordingly, different statisticaltechniqueswere usedin of Among the analysisbasedon their relevanceto the research objectives,questionsand hypotheses. the techniquesthat have beenusedwhere applicableare frequenciesanalysis,factor analysis,tProduct-MomentCorrelation,and Fisher's Z-transformation. test, Pearson 7. Results and rindings Exploratory factor analysiswas utilised in this research searchfor structureamongvariables. to Factor analysisgaveus similar structurein the two samples. The two setsof factors contain in that using the items in this survey,managers the two exactly the sameitems, suggesting job in countriesconceptualise satisfactioncomponents the sameway. A Cronbachreliability test This was conducted;all reliability coefficientswere over .60, which meanthat they are acceptable. indicatesthat the measurement scalesare acceptablyreliable, and provides supportfor the statisticalanalysis. T-testsresults suggestthat there are statistically significant differencesin the averagesatisfaction No with co-worker, work itself, promotion, and supervisionbetweenthe two samples. significant differencesin the averagesatisfactionwith pay, recognition,and overall job satisfactionwere found betweenthe two samples.

Thefindingsof this studysupport notionthatthe levelof job satisfaction an effecton the has the It the employee's attitudetowards job andtheorganisation. wasfoundthat satisfaction with the job accompanied favourable Job consequences vice versa. satisfaction foundto have and was from work, disagreement strongpositivecorrelations with the disagreement resigning of of job, thinkingof finding another disagreement hatingto go to work, andthe agreement feeling of of happyat work in bothsamples. Testsfor significantdifferences between in correlations thetwo No between satisfaction job samples wereconducted. differences werefoundexcept correlation the andthinkingof finding ajob outside organisation.
In the Saudi sample,job satisfactionwas found to have significant but weak correlationswith the needfor autonomyand needfor dominance;and no significant correlation with the needfor achievement and the needfor affiliation. In the UK sample,job satisfactionhas no significant correlation with all the four motivation needs.Testsfor significant differencesbetween correlationsin the two samplesrevealedno significant differencesbetweenthem. Positive significant moderatelyweak relationshipsbetweenjob satisfactionand age,annual salary,working in the sameorganisation,education,and number of dependents; a very weak and

ix

relation with the length of service in the Saudi sample. In the UK sample, very weak correlations were found between job satisfaction and the demographic variables; correlation with education was a significant but negative one and correlation with number of dependants was negative also.

Pearson Product-MomentCorrelationtest was employedto test the researchhypotheses. Significant positive relationshipsbetweenthe overall job satisfactionand the satisfactionwith the six job facetswere found, andhypotheses regardingthe relationshipbetweenthe four job satisfactionwere rejected. motivation needsand

8. Conclusion
The research's hypotheses regarding job satisfaction relationship with the six job facets were supported in this study. Significant correlations were found between the overall job satisfaction the satisfaction with co-worker, work itself, promotion, pay, supervision and recognition in and the two samples. Although the same variables have significant correlations with the overall job satisfaction in the two samples, the tests for correlation differences show some significant differences. This led us to conclude that the same variables have some influence on employees' job satisfaction in two different cultures, but with some differences in strength. Hypotheses the relationship between the four motivation needs and job satisfaction were rejected. regarding

The level of satisfactionwith thejob hasan effect on the attitude and behaviourof employees towardstheir jobs and organisations. satisfactionwas found to accompanyfavourable Job The more highly satisfiedan employeeis, the more likely he will consequences vice versa. and stay in his job, have fewer absences feel happierat work. and From the results of the relationshipbetweenthe overall job satisfactionand the four motivation needs,one could concludethat the four motivation needsdid not have a major influence on the managers'job satisfactionsurveyedthis study.

Differences job between satisfaction in the werefoundbetween two samples therelationship and demographic from these Onecouldconclude thatdemographic some variables. variables results from onecultureto another. mayhavedifferentinfluences job satisfaction on
Although resultsof the Pearson Product-MomentCorrelation Test examining the relationship between satisfactionand the satisfactionwith the six job facets,and the satisfactionwith each job job facet and the satisfactionwith the variablesassociated it show somestrong correlations with amongthem in both samples,testsfor significant differencesbetweencorrelation show that Saudi scoredhigher in someand UK scoredhigher in others.Theseresults lead one to concludethat the variablesthat have beeninvestigatedin this study have affectedmanagers'job satisfactionin the two different cultures,but with different strength.

DECLARATION

No portion of the work referredto in this thesishasbeensubmittedin supportof an application for anotherdegreeor qualification at any other university or other institute of learning.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

for This report is doneas an academicexerciseto fulfil the requirements PhD thesissubmittedto the University of Newcastle. The completion of this thesishasonly beenpossiblewith the help and supportof many peopleand institutions. Even though I am solely responsiblefor this study,there are many contributions which I must acknowledge. I am most gratefUlto my supervisorDr. JoanHarvey for guidance,encouragement, advice, and supportnot only academicallybut also socially throughoutthe duration of my PhD research. I am indebtedto Dr. GeorgeErdosfrom the PsychologyDepartmentfor his meaningful advice and comments,to King SaudUniversity, SaudiArabia, who provided a scholarshipfor my study, to Mr. Abdullah Alnaser, The Cultural Attach6, and the Staff at the SaudiCultural Bureaufor their help and support.My appreciationis also due to Moira Deardenfrom the School of Management who always gavehelp throughoutthe duration of my study. Finally, I would like to expressmy sincerethanksand deepest gratitudeto my wife, Hana Alsogair, and my son Abdullah for the love and supportthey showedin the courseof this research.

Fahad Alnoeim

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

I ...................................................

2 ........................................................................................................

2 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................. 4 1.3 Significant of the Problem ................................................................................. 1.4 Theoretical Rational 5 , .......................................................................................... 1.5 Research Objectives 6 ...........................................................................................

6 1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................................

1.7 Research Hypotheses 7 .........................................................................................

8 1.8 Organisation of the Study .................................................................................

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Overview

10 ....................................
11 It

.....................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................

2.3 Definition of Job Satisfaction 12 ......................................................................... 2.4 Definition of Motivation 13 .................................................................................

2.5 Job Satisfaction Theories 14 ............................................................................... 2.5.1 Maslow's Need Hierarchy 16 ............................................................................................... 2.5.2 Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory 17 .......................................................................... 2.5.3 Expectancy Theory 19 .......................................................................................................... 2.5.4 Equity Theory 20 .................................................................................................................. 2.5.5 Goal-Setting Theory 21 ......................................................................................................... 2.5.6 Control Theory 22 .................................................................................................................

2.6 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Motivation 23 ..............................

2.7 Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction 25 ...................................................... 2.7.1 Work Factors 26 .................................................................................................................... 2.7.1.1 Satisfaction Pay 26

with .............................................................................................................................. 2.7.1.2 Satisfactionwith Work Itself 27 ................................................................................................................. 2.7.1.3 Satisfactionwith Co-Worker 27 .................................................................................................................. 2.7.1.4 Satisfactionwith Promotion 28 ...................................................................................................................

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2.7.1.5 Satisfaction with Supervisor 29 ................................................................................................................... 2.7.1.6 Satisfaction with Recognition 29 ................................................................................................................ 2.7.2 Personal Factors 30 ............................................................................................................... 2.7.2.1 Age 30 ......................................................................................................................................................... 2.7.2.2 Annual Gross Salary 31 .............................................................................................................................. 31 2.7.2.3 Length of Service in Current Job and in Current Organisation .............................................................. 32 2.7.2.4 Education ............................................................................................................................................... 2.7.2.5 Number of Dependents (family size) 32 .....................................................................................................

2.8 The Consequences of the Level of Job Satisfaction 32 .....................................

2.9 Measuring Job Satisfaction

............................................................................................. 2.9.2 The Job Descriptive Index 36 .................................................................... ........................... 2.9.3 The MinnesotaSatisfactionQuestionnaire (MSQ) 36 ............................... ...........................

34 ...................................................... ......................35 2.9.1 The job SatisfactionSurvey

2.10 Job Satisfaction and Motivation Needs 38 ....................................................... 2.11 Managers as a Focal Point of Study 41 ............................................................ 2.12 Summary ........................................................................................................ 43

CHAPTER THREE: CULTURE

3.1 Introduction

45 ........................................................

46 .....................................................................................................

46 3.2 Definition of Culture .......................................................................................

47 3.3 Differences in National Cultures ................................................................... 3.3.1Hofstede's 48 Model ............................................................................................................ 3.3.1.1PowerDistance 49

....................................................................................................................................... 3.3.1.2Individualism-Collectivism 50 .................................................................................................................... 3.3.1.3Masculinity 51 ............................................................................................................................................. 3.3.1.4UncertaintyAvoidance 52 ........................................................................................................................... 3.3.1.5ConfucianDynamism 53 ............................................................................................................................. 3.3.1.6CommentsconcerningHofstcde'sModel 53 ..............................................................................................

3.4 Organisations and Cultural Differences 54 ....................................................... 3.4.1 Culture and Group Behaviour 55 .......................................................................................... 3.4.2 Culture and Supervisionand Leadership 55 ......................................................................... 3.4.3 Culture and Motivation 55 ....................................................................................................

3.4.4 Culture and Job Satisfaction 60 ............................................................................................

3.4.3.1Maslow's Need Hierarchy 56 ...................................................................................................................... 3.4.3.2McClelland's ThreeMotives 58 .................................................................................................................. 3.4.3.3Herzberg'sTwo-FactorTheory 58 .............................................................................................................. 3.4.3.4Motivation is Culture Bound 59 ..................................................................................................................

3.5 Summary

61 ..........................................................................................................

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CHAPTER FOUR: BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT SAUDI 62 ARABIA AND THE NORTH EAST REGION .................................
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 63
63 4.2 Saudi Arabia .................................................................................................... 63 4.2.1 Location and Population .................................................................................................. 64 4.2.2 Backgroundto the SaudiPrivate Sector .......................................................................... 65 4.2.3. Privatization and EconomicReform ............................................................................... 66 4.2.4 Saudizationin the Public and Private Sectors .................................................................. 67 4.2.5 Manpower and the Private Sector .................................................................................... 69 4.3 The North East ................................................................................................ 69 4.3.1 ReQional Profile ............................................................................................................... 4.3.2 Labour Force and Labour Market 70 ....................................................................................

4.4 Summary

..........................................................................................................

71

CHAPTER FIVE: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

..............

72
73

.....................................................................................................

5.2 Research Design

75 ..............................................................................................
............................................................................ 75

5.3 Data Collection Instrument

77 5.4 Translating the Questionnaire ....................................................................... 5.5 Pilot Study 78 ........................................................................................................ 79 ........................................................

5.6 The Development of the Questionnaire

5.6.1Part(1): Thejob satisfaction 79 part..................................................................................... 82 5.6.1.1Questions relatedto the satisfactionwith work group
.. ......................................................................... 5.6.1.3Questions 83 relatedto the satisfactionwith promotion ........................................................................... .. 5.6.1.4Questionrelatedto the satisfactionwith pay 83 .......................................................................................... 5.6.1.5Questions 84 relatedto the satisfaction with supervision ............................................................................ 5.6.1.6Questions 84 relatedto the satisfaction with recognition............................................................................

5.6.1.2 Questions 83 to related thesatisfaction workitself with .. .........................................................................

5.6.2Part(2): Theconsequences the level of job satisfaction 85 of part..................................... . 5.6.3Part(3): Themotivationneeds 85 part................................................................................ . 5.6.4Part(4): Thedemographic 86 part....................................................................................... . 5.7 Population of the Study 87 .................................................................................. 5.8 Sampling .......................................................................................................... 88

5.9 Data Collection Procedures 89 ....................................................... ....................

5.10 Treatment of the Data 92 ..................................................................................
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5.11 Research Hypotheses

.................................................................................... .....................................................................

92 93

5.12 Statistical Analysis Technique

95 5.13 Methodological Issues in Cross-Cultural Research ................................... 96 5.13.1 Equivalence .................................................................................................................... 97 5.13.2 Bias ................................................................................................................................ 5.13.3 Sampling Adequacy 98 ....................................................................................................... 5.13.4 Language and Translation Issues 98 ...................................................................................

5.14 Summary

98 ........................................................................................................

CHAPTER SIX: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND DATA REDUCTION loo .......................................................................................

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... ................................................................................................ 101 101 6.2 Response Rate

6.3 Non-response Assessment 102 .............................................................................

103 6.4 Descriptive Analysis of the Demographic Variables ................................. 6.4.1 Age 103 ................................................................................................................................. 6.4.2 Annual grosssalary 104 ........................................................................................................ 104 6.4.3 Length of serviceson currentjob ................................................................................... 6.4.4Number of yearsworking for the current organisation 105 .................................................. 6.4.5 Level of education 105 .......................................................................................................... 6.4.6Number of dependants 105 ...................................................................................................

6.5 Descriptive Analysis of the Motivational Needs 106 .........................................

6.6 Factor Analysis 108 .............................................................................................. 6.6.1Rotationof Factors 109 ......................................................................................................... 6.6.1.1 Samplingof variables 110
........................................................................................................................... 6.6.1.2 Samplingof subjects ............................................................................................................................ 6.6.1.3 Samplesize .......................................................................................................................................... 6.6.1.4Subjectsto variableratio ......................................................................................................................

6.6.2 Other Criteria

.................................................................................................................

6.7 Factor Analysis for the Saudi Sample 112 ......................................................... 6.7.1 Oblique Rotation 113 ............................................................................................................ 6.7.2 Interpretationof Factors 115 ................................................................................................. 6.7.3 OrthogonalRotation 116 ....................................................................................................... 6.8 Factor Analysis for the UK Sample 117 ............................................................. 6.8.1 Oblique Rotation 118 ............................................................................................................ 6.8.2 Interpretationof Factors 119 ................................................................................................. 6.8.3 OrthogonalRotation 120 .......................................................................................................

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6.9 Comparing Results of the Two Samples 121 ..................................................... 6.10 Reliability Analysis ..................................................................................... 121

6.11 Comparing the Overall Question with the Averages for each Job Facets 122 .........000.0 ..........0.0000000000 0 ...so 0 ... .... ..... ............0000 0.......0 ... ....... 0 ............0.0 0 6.12 Summary ...................................................................................................... 124

CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS OF THE STUDY

7.1 Introduction

125 .........................
126

126 ...................................................................................................
.............................................................................................

7.2 Job Satisfaction

7.2.1 Satisfactionwith co-worker 126 ........................................................................................... 7.2.2 Satisfactionwith work 129 ................................................................................................... 7.2.3 Satisfactionwith promotion 131 ........................................................................................... 7.2.4 Satisfactionwith pay 133 ...................................................................................................... 7.2.5 Satisfactionwith Supervision 135 ........................................................................................ 7.2.6 Satisfactionwith recognition 137 ......................................................................................... 7.2.7 Whole Satisfaction 139 .........................................................................................................

7.3 Consequences the Level Job Satisfaction of

7.4 Motivational Needs ........................................................................................................... 7.4.1The for 143

141 ............................................... 142

need achievement .................................................. ..................................................................... 144 7.4.2The needfor affiliation ............................................................................................................................ 7.4.3The needfor autonomy 145 ........................................................................................................................... 147 7.4.4The needfor dominance ..........................................................................................................................

/7.5 Job Satisfaction and the Demographic Variables 148 ,,. ...................................... 7.6 Testing the Hypotheses ................................................................................. 151

7.7 Summary

156 ........................................................................................................

CHAPTER EIGHT:

157 ............................................................................

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 157 .......................................................................

8.1 Introduction 158 ................................................................................................... 158 .............................................................................................. 8.2 Factor Analysis

8.3 Motivation Needs and Job Satisfaction 159 ....................................................... 8.4 The Consequencesof the Level of Job Satisfaction 161 ...................................
xvii

8.5 Discussion of Job Satisfaction 162 ...................................................................... 8.5.1 Satisfaction

8.5.5 Satisfaction with supervision 167 ......................................................................................... satisfaction ..................................................................................................

163 with work group......................................................................................... 8.5.2 Satisfactionwith work itself 164 .......................................................................................... 8.5.3 Satisfactionwith promotion 165 ........................................................................................... 8.5.4 Satisfactionwith pay 166 ......................................................................................................

8.5.6 Satisfactionwith recognition 168 ......................................................................................... 8.5.7 Overall job 169

8.6 Job Satisfaction and Demographic Variables 172 ............................................ 8.7 Cross-Cultural Comparison in Job Satisfaction ........................................ 174

Conclusion 175 ,-8.8 ...................................................................................................... Limitations of the Study and Lessons to be learned 179 ,,,-8.9 .................................. Recommendation for Management Practice 181 U,/8.10 ........................................... / 8.11 Recommendations for Future Research 182 -, ...................................................

8.12 A Final Comment

183 ........................................................................................

REFERENCES

184 ....................................................................................

APPENDICES

203 ......................................................................................
204 .................................................................. 209 ................................................................... 214 ....................................................................

Appendix 1: English Questionnaire Appendix 2: Arabic Questionnaire Appendix 3: Letter from the Dean

Appendix 4: Scree plot for the Saudi sample 215 ...................................................

Appendix 5: Scree plot for the UK sample 216 ....................................................... Appendix 6: The factor matrix Saudi sample (Orthogonal Rotation) 217 ........... Appendix 7: The factor matrix UK sample (Orthogonal Rotation) 218 .............. Appendix 8: Mean, St. Deviation and inter-item correlation for Job Satisfaction Variables (Saudi sample) 219 ............................................................... Appendix 9: Mean, St. Deviation and Inter-items Correlation for Job Satisfaction Variables (UK sample) 221 . .................................................................

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: GeneralStatisticsof the North East.........................................
Table 5.1: The age categories ............................................................... Table 5.2: The annual gross salary categories .............................................

69 ..
86 87

Table 5.3: The length of services categories .............................................. Table 5.4: The length of services categories .............................................. Table 5.5: The level of formal education .................................................. Table 5.6: Number of dependents .......................................................... Table 6.1: Age Distribution for the SaudiandUK Samples ............................

87 87 87 87 103

104 Table 6.2: Annual grosssalarydistribution for the Saudiand UK samples ......... 104 Table 6.3: Saudiand UK managers'length of servicein currentjob ................. 105 Table 6.4: Saudiand UK managers'length of servicein current organisation ...... 105 Table 6.5: Level of educationdistribution for the Saudiand UK samples ........... Table 6.6: Number of dependence distribution for the Saudiand UK samples..,...106 Table 6.7: Saudi and UK samplesdistribution of the strengthof needfor achievement: 106 frequencies and percentages ................................................................ Table 6.8: Saudiand UK samplesdistribution of the strengthof needfor affiliation: frequencies 107 andpercentages ............................................................................... Table 6.9: Saudi and UK samplesdistribution of the strengthof needfor autonomy:frequencies 107 and percentages ................................................................................ Table 6.10: Saudi and UK samplesdistribution of the strengthof needfor dominance: frequenciesand percentages 107 ................................................................. Table 6.11: Summaryinformation of the resultsof the extraction of componentalong with KMO 113 test and Bartlett's tests(Saudi sample) ...................................................... Table 6.12: The factor pattern matrix (Saudi sample)(all loading > 0.5) ............... 114 117

Table 6.13: Factorsextractedfor the Saudi sampleand their names .....................

xix

Table 6.14: Summary information of the results of the extraction of component along with KMO 118 test and Bartlett's tests (UK sample)............................................................

Table 6.15: The factor patternmatrix (UK sample)(all loadings> 0.5) .................. Table 6.16: Factorsextractedfor the UK sampleand their names .........................
Table 6.17: The results of the reliability test for the Saudi sample .........................

119 121
122

123 for the Saudi sample Table 6.18: overall questionsand averages correlations ............ 123 for the UK sample Table 6.19: overall questionsandaverages correlations ............... Table 7.1: Satisfactionwith co-workers ......................................................... 127

127 Table 7.2: Meansand Std. Deviationsfor the satisfactionwith co-worker ................ Table 7.3 T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith co-worker .............................. 127

Table 7.4: Satisfactionwith co-workercorrelationsand test for significant differencesbetween 129 correlations .......................................................................................... Table 7.5: Satisfactionwith work ................................................................. 129 130 130

Table 7.6: Meansand Std. Deviation for the satisfactionwith work ......................... Table 7.7: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith work .....................................

Table 7.8: Satisfactionwith work correlationsandtest for significant differencesbetween 131 correlations ........................................................................................... Table 7.9: Satisfactionwith promotion ............................................................ Table 7.10: Meansand Std. Deviation for the satisfactionwith promotion .................. Table 7.11: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith promotion .............................. 131 132 132

Table 7.12: Satisfactionwith promotion correlationsand test for significant differencesbetween 133 correlations ............................................................................................ Table 7.13: Satisfactionwith pay .................................................................. Table 7.14: Meansand Std. Deviation for the satisfactionwith pay ........................... Table 7.15: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith pay ...................................... 133 133 134

Table 7.16: Satisfactionwith pay correlationsandtest for significant differencesbetween 135 correlations ........................................................................................... Table 7.17: Satisfactionwith supervision .........................................................
xx

135

Table 7.18: Meansand Std. Deviationfor the satisfactionwith supervision 135 .............. Table 7.19: T-Test resultsbased satisfactionwith supervision on .......................... 136

Table 7.20: Satisfaction with supervision correlations and test for significant differences between 137 correlations ......................................................................................... Table 7.21: Satisfaction with Recognition ...................................................... 137

Table 7.22: Meansand Std. Deviationfor the satisfactionwith recognition 137 .............. Table 7.23: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith recognition .......................... 138

Table 7.24: Satisfactionwith recognitioncorrelationsand test for significant differencesbetween 139 correlations .......................................................................................... Table 7.25: Whole satisfaction ................................................................... Table 7.26: Meansand Std. Deviation for the satisfactionwith the whole job Satisfaction .......................................................................................... Table 7.27: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith whole satisfaction ................... 139

139 140

Table 7.28: Overall satisfactioncorrelationwith the six factors in the two samples 140 ...... Table 7.29: Test for significant differencesbetweencorrelationsfor consequences the of level of job satisfaction 142 ........................................................................... Table 7.30: Frequencies percentages the needfor achievement and of ..................... Table 7.31: Meansand Std. deviationsfor the needfor achievement ........................ Table 7.32: T-test resultsbasedon the needfor achievement ................................. Table 7.33: Frequencies percentages the needfor affiliation for and Table 7.34: Meansand Std. deviationsfor the needfor affiliation Table 7.35: T-test resultsbasedon the needfor affiliation ........................ 143 143 144 144 145 145 146 146 146 . 147 147

...........................

....................................

Table 7.36: Frequencies percentages the needfor autonomy for and ........................ Table 7.37: Meansand Std. deviationsfor the for autonomy need ........................... autonomy....................................

Table 7.38: T-test resultsbasedon the needfor

Table 7.39: Frequencies percentages the for and needfor dominance ....................... Table 7.40: Meansand Std. deviations for the for dominance need ..........................
xxi

Table 7.41: T-test results based on the need for dominance ................................... Table 7.42: Test for significant differences between correlations ............................

148 148

Table 7.43: Test for significant differencesbetweencorrelations ............................

148

xxii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 7.1: Scatter of job satisfaction and age for the Saudi sample .....................

149

FigUre7.2: Scatterofjob satisfactionand agefor the UK sample .........................

150

Xxill

Chapter one: Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Economic growth and development issuespose major problems to developing countries (Al-

in 1994).According to Al-salamah,one of the major causes economicbackwardness salamah, of developingcountriesas a whole andin SaudiArabia in particular, is not a lack of resources or
specific geographical disadvantage,but the lack of well qualified and experienced managers.

Management plays a centralrole in the economicand industrial growth of a nation. Management is expertsand theoristshaveindicatedthat effective management a critical elementin both nationaleconomicgrowth andthe success organisations that developingeconomymust be of and ableto accumulate, retain, andusemanagerialresources effectively and efficiently to achieve desiredindustrial and economicgrowth (Drucker, 1972;Alsenanee,1997;Alqonabet, 1998). Researchers in have also indicatedthat there is a needfor qualified and experienced managers developingcountries,suchas SaudiArabia, to pilot economicdevelopmentand growth efforts (Alqonabet, 1998).

According to Alqonabet (1998), thereis a desperate in SaudiArabia to developeffective need in management both private and public sectorsof the economy.He arguedthat industrialisation

development SaudiArabiadepends theexistence efficientanddedicated andeconomic of of on to managers aremotivated work hardto achieve goalsof the organisation. who the

1.2 Statement of the Problem

One of the greatestproblemsfacing management developingcountriessuchas SaudiArabia is in how to motivate and supporttheir work forces in order to generate maximum individual and collective efforts (Machungwaand Schmitt, 1983;At-Twaijri et al, 1995).Problemsof motivation andjob satisfactionhave continuedto plaguemany developingcountrieslike SaudiArabia, and

are evident from the very low productivity, inefficiencies, and lack of will to work hard on the part of the work force of these nations (Machungwa.and Schmitt, 1983).

The issuesof motivation andjob satisfactionin SaudiArabia have beenthe subjectsof a controversy.Management expertsandscholarsin SaudiArabia are divided on this issue. Proponents one school of thoughtarguethat Saudiemployees mainly motivated by the use of are of monetaryrewards(e.g. Al-nimr, 1993).Theoristsfrom the other school arguethat Saudi emPloyees be motivatedtowardshigherjob satisfactionby using non-monetaryrewardssuch can (e.g. At-Twaijri et al, 1995). as giving employees more autonomy,power, andresponsibility Thesescholarshave statedthat motivation of employees, by the useof monetaryor noneither monetarymeans,plays an importantrole in determiningemployees'job satisfaction.

Despitethe argumentsadvanced eachgroup,no seriousattempthasbeenmadeto investigate by in the relationshipof motivation needsandjob satisfactionof managers SaudiArabia, particularly in the private sector.An extensivesearchof the relevantliterature on Saudi Arabia showedthat has very little research beendoneon the issueof job satisfactionin the private sector,and no found aboutthe issueof the relationshipof job satisfactionand the motivation needs. research was Therefore,the questionthat still remainsunanswered whetherthere is a relationship between is in motivation needsandjob satisfactionamongmanagers SaudiArabia.

Researchers the developedcountrieshave shownthat there is a relationship betweenmotivation in needsandjob satisfaction(e.g., Parkerand Chusmir, 1991;Herzberg, 1987;Herzberget al 1959; Porter, 1961).In addition, other factors can also play an important role in determining employee job satisfaction.Overall job satisfactiondepends a large number of interacting variables on (Locke, 1976).In the Saudi context, family size is a cultural factor that may have influence on

employee's job satisfaction. Other factors such as age, education and income can also affect an

individual's job satisfaction(Clark et al, 1996,Gruenberg,1981).

Although a numberof research studieshavebeenconductedon motivation andjob satisfaction, thesestudieshavebeenconducted primarily in developedcountriessuch as USA and UK. Very little research beendonein developingcountriessuchas SaudiArabia, and it is preciselyas has is thesenationsare developingthat research essentialif this developmentis to be maximised within the businessand industrial sector.

This study is an attemptto improve our understanding job satisfactionand its relationshipwith of factors.Data for this study will be collectedby samplein motivation needsand somedemographic Saudi,where modem industrial organisations relatively new and the field appears for ripe are study,and from a UK sampleto useas a benchmark for comparison.

The purposeof this research, therefore,is to explorefactorsthat affect job satisfaction,measure the level of satisfactionwith thesefactors and the overall job satisfaction,and examinethe relationshipof job satisfactionand motivation needsand somedemographicfactors among managers employedin the private sectorin SaudiArabia and in the UK.

1.3 Significant of the Problem Thestudyof job satisfaction motivationis important because its relationship cost and to of individualproductivitywhich in turn leadsto economic industrial throughincreased reduction and growth.Smith(1992)stated job satisfaction leadto costreduction reducing that by can absences, errors, turnover.Both management and for theorists practitioners concerned methods and are with improving ob satisfaction, j because j greaterob satisfaction to a betterqualityof life, better equates 4

health both mental and physical, more job stability, and potentially greater performance and productivity (Cranny et al, 1992). According to Cranny et al (1992), the first step toward improving job satisfaction is to determine its causesand correlation. Being aware of what causes job satisfaction among employees can enable management to take steps that will ensure commitment and involvement from employees.

Thereis a needfor this study of job satisfactionand motivation amongmanagers SaudiArabia in because little research beenconductedin SaudiArabia to examinetheir causes has and correlation. Basedon the datathat will be collected,the researcher will be able to locate someof the factors that influence managers'job satisfactionin SaudiArabia. This study is also neededbecause no to other study hasbeenundertaken address this issuein SaudiArabia and in the UK and compare them. The result of this study will haveimportant implications for thosein businessand This study is also important counsellingwho are involved in the training and hiring of employees. for researchers organisations interestedin cross-culturalstudiesand may also serveas a and guidelinefor further related studiesboth in SaudiArabia and other developingcountries.

1.4 Theoretical Rational

The needtheoriesof motivation provide the theoreticalrationalefor this study.Need theorieshave beenamongthe most important modelsof work motivation, and one of the most pervasive conceptsin the areaof work motivation is that of humanneeds(Hay and Mescal, 1991). Several needtheoriescan be identified in the literature, for example,Maslow's (1970) needhierarchy, Herzberg's(1959) motivation- hygienetheory, and Murray's (1938) manifest needstheory. All

thesetheories,while differing in somerespects, havetheir own merits and limitations; all have arguedthat humanneedsrepresenta primary driving force behind employeebehaviour in organisationalsetting (Hay and Mescal, 1991; Steersand Porter, 1991). Murray's (1938) manifest

theory is the most appropriate for this study because Murray does not suggest that needs are needs arranged in a hierarchical form as do some other need theorists such as Maslow. Murray's theory

flexibility in describingpeople.Using Murray's theory, researchers can allows for considerable low needsfor describeindividuals ashaving high needsfor achievement and autonomyand
affiliation and power simultaneously. Murray recognises individual differences and has specified

contentwith which to measure autonomy,affiliation, needs,for example,needfor achievement, and dominance.

1.5 Research Objectives

The objectivesof this research be surnmarised follows: can as in 1. Examinethe extentof the overalljob satisfactionfor managers the Saudiand UK
samples.

2. Examinethe level of satisfactionwith: work group, work itself, promotion, pay, their relation to the overall job satisfactionin the two supervision,and recognition and samples. Explore the relationshipof job satisfactionand motivation needsin the two samples. 4. Explore the relationshipof job satisfactionand somedemographicvariables in the two samples. I

1.6 Research Questions

This research will try to answerthe following questions: 1. Is there a significant difference in the averagesatisfactionwith work groupsbetweenSaudi and UK managers? 2. Is there a significant difference in the averagesatisfactionwith work itself betweenthe Saudiand UK managers?

3. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with promotion between the Saudi and UK managers? 4. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with pay between the Saudi and UK managers? 5. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with supervision between the Saudi and UK managers? 6. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with recognition between the

Saudiand UK managers? 7. Is there a significant differencein the averageof overall job satisfactionbetweenthe Saudi and UK managers?
8. Does job satisfaction have a similar relationship with some consequencesof the level of

job satisfactionin the two samples? 9. To what extent do age,education,salary,length of service,and numberof dependants in contributeto job satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples? 10 To what extent do the four motivational needscontribute to job satisfactionamong in managers the two samples? in 11. Are there any differencesin the importanceof job factors for managers the two different cultures? 12. Is there a significant differencein the needfor achievement betweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 13. Is there a significant differencein the needfor affiliation betweenthe Saudi and UK
managers?

14. Is there a significant difference in the needfor autonomybetweenthe Saudi and UK managers? 15. Is there a significant difference in the needfor dominancebetweenthe Saudi and UK managers?

1.7 Research Hypotheses

The research hypotheses will be the basisfor the collection and analysisof data in this study. The study hasten hypotheses:

1. There will be a significant positive relationship between the respondent's satisfaction with the work group and the whole job satisfaction in the two samples. 2. There will be a significant positive relationship between the respondent's satisfaction with

itself andthe wholejob satisfactionin the two samples. work 3. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith
the whole job satisfaction in the two samples. promotion and

4. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the wholejob satisfactionin the two samples. pay and 5. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the wholejob satisfactionin the two samples. supervisionand 6. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. recognition and 7. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor achievementandjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples. 8. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor affiliation andjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples. 9. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor autonomyandjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples. 10. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor dominanceandjob in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples.

1.8 Organisation of the Study

This study is organisedinto eight chapters.Chapterone will function as the introduction, dealing with the problem perceived,the purposeand significanceof the study. Chaptertwo reviews the existing literature on job satisfaction,coveringthis areaby discussingthe existing definition, factors,motivational needs,consequences the level of satisfaction,and theories,associated of finally measurements job satisfaction.Chapterthree will presentthe conceptof culture and of show how cultural differencesrelate to differencesin jobs and work-related behaviour. Chapter four will presentbrief information about SaudiArabia and the North Eastregion of England,UK.

Chaptersix design and the methodsutilised in this research. Chapterfive containsthe research

descriptiveanalysisof the data and datareduction using factor analysis.Chapterseven a presents The final chapter,chapter the resultsof the study andtestsfor the researchhypotheses. contains

discussion theoverallfindings,conclusion, recommendations future for contains eight, of and

References appendices be presented the last part of this thesis. in research. and will

Chapter Two: Literature review

00

10

2.1 Introduction
This chapteris divided into elevensections. Sectionone will have an overview aboutjob satisfaction.Sectiontwo andthreediscuss various definitions of job satisfactionand motivation. Sectionfour presents satisfaction job theories.Sectionfive is aboutthe relation betweenjob satisfactionand motivation. Sectionsix is devotedto the factors associated with job satisfaction. Sectionsevenshedssomelight on the consequences the level of job satisfaction.Sectioneight of is aboutmeasuring satisfaction.Sectionnine coversthe motivational needsandjob job satisfactionissue.Sectionten is aboutmanagers a focal point of study. And lastly, section as elevenis a summaryof the chapter.

2.2 Overview
The issueof what constitutes satisfactionhasattractedthe interestof researchers the past for job forty years(Locke, 1976).Thesestudieshavedevelopedgradually from a simple evaluationof basictheoriesto more complex issuesand in-depth investigationto determinethe causesand has consequences job satisfaction.Furthermore,a rangeof suggestions beenmadeby several of social scientistsand researchers resulting from various studiesusing a variety of academic All methodsin different organisations. thesesuggestions relatedto the various aspectsof job are satisfaction.

The complex subjectof job satisfactioncan be broken down to into separate factors such as pay, supervisionand the work itself, but alongsidetheseone must also considerthe natureof the employeeto ascertainwhetherhe gets satisfactionand, if so, the degreeof that satisfaction. Because workers spendnearly a third of their lives and the best yearsof life at work, it is important that they should be happy at work. Most successful organisationsfocus attention on

11

improving their workers' attitudes and increasing their satisfaction. This is essential asjob dissatisfaction has an enormous effect on performance and productivity (Petty et al., 1984).

Schulz (1998) emphasisesthe importance of job satisfaction studies in almost all fields and especially in business, industry and the educational field.

2.3 Definition of Job Satisfaction

Thereare many definitions that havebeenproposedto definejob satisfaction.Thesedefinitions knowledgeand experiencein they reflect researchers' are not identical because perceptions, this subject. The core of thesedefinitions is thatjob satisfactionis the statewhen an researching has a positive emotionalfeeling towardshis job. Vroorn (1964) proposeda basic or employee simple definition; he usedthe terms"job satisfaction"and "job attitude" to refer to the "effective orientationon the part of the individual towardswork roles which they are presentlyoccupying". Blum andNaylor (1968) perceivedjob satisfactionasthe generalattitude which reflects specific job factors,individual characteristics, group relationshipoutsidethe job. This definition is and it than Vroom's definition because showssomesourceof satisfactionand more sophisticated dissatisfaction.Salancikand Pfeffer (1977) seejob satisfactionas a term which describes the betweenthejob situation or job characteristics stateof correspondence and a person'sneeds. Thus if an individual is satisfiedwith his job, his job characteristics presumablyfit his needs.

One of the most popular definitions was proposedby Locke (1976) who definedjob satisfaction as"a pleasurableor positive emotional stateresulting from the appraisalof one'sjob or job job experiences". Knoop (1994) describes satisfactionas "an attitude that refers to the extent to which individuals perceivewhat they value at work to be fulfilled".

12

Attitude was definedas"the degree effect towards an object;" such feelings towards work are of
usually assessed measuresof job satisfaction" (Ribeaux and Poppleton, 1981). A similar via

orientationwas shownby Armstrong(1996)when he definedjob satisfactionas "the attitudes and feelingspeoplehaveabouttheir job. Positive and favourableattitudestowardsthe job indicatejob satisfaction,andnegativeandunfavourableattitudestowardsthe job indicatejob dissatisfaction".

A generaldefinition was suggested Curning(1993) when he said that satisfactionin the work by placeis the oppositeof frustrationandthe latter is a result of dissatisfactionwhich linked to tension,poor physical conditions,and failings in the job concernedand work mates.In contrast, Herzberg(1968) said thatjob satisfactionand dissatisfactionare not oppositesof eachother. He
postulated that the opposite ofj ob satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather no job

satisfaction;and similarly, the oppositeof j ob dissatisfactionis not j ob satisfactionbut, no j ob dissatisfaction;which in fact meansa feeling of indifference.

On that account,the presentresearcher's definition is thatjob satisfactionis the attitude and feeling that an employeehasabouthis job resulting from the assessment madebasedon his in experience the job. Job satisfactionrepresents positive attitude towards the job, while a negativeor unfavourableattitudestowardsthe job indicatejob dissatisfaction.

2.4 Definition of Motivation

Motivation as a management concepthasbeenassociated with the way employees,including behavein their jobs and with the way they accomplishtheir tasks in thesejobs. managers, Motivation, as a management concept(or function), is complex and multi-faceted. However, this

13

does not preclude stating some definitions tried by many researchers.Among these are the following reflective definitions:

"A motive is what perhaps prompts a person to act in a certain way or at least develop a propensityfor specific behaviour" (Kast and Rosenzweig, 19 79,pp244).

"We view the centralproblem of motivation as the explanationof choicesmadeby " organismsamongdifferent voluntary responses (Vroom, 1964,pp5). "Motivation is the degreeto which an individual wants and chooses engagein to certain behaviour" (Hunt, 1992,pp23). From an organisationalpsychologyperspective, abovementioneddefinitions relate the motivation to the way in which peopleact to achievetheir purposeand objectivesin order to fulfil their needs,desires,and goalsin their jobs.

From an organisationalpsychologyand social-psychology the level of attaining perspective, individuals' needs(or goals)is mutually dependent the work organisation.That is to say,the in level of goal congruence betweenthe organisation(implied top level management owners' and goals)and individuals' goals determinethe way individuals attain their objectives.This goal id congruence determinedby many different factors including the way jobs are structured,and the relationshipbetweensuperiorsand subordinate,in addition to rewardsand values in both emPloyees organisations(Kast and Rosenzweing,1979). and

2.5 Job Satisfaction Theories

A greatdeal of effort hasbeendoneby researchers an attemptto explain and understand job in satisfaction.This effort stemsfrom the contentionthatjob satisfactionamongemployeesin a

14

particular organisation is associatedwith other important factors such as adequate financial technology, competent administrative policy, and these are the key resources, use of modem

factorsto that organisation'ssuccess. humanresourceis no longer ignored sinceboth The

how important it is to satisfy the employees' needs. organisations and employees perceive

job Understanding satisfactionis as complexasunderstanding human-beingbecause what a today might not satisfythem tomorrow; and what satisfiesthem in one place satisfiesemployees Onemust also considerthe major individual differencesin them elsewhere. might not satisfy humanbeingsas they affectjob satisfaction. Furnharn(1994) Muchinsky (1993) and Mullins (1996) statedthat despitethe severaltheorieswhich have emergedin an attemptto soundout and in this phenomenon, thesetheorieshas succeeded embracingall the explain noneof job circumstances surrounding satisfaction.

Work motivation theoriesmay be divided into two generalcategories:content(e.g. Maslow's Need Hierarchy) and process(e.g. ExpectancyTheory) theories.Contenttheories" attemptto explain thosespecific things which actually motivate the individual at work"; while process theories"attempt to identify the relationshipamongthe dynamic variableswhich make up

motivation" (Mullins, 1996)andareconcerned identifyingan individual'sneeds and with

strengths,and the goals aimed for in order to satisfy theseneeds.Contenttheoriesconcentrateon what motivates.In contrast,processtheoriesconcernthe actual processof motivation. These theoriestry to find out how behaviouris initiated, directedand sustained(Mullins, 1996).

Most researchin internationalhumanresourcemanagement beencontent oriented,because has thesetheoriesexplore motivation in more generalterms and are more useful in creating a complete picture of employeemotivation in a particular country (Hodgettsand Luthans, 1991).

15

Content theories of motivation are related more to job satisfaction than process theories (Mullins,

1996).Process theoriesaremoresophisticated tend to focus more on individual behaviourin and settingsandthus havelessvalueto the study of employeemotivation in international specific
settings (Orpen and Nkohande, 1977).

Reviewing all theoriesof job satisfaction what hasbeensaid about them is not the purpose and of this chapter;nevertheless, brief overview of the main and related ideasof someof the most a popularjob satisfactiontheoriesamongresearchers might well servea useful purpose.

2.5.1 Maslow's Need Hierarchy

According to Maslow (1943),humanmotive emergesfollowing a hierarchy of five needs, psychologicalneeds,safety/security, social or affiliation, achievementand esteem,and selfactualisationneeds.There arethreepremisesof this theory (Callahanet al., 1986).First, a

in is not a motivatorof behaviour. Second, needs arranged a hierarchy. the satisfied need are
Third, thereare more ways to satisfy higher-level needsthan lower-level needs.

Despiteits central position in the literature,Maslow's theory has receivedweak or no empirical support(Salancikand Pfeffer, 1977;Callahanet al., 1986).Lawler and Suttle (1972) report only two levels of needs-a biological level, and a global level covering the higher level needs.In a review of thirteen studies,Wahbaand Bridwell (1976) concludedthat the conceptof hierarchy
was only partially supported.

The confusionbetweenneedsand values in Maslow's theory was criticised by Locke (1976) when he statedthat the hierarchy may differ with eachman, and that a given hierarchy and an individual's actual needsmay not correspond.

16

Alderfer (1969) has redefined Maslow's need hierarchy as three broad categories of needs: relatedness, and growth. He was less concerned with the hierarchical arrangement of existence,

the needcategories(SalancikandPfeffer, 1977).However,Alderfer sharesthe belief with Maslow that needstructurewas virtually universalamongindividuals.

Although Maslow did not intendthat the needhierarchy shouldbe applied to the work situation, it still remainspopular as a theory of motivation at work. Despitetheoreticalcriticisms and limited support,the theory hasinfluencedpractical management to approaches motivation and organisationdesignto meetemployees'needs.It is a suitableframework for looking at the different needsand expectations peoplehave,and the different motivators that might be that appliedto peopleat different levels (Mullins, 1996).

2.5.2 Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory Herzberget al. (1959) considers satisfactionand dissatisfactionastwo dimensions.They job
argue that factors that lead to job satisfaction (e.g. motivators) are separate and distinct from

thoseleadingto job dissatisfaction(e.g. hygiene).In general,hygienefactors are extrinsic, doesnot lead to job preventingemployeesfrom being dissatisfiedor unhappy,but their presence satisfaction.On the other hand,motivators are intrinsic so that when presentthey contribute to employees'job satisfaction. According to this theory, ajob will enhance work motivation only to the extent that motivations are designedinto the work itself, changes that deal solely with hygienefactors will not generateimprovement(Hackman, 1980).

Herzberg' theory is a sourceof frequent debate.Studiestesting it haveproducedmixed conclusions(Bockman, 1971).However, it hasbeenattackedby a number of writers. For

17

Vroom. (1964) arguesthat the theory was only one conclusion that could be drawn from example,

the research.

Houseand Wigder (1967) draw attentionto the influence of individual differences.A factor job which causes satisfactionfor onepersonmay causedissatisfactionfor another.They concludethat the theory over-simplified.Also, they criticised Herzberg's methodology.They claim that the critical incident methodandthe descriptionof eventsgiving to good or bad feeling influencethe results.When studieshavebeenconductedwithout the use of the critical incident method,resultsgenerallyaredifferent from thosepredictedby the tow-factor theory (Hulin and Smith, 1967).

In spite of the methodologicalcriticism that hasbeenlevelled againstthe Herzbergtheory, it is important in that it was one of the first attemptsto draw the distinction betweenintrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Salancikand Pfeffer, 1977).It still enjoyspopularity and hasbecome widely known amongmanagers has inspired a numberof successfulchangeprojects and involving the redesignof work (Hackman,1980; Callahanet al., 1986).

The assumptionof universal humanneedsby Maslow and Herzberget al was strongly by questioned Turner and Lawrence(1965). Different individuals may have different needs,or at leastdifferent strengthsof the sameneeds(Salancikand Pfeffer, 1977),and hencewill respond differently to the samejob characteristics (Hackmanand Lawler, 1971; Hackmanand Oldham, 1976;and Hackmanand Oldham, 1980).

18

2.5.3 Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory, as formedby Vroom (1964), is built on the notion of individuals' choices of the type of behaviourwhich bringsthema higher reward of satisfactionor the lowest negative
outcome (or avoidance) of dissatisfaction. The rational/economic concept of "preferences" different alternatives with different values constitutes a major part in the development of among

the theory.

The theory relatesthe estimated (as a reflection of the degreeof motivation) a energyor effort personputs in towardsthe attainmentor avoidanceof specific outcome(s)dependingupon a person's"belief' that the values(or valence)of attainmentor avoidanceof thesespecific outcome(s)is (are) to be "believed" positively or negativelyrelatedto the performanceexpected from his/her behaviour.The theory is represented the following formula: in F=fi (ExV) The clarification of the four elementsin the model is as follows: Force (F) : refers to the energya personputs towardsperformancewhich is estimatedand reflectsthe degreeof motivation. Expectancy (E) : refers to the probability (belieO that an action will lead to performance. Instrumentality: refers to the linkage betweenperformanceand other outcome(s)which depends belief. on Valence: desirability of estimatedvalue of different outcome(s)upon a person's belief.

It is to be noted that both valence(values) and expectancyare combinedtogether 66 multiplicatively" in order to producethe expectedeffort. In other words, a personshould perceivethe consequences the outcome(s)which could be positive, negativeor neutral. At the of sametime one should perceivethe expectancy(probability), which rangesfrom zero to one, of

19

the action (performance), in order to estimate the level of effort of motivation needed. Based on the summation of expectanciesmultiplied by valences a person will act on which ever is higher

to perform or lower to avoid.

Evidencefor the validity of the expectancy model is mixed (Miller and Grush, 1988; Mitchell, 1988).Although the expectancy equationmay oversimplify the motivational process,managers can still useit to diagnosemotivationalproblemsor to evaluateeffective motivation.

2.5.4 Equity Theory

One of the popular cognitive explanations humanbehaviourin work organisationsis equity of theory. In equity theory, peopleare motivatedto maintain "fair relationshipswith othersand rectify unfair relationshipsby making them fair" (Baron, 1983).Three key factorsusedin in equity theory are: inputs, outcomes,and referents explaining and understanding motivation (Adams, 1965).Inputs are what a personbrings to thejob suchas ageand skills. Outcomesare things that the personperceivesto be receivedas a result of work. They may be positive factors suchaspay and recognition, or negativesuchasunsafeworking conditions and pressurefrom Referentis the focus of comparisonfor the person,either other individuals or other management. groups.

While equity theory basically makesstrong intuitive sense, empirical evidencehasbeen the mixed (Kopelman, 1977; Carrell and Dittrich, 1976; Cosier and Dalton, 1983).The conceptof 6equitysensitivity' plays a role in explaining thesefindings by suggestingthat individuals have different preferences equity that causethem to for reactconsistentlybut differently to perceive equity and inequity (Husemanet al., 1987).Differencesin intelligence, social values,

20

personality, and gender may also influence an individual's Perception of equity (Carrell and

Dittrich, 1976).

Equity theory oversimplifies the motivational issues by not explicitly considering individual needs, values, or personalities (Gordon, 1996). This oversimplification becomes extremely

important when the work force becomes diverse.Cross-culturaldifferencesmay play a role more in preferencefor equity in additionto the preferredresponses inequitablesituations. to

2.5.5 Goal-Setting Theory

Another cognitive theory of motivation is goal settingtheory. Goal-settingtheory is basedon a by simple premise:performanceis caused a person'sintention to perform (Locke and Latham, 1990).Goalsare "what a personis trying to accomplish" or intendsto do (Locke, 1968). Researches showedthat goal-settingprogramsimprove performanceat both managerialand non(Latham and Yukl, 1975).It also conceivedthe role manageriallevels in different organisations that feedbackplays on goal setting.Individuals requiredinformation abouttheir effectivenessin meetingtheir goals as part of continuing to work towardsthem (Bannisterand Balkin, 1990; Larson, 1984;Liden and Mitchell, 1985).Good feedbackcan engendera senseof achievement, accomplishment, recognition, and canproduceimprovementand more creative effort (Latham and Locke, 1979).

Erez et al. (1985) has suggested characteristics the participantsin goal setting, suchas that of their authority or education,may have an impact on its effectiveness. Erez and Zidon (1984) reportedthat the difficulty and acceptance goalsare major determinantsfor workers to of perform a task. The effect of goal setting,however,may differ acrossculture (Erez and Earley, 1987).

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2.5.6 Control Theory A control theory model of human motivation is put forward by Lord and Hanges (1987). Control theory is a cognitive phenomenon relating to the degree that individuals perceive they are in

control of their own lives, or are in control of their jobs, (Luthans, 1995). Studieshave shown that thosewho believe they have suchpersonalcontrol tolerateunpleasanteventsand experience less stresson thejob than thosewho do not perceivesuchcontrol (Gansterand Fusilier, 1989; Fox et al., 1993).There is also someevidencethat perceivedcontrol will affect job satisfaction (Dwyer and Ganster,1991). and absenteeism

In addition to the theoriesmentionedabove,other theoriesand studieshave beenfound in the literature regardingjob satisfaction,and theseare now considered:

Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) suggests that individuals in a given social contextwill be more self-motivatedand experiencegreaterwell-being to the extent that (or they feel competent,autonomous self-determined), related(or connected) to others. and

Hackmanand Oldham's (1980) Job CharacteristicModel suggests that work satisfaction is determinedby one's critical psychologicalstateswhich in turn are causedby the five corejob characteristicdimensionsof task variety, task significant, task autonomy,task identity, and feedback.Employeegrowth strengthmoderates relationship. the

The SituationalOccurrence Theory of job satisfaction( Quarsteinet al., 1993) holds that job satisfactionis determinedby "situational characteristics"(those facetsthat applicantstend to evaluateprior to acceptinga job, suchas pay, promotional opportunities,working conditions, companypolicies, and supervision)and "situational occurrence"(positive or negativefacetsthat

22

tend not to be pre-evaluated). The latter are relevant after the applicant has accepted the job, and be unexpected to the individual. may

To conclude,the varioustheoriesof motivationthat havebeendiscussed focus on causes of all humanbehaviour,althougheachusesdifferent psychologicalconceptsto explain behaviour.It is importantto note that varioustheorieshaveboundaries. There is no one best theory of motivation and someseembettersuitedto deal with certaintopics than others.Landy and Becker (1987) points out that needtheoriesaremost widely usedto study satisfactionand work effort. Expectancy theory can be usedto predictjob and organisationalchoicesand withdrawal behaviour.Goal-settingtheory hasbeenrelatedto choiceand performance.

Understanding it to eachof thesedifferent approaches motivation is useful because gives the managerseveralways to look at problems.As a result, he or shemay arrive at better solutions more quickly and effectively.

2.6 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Motivation

Sincethe early studiesof job satisfaction,many researchers have given considerableattentionto the subjectof motivation in an attemptto clarify and explain how job satisfactionis constructed. As the research job satisfactionevolved,researchers on tried to separate conceptof job the satisfactionfrom that of motivation. For example,McCormick and Ilgen (1992) believe that althoughjob satisfactionand work motivation are relatedto eachother to a high degreeand found in the literature in a single section,the two topics are considered distinct sometimes as subjects.They pointed out that while job satisfactionis relatedto one's feeling towards one's job, work motivation is concernedwith the behaviourin the work place. employee's

23

Nevertheless, they went on to say that the theories of motivation are to some extent theories of

job satisfaction.

A similar orientationwas shownby Dubrin (1972), when he distinguishedbetweenthe two

topics, defining them differently. He perceived motivation as the expenditure of effort towards

feeling towards work. job satisfaction accomplishinga goal, while was seenas a positive

The relationshipbetween satisfactionandmotivation might be viewed accordingto the job For constructof the theory concerned. example,from the two-factor theory perspective (Herzberget al. (1959), the relationshipcanbe seenas a direct one. According to the two-factor lead to job satisfaction. theory, the job contentfactors(the motivators),if considered, will

If the relationshipis viewed from the expectancy theory, it becomesindirect. According to this theory,job satisfactionis far from being a direct influence on motivatedbehaviourtowards tasksor goalswhich expected lead to rewards(or first level outcomes).This in turn to achieving might meetindividuals' needs(or secondlevel outcomes),where effort or performance(which is dependent individuals' choices)are mouldedaccordingto this chain (Campell et al., 1970). on According to this theory,job satisfactionis a function of rewardswhich may or may not be direct function of behaviour(Campbell et al., 1970).

Despitethe very close relationshipbetweenjob satisfactionand work motivation to the extent that it is difficult to distinguishbetweenthe two topics, it can be dealt with in the academic researches separately.Schultz (1998) agreedwith that when he suggested that:

"The conceptsof motivation andjob satisfactionare interrelated, satisfaction can resultfrom thefuyillment of motivation, and new sources

24

From an academic and ofsatisfaction can generate other motivations. theoretical standpoint we can separate the two and discuss them individually "

Mullins (1996) suggested job satisfaction motivation are usually relatedbut the natureof that and is not clear. He asserted job satisfactionis more of an attitude, an internal that this relationship lead to job satisfaction.Organisationsshould is a process which may state,while motivation know that a highly motivatedemployeedoesnot meana very satisfiedemployeeand vice versa (Steersand Porter, 1991).

In the presentstudy, distinction will be drawnbetweenthe two topics and will usemotivation However,job satisfactionis, and will be, the main job satisfactionas interlinked concepts. and concernof the research.

2.7 Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction

The interestsof many scholarsin job satisfactionstemfrom their belief that job satisfaction important themein understanding the individuals within. This and an represents organisations belief providesan indispensable justification for the studiesof job satisfaction,showing and its relatedness individuals and organisations. Therefore,literature on work to emphasising motivation in generaland in job satisfactionin particular is voluminous and not all of the literatureproducedis directly relatedto this study. Hence,a selectedsubsethasbeenreviewed which hasa direct relevant to the current study.

have examinedseveralvariablesand outcomesthat correlatewith or contribute to Researchers job satisfaction,whether in a positive, neutral, or negativemanner.Glisson and Durick (1988) classifiedthesevariablesinto three categories: 25

"(1) Variables that describe characteristics of thejob tasks performed by the workers; (2)variables that describe characteristics of the organisations in which the tasks are performed; and (3) variables that describe characteristics of the workers who perform the task " P. 61

The presentstudy will be focusedon variablesrelatedto the first and third categories. Variables suchaspay, work itself, promotion,co-worker,recognition,and supervisorwill be explored as first categoryvariables( work factors). Variablessuchasage,annualgrosssalary, length of job, education,and numberof dependents service,numberof yearsdoing the same will be exploredas third categoryvariables(personalfactors).

2.7.1 Work Factors

The presentstudy will be focusedon the satisfactionwith the most commonresearched job facetswhich are satisfactionwith pay, satisfactionwith work itself, satisfactionwith co-workers, satisfactionwith supervisors,satisfactionwith promotion, and satisfactionwith recognition.

2.7.1.1 Satisfaction with Pay Pay is arguably one of the most critical, if not the most critical, outcome of organisational membership for employees (Gupta & Shaw, 1998). This factor has attracted several researchers who have tried to explore its effect on job satisfaction. This attention was derived from the old belief that to satisfy workers one should pay them more. Locke (1984) pointed out that it is the universal means of exchange. (Kadushin and Kulys, 1995) considered pay as a predictor of job satisfaction. Lawler (1973) believes that pay satisfaction is one of the strongest factors in job satisfaction. The trend of investigating pay has moved from studying actual pay and people's attitude about it towards concentrating on the precursors of different kinds of pay attributes such as pay satisfaction and perception of pay fairness (Shaw & Gupta, 2001). The Equity theory

26

(Adam, 1963) and the Discrepancy theory (Lawler, 1971,198 1) postulate that pay satisfaction is the result of social comparison with respect to relevant referents. Inequity in pay was found to be associatedwith low pay satisfaction (Carr et al, 1996; Perry, 1993; Summers & DeNisi, 1990; Sweeny, 1990). Employees could have internal or external referent when judging pay fairness. Leavitt (1996) emphasisedthe important of pay but said that high pay by itself will not alleviate

job problemsof low employee satisfaction.

2.7.1.2Satisfaction with Work Itself This factor hasbeenwidely discussed many researchers this field and considereda major in by factor in determiningjob satisfaction(Gruneberg,1981;Zeffan, 1994).Peopleusually seekajob wherethey can practicetheir skills, seetheir output, and haveresponsibility and autonomyto (Jaffe et al, 1994,andDodd & Ganster,1996).Dale et al (1997) and Evans& strive for success Lindsay (1996) statedthat employeesatisfactioncan be enhanced ajob incorporatestask if significance,autonomy,skill variety, task identity, and feed back about performancewhich corresponds with Hackmanand Oldham (1976), Hackmanand Lawler (1971), Locke (1984). Dahlgaardet al (1998) found that ajob hasto fulfil the humanand mental needsof the leadingto improvementof employees, this in turn will increase and morale and motivation quality and productivity. Locke (1976) asserted that ajob hasto have a senseof challenge.

2.7.1.3Satisfaction with Co-Worker It is self-evidentthat peoplehave social characteristics, they enjoy being and with others. Maslow (1970) considersthis needas one of the third category"the social needs".In this category,Maslow meantthe needfor belonging and love that employeespursueto fulfilled. Therefore,assigningan employeeto an isolatedjob may causedissatisfaction(Armstrong, 1996).Thus, the work group is anotherimportant factor and sourceof satisfactionand 27

dissatisfaction. When a worker interacts socially and positively with his co-workers, the senseof co-operation will lead him/her to experiencesatisfaction (Gruneberg, 1981). Interpersonal relationships are an important part of job satisfaction (Leppa, 1996). An employee seeks satisfaction through his work mates to provide him with recognition, security, status, and the feeling of being wanted (Gilmer, 1966).

A job that hasmore positive socialoutcomes shouldbe more satisfying to the worker (Lawler, 1973).When a personinteractsand is accepted his co-workers,he will be satisfiedespecially by in termsof social needs.Peer-groups help in raising an employee'sperceptionabout his can input and outcomethat leadsultimately to satisfaction.The higher the cohesiveness and in productivity of the group, the higher the feeling of happiness the work place (Gilmer, 1966). In fact, work group cohesionhasa causaleffect on the decisionprocessof employeesto stay or leavean organisation(Iverson and Roy, 1994).

2.7.1.4Satisfaction with Promotion Promotionto a higherjob is considered a meansof satisfactionand dissatisfactionin the work as placebecause promotion is usually followed by an increasein pay, responsibility, challenge, changein actualtasks,and to someextent a changein co-workers.Someemployeesseek promotion to enablethem to changethe actual tasksthey perform or to increasetheir income or changeco-workers.Satisfactionwith promotional opportunitieshasa direct positive effect on job satisfaction(Quarles, 1994;Wiley, 1997).Sometimes, the promotional effect onjob satisfactionis temporary(Kiely, 1986).Opportunity for promotion is consideredalso as a favouredmotivating item by employees(Ahmad, 1989,Vinokur-kaplan et al, 1994).Lack of statusand promotion could result in employee'sjob dissatisfaction(Travers and Cooper, 1993).

28

Fairness issues are important factors in any organisation (Greenberg, 1990). Tyagi (1990) found that inequity in promotion has a negative association with the extrinsic motivator.

2.7.1.5 Satisfaction with Supervisor This factor plays a vital role in the work place. Supervision is a critical factor in both job

satisfactionand performance.It was found that commitmentto do well in the workplace and to increase level of satisfactionis relatedto supervisorytreatment,trust and feedback(Bruce the and Blackburn, 1992;Deluga, 1998).Vroom (1964) pointedout that supervisionstyle may cause satisfactionor dissatisfaction,in otherwords,the supervisorwho is competent,democratic, to considerate his subordinates, hasa good relationshipwith his employees will causethe and workersto havepositive feelingstowardstheir jobs.

(Lawler, 1973)considerssupervisionas one of the most influential factors in determiningoverall job satisfactionand in particular satisfying social needsfor most people.The supervisorwho to seems sharehis subordinates'valuesand take a personalinterestin them will have a positive
effect on employee satisfaction (Locke, 1976). Furthermore, employees will be satisfied with

their supervisorto the extentto which he or shehelps and facilitates the attaining of job values, suchas challenginggoals,or rewardssuchas pay increaseand promotion (Gerstner& Day, 1997;London & Larsen, 1999).Fairnessof supervisionis a key predictor of employee'sjob satisfaction(Bettencourtand Brown, 1997).

2.7.1.6 Satisfaction with Recognition

One of the most important outcomesthat an employee is recognition. In fact, it is always seeks true that the employeewho feels a lack of recognition may react negatively to his job (Perssonet, al, 1993).Koch (1990) and Stuart (1992) asserted that recognition of aj ob well done or full 29,

for work done from supervisor and top management is often among the top appreciation motivators of employees, and involves feedback. Positive feedback follows the principles of the Reinforcement Theory, which statesthat behaviour is contingent on reinforcement. Examples of positive reinforcement in this context include a thanks letter from top management, a bonus pay, verbal acknowledgement from supervisor or colleagues (Blegen et al, 1992; Knippen & Green, 1990; Steele, 1992). Recognition is considered as one of the most important factors affecting the level of satisfaction regardless of the occupational level (Starcevich, 1972).

2.7.2 Personal Factors

Various personalfactorswere found in the literatureto be associated with job satisfaction.Age, education,and genderare amongthe most investigatedfactors. Five third categoryvariables (personalfactors) will be examinedin relation to job satisfactionin the presentstudy. Variables suchas age,annualgrosssalary,length of service,numberof yearsdoing the samejob, education,and numberof dependents be examinedin relation to job satisfaction. will

2.7.2.1 Age Age is considered one of the important factors that influence job satisfaction. Age differences were found to be affecting employee's job satisfaction more than those associated with other personal factors such as education and gender (Weaver, 1980). There are many studies that reported a positive relationship between age and job satisfaction (e.g. Rhodes, 1983; Doering et al, 1983). However, there are convincing arguments and some empirical studies that the relationship is U-shaped or curvilinear. Warr (1992) in his study of two axes of job related wellbeing found a U-shape pattern with high the a at youngest. Clark et al (1996) also found a Ushapepattern. Zeitz (1990) reported three distinct age-satisfaction curves among three employees groups: a U-shaped curve among professionals, an upward-sloping double-bend curve among

30

professionals, and a downward sloping among ordinary professionals. Luthans and Thomas elite (1989) reported a positive curvilinear relationship between age and job satisfaction, a clear

deviation from the linear assumption.

The issue of whether age and job satisfaction has a linear relationship or a curvilinear pattern

However,the existence a relationshipbetweenan employee'sageand remainundetermined. of job satisfactionseems be conclusive. to

2.7.2.2 Annual Gross Salary This factor has been found to have a strong, positive relationship with job satisfaction (Schneider

job et al, 1992;Sweeneyet al, 1990).SheiderandVaught (1993) compared satisfactionbetween public and private managers found that annualsalaryis also relatedto job satisfaction.Based and on their findings they concludedthat higher income is relatedto higherjob satisfaction.

2.7.2.3Length of Service in Current Job and in Current Organisation Time spentworking for a specific organisationdoing the samejob or different jobs are variables that could affect the level of job satisfaction.Time suggests that an employeehas internalisedthe work systemand learnedhow to behaveand copewith it, and also indicatesthat an employeehas socialisedwith other employeeswithin the organisation.In this caseit is expectedthat the This would organisationloyalty and citizenship of an employeewill be establishand enhanced. presumablyhave a positive effect on the job satisfactionan employeeexperiences. Heskett et al (1997) found that length of servicecorrelatespositively with employees' loyalty and satisfaction, indirectly leading to customersatisfaction.Shokry (1991) reportedthat more time spentworking in the samejob leadsto morejob satisfaction.

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2.7.2.4 Education The literature on job satisfaction indicated that employees' attitudes and motivation are

influencedby their level of education. Educationis consideredto be a prerequisitefor participating in the labour force. Despitethat, the relationshipbetweeneducationand work
is quite problematic (Gruneberg, 1981; Hall 1986) and inconsistent in that some motivation

havefailed to record strongpositive relationshipbetweenthe two variables (Glenn & studies Waver 1982). Hodson(1985) reportedthat employees with high educationlevels always express dissatisfactionwith their jobs, while the findings of Al-Helelah (1993) and Al-Saddi (1996) failed to confirm any correlationbetweeneducationandjob satisfaction.It could be concluded from the previous studiesthat thereis no seeminglyreciprocal relationshipbetweeneducational level andjob satisfaction.

2.7.2.5 Number of Dependents (family size) Culture has a major effect in people's beliefs, attitudes and behaviour (Hofstede, 1980; Hunt,

1992).Family size is one of the cultural differencesthat could be found acrosscultures. Western countries(e.g. UK and USA) tend to havea small family size,while countriesin Africa and Arab countriestend to havebig families (extendedfamily). Culture also may have an effect on how peopleview the responsibilitiestowardswork and family (Aryee, 1999),which in turn will affect the work attitude. Ejiofor (1987) found that financial and social pressures from the extended family may lead to job dissatisfaction.

2.8 The Consequences of the Level of Job Satisfaction

The consequence the level of satisfactionwith jobs is one the factors that have of of attracted investigationsby scientistsand researchers. Many behavioursand employees'outcomeshave beenhypothesizedto be the result job of satisfactionor dissatisfaction.Theseinclude work

32

variables such as turnover and absenteeism,and non-work variables such as health and life

satisfaction.

Staff turnover represents a significant cost to any organisation in terms of lost money and time spent training and recruiting competent new employees, not to mention the potential disruption

in the organisation'sprogrammes projects.Although there are many reasonsfor leaving a and job, job satisfactionis considered one of the central causes (Miner, 1992).Studieshave been as job reasonablyconsistentin showinga correlationbetween satisfactionand turnover (Eby et al 1999;Nagy, 2002). Oliver (1998) imposedan ability to secureemploymentelsewherefor the job negativerelation between satisfactionand turnover. Branch (1998) and Tello & Greene (1996) haveasserted that it is not only moneythat makesemployeeshappy and stay in the organisation,but other things like job satisfactionand the ability to balancelife and work.

Theoriesof absence hypothesise job satisfactionplays a critical role in an employee's that decisionto be absent(Steersand Rhodes1978).Absenteeism turnover are often viewed as and reactionto noxious work environments(Bartel, 1979;Gupta& Jenkins, 1991).Peoplewho dislike their jobs shouldbe expectedto avoid coming to work. Correlationsbetweenjob

havebeeninconsistent Nicholsonet al (1977)in a review satisfaction absence and studies. across

from work are tenuouslyrelated. On the of 29 studiesconcludedthat job satisfactionand absence contrary, Shawand Gupta (2001) found that job satisfactionsignificantly predictsjob search intention and absenteeism.

Studieshaveestablished that the correlation betweenjob satisfactionand performanceis rather modest(Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985;Petty et al, 1984).Performanceleadsto satisfactiononly

33

if performance will lead the worker to desired and fair rewards (Lawler, 1973; Huczynski &

Buchanan,2001).

Because work is considered as a main component of life for employed people, it seems clear that

job satisfactionand life satisfactionshouldbe related(Spector,1997).Studiesconsistentlyfind that the two variablesare moderatelycorrelated(e. g, Schaubroeck al, 1992; Judge& et Watanabe,1993).

Most studiesfound in the literature supportthe notion that satisfactionwith the job accompanied favourableconsequences vice versa. and

2.9 Measuring Job Satisfaction

The measurement ofjob satisfactionis one of the most important areasthat have received considerable attention.The importanceof this aspectof job satisfactionstemsfrom the fact that if unreliablemethodsare usedin measuring satisfactionthe result will consequentlybe job incorrect.A clear exampleof that is the criticism and low validity of Herzberg's Two Factors Theory mainly because the way in which Herzbergand his associates of collected their data.

It shouldbe mentionedthat there is no perfect or accuratemeasureof job satisfaction job since satisfactionis relateddirectly to the complexity of humanfeeling. For example,the attitude of an employeeabout one aspectof his job may changeduring the courseof a single day as a result of any potential changein the circumstances suchas not being included in a promotion change which may causefeeling of frustration or receiving warning of criticism from a supervisor.

34

Job satisfaction may be measuredby interviews, group meetings, critical incidents, (Riggio, 1990). The rating scale instrument is one of the most frequently used for measuring job

(Thierry and Koopman, 1984)and (Kiely, 1986).Severalinstrumentshavebeen satisfaction in from the researchers this field. Cook, Hepworth, Wall, and suggested receivedsupport and
Warr (1981) reviewed 249 measuresof job satisfaction. In this method employees are asked to

their feelings about specificjob facetssuchas pay, work itself, co-workers,and recognition. rate Eachfacet commonly hasfive or threeoptions,eachoption having a scorethat represents the value or the degreeof satisfactionrelatedto this item.

A logical distinction, however,was drawnby Cook et al (1981) betweena questionnairewhich (e. measures eachfacet (e.g. pay) throughposing one questionwith multiple responses g. To what ) extentare you satisfiedwith your pay? and anotherkind of questionnairewhich aims to weigh this particular facet preciselythrough posingmore than one questionon it (e.g. I- To what extent areyour needssatisfiedby the pay andbenefitsyou receive?2- Consideringwhat it coststo live in this area,my pay is:.... 3- How doesthe amountof moneyyou now make influence your overall attitude towardsyour job?).

The rating scaleapproachhasbeenby far the most commonly usedmethod of measuringjob satisfaction(Locke, 1976).Among popularjob satisfactionscalesare the Job SatisfactionSurvey

(JSS), Descriptive Job Index(JDI),Minnesota Questionnaire (MSQ).These satisfaction will be

dealt with in more detail below.

2.9.1 The job Satisfaction Survey

Thejob satisfactionsurvey (JSS;Spector,1985)assesses nine facetsof job satisfactionand overall satisfaction.The scalehas 36 items and usesa summatedrating scaleformat. Each of the

35

nine facet subscales contain four items, and a total satisfaction score can be computed by adding all of the items. Respondentsare askedto circle one of six numbers that represent their

item. Coefficient alpharange from for co-worker agreement disagreement or abouteach .6

to 91 for the total scale in a sample of 3067 individuals who completed the JSS subscale . (Spector, 1997).

2.9.2 The Job Descriptive Index

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969)includes five subscales relevant to work, pay, promotions,co-workerand supervision.The entire scalecontains72 items with This model containslists of adjectivesrequiring a "Yes", "No"', either 9 or 18 items per subscale. "T' response. This scalemay havebeenthe most carefully developedand validated (Spector, or 1997).The restraintof this scaleis that it is limited to five facetsonly.

2.9.3The MinnesotaSatisfactionQuestionnaire (MSQ) TheMinnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ;Weisset al, 1967)is another scale satisfaction in thathasbeen TheMSQ comes two forms,aI 00-itern very widespread among researchers.
form and 20-item form. This scaleattemptsto investigatesatisfactionwith intrinsic, extrinsic and generalsatisfactionfactors, suchas working conditions and colleagues.Severalstudieshave internal consistencyreliability for the extrinsic, intrinsic and total scores reportedacceptable
(Spector, 1997).

As mentionedabovethere are severalstandardised, job reliable and testedmethodsto assess satisfaction,but where the aim is to measuresatisfactionin a particular organisationsome adaptations should be carried out to obtain the bestpossibleresult. For exampleJob Descriptive Index (JDI) and Minnesota SatisfactionQuestionnaire the are most popular of standardised

36

(Riggio, 1990). The JDI contains five job facets: work, supervision, pay, promotion, and surveys

Facets,like recognition, play a vital role in job satisfaction. to measure overall co-workers determiningjob satisfactioneventhoughthey are not included in the job descriptiveindex.
Hence, using the JDI to measure satisfaction in any organisation that has problems or lack of recognition would probably not serve the purpose required unless some adaptation was made.

TheMinnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ),however, twentyfacets.One contains

five offered answers facet (e.g., my pay and amountof work I do: statement and represent each very dissatisfied;dissatisfied;I cannotdecide;satisfied;very satisfied).Although this is considered than the job descriptiveindex, there are questionnaire more comprehensive the job which needmore than one question.For example,working nevertheless someaspects of to than one questionto enablethe researcher the management know conditionsneedmore or exactly which aspectof working conditionsthe respondent means.

Thereis scope,as Muchinsky (1993) pointed out, for researchers develop additional to job to questionnaires measure satisfaction;he pointed out two important points regardingthe selectionof questionnaire: 1. It shouldprovide reliable and valid assessment; 2. It should measure facetsof satisfactionthat are of greatestinterestto the the researchers.

It hasbeenrecommended considerthe aim and the particular attributesof any study before to implementingthe methods(Berry, 1998).Wanousand Lawler (1972) believe that the best independentvariablesin a measure satisfactionis the one that coversall the dependent of and job particular study. Thus, the questionnairethat was usedin this study to measure satisfaction

37

was constructed and developed especially for this researchmaking use of many books, articles,

and thesesrelevantto job satisfaction.

2.10 Job Satisfaction and Motivation Needs

The theoreticalfoundationfor this studyis provided by Murray's (1938) theory along with theoriesof job satisfaction.Murray theorisedthat individuals can be classified accordingto the strengthsof various needs,for example,needfor achievement, affiliation, autonomy,and dominance.Murray positedthat individuals haveabouttwo dozenneeds,including the needfor achievement, affiliation, autonomy,anddominance.Although the manifest needtheory in encompasses entire set of needs,most researchers an organisationalsetting have focusedon an dominanceor power. Murray believed the four needsof achievement, affiliation, autonomy,and that theseneedsare mostly learnedratherthan inherent,and are activatedby cuesfrom external environment.When the needis not cued,the needis saidto be latent or not activated.Thesefour (McClelland & Burnham, 1995; needsare particularly relatedto understanding peopleat work Steers,1991).

The most prominentneedfrom the standpointof studying work-relatedbehaviour is the needfor (Steers,1991; Steersand Braunstein1976).A high needfor achievementis achievement by characterised a strong desireto assume personalresponsibility for finding solutions to problems,a tendencyto set a moderatelydifficult goal and take calculatedrisks; strong desirefor concretefeedbackon task performance;and a single preoccupationwith task and task According to Steers(1991) the needfor achievementis important for an accomplishment. organisationbecause many managerialand entrepreneurial this type of drive for positions require success.

38

With regard to the need for affiliation, Steers(199 1) stated that people with high need for affiliation are typified by strong desire for approval and reassurance from others, a tendency to

by conform to the wishesand normsof otherswhen pressured people whose friendship they
value, and a sincere interest in the feelings of others. This concept is important for organisations becauseif management can create a cooperative and supportive work environment for managers

with a high needfor affiliation they would tend to be moreproductive andjob satisfied.

With regardto the needfor autonomy,individuals with high needfor autonomyprefer situations wherethey work alone,control their own work pace,and are not hamperedby excessiverules or (Steers,1991). When individuals with high needfor autonomyare allowed the procedures freedomto control their work pacethey tend to perform better, leading to a higher needandjob satisfaction.

The fourth needthat is important in understanding organisationalbehaviour is an individual's needfor dominance.An individual's ability to have influence over the environmentpositively affectshis or her satisfaction(Daft & Steers,1986).Peoplewith a high needfor dominance by usually attemptto influence othersdirectly by making suggestions, giving their opinions and evaluations, and by trying to talk othersinto things. Thus, individuals with a high needfor dominancegainjob satisfactionin a work environmentwhere they havethe ability to influence the activities of others.

Steersand Braunstein(1976) developedthe Manifest NeedsQuestionnaire(MNQ) based on Murray's (1938) theory. The instrument was designedto measurefour of Murray's need categories: needfor achievement,affiliation, autonomy,and dominance.To test the validity and

39

reliability of the MNQ, Steersand Braunstein conducted both laboratory and field research, and

levels of convergent, their findings revealedthat the instrumentexhibited acceptable discriminant,and predictive validity aswell as reasonable high test-retestreliability and internal They also found that the four needs:the needfor achievement,affiliation, consistency. autonomy,and dominancewere all relatedto job attitudessuchasjob satisfaction.

Sincethe developmentof the ManifestNeedsQuestionnaire (MNQ) by Steersand Braunstein (1976) researchers haveusedit to examinethe relationshipof motivation needsandjob attitude. Etuk (1980), Obi (1981), Parker& Chusmir(1991), andNkereuwem (1992) have found a strong positive correlationbetweenmotivation needsandjob satisfaction.Langan-Foxand Roth (1995) found a negativecorrelationbetweens needfor achievement job satisfaction. and

In a study of managerialmotivation in Arab countries,Yasin and Stahl (1990) examinedthe relationshipamongthe needsfor achievement, affiliation, and power andjob satisfactionamong Arab managers. They found that middle-level Arab managers have profiles that are high in affiliation and achievement, ratherthan power oriented.The authorsconcludedthat this may be dueto cultural factors suchas religion and family upbringing. Relationshipbetweenthese

motivation needs job satisfaction and werefound.

The needsfor achievement, dominance,autonomy,and affiliation have beengiven considerable fit. attentionas possibledeterminants person-occupation In spite of somemethodological of it concerns, hasbeenshown empirically that levels of theseneedspredict job satisfactionin a numberof occupations,particularly management (Chusmir, 1985;House, 1988;McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982;Medcof, 1985,Medcof & Wegner, 1992).

40

2.11 Managers as a Focal Point of Study

This research investigates level ofjob satisfaction among managers working in the private sector

in SaudiArabia and the UK; therefore,emphasis will be on studieswhich havebeenconducted

on managers. Managers' levels of job satisfaction largely differ from non managers (Porter 1961 and 1962; Rosen and Weaver, 1960), particularly in satisfying autonomy in the job.

Thereis no universally accepted definition of the term "manager", and actually, the usageof the term differs from one organisationto anotherand from one country to another(Scaseand Goffee, 1989).Someorganisations link the term to the rank of a person,othersto the pay, and othersto the function, but in generalit canbe said that a common criteria amongmanagersin the different levels of management most organisations their involvement in managingothers in is (subordinates).

According to Scaseand Goffee (1989): "The useofthe term managersvaries considerablyftom one organisational setting to another. In someit is usedto designatelevelsofstatus or personalprestige, while in others it delineatesa variety offunctional responsibilities" (pp 17).

In addition to their definition of managers "those who, in one way or another,and to as varying degrees, co-ordinateand control the behaviourof others"; this researchwill also usethe term to refer to those individuals who are differentiated from other employeesin the organisationthrough their job title and managerialresponsibilitiessuchas supervisors.

When askedabout managers'role in any organisation,most peoplerespondthat managers plan, organise,direct, and control. Thesefour management roles were first suggested the at beginningof this century, and for many they dominatedthe literature of years

41

management. However, these four roles do not adequately describe what managers actually

do (Cherrington,1994).

A significant contribution toward understanding managerial work was by Henry Mintzberg (1979). According to Mintzberg's research,managerial work encompassesten roles. Three roles

focus in interpersonalcontact figurehead,leader,and liaison. Three roles involve mainly information processing - monitor, disseminator, spokesman. Four roles relate to decision making

disturbance, handler,resourceallocator,and negotiator.Although thesesroles are entrepreneur, describedseparatelyin the literature,in practicethey are highly integrated.The importanceof eachrole varies accordingto the manageriallevel. Someroles are more important for top-level managers, while other roles have greaterimportanceto first-level managers.

Basedon the availableevidenceof publishedresearch, can be said as revealedby, for example, it Mintzberg (1979) and Stewart(1985) empirical findings that, in general,managers'jobs are characterised unstructured,varied and non routine especiallyin high level positions. as

Middle managers role modelswho interpret and represent establishedmanagement the are policy andmake it alive to their reporting managers their staff. They are key personsin and communicatingand tracking different kinds of goals and in making information flow up and down (Franz6nand Hardake, 1994).

The middle management function is where all the stakeholderneedscome together(Franzdnand Hardake,1994).Middle managers decisionsare focusedand bound by:

customerneeds(deliver productsand serviceswith requirementsthat fit)

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9 9

employee needs Oob satisfaction, safety, career ambitions) organizational restrictions (policies, budgets)

demands (profit) 9 shareholder

Middle managers havea key role. Today'sbusinesses under intensepressureto be more are effective and efficient than ever before,while adaptingto a constantlychangingenvironment. Middle managers haveto lead thesechanges, act asrole modelsto first line managersand and beara greatresponsibility for maintaining and developing their people.Thus, middle managers their organisation(Franzdnand Hardake,1994).

2.12 Summary
This chapterhasbeenan attemptto review analytically the main issuesin job satisfaction.The researcher proposehis own definition which is a combinationof Locke's (1976) definition will definition is that job satisfactionis the andthe definition of Armstrong (1996). The researcher's he attitudeand feeling that an employeehasabouthis job which results from the assessment Job satisfactionrepresents positive attitude towards the job, madebasedon his job experience. a while negativeor unfavourableattitudestowardsthe job indicatejob dissatisfaction.

Job satisfactionis seenby researchers this field as closely relatedto motivation to the extent in

that a majority of the motivation theoriesare consideredas satisfactiontheories.The main nature of their relationship is that motivation causes contributessignificantly to job satisfactionbut or doesnot guarantee Researchers it. agreethat the relationship betweenjob satisfactionand motivation is very strong,but at the sametime they are definitely different topics.

43

The theories of job satisfaction tried to explain this phenomenon in a distinctive way. The overall ideas from these theories have emphasisedfulfilling the needs of employees such as biological,

Fulfilling theseneedscould be achievedby social and psychologicalneeds. economic, improving somefactorsrelatedto the context and content of the job such as strengthening and
recognition, supervision, pay and promotion. Moreover, people compare themselves with other

employees situations,hencethe idea of expected, or and desiredrewardsand the equivalent generaloutcome,were seento play a role in determiningthe overall level of job satisfaction.

It was found that satisfactionwith thejob accompanied favourableconsequences vice versa. and Measuringjob satisfactionis one of the research'sobjectives.The findings in this arearevealed by thatjob satisfactioncould be measured using two main methods,a questionnaireand interviews.

This chapterhas coveredall the issuesthat will be dealt with in the empirical part of this It research. will function as a basisfor the presentresearch.

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Chapter Three: Culture

45

3.1 Introduction
Peopleof different cultural backgrounds cometo work with different values relatedto their work. Thesevaluesinclude individual orientationand attitudestowards work itself, towards in relationshipswith other employees the organisation,toward the organisation,and so forth (Hofstede,1991;Matsumoto,2000).It is becomingclear that effective management practicesin one country are often ineffective when appliedto anothercountry (Nzelibe, 1986). Culture can affect managerialattitudes(Kelley et al. 1987),managerialideology (Miyajima, 1986). Further, culture affects how peoplethink andbehave.Huo and Steers(1993) arguethat culture is one of the factorsthat affects degreeof motivation,which affects the intensity of needs.

This chapterwill presentan overview of culture and its effect on motivation andjob satisfaction. First, a definition of culture will be presented. Secondly,the issueof differencesin national culture and its effect on employees'work-relatedvaluesin the workplace will be coveredand Hofstede'smodel will be presented. Thirdly, a few of the consequences cultural differences of will be looked at, including group behaviour,leadershipand management style, motivation, and job satisfaction.Lastly, a summarywill concludethis chapter.

3.2 Definition of Culture

Barnouw (1963) definesculture as "a way of life of a group of people,the configuration of all the more or less stereotyped patternsof learnedbehaviour,which are handeddown from one generationto the next through the meansof languageand imitation " (p. 6). Krober and Kluckhohnfl 963) offered one of the most comprehensive and generally accepteddefinitions: "Culture consistsof patterns,explicit and implicit of and for behaviour acquiredand transmitted by symbols,constituting the distinctive achievementof human groups,including their

embodimentin artefacts;the essentialcore of culture consistsof traditional (i. e., historically 46

derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture system may, on the one

hand,be consideredas productsof action,on the other, as conditioning elementsof future action" (p.81). Carrol (1982) sees cultureas somethingthat is sharedby all membersof some social group, the oldestof the grouptry to passon to the youngermembers,and that shapes behaviouror structuresone's perceptionof the world. Hofstede(1991) defines culture as " the the collective programmingof the mind which distinguishes membersof one human group from includessystems values;and valuesare amongthe building another Culture, in this sense, of ... blocks of culture" (p.25). The definition proposedby Tepstraand David (1985), which is good for this research, delineates is meantby world culture in the global management what context:

"Culture is a learned,shared,compelling,interrelated set ofsymbols whose meaningprovidesa set of orientationsfor members a society. These of orientations, takentogether,provide solutions to problems that all societies mustsolve if they are to remain viable." P.10

3.3 Differences in National Cultures

Thereare different ways to describenational cultures.One interestingway is the use of cultural (Gannon, 1993).Another way to view culture is the density of the social context metaphors (Hall, 1989;Hall & Hall, 1990).There can be high and low context cultures.In a low context culture,representedby individualised cultures suchas Germanyand the United States,people tend to usemechanicalequipment(for example,computersand telephones)to acquire information and relate to one another.In a high context culture (like China and Japan), people havea high emotional involvement with eachother and information flows indirectly from more onepersonto anotheror from the social systemto the person.

In order to assess cultural similarities and differences,it is important to have a framework from which to work. A variety of proposedmodels examining cultural differencesare found in the 47

literature. The best-known study of work- related values was conducted by Hofstede (1980, 1984) (Matsumoto, 2000). His study involved employees at IBM. In his original study (1980),

Hofstedereporteddatacollectedfrom workersin 40 different countries.In a later study (1984),

he reported data from an additional 10 countries.

Hofstede'sstudy was a major impetusto viewing andunderstanding cultures using dimensional Moreover, the findings of this study have servedas the foundation for much of the approach. (Matsumoto,2000). work that hasbeendone sinceon culture and organisations

by Research other scholarshas shedadditional light on the natureof cultural differencesin work1993; Smith, Dugan, and relatedvaluesaroundthe world (for example;Trompenaars, Trompenaars, 1996;Furnharnand associates 1993).Collectively, the findings of theseresearches that many of Hofstede'sfindings may be appropriatefor describing ecological level suggest differencesin cultural valuesacrosscountries(Matsumoto,2000). Therefore,11ofstede's model only will be reviewed in this study.

3.3.1 Hofstede's Model Hofstede(1980,1984, and 1991)has conductedthe most extensiveresearchon cultural differences.Hofstedefound highly significant differencesin behaviour and attitudesof from different countrieswho worked for a multinational corporation employees and managers (IBM). Hofstedefound that national culture explainedmore of the differencesin work-related valuesand attitudesthan did occupation,age,or gender.Hofstedeinitially found that managers and employeesdiffer in four main dimensions:power distance(PD), individualism / collectivism (IC), masculinity (MA), and uncertainty avoidance(UA). Later, a fifth dimension, Confucian dynamismwas added.Each dimensionwas measured calculating a scoreindicating its level by

48

from zero, as the lowest, to 100 as the highest. These dimensions of strength; scores range

differentiatedone culture from anotherandare the basisof attitudesand behaviours,organisation practices,and social practicessuchasmarriagesand religious ceremonies.

3.3.1.1Power Distance Power is the ability of one personto affect or control another.Power distance(PD) is the degree in differencesin power and statusare accepted a culture. High differencesin power and to which betweenmembersof different social classes occupationallevels are acceptedin or authority in othersthey arenot (Hofstede,1991).In organisations,power distance somenationswhile the measures rangeto which lesspowerful membersof organisationsacceptan unequal (Adler, 1997).According to Hofstede(1991), PD scorestell us about allotment of power dependence in a country. In low power distancecountriesthere is limited relationships dependence subordinates bosses; in high power distancecountriesthere is of on while dependence subordinates bosses. considerable of on

Hofstede(1991) reportedthat Malaysia, Panama, Philippines, and Mexico had the highest scores that the culture underlying thesecountriesmaintainedstrong on PD. Thesefindings suggest statusdifferences.Denmark,Austria, andNew Zealandhad the lowest scoreson PD, suggesting that the culturesunderlying thesecountriesmaintain low (or weak) statusand power differences. Of the 50 countriesand 3 regionsincluded in Hofstede's study Arab countries,including Saudi Arabia, scored80 out of 100 and were ranked seventh,while Great Britain scored35 and was ranked42/44, which indicatesdifferencesbetweenthesecountries.

According to Hofstede(1991), cultural differenceson PD are related to individual differencesin behaviourthat have consequences their work. For example,managersin high PD cultures for

49

tend not to interact socially with subordinatesand do not expect to negotiate work assignments with them. In low PD cultures, worker groups demand and have a great deal of power over work

assigmuents conditionsof work (Adler, 1997;Cole, 1989).Managersin high PD societies and feel that they must havesPecificanswers questionsraisedby subordinates to about work.
Laurent (1986), in a cross-national study, found that only 10% of the Swedish managers (Low

PD) thought it important to havepreciseanswers subordinate to questions,but in countrieshigh in PD, 65% of the Italian managers, 45% of the Germanmanagers, and 30% of the English in thought so. Subordinates low PD countriesprefer managers managers who consult them and delegate responsibility for them to do their work. In high PD countries,subordinates'preference for manager'sdecision-makingstyle polarizedbetweenautocratic-paternalistic and majority rule (Hofstede,1991).

3.3.1.2 Individualism-Collectivism

Individualism-colIectivism (IC) refersto whether individual or collective action is the preferred to approach deal with issues.Peoplein individualistic cultures(such as the United Statesand GreatBritain) tend to emphasise their individual needsand concernsand interestsover thoseof their group and organisations, while the oppositeis true in collectivistic cultures (e.g., Japanand Taiwan). Of the 50 countriesand 3 regionsincluded in Hofstede's study Arab countries, including SaudiArabia, scored38 were ranked26/27, while Great Britain scored89 and was rankedthird (Hofstede, 1991),demonstratinga degreeof difference betweenthe thesecountries.

IC differencesbetweencountriesand cultures are associated with concretedifferencesin worker attitu es,beliefs, values,and behaviour about work and their companies.For example,people in individualistic culturesplace more importance freedom in their jobs, and on and challenge initiative is usually encouraged the job, in while it is the oppositein a collectivistic culture.

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People in collective cultures expect members of their particular in-group to take care of their members, protect them, and give them security in exchange for members' loyalty. For example, Muna (1980) reported that two-third of Arab executives thought employee loyalty was more important than efficiency. Certain work behaviour may also be affected. For example, in an individualistic culture such as U. S., there is a tendency for people to avoid group assignments as opposed to individual tasks. This tendency toward social loafing was not present in the collectivist cultures such as Taiwan (Grabrenya et. al., 1985, Early, 1993).

3.3.1.3 Masculinity According to Hofstede (199 1), masculinity (MA) refers to the degree to which cultures foster or maintain differences between the genders in work related values. The greatest degree of gender differences in work related values was found in cultures high in MA such as Japan and Austria. Cultures low in MA, such as Denmark and Norway, had the fewest differences between genders. Of the 53 countries and regions included in Hofstede's study, Great Britain scored 66 and was ranked 9/10, and Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, scored 53 and were ranked 23; indicating a moderately masculine score.

Culturaldifferences MA wereassociated very concrete differences between on with workersand For in organisations. example, in managers high MA cultures interested leadership, are independence, self-realization; MA cultures low and placedlessimportance these on constructs. Employees high MA cultures in regarded recognition, advancement, challenge and relatively thandid employees low MA cultures in moreimportant (Hofstede, 1991).Themoremasculine thecultureis, the greater importance work is. England's the (1978)studyshowthat Japanese of (themostmasculine Hofstede's in study)employees agree morestronglythat 'work is centralto life' thando comparable Americans Germans. and

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3.3.1.4 Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertaintyavoidance(UA) describes degreeto which different societiesand cultures the developways to deal with the anxietyand stressof uncertainty.Cultureshigh in UA (e.g., Japan and Greece)develophighly refinedrulesthat are mandated and becomepart of the company's
normal way of operation. Cultures low in UA (e.g., Sweden and Denmark) are less concerned

with rules. Companiesin low UA cultureshavea relaxedattitudetowards uncertainty and have fewer rules for their employees (Brislin, 1993).Of the 53 countriesand regions included in Hofstede'sstudy, GreatBritain scored35 and was ranked47/48 and Arab countries,including SaudiArabia, scored68 and were ranked27. Thesescoresrepresentmedium high for the Arab countriesand low for the British in Hofstede'sscale, indicating a small culture gap between thesecountries.

Cultural differenceson UA are directly relatedto concretedifferencesin jobs and work-related behaviour.For example,managers high UA countriesare selectedon the basisof seniority, in havelow ambition for individual advancement, high job stress,and tendencyto stay with the in employer.On the other hand, managers low UA countriesare selectedby other criteria than low seniority,have strong ambition for individual advancement, job stress,and lesshesitation in changingemployers(Hofstede, 1991).In nationslow in uncertainty avoidancelike the UK, there is lessacceptance rules and lessconformity to the wishes of authority figures than in high of uncertaintyavoidancenations like Japan(Brislin, 1993).For example,absenteeism lateness and issuein other low uncertainty avoidancesuch are seriousissuesin Japanwhile it is an acceptable as Sweden.

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3.3.1.5 Confucian Dynamism In his original study of managers,Hofstede found only the four diminutions above. Hofstede and Bond (1988) have studied the work-related values and psychological characteristics of workers in Asian countries and have identified a fifth important dimension of workand organisations related values: Confucian dynamism. This dimension is that of short-term versus long-term orientation that they adapt from a Confucian idea of virtue versus truth. "Confucius teachings are lessons in practical ethics without any religious content. Confucianism is not a religion but a set of pragmatic rules for daily life derived from what Confucius saw as the lessons of Chinese history". The key principles of Confucian teaching are:

The stability of society is basedon unequalrelationshipsbetweenpeople. The family is the prototypeof all social organisations. Treat the peoplethe sameway you want them to treat you. One's task in life consistsof trying to acquireskills and education,working hard, not being patient and persevering. spendingmore than necessary,

The Confuciandynamismdimensiondifferentiatesbetweentwo cultural orientations,long-term and short-termorientation, eachhaving different values(Hofstede, 1991).In countrieswith a long term orientation,planning can be expectedto have a longer time horizon. Firms are willing to make substantialinvestmentsin employeetraining and development,while there will be longertermjob security and promotion will come slowly (Jackofskyet al., 1988; Ouchi, 1981).

3.3.1.6 Comments concerning Hofstede's Model Hofstede's study was based on employees within one organisation- IBM. Certain types of individual will be attracted to such organisations, and this will be reflected in their responses. This study, therefore, should not be interpreted as an accurate description of national culture as a

53

whole; rather, it should be seen as indicating similarities and differences that one might expect to find among employees in organisations in different countries. Researchers (e.g. Triandis, 1982;

Hunt, 1981; Goodstein,1981) haveexpressed the survey instrumentusedin concernregarding has Hofstede'sresearch, the validity of the measure beenquestioned.Researchers question and
whether the country scores provided are representative of the normal population and whether the

importantcultural variablesarethe onesbeing measured.

In defendinghis samplingmethods,Hofstededefendsthe use of IBM and the narrownessof his He that samples. emphasises IBM was usedto satisfy the principle requirementin cross-cultural focus upon the differences surveysfor functional equivalence points out that the measures and betweenthe samplesrather than the absolutenumbers.

In spite of theseconcerns,from a practical point of view, the cultural variables describedby the model are appealingbecause their apparentrelationshipto the management of process.

3.4 Organisations and Cultural Differences

Thereare many ways in which cultural differencesmay be noticed in organisations.For example,in culturesthat are high in uncertaintyavoidanceand low in power distance,as in Austria, organisations effectively by clearly defining roles and proceduresrather than by run actively using hierarchy (Adler, 1997).Cultural differencesappearto be related to differencesin a numberof work-related behavioursand attitude, including group behaviour, supervisionand leadership, motivation, andjob satisfaction.

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3.4.1 Culture and Group Behaviour

The individualism-collectivism dimensionis considered best one to understandcultural the differencesin group behaviour(Triandiset al., 1988).Cole (1989) found that formal assignments to work groupsare usedmore frequentlyin collectivistic culture (such as Japan)than in individualistic cultures(suchasAmerican).This dimensionis also found to have someaffect on from individualistic cultures perform better performance.Early (1993) found that employees when working alonethan when working in groups.

3.4.2 Culture and Supervision and Leadership

Many studieshave documented cross-culturaldifferencesin supervisoryand leadershipstyle. Howell et al (1995) found cultural differencesin decisionmaking and contingentpunishmentin Japan,Taiwan, Mexico, and the United States.Child (1981) found differencesin leadershipstyle in Germany,France,and the United Kingdom. In Germanyand France,leadershipand control tendsto be more centralisedwhile in the UK managers tend to delegateand decentralise.

The findings of thesestudiesare relatively consistentwith Hofstede's power distant (PD) dimension.Hofstede(1984) believesthat this dimensionhas important implications for leadershipand supervision.

3.4.3 Culture and Motivation Motivation is probably one of the most researched If areasof management. a managercan grasp what will motivate his/her employees,that managerwill have more productive force (Mullins, 1996).Differencesamongcultures affect the way peopleprioritise their (Hunt, 1992) goals

55

There are many competing theories which attempt to explain the nature of motivation, and most have been developed and tested in the United States (Hammer, 1979). Each theory seeks to

rationalizethe behaviourof humanbeingsand what managers do to affect their employees' can behaviour.In this section,we will look at a few of the historically well recognisedmotivation
theories and their applications across cultures.

3.4.3.1Maslow's Need Hierarchy Maslow's (1943) Hierarchy of NeedTheory was clearly derived in America, but doesthis theory hold for employeeselsewhere? Hofstede(1980) arguesthat it doesnot. Hofstede (1991) report that in countrieshigh on uncertaintyavoidance(i. e. Japan)as comparedwith countrieslow on uncertaintyavoidance(i. e. USA), securitymotivatesemployeesmore than doesselfactualisation.Countrieswhere feminine culture is dominant (i. e. Swedenand Norway) tend to stressthe quality of life over productivity (masculinity culture) ; social needstend to dominate the motivation of employees. Employeesin collective countries,such as China, tend to stress socialneedsover the more individual ego and self-actualisation needs(Hofstede, 1991). Hofstede(1984) relatesthe issueof motivational differencesto cultural differences.He argues that Maslow's self-actualisationas a presumedneedis a product of an individualist society and that this American value cannotbe held up as a model for the rest of the world.

Numerousresearchstudiestesting Maslow's hierarchy but not identical rank reveal similar ordering of needsacrosscultures.Studiesinclude researchon different cultures such as India (Jaggi, 1979),Mexico (Reitz and Grof, 1973).Howell et al (1975) study showsthat Liberian managers expressneedssimilar to the managers SouthAfrica, Argentina, Chile, India, and in other developingcountries,while demonstratinghigher security and self-esteemneedsthan in managers more developedcountries.Badawy (1979,1980) found that amongArab managers

56

in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates, the highest At-Twaijri (1989) compared Saudi and American expatriate managers need was autonomy.

in SaudiArabia on Maslow's needshierarchy.The Saudiswere much more concerned working issuesin the social needcategoryand lessconcerned about self-actualisationneedsthan about the Americans.Bureaand Glueck in their (1979) study of the needhierarchy of Libyan found it different from that needin the United States,concluding that Maslow's executives hierarchyvaries from culture to culture.

Another study found resultsconsistent Maslow's finding. In a study of eight countries with (USA, Mexico, PuertoRico, Venezuela, Japan,Thailand, Turkey, and Yugoslavia), employeesin the twenty-six surveyedindustrial plantsrankedself-actualisationmost highly and security amongthe two leastimportant needs.Haire et al. (1963) in a fourteencountry study, reportsthat in managers eachculture want similar outcomesfrom their jobs, but differ in what they think their jobs are currently giving them.

The conflicting patternsof researchfail to be definitive, which strongly indicatesthat one should the not assume universality of Maslow's needhierarchy. As O'Reilly and Roberts(1973) summarised: "Studieshavefound that an individual's ftame of referencewill determinethe order of important of his needs.It has also beenfound that hisftame of referenceis in part determinedby his culture. Therefore,it can be said that an individual's needsare partially bound by culture " p. 298 While the notion of a hierarchy has only limited support,there is clear evidencethat the need types in Maslow's model do manifestthemselvesacrosscultures.Adler (1997) noted in her review of this researchthat studiestesting Maslow's hierarchy demonstratesimilar but not identical rank ordering of needsacrosscultures.

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3.4.3.2 McClelland's Three Motives

McClelland et al. (1953) suggested threemotives drive workers, the needsfor achievement, that McClelland's achievementmotivation has shown Comparative on power, and affiliation. research
it to be relatively vigorous across cultures. For example, Hines (1973a) reported that managers in

New Zealandseemto follow the model developedin the United States.Hofstede (1980) questions the universality of McClelland's theory.Hofstedepoints out that the conceptof achievement behaviouris difficult even to translateinto commonto many Westernmodelsof organisational languages applying it to other cultureswould be evenmore difficult. Hofstede (1980) other and found that countrieswith high needfor achievement have also high needto produce(masculinity dimension)and a strongwillingness to acceptrisk (Low uncertainty avoidance).McClelland's howeverthey have not beenshown to be humanbehaviour-, threemotives help in understanding universal(Adler, 1997).

3.4-3.3Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory Herzberget al. (1959) suggested certain intrinsic factorsmotivate behaviour, while extrinsic that factorsde-motivate.Herzberg's extrinsic (hygiene)factors are similar to Maslow's physiological and safetyneeds.They include factors suchas supervision,working conditions, and salary.

Herzberg's intrinsicfactorsaresimilarto Maslow'shigherorderneeds. Theyincludefactorssuch

asrecognition,achievement, and the work itself

Hofstede(1980) points out that culture influencesfactors that motivate and dernotivatebehaviour. He reportsthat individualistic, productivity-oriented cultures (such as American) focus on job enrichment,while feminine and collective cultures (suchasNorway) focus on socio-technical systems and new methodsto the quality of working life.

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Herzberg's two-factor theory has been tested outside of the United States. Hines (I 973b) reported that supervision and interpersonal relationships in New Zealand seem to contribute significantly

to satisfactionand not only to reducingdissatisfaction,failing to replicatethose in the United States.Crabbs(1973) found that non-unitedstatecitizens cited certain extrinsic factors as
satisfiers with greater frequencies than did their American counterparts.

In general,the universality of Herzberg'stwo-factor theory cannotbe presumed.Each culture has somefactorsthat act as motivatorsand othersthat act as hygiene factors. Thesefactors and their importanceappearparticular to eachculture. Managersshould be awareof that, and relative is that their experience transmissible. shouldnot suppose

3.4.3.4Motivation is Culture Bound Motivation theoriesin usetoday are Westernin their origin and many have beendevelopedin The United Statesor at least influencedby American theoreticalwork. However, conceptssuch as achievement esteemmay have different meaningin other societies.The American and individualistic culture has led scholarsto put emphasison rational and individual thought as the primary basisof humanbehaviour(Adler, 1997).The importancegiven to achievementis not surprisingknowing American concernfor performanceand their willingness to acceptrisk. The do theoriesconsequently not give universal explanationsof motivation, rather, they reflect the valuessystemof Americans (Hofstede, 1980).

Managersworldwide tend to treat motivation theoriesdevelopedin the US as the only way to understand motivation (Illman, 1980).Thesemotivation theorieshave failed to provide consistentlyuseful explanationsoutsidethe United States,although assumed be universal. to Managersmust thereforebe cautiouswhen using American Managementtheories their on

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multinational business practices (Adler and Boyyacigiller, 1996). Managers should consider both the general and the specific influences that affect work motivation in particular cultures.

3.4.4 Culture and Job Satisfaction Comparisons have been made of the job satisfaction of employees from different countries.

Feelingsaboutthe job are likely to differ acrossdifferent countries. In a 1995 Gallup Organisationpoll, national differencesin life satisfaction,which includesjob satisfaction,were found. Overall, eighteencountrieswere included in the survey,46% of the peoplereportedbeing their job. What factorsor variablesaffect job satisfactionacrosscountries?The satisfiedwith Hugick & Leonard (1991) survey included 16 aspects work, as well as overall satisfaction. of They reportedthat Americansoverall like their jobs, but they did not feel the sameabout all had facetsof work. Spector& Wimalasiri (1986) found that Americansand Singaporeans the sameoverall job satisfaction,but the facetssatisfactionprofiles were different. approximately Similar results were reportedby Marion-Landais(1993) when comparingDominican and Americans.Adigun & Stephenson (1992) reportedthat the samevariablesaffect British and Nigerian employees'job satisfactionbut with different strengths.

It hasbeensuggested g., Kilby, 1960)thatemployees developing in (e. (like Saudi countries

Arabia) place more value on extrinsicjob rewards(such as pay, supervision,and relations with work group), and thosein developedcountriesvalue intrinsic rewards(such as work itself, promotion, and recognition). In other words, satisfactionwith the extrinsic factors will play more roles in the overall job satisfactionin a developingcountry than in a developedcountry, and the intrinsic factors will play more roles in the developedcountry than in the developing country. One way of deciding the importanceof this role is to considerhow much of the variability of the scoresin one variable can be explainedby the variability of the scoresof the other variable

60

(Hinton, 1995). One of the questions this study is trying to answer is if there are any differences

in in the importanceof job factorsfor managers the two different cultures.

All thesestudiesutilised almost similar aspects work. Thesestudiesshow clearly that there are of differencesin job satisfactionand in patternsof facetssatisfactionacrosscountries,which could be caused different cultural experiences different needsstrength.Resultsfound in the by and literature and in this study lead to the conclusionthat culture has an effect on the importanceand strengthof the factors relatedto job satisfaction.As Adler (1997) stated;

"Human needsmay well includefundamental or universal aspects,but their differ across importanceand the waysin which they expressthemselves cultures" p. 160

3.5 Summary
The conceptof culture was presented this chapter.A model of cultural dimensionswas in discussed. Culture was found to have a major influence on peoplemotivation. Studiesof motivation andjob satisfactionacrossculturesgavedifferent resultsregardingthe strengthsof needs,the order of needs,and the strengthof effect work variableshave on job satisfaction.These differencessupportthe notion that the humanneedsmay have common aspectsbut their importanceand the way they expressthemselvesdiffer acrosscultures.

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Chapter Four: Brief Information about Saudi Arabia and the North East Region

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4.1 Introduction
This chapteraims to provide the readerwith generalinformation about SaudiArabia and the North Eastregion of in terms of the population,the private sector,and the labour market in the
private sector.

4.2 Saudi Arabia

4.2.1 Location and Population

The kingdom of SaudiArabia is locatedin the heart of the Arabian Peninsulain the Middle East.It kilometres, about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula.Saudi occupiesan areaof about2,240,000square Arabia's population was 16.9million in its last official censustaken in 1992.According to the CentralDepartmentof Statistics,the Kingdom's total population reached23.37 million in mid2002, comparedwith 22.69 in mid-2001, denotingan annual growth rate of 3 percent.The populationis estimatedto reach24,293,844by mid 2003 (includes 5,576,076non-nationals)with an Age structureas follow:

0-14years: 42.3% (male 5,245,413;female 5,028,595) 15-64years: 54.8% (male 7,700,12 female 5,622,099) 1; 65years and over: 2.9% (male 393,173; female 304,443)

The labour force is estimatedto be 7 million in the year 2003 (note: 35% of the population in the 15-64agegroupsis non-national).Unemploymentis expectedto be between15% and 20%.

The performanceof the Saudi Arabian economywas strong in 2002, fuelled by high oil revenues and robustprivate sectorgrowth. Saudi Arabia's GrossDomestic Product (GDP) experienceda real growth of 0.74 percent,increasingto $172.7billion in 2002 from $171 billion in 2001 (GDP 63

$11,400; 2002). The economy's resilience is shown through continued economic per capita the non-oil sector, resulting in an increase of 3.5 percent in private sector growth expansion within in 2001 and an increase of 4.2 percent in the same sector during 2002. The non-oil industrial sector by 5.7 percent in 2002, and the construction sector increased by 3.0 percent to reach $12.0 grew billion. The electricity, gas and water sectors grew by 4.5 percent, while the transport and communications sectors increased by 7.1 percent in 2002.

The importanceof SaudiArabia to the world can be attributedto its strategiclocation, oil reserves for the Islamic nations. andproduction,and religious position

4.2.2 Background to the Saudi Private Sector The conceptof the private sectorrefersto all economicactivities that are not performedby The importanceof the private sectorcan be ascribedto its government owned organisations. increased contribution to the GDP

The strategiclong-term private sector-oriented objectivesdictatethat this sectorshould continue expandingits sharein the economyand its position as a leading force for economicprogressand in the future. Thus, there are four principal contributions identified by the 6thDevelopment growth Plan to the long-term economicobjectivesof the Kingdom, which are expectedto be fulfilled by the private sector.Below are the principles as listed in the 6DP (1995): 1. Diversifying the economy. 2. Providing productive employmentfor the Saudi labour force. 3. Deploying private capital in the economy. 4. Strengthening adaptivecapacityof the economy. the

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These principles are evidence of the increased importance of the private sector. The second is of particular (indirect) importance for our context. principle

4.2.3. Privatization and Economic Reform

has For more than 25 years,SaudiArabian economicdevelopment beenbroadly governedby five-year economicdevelopment The first five plans emphasized developmentof the the plans. Kingdom's infrastructure,with later planshaving an increasingfocus on humanresourceand private sectordevelopment.The SaudiGovernmentplacedeven greateremphasison economic in the industrial and diversification and increased private sectorparticipation, especially the economy,during the Sixth DevelopmentPlan. As a result, the agricultural sectorsof Kingdom launchedplans for the privatization of key governmentfacilities in 1998.

The objectivesof this privatization programmeare to provide the necessary servicesto citizens job andto increase opportunitiesfor the Saudipopulation.Through the programme,the governmenthopesto boost private citizens' participation in the stock market, to raise private investment,and at the sametime to reducethe burdenon the national budget. Saudi Arabia sector hascontinuedits path toward liberalization and reform and hastaken concretestepsto put these conceptsinto action through the SeventhNational DevelopmentPlan (2000-2004).

SaudiArabia's SeventhNational DevelopmentPlan placeseven greateremphasison the goals Of training and employmentof the Saudipopulation while continuing the Kingdom's strong drive toward economicdiversification. The Plan confirms the Kingdom's accelerated pacetoward integrationinto the global economy,including accession the World Trade Organization (WT 0) to and enhancement technological developments of continued within the country. It emphasizes efforts to reducethe importanceof crude oil exportsas the main sourceof governmentrevenucs

65

to expandthe productionbaseof the services,agricultural, and industrial sectorsof the and

economy.

SaudiArabia's privatization and economicdiversification efforts also have gainedfurther

since the creation of the Supreme Economic Council (SEC) in 1999. The purpose of momentum

the Council is to speedeconomicreforms aimedat opening Saudimarketsand ensurestability for investors.It is designedto be a decision-makingbody that respondsmore quickly and effectively to regional and internationaleconomicchanges.

The SEC hasbeenofficially responsiblefor the Kingdom's privatization efforts since early 2001. Sincethat time, privatization and economicreform havebeenthe driving forcesbehind Saudi economicpolicy. With the SEC in the lead, SaudiArabia continuedits commitment to its privatization throughout2002 and 2003. In June2002, the SEC released official Privatization Strategy,which chartedthe coursefor increasingthe role of the private sectorin the national economy.SaudiArabia's push for privatization has severalobjectives,including increasing competition and efficiency in the economy,encouragingdomesticand foreign investmentin the Saudieconomy,and increasingemploymentopportunitiesfor Saudis.

4.2.4 Saudization in the Public and Private Sectors The conceptof Saudizationrefers to the appointmentof Saudi manpowerin newly createdjobs, besidesthe replacements non-Saudimanpowerwith Saudimanpower.This conceptwas first of introducedin the Third DevelopmentPlan (TDP) 1980,which recognisedthe influence of foreign manpoweron the developmentof Saudimanpower.The fourth Plan (1985) has also emphasised Saudization,as did the Fifth Plan (1990). Although the priority for Saudizationin the plans may vary accordingto the priority of other strategicgoals,it has gradually increasedto becomea top

66

the Fifth Plan.However,the Fifth plan (1990) in regard to Saudizationhas priority of

acknowledged the fact that during the later part of the Third Plan and Fourth Plan years most new Saudi labour market entrants were employed in the government rather than the private sector. At

increased, led to Saudizationas well as the sametime the numbersof non-Saudis which
of some government agencieswhereas the private sector is still dependent on foreign overstaffing

manpower(5DP, 1990).

In the light of Saudizationgoals,the Sixth Plan haspointed out that Saudizationwill dependupon the implementationof appropriatepolicy to resolvethe following major labour market issues:

1. To improve labour market information. 2. To improve Saudilabour skills. 3. To closethe gapbetweenSaudiand non-Saudiwages. 4. To improve Saudiemploymentopportunities. 5. To reducewastagein the educationsystem. 6. To expandlabour market services.

4.2.5 Manpower and the Private Sector The Saudiprivate sectoris the largestemployer in the country. It utilises over 85% of the total employment.Labour Law, Article 45, has statedthat:

"The number ofSaudi workmenof the Employer shall not be less than 75% of the total numberof his workmen,and their wagesshall not be lessthan 51% of the total wagesof his workmen"(p.21).

The samearticle has also mentionedthat the Minister of Labour hasthe right to temporary exemptionfrom this ratio if technical skills or educationalqualifications are not available. It was clearthat the early yearsof developmentsaw huge manpowerquantitative and qualitative

67

hasasserted exemptionsof this act. But, nowadaysthe situation is different, the shortage,and this increased the extent exceedinglabour market demandfor them (AlSaudi manpowersupply has to Saudishas increasedas foreign manpower Eqtisadiah,1999).As such,unemployment among
numbers continue to grow.

The 5DP (1990) marked a departure from the previous pattern of a growing proportion of Saudi

being employedin the governmentsector,to place limits on further growth in manpower 95% of employment growth during the Plan It was expected that over governmentemployment. take place in the private sector.The objectiveshave not beenmet, and this madethe yearswould Saudimanpowerin the private sectorduring the on governmentput more emphasis employing 6DP (1996-2000)(Al-Eqtisadiah, 1999).Thus, the private sectorwill increasinglybe the locus of longer-termcareeraspirationsof Saudi nationals in this new stage employmentopportunitiesand development. of

The precedingdiscussionrevealsthe importanceof maintaining and recruiting Saudi workmen in the private sectororganisationsif they are to copewith the governmentintention to replace in private sectororganisations, the governmentmove towards Saudizationin expatriates and with both the public and the private sectors.

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4.3 The North East

4.3.1 Regional Profile

The North East of England is amongst the most dynamic regions in Europe. It includes four counties: Tyne and Wear, County Durham, Northumberland, and Tees Valley. The Region has a

long track record as one of the principal centresof economicactivity in the UK and is an integral part of the world's largestmarket,the EuropeanEconomic Area (EEA). The North East of Englandhasa first-classindustrial and commercialinfrastructureand excellent communication links. Somegeneralstatisticson the North Eastof Englandare given in table 4.1 below: Table 4.1: General statistics of the North East of England
Area Population Employees New Graduates GDP Per Head Unemployment EconomicActivity Source:RegionalFacts and Figures, 2002. 8,592sq. krn (3,317 sq. miles) 2,603,000(2001) 962,055(2000) 15,500 f 10,024 7.3% (Nov 2001) 79.3%

The levels of natural resources the North East have greatly influenced the developmentof the in industrial basein the North East of England,with the availability of coal and iron ore leading to the growth of traditional industriessuchas shipbuilding, coal mining and steelproduction. The Regionnow hostsa broad rangeof industrial sectors,encompassing the old and the state-of-the-

69

from engineering and chemicals, through high volume manufacturing, to art, ranging life sciences.The Region is also a major player in the service sector with microelectronics and

in globally recognised companies represented the professionalservices,through to software

development, call centres and shared service facilities. This on-going process has been supported

by leadingedgeR&D within the Universities and the developmentof a higher skilled and adaptable workforce (Regionalfacts and figures, 2002).

4.3.2 Labour Force and Labour Market

The North East's Labour Market continuesto be the weakestin the UK. The employment rate (67%) is about7 percentage points lower than the UK average.Only Northern Ireland is lower, and it hasbeenrapidly closing the gap on the UK. To closethis gap would require nearly an extra 100,000peoplein work (Labour Force Survey Historical Supplement1984-2000).

The unemploymentrate understates severelabour market weakness. The North East I LO this unemploymentrate (9% in 2000) is about 3 percentage points abovethe UK average.This is the highestof any UK region. Moreover the differential for the North East has widened in the 1990s, unlike in other comparableregions.Since 1994,the North Easthas replacedNorthern Ireland as the UK region with the highestunemploymentrate. Also, since 1998the North East's unemployment rate hasrisen, unlike comparatorregions.

Sincethe early 1990sgrowth of employmentin the North East hasbeenvery weak at about I%, whilst in the UK employmenthas grown by about 2m.jobs. If the growth of employment had matchedthe UK rate over 50,000more people in the North East would now be in work (Labour Force SurveyHistorical Supplement1984-2000).

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In 2000, the averagefull-time employeein the North Eastregion earnedaround E366per week. This is elevenpercentbelow the GreatBritain averageof E411per week (pw) and the lowest of any region (New EarningsSurvey,2000).

4.4 Summary

Brief information about SaudiArabia and the North Eastregion of Englandwas presentedin this chapter.Suchinformation was essentialto have an idea of the context of tile two samples. Information aboutthe region, the industry, the people,and the labour market was presentedin this chapter.

71

Chapter five: The Research Methodology

72

5.1 Introduction
The main objective of this chapteris to shedlight on the methodological issuesand procedures for this study.This chapterincludesa description of the researchdesign,population, adopted instrumentsand statistical analysistechniquesusedin this datacollection procedures, sample,
study.

job satisfactionand examining its relationship This study is mainly concerned with measuring demographicfactors for middle managersworking in the with motivation needsand some in SaudiArabia. To give the readera better picture for this study, the idea of a UK private sector to be usedas a benchmark for comparisonbetweena Saudi (developing country) samplecame and a UK (developedcountry) sample.

The original intention for this study was to do a casestudy on three or four organisationsin each interview a few managers from eachorganisation.Interview, then, was the intended country and for collecting data for this research. an interview, it is possibleto get extensive In method information as subjectscan elaborateaboutthe researchtopic. In addition, respondents can their own areasof satisfactionor dissatisfaction. Therefore,the intention was to collect generate information from the managers in the sourcesof job satisfaction/dissatisfaction a semi regarding structureinterview. In addition, it was hopedto collect more information regardingthe organisations, suchas the hierarchy of the organisationand the promotion system,to help in the to analysingand understanding researchtopic. But, unfortunately, access organisationsin both countrieswas denied leading to a changein the researchmethod and someobjectives.The researcher chosea questionnaireas a meansof collecting the data required for this study (see section2.9 for more detail). Thejob facetsto be investigatedin relation to job satisfactionwere limited to six facetsonly as one will seein section 5.6.

73

After tremendous efforts to get access,all approaches were denied. Time was running out and

had the researcher to comeup with somethingto continuethe researchprocess,sincehe is limited in time and money.The bestoption the researcher had was to do a mail survey,and treat
the UK as a whole as an economic region. After consulting and discussing with colleagues and

friends, the researcher reachedthe conclusionthat it would be a better idea if he took one region and treatedit as an economicregion. The UK economyis so complex and diversethat it is difficult to give a good picture of it in just a few short pages,so it is much better to considerone region only. This idea gainedthe acceptance supportof the researcher'ssupervisor,Dr. Joan and Harvey, and the headof the department, faced with ProfessorIan McLoughlin. The researcher, the constraintssurroundinghim, hasdecidedto take this approachand choseto study the North Eastregion. Two main reasonsfavour the North East over other regions:

The North Eastwas traditionally recognisedfor its strengthsin shipping, coalmining, steel manufacturingand relatedindustries.The industrial basehas diversified over the last three decades cover a wide rangeof moderntechnologiesand developing servicesindustries to with a major impetushaving beenprovided by inward investmentin the region from Key manufacturingsectorstoday are electronicsand semiconductors, overseas. automobiles and automotivecomponents, mechanicaland precision engineering,offshore technology, information technology,food and drink, clothing and textiles chemicalsand pharmaceuticals, and plastic processing.From that, one can seethat the North East is a good representative of the UK economyas a whole. In addition, most of the Saudi organisationsamplebelongsto industriessimilar to thosefound in the North East. The researcher lives in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the North East, so it is convenientfor him in to contactorganisationsin the region, contact local authoritiesfor information such as the North East ChamberOf commerce,One North East,etc.

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5.2 Research Design

This study will follow a cross-sectional survey. According to Babbie (1998), a cross-sectional

design is the most appropriateandthe most frequently usedresearchdesign.He supportedthe use of this type of surveywhen he said:

"Data are collectedat onepoint in timeftom a sampleselectedto describesomelarger that time. Sucha surveycan be usednot onlyfor purpose of description, population at but alsofor determinationofrelationship betweenvariables at the time ofstudy " (P. 56).

The survey methodis one of the most important data collection methodsin the social sciences, and as such,it is usedextensivelyto collect information on numeroussubjectsof research (NachmiasandNachmias, 1996).If the researcher's aim is a single time description,then a is the most appropriate. cross-sectional survey

5.3 Data Collection Instrument

The mail survey was usedto collect datafrom the assignedsample.Babbie (1998) statedthat surveyresearchis the best possiblechoice of researchinstrumentwhen attempting to collect meaningful dataon populationstoo large to observedirectly, and may be utilised effectively for descriptive,explanatory,or exploratory purposes.Dillman (1978) statesthat surveysare good vehiclesfor measuringthe attitude and orientationsof a large sample.The mail survey has been the most commonly utilised form of respondentself-administeredquestionnaire(Dillman, 1978; Churchill, 1987).

The biggestdisadvantage a mail questionnaireis the fact that it usually producesa low of response rate, especially if it is conductedin a developing country such as Saudi Arabia (Tuncalp 1988).It is believed that the main problem that usually causes the poor responserate is the

75

loped.Neither In SaudiArabia, the postal systemis still under-deve collection mechanism.

services through street collection boxes nor a free reply system exist. Senders must go collection

to a post office to sendletters.Delivery servicesto home or site addressare still not in existence. Firms must havepost office box numbersin order to receivetheir mail.

To counterpotential difficulties and increase the rate, Dillman (1978) suggests adoption response "Total Design Method" TDM which requiresthe inclusion of all the mailing packagecontents of Basedon his TDM method, severalactionswere and survey design/implementation process. taken in order for a better designingof the questionnaireand mailing packagesas follows:

Covering Letter

The questionnaire by a covering letter using the King SaudUniversity was accompanied letterheadfor the Saudisample,and University of Newcastleupon Tyne letterheadfor the UK sample.It describedthe nature,purposeand significance of the research,as well as the importanceof the respondent'sparticipation, and it assured completeconfidentiality of the information.

9 QuestionnaireDesign
The questionnairewas designedto include close-ended questionsto caseand simplify the process.All the informant neededto do wasjust to mark the appropriateanswers. Demographicsquestionswere put in last sectionof the questionnaire.

Mailing Process

Dillman (1978) recommends mailing out in the early days of the week, and also avoiding mailings close to holidays or during the entire month of December.Basedon his advice, be mailing in the UK was usually sentout on Fridays because mails would normally

76

delivered to the respondents receive within 1-2 days after a mail-out and thus the respondents including it on Monday or Tuesdayof the following week. A pre-addressed return envelope, includedwith eachquestionnaireto encouragethe participation of the a pre-paid stamp,was during the month of December.In Saudi Arabia, No questionnaire was sent out respondents. to the bad statusof the postal systemand the fact that Saudisare not usedto survey owing was usedto deliver and collect questionnaires.The researcher a personalapproach research, directly to the respondents, indirectly in bulk to a person deliveredthe questionnaire or either in the PersonnelDepartmentor the Public RelationsDepartmentwho then delivered them to A the respondents. collection box was set up in the reception office or in the security office. A 24-hour facsimile numberwas provided for respondents to respondby who preferred facsimile.

5.4 Translating the Questionnaire

Even though English is the internationallanguagefor conducting businessin many countriesin the Middle East,the majority of SaudiArabian subjectslack sufficient skills in the English
language to answer a questionnaire accurately. Therefore, the original form of the questionnaire

was translatedinto Arabic using the back-translationmethod (Douglas and Carige, 1983; Brislin, 1970).This approachinvolves two steps.In the first, the English version of the questionnaireis translatedinto Arabic by an interpreter.In the secondphase,the Arabic version is translatedback into English by anotherinterpreter.The initial English version is then comparedwith the second English to assess effectiveness the translation process. the of

The researchquestionnairewas first translatedinto Arabic by an Arabic native speakerwho is fluent in both languages studying for a PhD in Arabic/English, English/Arabic translation. and Secondly,anotherArabic native speaker, who is fluent in both languagesand holds a Master's

77

degree in linguistics, independently translated the Arabic version into its original and re-

translatedversionswere comparedand differenceswere clarified in a way that would yield the translation.(English andArabic questionnaires included in appendixesI and 2). are most precise

5.5 Pilot Study

A pilot study was undertakento discoverany possibleproblem relatedto the design of the questionnairein terms of the degreeof clarity and its validity. Two stages,for eachversion, were I for the purposeof testingthe validity, objectivity, and clarity of the questionnaire.For conducted the English version first, fifteen questionnaires were handedto part time PhD studentsand part time MBA students(the majority of them have a full time job). They were askedto answerthe in The participantswere askedto give their questionnaire the presence the researcher. of the questionsand of the questionnaireas a whole. Basedon the commentsand suggestions about resultsof this stageof piloting, somequestionsthat were not clear or led to a misunderstanding and were modified, and someminor amendments were madeto the questionnaireconsequence length.

Secondly,the questionnairewas mailed to a random sampleof 40 managersdrawn from the sampleframe. The basic aim was to evaluatethe validity and objectivity of the study, and to the assess methodand the procedureof collecting the questionnaire.Only 5 questionnaires were returnedgiving a response rate of 12.5%.The pilot result raisedno major questionsand the did respondents not have any difficulty in understanding and answeringthe questions.

For the Arabic version, ten questionnaires were first handedto Saudi PhD studentswho have work experienceeither in the public or the private sectorin Saudi Arabia. Basedon their commentsand suggestions, someminor amendments were made for the wording of the

78

Secondly,when arriving in SaudiArabia, the researcherdelivered 20 questionnaire.

to managers drawn randomly from the sample frame. Only 9 questionnaires were questionnaires

collected giving a response rate of 49%. The pilot study in Saudi Arabia raisedno major did questionsand the respondents not have any difficulty in understandingand answeringthe
questions.

5.6 The Development of the Questionnaire

The researchquestionnaire of was designedto obtain the dataonjob satisfaction,consequences the level of job satisfaction,motivation needs,and demographicvariables.Therefore,the has four parts: (1) the job satisfactionpart, (2) the consequences the level of job questionnaire of satisfaction,(3) motivation needspart, and (4) the demographicpart. In the next section,we shed light on eachpart. some

5.6.1 Part (1): The job satisfaction part This part is intendedto measure satisfactionand factors associated job it. Most researchin with this topic is donewith questionnaires in somecases,interviews are used (Spector, 1997). and The questionnaire job method of measuring satisfactionis the most widely usedone as it can be to standardised suit any requirementor it can be developedspecifically for the organisation(AlSaadi,1996).The use of a questionnaireas the main tool has important advantages such as its ability to glean information and cover a wide data neededin this study, not to mention the fact that the respondents fill it in easily and quickly (Luthans, 1995).Since the questionnaire could hasbeenusedwidely, there will be good opportunities for making further comparisonswith both future and previous studiesin this field.

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However, it was not possibleto implementa standardised questionnairesuch as the Minnesota SatisfactionQuestionnaire (MSQ), Job Description Index (JDI), and Porter Need Satisfaction Questionnaire(NSQ), because, despitetheir reliability and validity, and the wide application of them, they are generalones(as explainedin section2.9). It has beenrecommended consider to the aim and the particular attributesof any study before implementing the methods(Berry, 1998). Wanousand Lawler (1972) believethat the best measureof satisfaction is the one that all the dependent covers and independent variables in a particular study. Thus, the questionnaire job that was usedin this study to measure satisfactionwas constructedand developedespecially for this research, mentionedin section2.9, taking into accountthe following vital points: as

1. An acceptable degreeof reliability, which meansthat the questionnairecould be usedto job time after time. The present measure satisfactionamongstmiddle managers has questionnaire obtaineda satisfactorylevel of reliability by doing a reliability analysis test using Cronbach'sAlpha model. 2. The validity of the questionnaire. questionnaireis consideredvalid if it measures A what it is supposed measure(Bagozzi, 1996).Consequently, design of the questionnaire the to went through severalstagesin order to ensureits capability to collect the relevant data neededto conductthis study: The questionnaire was reviewedby the researcher'ssupervisorDr JoanHarvey and by Dr GeorgeErdos from the PsychologyDepartment.Basedon their suggestions and the recommendations questionnairewas amended.Somequestionswere added,some were cancelled,and othersthat were not clear or led to misunderstanding were modified. * SeveralPhD studentsand MBA part-time studentsreviewed the English version of the questionnairefor the purposeof testing the clarity and the use of appropriatelanguage and terminology. In addition, the questionnairewas pre-testedin the pilot study and improved thereafter. * After the translation of the questionnaire, Arabic version as well as the English one the was reviewed by two academicstaff from King SaudUniversity, Saudi Arabia.

80

Severalbusiness managers reviewedthe Arabic version of the questionnairefor the

purpose of testing the clarity, and the use of appropriate language and terminology. In

addition, the questionnaire waspre-testedin the pilot study and improved thereafter. 3. The presentquestionnaire that madethe best possibleuse of the previous questionnaires
had been used in similar studies in job satisfaction and proved to have a satisfactory level

of validity and reliability.

The Likert scaleis the main scaleusedin the questionnairein order to measurethe construct.It is composedof six balancedresponse (exceptthe demographicpart) rating from I =very choices satisfied(strongly agree)to 6=very dissatisfied(strongly disagree).The issueof the number of points in the rating scaleand whetherto be an odd or even number has not beensolved. There are no certain rules in the literature to determinethe choice of the number of points included in the scale.In general,discriminating betweenthe numbersof points included in the scaledepends 199 upon the natureof the subjectsbeing investigated(Tull and Hawkins 1993,Parasuraman 1). A rating scalethat hasbetweenfive and nine points is commonly used in most surveys(Tull and Hawkins 1993).In this study, a six point Likert scalewas usedto avoid the midpoint phenomenon.

This part of the questionnairecomprised32 items aimed to measure satisfaction.Twenty five job questionsare for measuringthe satisfactionwith different job variablesthat are related to six job facetswhich are: the work group, the work itself, promotion, pay, supervision,and recognition. Six questionsare usedto measure overall satisfactionwith eachjob facet. The objective of the using questionsrequiring overall satisfactionwith eachjob facet is to comparethe respondents' answerto this questionand the averageresponse the questionsrelatedto this job facet. If the to two correlatestrongly, then this gives us an indication that the respondents have truly expressed

81

their feeling towardstheir jobs. Correlationsbetweenthe overall questionsand variablesrelated to to eachjob facet will be investigated seehow much the satisfactionwith thesevariables affects the overall satisfactionwith thejob facet in eachgroup, and to test if there are any differencesbetweenthe SaudiandUK samples.

The last questionin part I of the questionnaire, 32, is about the overall job satisfaction. question Alongside eachitem were six choices.Respondents their level of satisfactionon a were asked scalestarting from very satisfied(1) through rather satisfied,satisfied, rather dissatisfied, dissatisfied,to very dissatisfied(6). Questionsrelatedto eachjob facet are discussed below.

5.6.1.1 Questions related to the satisfaction with work group After reviewing the literature relatedto satisfactionwith work groups,and examining some found that personaland work thesesand studiesinvestigatingjob satisfactionthe researcher relationswere important for satisfactionwith the work group. Therefore,as for this study, three

itemswereincludedin the questionnaire relationto the satisfaction in with thisjob facet:

1. The satisfactionwith the personalrelation one haswith one's colleagues. 2. The satisfactionwith work relations one has with one's subordinates. 3. The satisfactionwith personalrelations one haswith one's subordinates. An overall questionabout the satisfactionwith this facet was also addedin the questionnaire. The objective of this question,as explainedbefore, was to comparerespondents'answersto this questionand the averageresponse the questionsrelatedto this job facet. If the two correlate to have truly expressed strongly, then this gives us an indication that the respondents their feelings towardstheir jobs. The four items relatedto the satisfactionwith the work group are number 1,2, 3 and 4 in the questionnaire.

82

5.6.1.2 Questions related to the satisfaction with work itself The literature related to the satisfaction with work itself suggested that the satisfaction with the

following six variableshavethe most effect in the overall satisfactionwith this job facet, these variablesare:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The opportunity to use one's skills. The variety of the work. The opportunity to learn new things. The degree of challenge. The responsibility one has to plan one's own work The responsibility one has in doing the work. I

An overall questionabout the satisfactionwith this facet was also addedin the questionnaire. The sevenquestionsrelatedto this job facet took the numbers5,6,7,8,9,10, questionnaire. and II in the

5.6.1.3 Questions related to the satisfaction with promotion Two popular variableswere found in the literature that relatedto the satisfactionwith the promotion facet, thesevariablesare:

1. The opportunity for promotion in one's job 2. The fairnessof the promotion systemin the organisation. Thesetwo variableswere included in the questionnaireas number 12 and 13 respectively.A third question,question 14, was addedto measurethe overall satisfactionwith this facet.

5.6.1.4 Question related to the satisfaction with pay After reviewing the literature and looking into various thesesand questionnaires, researcher the hasextractedthe following variablesthat have the most effect in the overall satisfactionwith pay:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The pay in relation to the cost of living. The pay in relation to the work one does. The pay compared to one's expectation when joining the organisation. The pay compared to other's pay holding a similar position in the organisation. The pay compared to other's pay holding a similar position in different organisations.

Thesevariablestook the numbers15,16,17,18,19in the questionnaire.Question20 was addedas an overall questionto the satisfactionwith pay.

5.6.1.5 Questions related to the satisfaction with supervision This job facet was reviewedthoroughly and the variablesthat were usedextensively by the to the researcher measure degreeof satisfactionwith this facet were as follow:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The competence the supervisorin making decisions. of The supervisor'sdelegationof responsibility. The feedbackone getsfrom the supervisor. The personalrelation with the supervisor. The help one getsfrom the supervisor.

Thesevariableswere usedin the questionnaireas items 21,22,23,24,25. An overall questionto the measure overall satisfactionwith this job facet was addedas item 26.

5.6.1.6Questions related to the satisfaction with recognition The literature has suggested somevariablesthat have a great effect in the satisfactionwith this job facet. The most usedvariablesin investigatingjob satisfactionare:

1. 2. 3. 4.

The financial recognition. The praiseone gets from top management. The praiseone getsfrom a supervisor. The praiseone gets from colleagues.

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Thesevariableswere usedin this studyto measure satisfactionwith recognition and they the
took numbers 27,28,29,30 in the questionnaire. An overall question to measure the overall

this job facet was also addedas item 3 1. The last item in part (1) of the satisfactionwith (item 32) is a questionaboutthe overall job satisfaction. questionnaire

5.6.2 Part (2): The consequences the level of job satisfaction part of The consequence the level of satisfactionwith the job is one of the factors that have attracted of investigationsby scientistsand researchers. Most studiesfound in the literature supportthe favourableconsequences vice versa.This that satisfactionwith thejob accompanied and notion to of part was developedby the researcher test someof the consequences the level ofjob satisfaction.Four statements were included in this part (items 33,34,35 and 36) which are:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Finding a job outsidethe organisation Resigningfrom the job. Hate going to work. Feel happy when at work.

Respondents were askedto record their responses a six point Likert scaleranging from on I =strongly disagreeto 6=strongly agreefor the first three statements, ranging from and I =strongly agreeto 6=strongly disagreefor the fourth statement. The relationship betweenthese four statements the overall job satisfactionwill be examinedusing a correlation coefficient and test

5.6.3 Part (3): The motivation needs part

The Manifest NeedsQuestionnaire(MNQ), developedby Steersand Braunstein(1976), was usedin this part to elicit responses the strengthof motivation needs.The MNQ measures on

85

motivation needs,and consistsof four sub-scales which describethe needfor achievement,

dominance of employees. The instruments include a total of 20 items. affiliation, autonomy and

Eachof the 20 items consistsof a list of statements. Items 1-5 relate to needfor achievement, items 6-10 to needfor affiliation, items II- 15 needfor autonomy and items 16-20the needfor
dominance. Respondents were asked to record their responseson a six point Likert scale ranging

from I =strongly agreeto 6=stronglydisagree.The maximum possibleraw scorefor each is subscalefor eachrespondent 30. Eachneed's scoreis determinedby adding up the for the five statements respondent's points measuringeachneed.Norms for eachof the need's strengthare as follows: 5-8 points indicate a very low needstrength=6,9-12 indicate a low need strength=5,13-16 indicate a rather low needstrength=4,17-20 indicate a rather high need strength=3,21-24 indicate a high needstrength=2, and 25-30 indicate a very high needstrength = 1. The relationshipbetweenoverall job satisfactionand the four motivation needswil I be examinedusing a correlation coefficient test.

5.6.4 Part (4): The demographic part The demographicpart was developedby the researcher gatherinformation about respondents' to age,annualgrosssalary, length of servicein the currentjob, length of servicefor the same

(Tables5.1- 5.6).The the organisation, level of formaleducation, the number dependants of and
relationshipbetweenoverall job satisfactionand the demographicvariables will be examined using a correlation coefficient test.

Table 5.1: The aiie catcp-ories

The age Categories The code Up to 30 5 4

1 31-40

1 41-50 3

51-60 2

I 61 or more 1-1 -

I -- I

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Table 5.2: The annual aross salarv catemories

The annual gross salary The code Up to 120001 6 1200118000 5 1800124000 4 2400130000 3 3000136000 2 More than 36000 1

Table 5.3: The len0h of services categories

You have been doing this job in this organisation for: The code Less than I year 1-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years More than 9 years 1

Table 5.4: The length of services categories

You havebeen working in this organisationfor: The code Lessthan I year 1-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years More than 9 years 1

Table 5.5: The level of formal education

Your level of formal education The code High school 5 Diploma 4

I 131

Bachelor

Master 2

PhD

Table 5.6: Number of dependents

Number of dependents The code None 5 I 1-3 141

4-6 3

7-9 21

More than 9 --1

The Developing and designingthe questionnaire the major tasksof this research. was one of processis usually basedon learning from experience.Bagozzi (1996) statesthat, in the process designingthe questionnaire there is no substitutefor experiencebasedon trial and error. of

5.7 Population of the Study

The population for this study consistsof managers employedin organisationsin the private in sectorrepresented the D&B BusinessRegister,North EastVolume, issuedby Dun & BradstreetLtd. (for the UK sample);and "A-Z" Organisational Directory of Saudi Arabia

87

publishedby the Council of SaudiChambers Commerce& Industry. Managerswere selected of

as the subjects of the empirical research due to their organisations.

5.8 Sampling
Sampling is an important component of any research project. The significance of sampling

comesfrom the fact that the precisionof conductingthe sampling procedureswill determinethe extent to which the researchfindings are generalizable(Nachmiasand Nachmias 1996). Samplingrefersto the selectionof a subsetof elementsfrom a large group of objects, for the purposeof drawing a generalconclusionaboutthe entire population. Determining the sample (1991) statesthat relative time, cost and size is a debatableissuein the literature.Parasuraman desireddegreeof precision determinesthe sampleplan and size. Besidetheseconsiderations, in to the questionnaires similar studies, samplesize is determinedon the commonresponse rates the pilot study, and the number of valid and completedquestionnaires neededto conduct a data analysis.According to McDaniel and Gates(1993), 100 cases meaningful cross-sectional Hair et al (1998) should be availableto make a statisticalanalysislike multiple regressions. indicatethat as a generalrule, there should be at least five observationsfor eachindependent variable; however,the desirablelevel for the resultsto be generalizableis between 15-20

for (1995)stated it is not necessarily that observations eachindependent the variable.Jackson

casethat larger samplesare more accuratethan smaller ones;it is the casethat the sampleshould the represent characteristics the population. of

Determining the samplesize fiorn which a desirablenumber of questionnaires will be generated is not clear-cut in a developingcountry such as Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia, the rate response for mail questionnairesurvey and social researchin generalis not available. According to the Centreof the Chamberof Commercein Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the experienceof the Research

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doesnot exceed10%.In fact, researchers for mail questionnaires usually avoid rate response
questionnaires by mail. collecting

Personalcollection and a collection box are the common approaches collecting questionnaires of
in Saudi Arabia in order to yield a high response rate (Tuncalp 1988). Hence, the average rate for

conductedin SaudiArabia is usually high. It rangesbetween40 and 60 percent (Abu studies Nab'a 1981,Tuncalp 1988).In this study, the pilot study conductedin SaudiArabia yielded a 49% response rate. In the UK, basedon experts' opinions, PhD researchstudents' opinions, for a mail questionnairerangesbetween 10 and 20 social sciencesurveys,the response rate the percent.In this research, pilot study conductedyielded a 12.5%response rate.

Basedon the aboveillustration, a target of usablequestionnaires set in the region of 130-160 was for the UK sample;requiring a samplesize of about 1000managers. target of usable A the region of 400-430 for the Saudi sample,requiring a samplesize of questionnaires was set on about 800 managers.

It was decidedto use systematicrandomsampling sincethis kind of sampling gives every unit of the population an equal chanceof being selectedfrom the population under study (Jackson, 1995). In systematicrandom sampling,one selectsevery nth unit from a population after having the selected first by a random method.The sampling frame for the UK samplewill be D&B BusinessRegister,North EastVolume, and for the Saudi samplewill be the "A-Z" Directory.

5.9 Data Collection Procedures

The samplingframe in selectingthe UK samplewill be D&B BusinessRegister,North East volume. The D&B businessRegisters,issuedby Dun & BradstreetLtd., lists local companies

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broken down by town within the county. In selectingthe samplefrom the North alphabetically
East, the researcher used a systematic sampling method. Organisations with 30 employees or

more were given a numberfrom I to N. Two hundredorganisationswere selected.

During the month of Septemper1998, the researcher contacted these organisations asking for

their agreement participatein this survey,and asking for the number and title of middle to managers and supervisorsin their organisation.187 organisationsagreedto take part in this the survey.In most cases contactpersonwas in the personnelor HRM department.The researcher collectedtitles and addresses 1200middle managersand supervisors. of

By the first week of October 1998,300 questionnaires containing a pre-paid self returnedaddress by a supportletter from the supervisorwere sentto the subjects.By envelopeand accompanied by the third week of the secondweek of October 1998,380 questionnaires were mailed, and October 1998,320 questionnaires to subjects.Total questionnaires sentwas 1000, were mailed 158returned, 154 questionnaires were usablegiving a response rate of 15.4%.

Most questionnaires were sentdirectly to the subjects;some,on the requestof the contact person,were sentin bulk to a personwho then deliveredthem to the subjects.

The sampleframe for the Saudi samplewill be the "A-Z" OrganisationalDirectory of Saudi Arabia. The directory lists the names,addresses, major activities of major organisationsin and SaudiArabia. The Council of Saudi Chambersof Commerce& Industry publishesthe directory every year. Managersemployedby theseorganisationswill be our subjects.A systematic samplingmethodwill be usedto selectorganisationsfrom the Directory. Organisationswith 30

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or more were given a number from I to N. One hundred and fifty organisations were employees

selected.

The field work in SaudiArabia startedin January1999for three months.Upon arriving in Saudi Arabia, the researcher them for permissionto the selected contacted organisationsasking distribute the questionnaires their managers about the number of managersin their among and The contactpersonwasthe PersonnelManageror the Human ResourceManager. organisations. Someorganisations letter from the sponsor.A support letter from the requested verification a Dean of the College of Businessand Economics,King SaudUniversity was obtainedand sentto the organisations(appendix3). Ninety-two organisationsagreedto take part in the survey. Owing to the bad statusof the postal servicein SaudiArabia, questionnaires were personally deliveredand collected.Questionnaires directly delivered to managers indirectly or were either in bulk to a personin the PersonnelDepartmentor the Public RelationsDepartmentwho then deliveredthem to the selectedmanagers.

A collection box was set in every organisationeither in the receptionoffice or in the security office, and a 24-hour facsimile numberwas provided for subjectswho preferedto respondby

facsimile. the first month,537questionnaires delivered In by accompanied a supportletter were

from the Dean of the College of Business& Economics,King SaudUniversity (appendix 3).

More subjectswere required to reachthe samplesize of 800 respondents. Therefore, a sampleof 100organisationswas systematicallychosenfrom the sampling frame. Fifty-three organisations agreedto participate in this survey.Another 263 questionnaires were delivered giving a total of 800 questionnaires.

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415 questionnaires them 406 were usablegiving a response of about 51 rate were collected;of
Therefore, the result of data analysis presented in this study is based on 406 responsesfrom

from the North East of England. SaudiArabia and 154responses

5.10 Treatment of the Data

Upon the researcher's were personally return to the UK in April 1999,all returnedquestionnaires All checkedagain for accuracyby the researcher. the variableswere codedthen enteredto a PC. Data enteredto the computerwere checkedfor accuracytwice, in the middle of the processand at the end.

5.11 Research Hypotheses

The researchhypothesiswill be the basisfor the collection and analysisof data in this study. The study has six hypotheses:

1. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with the work group and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 2. There will be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with work itself and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 3. There will be a significant positive relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with promotion and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 4. There will be a significant positive relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with pay and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 5. There will be a significant positive relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with supervisionand the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 6. There will be a significant positive relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with recognition and the whole job satisfactionin the two samples. 7. There will be a significant positive relationship betweenthe needfor achievementandjob satisfactionamongmanagersin the two samples. 92

8. There will be a significant positive relationship between the need for affiliation and job satisfaction among managers in the two samples. 9. There will be a significant positive relationship between the need for autonomy and job

in satisfactionamongmanagers the two samples. 10. Therewill be a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe needfor dominanceandjob
satisfaction among managers in the two samples.

5.12 Statistical Analysis Technique

A numberof criteria are proposedby Tabachnickand Fidell (1996) to selectan appropriate statisticaltechnique,two of which are the appropriateness the techniqueto the research of question,and the characteristics data.Accordingly, different statistical techniqueswere used of in the analysisbasedon their relevanceto the researchobjectives,questionsand hypotheses. Among the techniquesthat havebeenusedwhere applicableare frequenciesanalysis,factor Product-MomentCorrelation,and Fisher's Z-transformation. analysis,t-test, Pearson

Frequencyanalysisproducesa table of frequencycountsand percentage the value of for individual variables.It was usedin this research provide descriptive information of the data to the suchas frequency,means,standarddeviation, and to summarise responses eachquestion. of

The secondstatisticaltechniqueusedwas factor analysis.Factor analysisallows researchers to identify the relationshipsamonga large number of variablesby defining a set of common dimensions.Variables that are correlatedwith one anotherbut largely independentof other subsets variablesare combinedinto factors.There are two factor analytic techniquesavailable of for the researcher use, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.Exploratory factor to analysisis usedwhen the aim of the researchis to explore the field to discoverthe main constructsor factors. Exploratory factor analysisis ideal where the data are complex and the

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is researcher not surewhat the significant or important variablesare (Kline, 94). Confirmatory
factor analysis, on the other hand, is used when the researcher has a hypothetical loading for each

in the study basedon otherpreviousstudies.Then confirmatory factor analysiscan be variable usedto fit theseloadingsin the targetedmatrix as closely as possible(Kline, 94).

The objective of using factor analysisin this research to searchfor structureamong was In this research, job satisfactionquestionnaire(part one in the questionnaire)has the variables.
twenty-five items that are intended to measure the degree of satisfaction with various aspects of

thejob; factor analysiswill be utilised to seehow theseitems group, in other words, how many factorsthere are.Therefore,exploratoryfactor analysisis appropriatefor this study, as will be explainedin section6.6.

This study focuseson measuringthe attitude of middle managers towards their j ob and f inding out how variousjob facetsinfluence the middle managers'level of job satisfaction.The main

(r) is technique is usedin attitudemeasurementsthe correlation that statistical coefficient

(Oskamp,1977)and this will be usedto report the findings of the study. Becausethe aim of the study is to find the strengthof associationbetweenseveralindependentfactors and a dependent

factor,Pearson Product-Moment measure association be used.In this technique, of valuesof will

associationbetweentwo variablesrangefrom -I to 1. The closer the value to I or -1, the stronger the associationbetweenthe variables.The value of absoluteI or indicatesa perfect correlation -I coefficient betweenthe two variables.Moreover, the minus sign of the coefficient indicatesthe direction of the association.

One must be careful when interpreting a significant correlation coefficient. The first point to note is that a smaller value of r is neededfor significance asN (the increases. deciding In samplesize)

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the importanceof a correlation,onehasto considerhow much of the variability of the scoresin one variable can be explainedby the variability of scoresof the other variable. There may be a significant correlationbut if it only explainsa small amountof the variability then it may not be of much importance.The squareof the correlationcoefficient, called the coefficient of
determination, is used to explain the proportion of the variability in a correlation. A high

correlation, suchasr=0.8, yields an r squareof 0.64 which tells us more than half of the in variability in one variable can be explainedby changes the other variable. With an r=0.3, then only 0.09 of the variability of onevariable's scorecan be explainedby the correlation with the other variable (Hinton, 1995;Sekaran,1992).

T-test techniquewas also usedin this study.The choice of a significant test (e.g., t, F,) depends on the research questionand the designof the study. If one is interestedin comparingthe means of two groupsonly, the west will then be a convenientmethod (Rosnow and Rosenthal,1996). The F and t testsare statistically related;F=t squarewhen there are only two groupsto be compared.Larger t's are associated with differencesbetweenmeansthat are more statistically significant, which meansthat there is no difference betweenthe means.

The last statisticaltechniquethat will be usedin this study is Fisher's Z-transformation test. This test is a meta- analysistest that hasbegunto be usedwidely in behaviour researchand psychologystudiesand other fields (Rosnow and Rosenthal,1996).Fisher's z-transformation test is simply a transformationof Pearsonr's, making equal differencesequally detectable.

5.13 Methodological Issues in Cross-Cultural

Research

Cross-culturalresearchshould considera framework which can incorporatea rangeof methodologicalpossibilities in investigating a variety of topics. In cross-culturalmethodology

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the framework is known as emicsandetics (Malpass, 1977;Brislin, 1983).The emic approach

attempts to obtain the best possible description of a phenomenon occurring in a particular local population by utilizing concepts employed in that population. It is allegedly the most accurate description of a phenomenon. However, emic data cannot be compared across cultures because, by definition, the concepts developed in a single culture may not be universal. In short, emics are

by culture-specificconcepts.The etic approachstudiesa phenomenon utilizing conceptswith generalitybeyonda single local population,i. e., culture-general universal concepts.The or presentstudy adoptedthe etic approach.

Among the many methodologicalissuesaffecting cross-culturalresearchare those involving bias, samplingadequacy, equivalence, and languageand translation issues.

5.13.1Equivalence One conceptthat is important in conductingcross-culturalresearchis that of equivalence.

Equivalence cross-cultural in research be definedas: can

"A state or condition ofsimilarity in conceptualmeaningand empirical methods betweencultures that allows comparisonsto be meaningful" Matsumoto,2000.

Thereare four types of equivalenceproposedby Hui and Triandis (1985), namely conceptual/functional, constructoperationalization,item, and scalarequivalences.Similarity in meaningof a constructof a conceptin the two cuIturesrefers to conceptualequivalence.That is, the constructcan be meaningfully discussedin the cultures concerned.This constructis then manifestedand operationalizedin similar ways in both cultures.Thus, the construct operationalizationequivalencehasbeenachieved.Next, in order to fulfil the item equivalence

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by the operationalizedconstructshouldbe measured the sameinstrumentfor both requirement,

Only by doing this can cultures be numerically compared. Lastly, the instrument cultural groups.

have scalarequivalencewhen a numerical value on the scaleof the instrumentrefers to the will samedegree,intensity, or magnitudeof the constructregardless the population of which the of
is a member. respondent

The previousdescriptionson measures procedures the presentstudy indicate that the four and of types of equivalencewhich are requiredfor cross-culturalstudieswere fulfilled. The job construct satisfactionconceptis familiar to both groups.Thus, thereis arguably reasonable equivalenceof the conceptbetweenthe two groups.Moreover, this constructhas been in this study in the form of items in the questionnairedistributed to both groups. operationalized The questionnaire beenback-translated usesthe samescaling. Thus, the other three has and requirements were fulfilled.

5.13.2 Bias Bias and equivalenceare two closely relatedconceptsthat play a major role in cross-cultural (Poortinga, 1989).From a theoreticalperspective,the two conceptsare the opposite comparisons of eachother; scoresare equivalentwhen they are unbiased(Van de Vijver and Leung, 1997).As level at which scores mentionedabove,equivalenceis usually associated with the measurements obtainedin different cultural groupscan be compared;whereasbias showsthe presence of factorsthat challengethe validity of cross-culturalcomparisons(Van de Vijver and Leung, 1997).In this study, equivalencewas establishedas explainedin the last section;therefore bias was overpowered.

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5.13.3 Sampling Adequacy Cross-cultural researchersneed to pay careful attention to issues of sampling in the conduct of

(Matsumoto,2000).A certainrequirementappliesto researchsubjectsin order to their research the subjectsfrom different cultures.This similarity is known get similarity or equivalenceamong
as dimensional identity (Berry, 1980; Frijda & Jahoda, 1966). The dimensional identity requires

the structuraland behavioural. equivalence the subjectsin certain aspects,such as occupation of in the caseof ajob satisfactionstudy.In this study, an adequate sampling procedurewas followed, as explainedin this chapter.

5.13.4 Language and Translation Issues

A main issuein cross-culturalresearch the linguistic equivalenceof the researchinstrument.If is to comparequestionnaire two samplesfrom two different a researcher wants of responses to have both languageversionsof the countriesspeakingdifferent languages, researcher needs the questionnaire(Matsumoto,2000). To ensurethat the two questionnaires equivalent, are

in this (Brislin, 1970), theback-translation researchers usuallyuse which wasutilized method

study as explainedin section5.4. This processservesto decentrethe original language(Brislin, 1970,1993),eliminating any culture-specificconceptsof the original language.

5.14 Summary
This chaptercontainsthe methodand statistical techniquesusedin this research.Survey research designwas usedto conductthis study. The sampling unit consistedof middle managers employedby organisationsof the private sectorin SaudiArabia and the North East of England. The questionnaire had four parts: (1) job satisfactionpart, (2) the consequences the level of of job satisfactionpart, (3) MNQ (Manifest Need Questionnaire), and (4) the demographicpart.

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The survey generated406 usable responsesfor data analysis for the Saudi sample and 154 usable responsesfor data analysis from the UK sample. The chapter ended by discussing main issues in

cross-culturalmethods.

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Chapter Six: Descriptive Statistics and Data Reduction

100

6.1 Introduction
The data for this research were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).

The analysiswas basedon two samples: Saudisample(N = 406); and the UK sample(N = the 154),which will be usedas a benchmark for comparison.During the courseof data entry, two checkswere madeto verify the accuracyof the data entry, one in the middle of data entry, and the secondat the end.

descriptive results of the response This chapteris divided into four sections:sectionone presents bias. Sectiontwo is the descriptiveanalysisof the and the assessment the non-response rate of demographicvariables(part four of the questionnaire). sectionthree, descriptiveanalysiswill In be presented the motivation needs,which is the third part of the questionnaire.In section for four, factor analysiswill be utilised to explain the relationship amongthe variablesand factors in job satisfactionand the adequacy samplesize for this research. Analysis for the two samples, of the Saudi sampleand the UK sample,will be presented. job satisfactionfactors, In the following chapter,resultsand findings will be presented regarding hypothesisand answeringthe researchquestions. overall job satisfaction,testing the research

6.2 ResponseRate
As indicated in the last chapter(the methodologychapter),800 questionnaires were delivered to managers and supervisorsworking in the private sectorin SaudiArabia. The return of completed questionnaires took a long presentedsomedifficulties. First, collection of the questionnaires time. Things happenmore slowly in SaudiArabia. Promptness and immediateness not valued are as strongly as they are in westerncountries(Tuncalp, 1988).Over three months were spenton delivering and collecting questionnaires, 415 questionnaires were collected. Of the 415 9 responses, questionnaires five were were unusable.Among theseexcludedquestionnaires,

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missing key information and four were returnedempty. Thus the usablereturnedquestionnaires
were 406 representing a responserate of 51%. This is similar to studies using the same methods

in SaudiArabia (Alkassim, 1996;Alsouhem, 1996;Algaber, 1995).

In the UK, 1000 questionnaires were mailed to managers and supervisors in the North East of

England.Questionnaires were either sentdirectly to the manageror the supervisors,or sentto the PersonalManager(Human Resource Manager)in bulk to distribute them among managers and in his/her organisation.Return envelopeswere enclosedwith eachquestionnaire.158 supervisors them 4 were unusableowing to missing key information. Thus questionnaires were returned;of 154representinga responserate of 15.4%. the usablereturnedquestionnaires were

6.3 Non-response Assessment

Non-response bias evaluationensures that the conclusionsdrawn from the analysisare this population (Churchill, attributablq/to the population of the research, ! and not somesubsetof 1987). other words, non-response In bias investigateswhetherthe respondents the survey are to bias different from thosewho did not respond.In order to assess potential non-response any the sampling frame, early versuslate respondentbias testing will be undertakenfor a amongst comparison.Ddspite its drawback,it is generallyacceptedas a practical measurefor nonbias (NachmiasandNachmias, 1996).Accordingly, the assessment non-response response of bias will be basedon comparingsomeof the characteristics early respondents that of late to of Therefore,the first 50 respondents respondents. the collectedwas compared'Yith last 50 collected in the Saudi sample;and the first 50 respondents the last receivedwas comparedwith 50 receivedin the UK sample.Two-sampleindependentt-testswere employedto comparethe meandifferencesbetweenthe two groupsin eachsampleon severalvariables such as age , No annualsalary, education,length of service,number of dependants. bias was found at the 0.05

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level of significance. Therefore, it was felt that the responding managers well represent the overall sample.

6.4 Descriptive Analysis of the Demographic Variables

This sectionincludesa descriptiveanalysisof the participating subjects.The objectives of such of analysisare; first, to give a brief descriptionof the characteristics the subjectsincluded in our samples;and secondly,to comparethe subjectsin the two samples.Frequencyanalysiswill be usedto describethe participant accordingto the following characteristics:
" " " " " Age. Annual gross salary. Number of years doing this job in the current organisation. Number of years working for the current organisation. Level of education.

Number of dependants. 9

6.4.1 Age

Table 6.1 represents distribution of the Saudirespondents the UK respondents age.The by the and (40.9%) wer( table showsthat the majority of the Saudirespondents (37.7%) and the UK respondents in the 31-40 range. Table 6.1: Age Distribution for the Saudi and UK Samples
Age range > 60 years 51-60 41-50 31-40 <30 Total The Sal LdiLSample Frequency Percentage Cumulative 14 3.4 3.4% 34 8.4 11.8% 95 23.4 35.2% 153 37.7 72.9% 110 27.1 100% 406 100% The UK sMple Frequency Percentage 3 2 21 13.6 51 33 63 41 16 10.4 154 100% Cumulative 2% 15.6% 48.6% 89.6% 100%

Table 6.1 suggests that, relatively speaking,younger employeesin Saudi Arabia occupy these positionsthan those in the UK. This could be attributed to one of two reasons;first, the shortage of the Saudimanpowerthat forces the organisationsto recruit younger, lessexperienced 103

employees as middle managers. Secondly, by recruiting young, possibly new graduates, organisations are following the Government move toward Sauclization.

6.4.2 Annual gross salary In the Arabic questionnaire which was distributed in Saudi Arabia, salaries were converted into

SaudiRyals (If = 6.5 SR). Table 6.2 showsthat the modal rangeof the Saudi sampleannual is between12001and24000f while the modal rangeof the UK samplerange grosssalary between24001 and 30000L. Table 6.2: Annual i!ross salarv distribution for the Saudi and UK samnles
salary range _The > 360001 30001-36000L 24001-30000f 18001-24000f 12001-18000L <12000i Total The Saudi Sample Frequency Percentage Cumulative 12.3 12.3% 50 62 15.3 27.7% 20.9 48.5% 85 17.7 66.2% 72 87.9% 88 21.7 49 12.1 100% 406 100% The UK 5ample Percentage Cumulative Frequency 18.2% 18.2 28 35.7% 17.5 27 62.4% 26.6 41 79.9% 17.5 27 98.7% 18.8 29 100% 1.3 2 154 100%

Table 6.2 may suggestthat middle managers the UK earn more money than their counterpart in mangersin SaudiArabia.

6.4.3 Length of services on current job

Lookingat Table6.3,it seems managers theUK sample in that theirjobs insidetheir change
current employermore frequently than their counterpartin the Saudi sample. Table 6.3: Saudi and UK manners' len0h of service in current iob
Length of service >9 years 7-9 4-6 1-3 <I year Total The SauqjjqMpk Frequency Percentage Cumulative 20.7 84 20.7% 57 14.0 34.7% 105 25.9 60.6% 136 33.5 94.1% 24 5.9 100% 406 100% The UK sample Frequency Percentage Cumulative 36 23.4% 23.4 6 27.3% 3.9 35 50.0% 22.7 48 81.2% 31.2 29 100% 18.8 154 100%

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6.4.4 Number of years working for the current organisation Comparing percentagesin Table 6.4, it suggeststhat the Saudi subjects are less mobile than their counterpart UK managers are. This could mean that the UK employees have more openings or opportunities to move to other organisations.

Table 6.4: Saudi and UK managers' length of service in current organisation

Lengthof service >9 years 7-9 4-6 1-3 <I year Total The Saudisample Frequency Percentage Cumulative 145 35.7 35.7% 73 18.1 53.8% 109 26.8 80.6% 68 16.7 97.3% 11 2.7 100% 406 100% ThUK sam ple Frequency Percentage Cumulative 44.8 44.8% 69 9 5.8 50.6% 32 20.8 71.4% 90.9% 30 19.5 100% 14 9.1 154 100%

6.4.5 Level of education Table 6.5 may suggestthat education(specifically bachelordegreeor more) is an important qualification holding a middle managerposition in the Saudiorganisations.However, the Saudi doctorates. is interestingto note that the degreesmight not all be It group have no managers with equivalent,dependingon wherethey were obtained.

Table 6.5: Level of education distribution for the Saudi and UK samnlcs
Educationlevel P11D Master Bachelor Diploma High school Total di le The Sau samp . Frequency Percentage Cumulative 0 0.0 0.0% 60 14.8 14.8% 280 68.9 83.7% 32 7.9 91.6% 34 8.4 100% 406 100% The UK sample Frequenc Percentage Cumulative y 7 4.6 4.6% 17 11.0 15.6% 41 26.6 42.2% 50 32.5 74.7% 39 25.3 100% 154 100%

6.4.6 Number of dependants Table 6.6 presentsthe frequencyand percentof the Saudi and UK samples.Thesedata show very large differencesbetweenthe samples.

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Table 6.6: Number of dCDendencedistribution

Number of dependants >9 7-9 4-6 1-3 none Total The Saudi sample Frequency Percentage Cumulative 48 64 147 110 37 406 11.8 15.8 36.2 27.1 9.1 100% 11.8% 27.6% 63.8% 90.9% 100%

for the Saudi and UK samnles

The UK aample Frequency Percentage 0 0 3 104 47 154 0.0 0.0 2.0 67.5 30.5 100% Cumulative 0% 0% 2% 69.5% 100%

Cultural differencesare a likely explanationof the data.Families in Saudi Arabia tend to be bigger because dependants includeparentsand other relatives.

6.5 Descriptive Analysis of the Motivational

Needs

is the third partof for themotivationneeds, This section the descriptive which analysis presents for Frequencies descriptive need; thequestionnaire. arepresented eachmotivational statistics and in for achievement, for affiliation,needfor autonomy, needfor dominance Tables need and need 6.7- 6.10;bearing mindthat I indicates very strongneedand6 indicates very low need. in a a deviationfor thetwo Means the strength each its standard of alongwith of needarepresented
samples.

Table 6.7: Saudi and UK samples distribution of the strength of need for achievement: freauencies and nercentaees.
The strength 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Saudi UK The SaudilqMple Frequency Percentage 160 39.4 193 47.5 53 13.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 406 100% N 406 154 Mean 1.74 2.20 Cumulative 39.4 86.9 100% Frequency 32 65 51 6 0 0 154 Tile M&f Percentage 20.8 42.2 33.1 3.9 0.0 0.0 100% Cumulative 20.8 63.0 96.1 100%

Std. Dev 0.68 0.81

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Table 6.8: Saudi and UK samples distribution frequencies and percentages.

The strength 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Saudi UK N 406 154 The Saudi sample Frequency Percentage 10 2.5 28 6.9 191 47.0 167 41.1 10 2.5 0 0.0 406 100% Mean 3.34 3.35 Std. Dev 0.75 0.71 Cumulative 2.5 9.4 56.4 97.5 100%

the strength of need for affiliation: of

The UK sample Frequency Percentage 0.0 0 11.7 18 43.5 67 42.9 66 1.9 3 0.0 0 100% 154

C2mulative 0.0 11.7 55.2 98.1 100%

Table 6.9: Saudi and UK samplesdistribution of the strength of need for autonomy: frequencies and percentages.
The strength 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Saudi UK The Saudisample Frequency Percentage 10 2.5 22 5.4 101 24.9 182 44.8 91 22.4 0 0.0 406 100% Mean 3.79 4.08 Std. Dev 0.93 0.77 Cumulative 2.5 7.9 32.8 77.6 100% The UK sampe Frequency Percentage 0.0 0 1.3 2 30 19.5 51.9 80 24.7 38 2.6 4 100% 154 Cumulative 0 1.3 20.8 72.7 97.4 100%

N 406 154

Table 6.10: Saudi and UK samples distribution of the strength of need for dominance: frequencies and nercentatEes.
The strength 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Saudi UK The Saudisaniple Frequency Percentage Cumulative 15 3.7 3.7 81 20.0 23.6 191 47.0 70.7 103 25.4 96.1 16 3.9 100% 0 0.0 406 100% Mean 3.06 2.68 Std. Dev 0.87 0.99 The UK_52, mple Frequenc Percentage y 18 11.7 31.2 48 58 37.7 25 16.2 5 3.2 0 0.0 154 100% Cumulative 11.7 42.9 80.5 96.8 100%

N 406 154

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6.6 Factor Analysis

"Factor analYS is a statistical techniquewidely usedin psychologyand the is Indeedin somebranchesofpsychology, especiallythosein social sciences. havebeenadministered,it is a necessity" (Kline, testsor questionnaires which 1994:1). Factor analysisas Hair et al.(1998) define it is a classof multivariate statistical methodswhose primary purposeis to define the underlying structurein a data matrix. Using factor analysis,the dimensionsof a structureand then determine researcher will then be able to identify the separate the extentto which eachvariable is explainedby eachdimensionor factor.

Factor analytic techniquescan accomplishtheir objectivesfrom either an exploratory or Thereis continuedargumentregardingthe appropriaterole for factor confirmatory perspective. it only exploratory,useful in searchingfor structureamong analysis.Many researchers consider setsof variablesor as a datareductionmethod.In this standpoint,factor analytic techniques "take what the data give you" and do not set any priori constraintson the estimation of to components the number of components be extracted.For many-if not most- applications, or this useof factor analysisis appropriate.However, in somecases,factor loadings for the variablesare hypothesizedbasedupon previous studiesor on relevant theory. Confirmatory

factoranalysis thenbe usedto fit theseloadings thetargeted in can matrix ascloselyaspossible (Kline, 1994;Hair et al 1998). the socialscience is oftenso difficult to specifywith any In it factor An precision whatthe factorloadings shouldbe (Kline, 1994). objectionto exploratory is by analysis alwaysthat it is exploratory testing. whereas usuallyproceeds hypothesis science
In addition, confirmatory analysisis not simply an algorithm but has a statistical basis.These Thus if a argumentsare, in principle, true, although exploratory can be usedto test hypotheses. factor is hypothesizedwith loading on certain variables and this appearsin a simple structure

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it is acceptable debate to that the hypothesishasnot beenrefuted and that in the analysis,
opposing case it has been refused.

In this study, althoughvariableswere carefully selectedbasedon thorough review of the literature,any variable that doesnot load on a factor will be excludedfrom the study. Also, factor analysiswill be utilised in this research seehow thesevariables group, in other words, to how many factorsthere are. Therefore,exploratory factor analysisis appropriatefor this research.

Thejob satisfactionquestionnaire (part I in the questionnaire) 32 items relatedto job has the satisfaction.Twenty five items are questionsto measure satisfactionwith variousjob related Six the aspects. items are overall questionsto measure overall satisfactionwith somejob facets. The last item, 32, is a questionto measure overall job satisfaction.In factor analysis,only the the included. twenty five items intendedto measure satisfactionwith variousjob aspects the were Therefore,items 4,11,14,20,26,3 1, and 32 were excluded.

Kline (1994) said that results from factor analysiscan not be trusted without proper rotation of factors, "much of the scientific value offactor analysis dependson proper rotation ". So in the briefly pointing out which method shall be used next sectionrotation methodswill be discussed in this research.

6.6.1 Rotation of Factors

Hair et al (1998) has defined factor rotation as "a process of manipulating or adjusting thefactor

axesto achievea simpler andpragmatically more meaningfulfactor solution ". The two most widely usedrotation methodsare Orthogonal and Oblique. In Orthogonalrotation, factors are

109

in a position that they always at right angles to each other, while in Oblique, factor axes rotated may take any position in the factor space (Kline, 94). Varimax and Oblimin are the most

in Orthogonaland Oblique rotations respectively(Hair et al, 98; Kline, commonmethodsused 94).

The main objective of rotation of factorsis to reacha simple structureor best position of the factor axes.Cattell (1978) hasarguedthat controversies factor analysisas in the number and in factors is mainly caused failing to reachsimple structure.Cattell (1978) has put by natureof certaintechnical criteria that haveto be met in order to reacha simple structure.According to
Kline (1994), the most important criteria are:

" " " "A " " "

Good sampling ofvariables Good sampling ofsubjects Large sample,with 100 as the minimum ratio ofsubjects to variables ofat least 2: 1 Theuseofprinciple componentor maximumlikelihoodfactor analysis The useof a Screetest or statistical test to obtain the number offactors Theuseof Parimaxrotation or, if Oblique, Direct Oblimin rotation.

In the following section,the two samplesusedin this researchand our proceduresin employing factor analysisin this research will be testedagainsteachcriterion mentionedabove.

6.6.1.1Sampling of variables In the methodologychapter,it was shown that an adequate literature review has beenconducted to reachthe variablesusedin the questionnaire.Contentvalidity of the questionnairehas been achieved.So, the first criterion has beenmet.

110

6.6.1.2 Sampling of subjects Kline (1994) assertedthat "heterogeneous andproperly sampled groups should be used infactor

analysis". From the descriptiveanalysisof the two samplespresentedin this chapter,we can see
that subjects differ in age, in education, in family size, etc., indicating a heterogeneous groups.

Also, from the methodologychapter,it was clear that a soundmethod of sampling procedures hasbeenfollowed when samplingsubjectsfrom the population. The secondcriterion hasbeen fulfilled.

6.6.1.3 Sample size

According to Hair et al (1998), a researcher factor analysea samplethat has lessthan would not 50 observations, preferablythe samplesize should exceed100. Kline (1994) suggests that if and factor analysisusedwith fewer than 100 subjects,then resultsneedreplication in other samples. In this research, Saudi samplehas406 subjects,and the UK samplehas154.Therefore,the the third criterion hasbeenmet.

6.6.1.4Subjects to variable ratio Kline (1994) suggests 2: 1 ratio as the minimum and 10:1 as tile highest. Hair et al (1998) a suggesta 5: 1 ratio as a minimum and 10:1 asthe highest.Both agreedthat the bigger the ratio

thebetter.In this factoranalysis, has The thereare25 variables. Saudisample 406 subjects,
which meansabout 16: 1 ratio. The UK samplehas 154 subjects,that is 6: 1 ratio.

6.6.2 Other Criteria

When employing factor intends to use a Screetest to analysisin this research,the researcher

obtain the number of factors. In addition, an orthogonal and an oblique rotation will be used.In orthogonalrotation, Varimax will be usedwith Principle component,and in oblique, Oblimin

III

be usedwith maximum likelihood asrecommended factorists (e.g., Cattell, 78; Kline, 94; by will
Hair et al, 98).

by To conclude,it seems that all the importanttechnical criteria suggested Kline (1994) to reach a simple structurehavebeenmet. In the following section,factor analysisresults for eachsample the Saudi and the UK will be presented respectively.Comparingthe results and reliability analysiswill follow.

6.7 Factor Analysis for the Saudi Sample

The purposeof using factor analysisin this researchis to identify the structureof relationships thereforeR-type factor analysisnot Q-type will be usedhere. amongvariablesnot respondents; Principal component,Screetest were employedto decidethe number of factors to be extracted. The Screetest is derived by plotting the latent roots againstthe number of factors in their order of extraction,the cut-off point for factor rotation is where the curve changesslope.A screeplot for the Saudi sampleis presented Appendix 4. The Screetest suggested factors. Kline in six it (1994) commentson the subjectivity of the Screetest, saying that when there is a disagreement is sensibleto comparethe Screetest with anothermethod like the eigenvaluesgreaterthan one. The selectedfactors were rotatedfirst to oblique simple structureusing Direct Oblimin, and then they were rotatedto orthogonalby Varimax. Table 6.11 presentssummaryinformation of the results for the extraction of componentfactors. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measureof sampling adequacy(MSA) and Bartlett Test of Sphericity are presentedin Table 6.11 also.

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Table 6.11: Summary information of the results of the extraction of component along with KMO test and Bartlett's tests (Saudi samnle) Factor Eigenvalue %of Variance Cumulative
12.204 Factor 2 2.357 Factor 3 1.695 Factor 4 1.406 Factor 5 1.124 Factor 6 830 . KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy 921 . of Bartlett test of Sphercity =. 000 _Sinificant

Factor 1

48.816 9.429 6.779 5.622 4.496 3.320

48.816 58.245 65.024 70.646 75.142 78.462

From Table 6.11, we can seethat the six factorstogetherthat have been extractedexplain 78.462%of the variation in the data,andthe KMO measureof sampling adequacyis 921, along . with a significant Bartlett test of Sphericity.

6.7.1 Oblique Rotation

Oblique rotation providestwo factor matrices.The first is the factor pattern matrix, which has loading that represents unique contribution of eachvariable to the factor. The secondis the the factor structurematrix, which has correlationbetweenvariables and factors, but theseloadings both the unique variancebetweenvariablesand factors and the correlation among factors contain (Hair et al, 1998).According to Kline (1994), the pattern,not the structurematrix, should be interpreted.

To identify the highest loading for eachvariable, the interpretationmust start with the first variable on the first factor moving horizontally from left to right and selectingthe highest loading for that variable on any factor. If it is significant, then it loads to this factor. The procedureshould continue for eachvariable. Table 6.12 presentsthe factor pattern matrix for the Saudisampleusing Direct Oblimin as rotation method and maximum likelihood as an extraction method.

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Table 6.12: The factor pattern matrix (Saudi sample) (all loading > 0.5) Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 Variables
Pay 16 Pay 17 Pay 18 Pay 19 Pay 15 F.Recog 27 Feedback 23 Delegation 22 Competence 21 Help 25 Sup.rel 24 Responsibility 9 Responsibility 10 Challenge 8 Variety 6 Learn new 7 Skills 5 Praise 28 Praise 29 Praise 30 Fairprom 13 Promotion 12 Subordinate 3 Colleague 1 Subordinate 2 915 . 889 . 873 . 867 . 791 . 781 . 536 . 552 . 718 . 538 . 879 . 863 . 850 . 849 . 655 . 783 . 559 . 580 . 533 . 508 -. 556 -. 512 -. 565 -.

530 . 539 .

602 . 566 . 610 . 657 . 590 . 588 .

911 . 889 . 857 . 855 . 786 . 723 .

661 . 674 . 640 .

864 . 859 . 823 . 579 .

580 -. 562 -. 514 -. 715 -. 697 -.

549 . 621 . 1.695

888 . 705 . 640 . . 830

12.204 2.357 _Eigenvalue Method: Maximum likelihood. Extraction Rotation Method: Direct Oblimin

1.406

1.124

In deciding which factor loadingsare worth considering,Kline (1994) regardsfactor loading as high if they are greaterthan 0.6 (regardless the sign), and moderatelyhigh if they are above of has 0.3 and they are acceptable. Hair et al (1998) asserts that the researcher to take two things into consideration:the practical significant and the statistical significant. They suggesta rule of thumb when looking at the practical significant. Factor loading greaterthan are consideredto .3

meetthe minimum level; factor loading greaterthan .4 are consideredmore important; loading greaterthan .5 are consideredpractically significant. Regardingthe statistical significance, is necessary eachfactor loading to be consideredsignificant. In a samplehaving for samplesize 150respondents, example,factor loading of 45 and above are significant; factor loading of for . 30 consideredsignificant for a sampleof 350 respondents (Hair et al. 1998).In this research, . factor loading of (for the Saudi and UK samples)are chosento meetthe practical and the .5 114

statistical significant requirements. Therefore, the pattern matrix will show only factor loading of

and above. .5

6.7.2 Interpretation

of Factors

Starting from the first variable moving horizontally from left to right looking for the highest

loading for that variable on any factor, and doing that for the entire variables,the results are as

follow:

Factor 1: This is clearly the satisfactionwith pay factor. Variables "pay 16", 46pay 9'pay18", (Apayl 9", 17", and "payl5" are loadedsignificantly and highly on factor 1, so this factor will be named satisfactionwith pay (Satpay). Looking at Table 7.12 again,one seesthat variable "F. Recog27" significantly loads on factor I and factor 4, but it loads higher for factor 4, therefore it loadedon factor 4. Factor 2: Variables"feedback 23", "delegation22........competence 21", "help 25", and "sup.rel 24" are loadedon factor 2. This is a clear satisfactionwith supervisionfactor, so factor 2 is namedas satisfactionwith supervision(Satsup). Although variables22 and 23 are significantly loadedon

factorsI and4 also,theyweremuchhigherfor factor2 andtherefore loadedontothat factor.

Factor 3: This is clearly the satisfactionwith work factor, so it is namedsatisfactionwith work (Sativork). Again, somevariablesload onto other factors, but are highest in this factor. Factor 4: By looking at the highest loading, it is clear that this factor is the satisfactionwith recognition (Satrccg). Variables "F. Recog27", "praise 28", "praise 29", "praise 30" are loadedon this factor.

115

Factor 5: Variables "fairprom 13" and "promotion 12" have the highest loading on factor 5. Since these

then this is clearly the satisfaction two variablesintendedto measure satisfactionwith promotion,
opportunity factor (Satprom). with promotional

Factor 6: By looking at the highest loading, it is clear that this factor is the satisfactionwith colleagues (Satcoll). Variables "subordinate3", "colleagues2", and "subordinate I" have the highest loading on this factor. After presentingthe resultsof the Saudisampleusing an oblique rotation method in the last section,resultsusing an orthogonalrotation methodwill be presented.

6.7.3 Orthogonal Rotation

In orthogonalrotation, the factor structurematrix and the factor pattern matrix are identical (Kline, 94). Varimax is the best rotation method in orthogonal rotation (Kline, 94; Hair et al, 98). In orthogonalrotation, correlationbetweenthe factors is ignored, only correlation between variablesand factors are calculated. The resultsof the Saudi sampleusing Varimax as rotation method and principal componentas an extractionmethod are given in Appendix 5. The factor structureis almost identical to that in table 6.12, although someloadingsvary in magnitude. To summarise, both factor structuresshow six overall job satisfactionfactors for the Saudi sampleshown in Table 6.13.

116

Table 6.13: Factors extracted for the Saudi samnle and their names

Factors
Factor I Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6

Name of the factor

Satisfaction with pay (Satpay) Satisfaction with supervision (Satsup) Satisfaction with work (Satwork) Satisfaction with recognition (Satrecg) Satisfaction with promotion (Satprom) Satisfaction with colleagues (Satcoll)

In conclusion,the aboveresultsindicatethat constructvalidity is obtainedfor the main construct of overall job satisfactionfor the Saudisample.The resultsfrom the two rotation methodsare to similar. The correlation amongmost of the variablesappears be high. So, from data surnmarisation prospective,factor analysishasprovided us with a clear understandingof which variablesmay act in concerttogetherand how many variableshave impact in the analysis.

6.8 Factor Analysis for the UK Sample

A Screeplot for the UK sampleis presented Appendix 6. The Screetest suggested factors, in six or possibly one or two factors more. According to Kline (1994), when there is a disagreement on the number of factors the Screetest suggests, is sensibleto comparethe Screctest with another it method like the Eigenvalues.The Eigenvaluessuggests factors. The selectedfactors were six rotatedfirst to oblique simple structureusing Direct Oblimin, and then they were rotated to orthogonalby Varimax. Table 6.14 presentssummaryinformation of the results for the extraction of componentfactors. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measureof sampling adequacy(MSA) and Bartlett Test of Sphericity are presentedin Table 6.14 also.

117

Table 6.14: summary information of the results of the extraction KMO test and Bartlett's tests (UK samnle).

of component

along with

Factor
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

Eigenvalue
9.970 3.498 1.769 1.573

%of Variance
39.881 13.991 7.077 6.293

Cumulative
38.881 53.873 60,950 67.243

Factor5 Factor6

1.132 981 .
=. 875 =. 000

4.528 3.925

71.771 75.696

KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy Significant of Bartlett test of Sphercity

From Table 6.14, we can seethat the six factorstogetherthat have beenextractedexplain 75.696%of the variation in the data,and the KMO measureof sampling adequacyis 875, along . with a significant Bartlett test of Sphericity.

6.8.1 Oblique Rotation

Table 6.15 presentsthe factor pattern matrix for the UK sampleusing Direct Oblimin as rotation methodand maximum likelihood as an extraction method

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Table 6.15: the factor pattern matrix (UK sample) (all loadings > 0.5)

Variables
Pay 16 Pay 19 Pay 15 Pay 17 F.Recog 27 Pay 18 Help 25 Sup.rel 24 Feedback 23 Competence 21 Delegation 22 Variety 6 Responsibility 10 Responsibility 9 Challenge 8 Learn new 7 Skills 5 Praise 29 Praise 28 Praise 30 Fairprom 13 Promotion 12 Colleagues 1 Subordinate 3 Subordinate 2

Factor 1
950 . 899 . 863 . 857 . 817 . 773 .

Factor 2

Factor 3
719 .

Factor 4

Factor 5

Factor 6

. 915 . 858 . 795 . 770 . 606 . 590 . 583 . 522 .

815 541 . 530 . 503 . 607 .

511 . 910 . 850 . 833 . 618 . 610 . 589 .

512 . 889 . 710 . 625 .

529 . 635 . 529 .

502 . 518 . 706 . 586 . 583 .

518 . 511 .

773 . 627 .

9.970

3.498

1.769

1.573

1.132

_Eigenvalue ExtractionMethod: Maximum likelihood.

981 .

Rotation Method: Direct Oblimin

6.8.2 Interpretation of Factors

from the first variablemovinghorizontallyfrom left to right lookingfor the highest Starting
loading for that variable on any factor, and doing that for the entire variables,the results are as

follows:
Factor 1: Variables "pay 16", 66pay 19", "pay 15", "paylT', and "payl8" all load significantly and highly factor 1, namedsatisfactionwith pay (Satpay). Item 16 loads highly on factor 3, but is high in on this factor so that it is included here.Variable "F. Recog27" loads highly on factor I and factor 4

119

their loading value is almost the same (. 817 and .815). Since this factor related more to and

than to pay, then it will be included in factor 4. recognition

Factor 2: Variables "help 25", "Sup. rel 24", "feedback 23", "competence 21", and "delegation 22" are loaded on factor 2. This is a clear satisfaction with supervision factor, so factor 2 is named as satisfaction with supervision (Satsup).

Factor 3: This is clearly the satisfactionwith work factor, so it is named satisfactionwith work (Satwork). The highestloading of variables"Varity 6", "responsibility 10", "responsibility 9", "challenge 8", "learn new 7", and "skills 5" are on factor 3, thereforethey were loaded on factor 3 only. ,

Factor 4: By looking at the highestloading, it is clear that this factor is the satisfactionwith recognition "praise 29", "praise 28", "praise 30" are loadedon this factor. 27", (Satrccg). Variables"F. Recg. Factor 5: Variables "fairprom 13" and "promotion 12" have the highest loading on factor 5. Sincethese

intended measure thenthis is clearlythe satisfaction two variables to satisfaction with promotion,
with promotional opportunity factor (Satprom). Factor 6: By looking at the highest loading, it is clear that this factor is the satisfactionwith colleagues

2" (Sateoll).Variables "subordinate "subordinate and"colleagues havethe highest P, 3",

loading on this factor.

6.8.3 Orthogonal Rotation

The results of the UK sampleusing Varimax as rotation method and principal componentas an included in appendix7. The factor structureremains very similar to that in extraction method are Table 6.15, although loadingsvary to someextent. It can be concludedthat the orthogonaland oblique rotations yield the samefactors.

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To summarise, the six overall job satisfaction factors for the UK sample using oblique and

in Table 6.16 orthogonalrotation methodsare shown

Table 6.16: Factors extracted for the UK sample and their names

Factors
Name of the factor
Factor I Factor2 Factor3 Factor4 Factor5 Factor6 Satisfactionwith pay (Satpay) Satisfactionwith supervision (Satsup) Satisfactionwith work (Satwork) Satisfactionwith recognition (Satrecg) Satisfactionwith promotion (Satprom) Satisfactionwith colleagues(Satcoll)

for is obtained the mainconstruct In conclusion, above indicate construct the that validity results
of overall job satisfactionfor the UK sample.The results from the two rotation methodsare The correlation amongmost of the variablesappears be high. So, from data to similar. surnmarisation prospective,factor analysishasprovided us with a clear understandingof which in concerttogetherand how many variableshave impact in the analysis. variablesmay act

6.9 Comparing Results of the Two Samples

Factor analysisgaveus similar structurein the two samples.The two setsof factors contain that using the items in this survey, managersin the two exactly the sameitems, suggesting job countriesconceptualise satisfactioncomponentsin the sameway.

6.10 Reliability Analysis

Table 6.17 presentsalpha coefficients for eachfactor extractedby factor analysis,and for all the variablestaken together for the two samples,the Saudi sampleand the UK sample.A high score

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implies more reliability in the measurement scale. Nunnally (1978) suggests that a reliability 80 is desirable. However, in exploratory work, a value over 60 is often score approaching . .

reasonable.

Table 6.17: The results of the reliability Factors

Factor 1 Factor2 Factor3 Factor4 Factor5 Factor6 All variablesloadedto a factor

test for the Saudi sample. Cronbach's Alpha UK Saudi

9355 . 9201 . 9240 . 7918 . 8765 . 7668 . 9529 . 9374 . 8864 . 8843 . 7614 . 8650 . 7005 . 9309 .

Table 6.17 showsthat all the reliability coefficients are over 60, which meanthat they are . This indicatesthat the measurement acceptable. scalesare acceptablyreliable, and provides supportfor the statistical analysis.

6.11 Comparing the Overall Question with the Averages for each Job Facets
As mentionedin section5.6.1, overall questionsof eachjob facet will be comparedto the to averageresponse the questionsrelatedto this job facet. Table 6.18 and 6.19 presentthe correlationsof the overall questionsand the averages eachfacet for the Saudi and UK of samples.

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Table 6.18: overall questions and averages correlations for the Saudi sample
Average sat. with co-worker Overall Sat. with co-worker Overall sat. with work Overall sat. with promotion Overall sat. with pay Overall sat. with supervision Overall sat. with recognition

0.769**

Average sat. with work _

Average sat. with promotion

Average sat. with pay

Average sat. with stipervision

Average sat with recognition

0.811** 0.897** 0.909** 0.893**

0.

** Correlation

is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 6.19: overall questions and averages correlations for the UK sample
Average sat. with co-worker Overall Sat. with co-worker Overall sat. with work Overall sat. with promotion Overall sat. with Overall sat. with supervision I Overall sat. wit recognition Average sat. with work Average sat. with promotion Average sat. with pay Average sat. with supervision Average sat with recognition

0.743** 0.834** 0.925** 0.950** 0.853**

-

pay

- 70.835*
--

** Correlation is signiricant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

to Table 6.18 and 6.19 showedus that eachoverall questionand the averageresponse the questionsrelatedto this job facet are very strongly correlatedand all the correlationsare the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Theseresults give us an indication that subjectsin our significant at havetruly conveyedwhat they really feel about eachvariable in the questionnaire.The samples lead us to treat them as equal strongcorrelationsbetweenthe overall questionsand the averages responses, which gives us the chanceto chooseeither one for the analysiswithout affecting the has results.In this study, the researcher chosenthe overall questionsto be usedfor data analysis.

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6.12 Summary
This chapter presented an aggregate analysis of the data and the statistical findings of the survey.

It containedfour parts.The first part presented response the of rate and the assessment the nonbias. The result of the assessment bias was not a concernin that non-response response suggested The secondand third partspresented descriptive analysisfor the demographics this research. the and the motivation needsdescriptivestatisticsrespectively. The objective of such variables analysiswas to provide a generalview of the characteristics the managerssurveyedin this of The fourth part factor analysiswas employed. Factor analysis gaveus similar structure research. in the two samples.Cronbach'salphacoefficients indicate that the measurement scalesare acceptablyreliable.

124

Chapter Seven: Results of the Study

125

7.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the overall research results and will be presented in several sections. The

first sectionwill presentthe job satisfactionfindings for the Saudi and the UK samples.The secondsectionwill presentthe consequences the level of job satisfaction.The third section of will presentthe motivation needsfindings. The fourth sectionwill presentthe demographic findings in relation to overall job satisfaction.The fifth sectionwill presentthe research's hypotheses testing. The sixth and last sectionwill contain a summaryof the chapter.

7.2 Job Satisfaction

Job satisfactionand the factorsassociated it were measuredby a six-item scale. with Respondents indicatedtheir degreeof satisfactionby selectingthe most appropriateanswerto their feelings, for instance;"very satisfied(1), satisfied(2), rather satisfied (3), rather dissatisfied (4), dissatisfied(5), very dissatisfied(6)". Means,StandardDeviations and Inter-item Correlationsfor the Job Satisfactionvariablesfor the Saudi and UK samplesare presentedin 8 appendices and 9.

7.2.1 Satisfaction with co-worker Table 7.1 presentsthe frequenciesand cumulative percentage the satisfactionwith work group of factor for the Saudi and UK samples.99% of the Saudi subjectswere rather satisfied or more with their working group compareto 91.6% of the UK subjects.Table 7.2 presentsthe means and the Std. deviations.

126

Tablc 7.1: Satisfaction with co-workers

Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Total Frequency 94 245 63 3 1 406 35 73 33 13 154 Percent 23.2 60.3 15.5 .7 .2 100% 22.7 47.4 21.4 8.4 100% Cumulative Percent 23.2 83.5 99.0 99.8 100% 22.7 70.1 91.6 100%

UK sample

Table 7.2: Means and Std. Deviations for the satisfaction with co-worker
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 1.95 2.16 Std. Deviation 0.67 0.87

One of the researchquestionsunder considerationin the presentstudy is: Is there a significant difference on satisfactionwith the work group betweenthe two samples? two-sampleWest A was performedto investigatethe meandifferencesbetweenthe two groups.Table 7.3 reportsthe

results thet-test. of

Table 7.3 T-Test results based on satisfaction with co-worker

Levene'sTest for
Equality Variances t-testfo Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower -. 34 -. 36 Upper -7.12E-02 -5.43E-02

F sat-w-group 4 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 22.432

Sig. 000 . I I

t -2.990 -2.668

df 558 225.842 I I

Sig. (2-talled) 003 . 008 . I

Mean Difference -. 21 -. 21

Std. Error Difference 6.94E-02 7.78E-02 I

The findings suggestthat there is a statistically significant difference in the averagesatisfaction with work groupsbetweenthe two samples.Table 7.1 showsthat, on average,Saudi subjectsare more satisfiedwith their work group than UK subjects.

127

Satisfactionwith the work group was the first factor in this study to be consideredin elationto
job satisfaction. Respondentswere asked to indicate their level of satisfaction to the three overall

statements relatedto the satisfactionwith the work group, which are: the personalrelations with the colleagues, work relation with subordinates, the personalrelations with subordinates. and

A comparisonof correlation coefficientsof the two sampleswill be conductedto seeif there are differencesbetweencorrelationsin the two samples.AZ value will be calculated any significant using the following formulas:

ZI

Z2

Z (calculated)=

((1/ni-3) + (1/n2-3)) Where:

Zi=1.1513 logi o((I + ri) / (I - ri)), Z2= 1.1513logio (I +r2)/ ((I -r2)).

Then, the Z calculatedwill be comparedto Z=2.576 (a = 0.01). If Z cal. > 2.576, then there is a difference, and if Z cal. < 2.576, then there is no significant difference. significant

Table 7.4 showsthat the satisfactionwith work group factor has a significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) with all the three statements both the Saudi and UK sample.There are no in significant differencesat the I% level in the colleaguesand subordinate- correlation, but a I significant difference in the subordinate-2correlation. The high correlation betweenthe satisfactionwith work and the three statements that they co-vary. Since the correlation is means

128

positive, this meansthat the more highly the managersare satisfied with the threevariables,the higher the chancethat they will be satisfiedwith the work group. All the three variablesare important for the satisfactionwith the work group in the two samples,but the significantly is personalrelationsone has with subordinates significantly more important for the Saudi
managers than for UK managers.

Table 7.4: Satisfaction with co-worker correlations and test for signiflcant differences between correlations.
Variables Saudi Colleagues 666** . Subordinate-I 593** . Subordinate-2 1 707** . UK 684** . 503** . 508** . Z calculated compared to Z table 0.35 < 2.576 1.36 < 2.576 3.38 > 2.576 Significant differences Not significant Not significant Significant

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

7.2.2 Satisfaction with work Table 7.5 presents subjectsresponses the satisfactionwith work questionand table 7.6 the to

the presents meanandStd.deviationfor the SaudiandUK samples.

Table 7.5: Satisfaction with work

Frequency Percent

Cumulative Percent

Saudi sample

UK sample

Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total

46 185 121' 40 13 1 406 38 72 31 10 2 1 154

11.3 45.6 29.8 9.9 3.2 2 100% 24.7 46.8 20.1 6.5 1.3 .6 100%

11.3 56.9 86.7 96.6 99.8 100% 24.7 71.4 91.6 98.1 99.4 100%

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Table 7.6: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with work
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 2.49 2.15 Std. Deviation 0.95 0.96

Another researchquestionunderconsiderationin this study is: Is there a significant difference in betweenthe two samples? Mest was performed to investigatethe mean A satisfactionwith work differencesbetweenthe two groups.Table 7.7 reports the results of the Mest.

Table 7.7: T-Test results based on satisfaction with work

Levene's Test for Equalityo Variances Westfo Equalityof Means 95% Confidence Intervalof the Diffe nce Upper Lower . 16 16 51 . 52 .

F sat.w.work 11 Equalvariances assumed Equalvariances not assumed 1.952

Sig . 163

It 3 765 . 3 751 .

df 558 274 072 .

Sig. (2- ailed) 000 . 000 .

Mean Difference , 34 . 34 .

Std Error . Difference 8,99E-02 9.02E-02

The Mest said yes there is a significant difference betweenthe averagesatisfactionwith work betweenthe two samples.Table 7.5 showsthat 71.4% of the UK subjectswere satisfied or more

with work while only 56.9%of the Saudisubjects or weresatisfied morcwith work.

In exploring the satisfactionwith work itself in this study, respondents were askedto indicate their level of satisfactionto six statements to the work factor, which are: the opportunity related to use skills, the variety of the work, learning new things, the challengeof doing tile work, the responsibility in planning the work, and the responsibility in doing the work. Table 7.8 shows that the satisfactionwith the work itself factor has a signiflcant correlation with all the six in statements both the Saudi and the UK samples.Also it showsthat there are no significant

130

differencesat the 1% level in all work factor correlations.The significant positive correlations meanthat thesevariablesplay a positive role in shapingup the satisfactionwith work. The more managers satisfiedwith the variables,the betterthe chancethat they will be satisfiedwith are their work. Resultsalso demonstrated thesevariablesare of equal importancefor managers that in the two samples.

Table 7.8: Satisfaction with work correlations and test for significant differences between correlations.
Variables _ _Skills _Variety Learn new _Challenge -1 _Resp. -2 _Resp. Saudi 637** . 681** . 649** . 685** . 794** . 773** . UK 594** . 753** . 596** . 698** . 724** . 744 ** . Z calculated compared to Z table 726 < 2.576 . 1.57 < 2.576 916 < 2.576 . 253 < 2.576 . 1.75 < 2.576 716 < 2.576 . Significant differences Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

7.2.3 Satisfaction with promotion Table 7.9 presentsthe frequenciesand cumulative percentage the satisfactionwith promotion of factor for the Saudi and UK samples.Meansand Std. deviations for the two samplesare in presented table 7.10. Table 7.9: Satisfaction with promotion
Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Frequency 7 58 126 114 67 34 406 12 44 36 31 15 16 154 Percent 1.7 14.3 31.0 28.1 16.5 8.4 100% 7.8 28.6 23.4 20.1 9.7 10.4 100% Cumulative Percent 1.7 16.0 47.0 75.1 91.6 100% 7.8 36.4 59.7 79.9 89.6 100%

UK sample

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Tahle 7.10: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with promotion
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 3.68 3.27

Std. Deviation 1.20 1.44

One of the researchquestionsunderconsiderationin this study is: Is there a significant

difference in satisfaction with promotion between the Saudi and UK samples? A t-test suggests

that there is a statistically significant differencein the averageof satisfactionwith promotion betweenthe two samples. Table 7.11 reportsthe results of the Mest. Table 7.9 showsthat, on UK subjectswere satisfiedwith promotion than Saudi subjects. average,more

Table 7.11: T-Test results based on satisfaction with promotion

Levene'sTest for Equalityo ariances t-test fo Equalityof ans 95% Confidence Intervalof the Difference Upper, Lower '18 I . 16 65 . 68 . ---j

F sat. prom 14 w. Equalvariances I assumed Equalvariances not assumed 9 359 . I

Sig. 002 . I

t 3.482 3.213 I

df 558 238.372 I

Sig (2-tailed) 001 . 001 . I

Mean Difference 42 . 42 . I

Std Error . Difference . 12 13

Satisfactionwith promotion was a third factor in this study to be consideredin relation to the

to job satisfaction. Respondents asked indicatetheir level of satisfaction two to overall were
to the satisfactionwith promotion, which are: the opportunity for promotion statements related andthe fairnessof the promotion system.Table 7.12 showsthat the satisfactionwith promotion in factor has a significant correlation with the two statements both samples.No differenceswere found betweencorrelationsin the promotion factor at the 1% level. Theseresults meanthat the two variablesplay a major role in forming the overall satisfactionwith promotion. Any increase in thesetwo variablesis more likely to be accompanied an increasein the overall satisfaction by with promotion. The importanceof the two variables is equal in the two samples.

132

Table 7.12: Satisfaction with promotion correlations and test for significant differences between correlations
Saudi UK Z calculated compared to Z table 836** 795** 1.32 < 2.576 . . 860*; -881** 950 < 2.576 promotion . . . _Fair ** Correlation is signiricant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Variables _ App. promotion Significant differences Not significant Not significant

7.2.4 Satisfaction with pay Table 7.13 presents Saudiand UK subjects'responses the satisfactionwith pay question to the the and table 7.14 presents meansand Std. deviationsfor the two samples.

Table 7.13: Satisfaction with pay

Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rathersatisfied Ratherdissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Frequencv 22 165 97 69 42 11 406 11 53 46 22 12 10 154 Percent 5.4 40.6 23.9 17.0 10.3 2.7 100% 7.1 34.4 29.9 14.3 7.8 6.5 100% Cumulative Percent 5.4 46.1 70.0 86.9 97.3 100% 7.1 41.6 71.4 85.7 93.5 100%

UK sample

Table 7.14: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with nav
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 2.94 3.01 Std. Deviation 1.20 1.30

One of the questionsthis study is investigating is: Is there a significant difference in satisfaction with pay betweenthe Saudi and UK samples?The independentsamplesMest that was conducted said no. Table 7.15 presentsthe results of the t-rest. We observedno statistically significant

133

differenceon the satisfactionwith pay factor. This meansthat, on average,subjectson both

samples were similar in their responses.

Table 7.15: T-Test results based on satisfaction with pay

Levene's Test for Equality o Variances j t-test Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the C, Difference once ,c Ur Ue er Lower -. 29 -. 30 . . 17 17 I

F sat.w. pay 20 EZFual variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 007 . II

Sig. 933 . I

t - .542 - .525 I

df 558 259 188 . I

Siq (2-tailed) 588 . 600 . I

Mean Difference -6.31 E-02 -6.31 E-02

Std. Error Difference . . 12 12

Satisfactionwith pay was the fourth factor in this study to be consideredin relation to the overall job satisfaction.Respondents to indicate their level of satisfactionto five statements were asked to the satisfactionwith pay, which are: pay in relation to the cost of living (payl), pay in related relation to the work one does(pay2), pay comparedto expectationswhenjoining the organisation(pay3), pay comparedto others' pay holding similar positions in the organisation (pay4), and pay comparedto others' pay in different organisations(pay5). Table 7.16 showsthat in the satisfactionwith pay hasa significant correlation with all the five statements both samples. A significant difference was found in the pay2 correlation at the 1% level, but no significant

difference all othercorrelations. in

Theseresultsdemonstrate that thesevariablesco-vary with the satisfactionwith pay. A high satisfactionwith thesevariablesis more likely to lead to a high satisfactionwith pay in both samples. Resultsalso demonstrated that thesevariableswill significantly have the sameeffect in the overall satisfactionwith pay in the two samplesexceptthe satisfactionwith pay in relation to one does,which may have a higher effect in the UK samplethan in the Saudi sample.

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Table 7.16: Satisfaction with pay correlations and test for significant differences between correlations
Variables Saudi Payl 779** . Pay2 854** .. Pay3 833** . Pay4 812** . Pay5 801** . ** Correlation is significant UK Z calculated compared to Z table 2.21 < 2.576 848** . 2.76 > 2.576 911** . 830** 0.11 <2.576 . 792** 0.58 < 2.576 . 853** 1.79 < 2.576 . at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Significant differences Not significant Significant Not significant Not significant Not significant

7.2.5 Satisfaction with Supervision Table 7.17 showsthe frequencies of the Saudi and UK samples and cumulativepercentage regardingthe satisfactionwith supervisionfactor. The meansand the Std. deviations are in presented table 7.18 for the two samples.

Table 7.17: Satisfaction with supervision

Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Frequency 69 182 113 35 4 3 406 27 41 46 25 9 6 154 Percent 17.0 44.8 27.8 8.6 1.0 .7 100.0 17.5 26.6 29.9 16.2 5.8 3.9 100.0 Cumulative Percent 17.0 61.8 89.7 98.3 99.3 100.0 17.5 44.2 74.0 90.3 96.1 100.0

UK sample

Table 7.18: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with sunervision
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 2.34 2.78 St Deviation 0.99 1.29

135

One of the questions this study is trying to answer is: Is there a significant difference in the

Table 7.19 presents results of the averagesatisfactionwith supervisionbetweenthe two samples? a Mest. We observeda statistically significant difference in the averageof satisfactionwith
supervision between the two samples.

Table 7.19: T-Test results based on satisfaction with supervision

_ Testfor Levene's Equality Variances Westf Equalityof Means 95% Confidence Intervalof the Difference Lower Upper -.63 -.66 -.24 -.21

F sat. sup 26 w. Equalvariances assumed Equalvariances not assumed I 22 516 . I

Sig 000 . I

t -4.420 .3 .843 I

df 558 217 243 . I

Sig (2-tailed) 000 . 000 . I

Mean Difference -.44 -.44 I

Std Error . Difference 9.94E-02 . 11

Satisfactionwith supervisionwas the fifth factor in this study to be consideredin relation to the job satisfaction.Respondents to indicate their level of satisfactionto five overall were asked

factor,which are:the competence the to of statements related the satisfaction supervision with
supervisorin making decisions,the supervisor'sdelegationand responsibilities,the feedback you get from your supervisor,the personalrelations with the supervisor,and the help you get from the supervisor.

Table 7.20 showsthat the satisfactionwith supervisionhas a significant correlation with all the five variablesin both samples.All correlationsare significantly different at the 1% level except the relation correlation. The positive correlation betweenthe overall satisfactionwith supervision and the five variables indicatesthat any increasein any variable, or all of them, an increasein the overall satisfactionwith supervisionis highly expected.Resultsalso demonstrated that the five variableshad different effects in the two samplesin shapingthe satisfactionwith supervision 136

the satisfactionwith the personalrelationsone has with the supervisorhad a similar effect except in the two samples.

Table 7.20: Satisfaction with supervision correlations and test for significant differences between correlations
Variables Saudi UK Z calculated compared to Z table - Competence 824** 657** 4>2.576 . . Delegation 827** 570** 5.6 > 2.576 . . Feedback 851** 716** 3.79 > 2.576 . . Relation 786** 769** 432 < 2.576 . . . Help 816** 910** 4>2.576 . . ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Significant differences Significant Significant Significant Not significant Significant

7.2.6 Satisfaction with recognition

Table 7.21 presents subjectsof the Saudiand UK samplesresponses the satisfactionwith to the the recognition factor and table 7.22 presents meansand std. deviations for the two samples.

Table 7.21: Satisfaction with Recognition

Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Frequency 13 150 170 45 15 13 406 6 60 41 27 11 9 154 Percent 3.2 36.9 41.9 11.1 3.7 3.2 100.0 3.9 39.0 26.6 17.5 7.1 5.8 100.0 Cumulative Percent3.2 40.1 82.0 93.1 96.8 100.0 3.9 42.9 69.5 87.0 94.2 100.0

UK sample

Table 7.22: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with recounition
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 2.85 3.03 Std. Deviation 1.01 1.24

137

Another research question this study is trying to answer is: Is there a significant difference in the between the two samples? The results of the t-test as it shown in satisfaction with recognition

table 7.23 say that there is no statisticallysignificant difference in the satisfactionwith recognition betweenthe SaudiandUK subjects.

Table 7.23: T-Test results based on satisfaction with recognition

Levene'sTest for Equalityof ariances West fo Equalityof Means I Mean Difference
-. 18

F
sat. w. rec 31 Equalvanances

Sig.
001 .

It
-1 .749

df
558

Siq (24ailed)
. 081

Std Error . Difference

. 10

95% Confidence Intervalof the Difference Upper Lower -. 38

assumed Equalvariances not assumed

11 434 .

2.20E-02

.1 .596

234.146

112

-. 18

11 ,

-.40

4.19E-02

Satisfactionwith recognition was the sixth and last factor in this study to be consideredin to indicate their satisfactionwith to the overall job satisfaction.Respondents were asked relation four statements the financial recognition relatedto the satisfactionwith recognition, which are: from top management, praisefrom top management, praisefrom the supervisorand the the the from the colleagues.Table 7.24 showsthat satisfactionwith recognition has a significant praise

All in the four statements boththe Saudiandthe UK samples. correlations correlation with all of
that thesevariables coare not significantly different at the 1% level. Theseresultsdemonstrate the satisfactionwith recognition. A high satisfactionwith thesevariables is more likely vary with to lead to a high satisfactionwith recognition in both samples. Resultsalso demonstrated that thesevariableswill significantly have the sameeffect in the overall satisfactionwith recognition in the two samples.

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Table 7.24: Satisfaction with recognition correlations and test for significant differences between correlations
Variables Saudi F.recog 549** . Praise-I 663** . Praise-2 653** . Praise-3 607** . ** Correlation is significant at UK Z calculated compared to Z table 559** 0.116 < 2.576 . 736** 1.50 < 2.576 . 838** 0.43 < 2.576 . 651** 0.80 < 2.576 . the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Significant differences Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant

7.2.7 Whole Satisfaction

Table 7.25 presents frequencies cumulativepercentage the job satisfaction factor. The the and of meansand Std. deviationsfor the whole satisfactionfactor for the Saudi sampleand the UK in samplesare presented table 7.26.

Table 7.25: Whole satisfaction

Saudi sample Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Very satisfied Satisfied Rather satisfied Rather dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied Total Frequency 45 193 92 49 18 9 406 16 78 35 15 6 4 154 Percent 11.1 47.5 22.7 12.1 4.4 2.2 100.0 10.4 50.6 22.7 9.7 3.9 2.6 100.0 Cumulative Percent 11.1 58.6 81.3 93.3 97.8 100.0 10.4 61.0 83.8 93.5 97.4 100.0

UK sample

Table 7.26: Means and Std. Deviation for the satisfaction with the whole iob satisfaction r
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 2.58 2.54 Std. Deviation 1.11 1.10

139

One of the research questions underconsiderationin the presentstudy is: Is there a significant differenceon the whole satisfactionbetweenthe Saudi and the UK samples? The results of the ttest in table 7.27 indicate that thereis no statistically significant difference in the averageof the whole satisfactionbetweenthe two samples.

Table 7.27: T-Test results based on satisfaction with whole satisfaction

Levene'sTest for
Equality of ariances t-test fo Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Upper Lower -. 117 -. 17 25 . 25 . __j

F wholesat 32 Equalvanances assumed Equalvariances not assumed 306 .

Sig. 580 . 1

I 379 . . 382 f

df 558 279.919

Sig. (2-tailed) 704 . 703 . I

Mean Difference 3.99E-02 3.99E-02 I

Std. Error Difference . . 11 10

Another researchquestionunderconsiderationin this study is to find out if there are any differencesin the importanceof job factors for managers the two different cultures.Table 7.28 in the presents correlationsbetweenthe overall satisfactionandjob facetsalong with r squaresfor the two samples.Significant correlationswere found betweenall job facetsand overall job indicate that co-worker, promotion, and recognition satisfactionin the two samples.R squares were found to explain more the variability in the relationship with the overall satisfactionin the UK samplethan in the Saudisample;pointing out that managers the UK samplemay value in

factorsmorethanthe Saudimanagers. the otherhand,factorslike work itself, pay,and these On

supervisionmay be valued more by the Saudi managers.

Table 7.28: Overall satisfaction correlation with the six factors in the two samnles
Saudi (r) Saudi r square 333** 0.111 . 766** 0.587 . 654** 0.428 . 692** 0.479 . 619* 0.383 . 709** 0.503 . t-orrelation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Variables Co-worker Work itself Promotion Pay Supervisor Recognition UK (r) 417** . 696** . 663** . 590** . 434** . 711** . UK r square 0.174 0.484 0.440 0.350 0.188 1 0.537

*1

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7.3 Consequences of the Level Job Satisfaction

The consequences job satisfactionare oneof the topics that attractedresearchers. the In of literature review, we talked aboutsomeof theseconsequences and such as turnover, absenteeism
resigning from jobs. To evaluate the impact of the degree of job satisfaction on some behaviour, subjects were asked in this study to indicate their agreement and disagreement with some

Eachstatement indicate their degree by statements. was measured a six-item scale.Respondents by of agreement selectingthe most appropriateanswerto their feelings as: "Strongly agree(6), agree(5), rather agree(4), ratherdisagree(3), disagree(2) and strongly agree(1)."

The first statementsub ectswere presented j with was "I am thinking of finding ajob outside this organisation".A PearsonCorrelationTest was conductedto test the relationship betweenthe level of job satisfactionand subjects'responses the first statement.The findings suggestthat to there is a significant strong relationshipbetweenthe level of job satisfactionand subjects' In responses. the Saudisample,r--0.763and r--0.618 in the UK sample.This meansthat, in this study,there is a significant strongrelationshipbetweena high level of job satisfactionand a to strongdisagreement thinking of finding a job outsidethe organisation.

The secondstatementwas "I am thinking of resigning from my job". In the Saudi sample r--0.610and r=0.485 in the UK sample.This meansthat there is a significant strong relationship in the Saudi sampleand a moderatelystrong relationship in the UK samplebetweenthe high

level of job satisfactionand a strong disagreement from resigning from work.

The third statementwas: "I hate going to work". Since r--0.500 in the Saudi sampleand r--0.553 in the UK sample,this meansthat there is a significant moderately strong relationship between the high level of job satisfactionand high disagreementof the above statement.

141

The last statement was I feel happy when I am at work". This statement has a reverse scoring (1) to strongly agree and (6) to strongly disagree. The findings suggest that there is a given

betweenthe level of satisfactionand happinessat work. The correlation positive correlation (r) =0.595 in the Saudisampleand (r) =0.644 in the UK samplemeans,in this study, coefficient
that there is a significant moderately strong relationship in the Saudi sample and significant

strongrelationshipin the UK samplebetweenthe high level of job satisfaction and strong happiness work. agreement with at

Table 7.29 presents test for significant differencebetweencorrelations. There is a significant the difference at the 1% level in the "finding ajob outsidethe organisation" correlation; all other correlationsare not significantly different at the 1% level.

Table 7.29: Test for significant differences between correlations for consequences of tile level ofjob satisfaction
Correlation Finding ajob outsidethe organisation Resigningfrom job Hategoing to work Feel happywhen I am at work Z calculated compared to Z table 2.96 > 2.576 1.88 < 2.576 0.77 < 2.576 0.842 < 2.576 Result iignificant Not significant Not significant Not significant

_j

7.4 Motivational

Needs

This sectionincludesa descriptiveanalysisof the strengthsof the four motivational needsfor the participating subjects.Frequencies, percents,cumulative percentage, meansand Std. deviations for eachgroup will be provided. Norms for eachof the need's strengthare as follows :6= very low needstrength,5= low needstrength,4= rather low needsstrength,3= rather high need strength,2= high needstrengthand 1= very high needstrength.T-test results will also be in presented this sectionto try to answerthe researchquestionsregardingthe significant 142

differencesof the averagestrengthof eachmotivational needbetweenthe Saudi and UK samples.Hypotheses regardingthe relationshipof the motivational needsandjob satisfaction be testedin the hypotheses testing section(section 7.6).Further discussionof results will be will in presented following chapter(section8.3).

7.4.1 The need for achievement Table 7.30 presents frequencies, the percents,and cumulative percentageof the strengthof the for needfor achievements subjectsin the two samples.Table 7.31 provides the meansand Std. deviationsfor the two groups.

Table 7.30: Frequencies and percentages of the need for achievement

Saudi sample Very high High Rather high Total Very high High Rather high Rather low Total Frequency 160 193 53 406 32 65 51 6 154 Percent 49.4 47.5 13.1 100% 20.8 42.2 33.1 3.9 100% Cumulative Percent_ 39.9 86.9 100% 20.8 63.0 96.1 100%

UK sample

Table 7.31: Means and Std. deviations for the need for achievement
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 1.74 2.20

Std. Deviation 0.675 0.812

Table 7.30 showsthat 86.9% or more from the Saudi subjectshave a high needfor achievement or more, while 63% of the UK subjectshave a high needfor achievementor more. One of the researchquestionsunder considerationin this study is: Is there a significant difference in the averageneedfor achievementbetweenthe two groups?An independentsampleMest was conducted;results are presentedin table 7.32. Results show that there is a statistically significant

143

differencein the average betweenthe Saudi sampleand the UK sample. needfor achievement Table 7.31 showsthat, on average, Saudisubjectshave a higher need for achievementthan UK subjects.

Table 7.32: T-test results basedon the need for achievement

Levene'sTest for Equalityof Variances : t-test fo Equality of Means 95% Confidence I id e Interval of thel e Difference U Ue er Lower r -.60 -.61 -.33 -. 32 ]

F N.ach 37 Equalvariances assumed Equalvariances not assumed I 6.144 I

Sig 013 . I

t -6.866 -6.326 I

df 558 237.784 I

Sig (2-tailed) 000 . 000 . I

Mean Difference -.46 -.46 f

Std. Error Difference 6.77E-02 7.35E-02

7.4.2 The need for affiliation Frequencies percentages the two samplesregardingthe needfor affiliation are presented for and in table 7.33, and table 7.34 providesthe meansand Std. deviations.

Table 7.33: Frequencies and percentagesfor the need for affiliation

Saudi sample Very high High Rather high Rather low Low Total High Rather high Rather low Low Total Frequency 10 28 191 167 10 406 18 67 66 3 154 Percent 2.5 6.9 47.0 41.1 2.5 100% 11.7 43.5 42.9 1.9 100%

Cumulative Percent 2.5 9.4 56.4 97.5 100% 11.7 55.2 98.1 100%

UK sample

144

A 1

1 11 1

Table 7.34: Means and Std. deviations for the need for affiliation
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 3.34 3.35 Std. Deviation 0.749 0.710

Table 7.33 showsthat more than half the subjectsin both sampleshave a rather high needfor for affiliation or more. The averages the needfor affiliations in the two groups are almost the sameas table 7.34 shows.Another research considerationin this study regarding questionunder the motivational needsis: Is therea significant differenceon the averageneed for affiliation betweenthe two samples? T-test resultspresented table 7.35 show no significant differences in betweenthe two samples.

Table 7.35: T-test results based on the need for affiliation

Levene'sTest for Equalityo Variances t-test f Equalityof Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Upper Lower -. 15 -. 14 . 13 13

F Kaff 38 Equalvanances assumed Equal variances I not assumed 002 . I

Sig 961 . I

t -. 119 121 I

df 558 290.150 I

Sig (2-tailed) 906 . 903 I .

Mean Difference -8.28E-03 8.28E-03 I

Std Error . Difference 6.99E-02 6.82E-02

7.4.3 The need for autonomy In table 7.36, frequenciesand percentages the needfor autonomy for the two groups of provided. Table 7.37 provides the meansand Std. deviations. are

145

Table 7.36: Frequencies and percentages for the need for autonomV
Saudi sample Very high High Rather high Rather low Low Total High Rather high Rather low Low Very low Total Frequenc 10 22 101 182 91 406 2 30 so 38 4 154 Percent 2.5 5.4 24.9 44.8 22.4 100% 1.3 19.5 51.9 24.7 2.6 100% Cumulative Percent 2.5 7.9 32.8 77.6 100% 1.3 20.8 72.7 97.4 100%

UK sample

Table 7.37: Means and Std. deviations for the need for autonomy
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 3.79 4.08

Std. Deviation 0.933 0.771

Table 7.36 showsthat the majority of the subjectsin the two sampleshave a rather low needfor autonomy,44.8% of the Saudisubjectsand 51.9% of the UK subjects.32.8% of the Saudi subjectshaverather high needfor autonomyor higher comparedto 20.8% of the UK subjects. One of the questionsthis study is investigatingis: Is there a significant difference on the average Table 7.38 presentsthe results of a West needfor autonomybetweenthe Saudiand UK samples? conductedto investigatethis issueand the results show that there is a significant difference

between two samples. the

Table 7.38: T-test results based on the need for autonomy

Levene'sTest for Equalityof ariances West fo Eclualityof Means Confidence IDS% Interval of the Diffe nceUpper Lower -.45 -.44 -. 12 -. 13

F Kaut 3v Lqual variances assumed Equal variances not assumed I 10.084

Sig. 002 . I

t -3.375 -3.674

df 558 331.354 I

Sig. (2-tailed) 001 . 000 . I

Mean Difference -. 28 -. 28

Std Error . Difference 8.44E-02 7.7SE-02

146

7.4.4 The need for dominance

Table 7.39 presents frequencies percentages the need for dominancefor subjectsin the the of and Table 7.40 providesthe meansand Std. deviations for the two groups. Saudiand UK samples.

Table 7.39: Frequencics and percentaacs for the need for dominance
Saudi sample Very high High Rather high Rather low Low Total Very high High Rather high Rather low Low Total Frequency 15 81 191 103 16 406 18 48 58 25 5 154 Percent 3.7 20.0 47.0 25.4 3.9 100% 11.7 31.2 37.7 16.2 3.2 100%

Cumulative Percent 3.7 23.6 70.7 96.1 100% 11.7 42.9 80.5 96.8 100%

UK sample

Table 7.40: Means and Std. deviations for the need for dominance
Saudi sample UK sample Mean 3.06 2.68

Std. Deviation 0.870 0.988

The majorities of subjectsof the two groupsfall in the rather high category,47% of the Saudi 37.7% of the UK subjects.While there are 80.5% of the UK subjectshaving a rather high and for dominanceor higher, there are only 70.7% of the Saudi subjects.A difference in means need is noticeablein table 7.40. Another researchquestionunder considerationin this study regarding the motivational needsis: Is there a significant difference in the averageneedfor dominance betweenthe two samples? T-test resultspresentedin table 7.41 show a significant difference betweenthe two samples.

147

Table 7.41: T-test results based on the need for dominance

Levene'sTestfor Equalityof Variances t-testf EaualitvofMeans 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 21 . 20 . . 55

F N.dom 40 EqUalvanances assumed Equalvariances not assumed I 11.471

Sig 001 .

It 4.410 4.165 I

df 558 248.099 II

Sig (2-tailed) 000 . 000 .

Mean Difference 38 . 38 . I

Std Error . Difference __ 8.56E-02 9.06E-02

56 .

Table 7.42 presents test for significant difference betweencorrelations of whole job the satisfactionand the four motivational needs.There is no significant difference at the 1% level.

Table 7.42: Test for sienificant differences between correlations

N. Ach. I N. A ff. I N. Aut. Whole satisfaction Not Significant I-I Not Significant Not Significant

N. Dom. Not Significant

7.5 Job Satisfaction and the Demographic Variables

In this sectionthe resultsof the relationshipbetweenjob satisfactionand the demographic To variablesare presented. test the direction and strengthof such relationships,the Pearson Product-MomentCorrelation (r) was used.Table 7.43 provides us with the results for the two
samples plus tests for significant difference between correlations. There is a significant

difference at the 1% level in the annualsalary, education,and number of dependents factors. All other correlationsare not significantly different at the 1% level. Table 7.43: Test for sianificant differences between correlations
Variables Age Saudi UK Z calculated compared to Z table 2.24 < 2.576 4.10 >2.576 0.33 < 2.576 0.94 < 2.576 3.75 > 2.576 3.97 > 2.576 Result Not significant Significant Not significant Not significant Significant Significant 249** 041 . . Annual salary 105 452** . . Samejob 042 073 . . Sameorg 178** 091 . . Education 154** 194* -. . Dependents 254** 117 -. . ,, .orrelation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 - tailed). * Correlationis significant at the 0.05 level (2 -tailed).

148

The results indicate a positive significant moderately weak relationship between age and job for the Saudi sample. A non-significant positive very weak relationship is shown for satisfaction the UK sample.

The agecategories, mentionedin section6.6.4, are as follow: as

The age Categories The code 1 Up to 30 51 I 3140 41 I 41-50 31 I 51-60 2 61 or more 1

Job satisfactionvaries from I= very satisfiedto 6= very dissatisfied.Looking at figure I which the scatterof job satisfactionand age for the Saudi sample,one cannot decide exactly presents the relationshipbetweenageandjob satisfactionis. Table 7.43 showedthat job what shape satisfactionand agehasa significant positive moderatelyweak relationship, and figure 7.1 shows that all managers who are 50 yeasof ageor aboveare either satisfied or very satisfied with their jobs. This may give an indication for a positive pattern.

Figure 7.1: Scatter of job satisfaction and age for the Saudi sample
7

CN a 0 a
S S S

0
age 41

149

Figure 7.2 presents the scatter ofjob satisfaction and age for the UK sample. No clear pattern can be detected from this relationship. This ambiguous pattern is presented in the non-significant very weak correlation between age and job satisfaction in the UK sample.

Figure 7.2: Scatter of job satisfaction and age for the UK sample
7

CN cn U) (D .0
a a

0346 age 41

Annual salaryhas a significant positive moderatelystrong relationship with job satisfactionin the Saudi sample.On the other hand, it has a very weak positive non-significant relationship in the UK sample.

The length of servicein the currentjob for managersin both sampleshas a very weak relationshipwithjob satisfaction.Job satisfactioncorrelatespositively with the number of years working for the current organisationin the Saudi sample.The relationship betweenthe two variablesis significant but very weak. In the UK sample,the relationship betweenthe two variablesis a positive, non-significant very weak relationship.

150

job satisfactionin the Saudi sample,and it is a very weak Educationcorrelates positively with but significant relationship.Education,on the other hand, correlates negatively with job satisfactionin the UK sample.This relationship is significant and also consideredas a very weak
relationship.

has In the Saudisample,the numberof dependants a positive, significant moderately weak The relationship betweenthe two variables in the UK sampleis relationshipwithjob satisfaction. a negative,non-significantvery weak relationship.

7.6 Testing the Hypotheses

The basicthemeof the hypotheses to examinewhether there is an associationbetweenthe was

hadbeenclarified factorsassociated wholesatisfaction which withjob satisfaction with

Therehavebeenseveralstudiesconductedin the West which have revealedthe previously. but no suchstudy hastaken place in the private sector in Saudi Arabia. The association is intending to demonstrate Westerntheories are applicable to a developing researcher whether country like SaudiArabia despitethe differencesof cultural values,beliefs and standardof living.

Hypothesis One:

There is a significant relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith tile work group and the whole job satisfaction.

Ho

There is no significant relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionthe with work group and the whole job satisfaction.

151

A PearsonCorrelationCoefficient was performedand it was found that r=0.333 for the Saudi sampleand r=0.417 for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Therefore,the null hypothesisthat thereis no significant relationship was rejected.

Hypothesis Two:

There is a significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with work itself and the whole job satisfaction.

Ho

There is no significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfaction with work itself the whole job satisfaction. and

A PearsonCorrelationwas conductedand it was found that r=0.766 for the Saudi sampleand for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Therefore, the null r--0.696 hypothesisthat there is no significant relationshipwas rejected.

Hypothesis Three: H There is a significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith promotion and the whole job satisfaction.

Ho

Thereis no significantrelationship between respondent's the satisfaction with promotion andthe wholejob satisfaction.

A Pearson Correlation performed it wasfoundthatr=0.654 for the Saudisample was and and
r-- 0.663 for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Therefore, the null hypothesisthat there is no significant relationship was rejected.

152

Hypothesis Four: H There is a significant relationship between the respondent's satisfaction with pay and the

whole job satisfaction. Ho There is no significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent's satisfactionwith pay and the whole job satisfaction.

A Pearson Correlationwas conductedand it was found that r =0.692 for the Saudi sampleand r =0.590 for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Therefore, the null hypothesisthat there is no significant relationshipwas rejected.

Hypothesis Five: H There is a significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith supervision

andthewholejob satisfaction.
HO There is no significant relationshipbetweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith supervisionand the whole job satisfaction.

A PearsonCorrelation was performedand it was found that r--0.619 for the Saudi sampleand r--0.434for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailcd). Therefore, tile null hypothesisthat there is no significant relationship was rejected.

Hypothesis Six: H There is a significant relationship betweenthe respondent'ssatisfactionwith recognition and the whole job satisfaction.

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Ho

There is no significant relationship between the respondent's satisfaction with recognition the whole job satisfaction. and

A Pearson Correlation was performed and it was found that r--0.709 for the Saudi sample and

for the UK sample.Both were significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Therefore, the null r--0.733 hypothesisthat there is no relationshipwas rejected.

Hypothesis Seven:

There is a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe need for achievementandjob in the two samples. satisfactionof managers

Ho

There is no significant positive relationshipbetweenthe need for achievementandjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples.

This hypothesiswas testedcorrelatingthe degreeof needfor achievementand tile whole job for managers the two samples.A PearsonCorrelation was performed and it was in satisfaction found that r= -0.092 for the Saudisampleand r=0.002 for the UK sample.Both were non significant and the correlation in the Saudi sampleis negativeas the sign indicates.Therefore, the null hypothesisthat there is no significant relationship was accepted.

Hypothesis Eight: H There is a significant positive relationship betweenthe need for affiliation andjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples. Ho There is no significant positive relationship betweenthe need for affiliation andjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples.

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A Pearson Correlationwas performedto test this hypothesisand it was found that r=0.040 for
the Saudi sample and r= -0.00 1 for the UK sample. Both were non significant and the

correlation in the UK sampleis negativeas the sign indicates.Therefore, the null hypothesisthat
there is no significant relationship was accepted.

Hypothesis Nine: H There is a significant positive relationshipbetweenthe need for autonomy andjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples. Ho There is no significant positive relationshipbetweenthe need for autonomy andjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples.

This hypothesiswas testedusing a PearsonCorrelation and it was found that r= -0.134 for the Saudisampleand r= -0.065 for the UK sample.Only the correlation in tile Saudi samplewas significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) but negativeas the sign indicates.Therefore,the null hypothesisthat there is no significant positive relationship was accepted.

Hypothesis Ten: H There is a significant positive relationship betweenthe needfor dominanceandjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples. Ho There is no significant positive relationship betweenthe need for dominanceandjob in satisfactionof managers the two samples.

A Pearson Correlation and was conductedto test this hypothesisand it was found that r= -0.168 for the Saudi sampleand r= for the UK sample.Only the correlation in tile Saudi sample -0.004

was significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) and both correlations were negative as the signs

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indicate. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant positive relationship was

accepted.

7.7 Summary
in Job satisfactionfindings were presented this chapter.Significant differences were found betweenthe Saudiand UK samplesin the averagesatisfactionwith work groups, average satisfactionwith work itself, averagesatisfactionwith promotion, averagesatisfaction with supervision.No significant differenceswere found betweenthe two groups in the average satisfactionwith pay, averagesatisfactionwith recognition, and the averageof the whole satisfaction.

Consequences the level of job satisfactionwere investigatedin this chapter.The findings of correspondwith severalprevious findings reportedin the literature review which stressthat favourableconsequences vice versa. satisfactionwith the job accompanied and

Job satisfactionrelationsto motivation needswere investigatedin this chapter.It was found that job satisfactionhasa very weak relationship with the four motivation needsin the two samples, rolling out motivation needsas an important factor in determining the level of satisfaction for the managers surveyedin this study. Demographicvariable and its relationshipsto job satisfaction in both sampleswere also presentedin this chapter.Hypothesesof this researchwere testedand resultswere presented.

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Chapter Eight:

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research

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8.1 Introduction
from the findings of this study. The first theme is that the factor Six main themes emerge structuresarethe samefor the two cultures.The secondtheme is that the four motivation needs did not play a major role in determiningjob satisfactionin the two cultures. The third theme is that consequences the level of job satisfactionare the samein the two cultures. The fourth of themeis that similar variablesaffect job satisfactionin the two cultures but with different strengths.The fifth themeis that demographicvariables correlate slightly differently in the two cultures.The sixth themeis that the findings of this study are consistentwith cross-cultural studiesof job satisfaction.

This chapteris presented three sections.The first sectionwill be devotedto discussionof tile in six themes.The secondsectionwill draw conclusionsbasedon the findings of the study. In the third section,recommendations made for future studies. are

8.2 Factor Analysis Theprimarypurpose factoranalysis to definethe underlyingstructure a datamatrix (I lair is in of An et al, 1998). exploratory factoranalysis utilisedin this research scarchfor structure to was amongjobsatisfaction in variables.Factoranalysis gaveus similar structure tile two samples. Thetwo setsof factors items,suggesting usingtile itemsin this that containexactlythe same survey, in managers the two countries job in conceptualise satisfaction components tile same Way.

This finding

suggests that Saudimanagers, someextent, have adoptedWesternvalues.These to

resultsare fairly consistent with the traditionalism or modernity values structure proposedby Barrett and Bass0 976). According to this values structure,the more the country is opento

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Westernnations,the more likely individuals from the developing world are to take on Western In SaudiArabia, Westernwork theoriesare taught in universities, multinational values. haveexistedin SaudiArabia for a long time, businessand trade with Westernnations companies have beenestablished decades, overseas for training is one approachthat many companies and
use to train employees. All these factors helped Saudi managers to imbibe Western values and

thoughtsaboutjobs. This is clear in this study when factor analysis gave us similar structurein the two samples.

8.3 Motivation Needs and Job Satisfaction

dominance,autonomy,and affiliation have beengiven considerable The needsfor achievement, fit. determinants person-occupation In spite of some methodological of attentionas possible it hasbeenshown empirically that levels of theseneedspredict job satisfaction in a concerns, (Chusmir, 1985; House, 1988; McClelland & numberof occupations, particularly management Boyatzis, 1982;Medcof, 1985,1990; Medcof & Wegner, 1992).

Resultsregardingthe needfor achievementshowedthat managersin Saudi Arabia havc a profile that is high in needfor achievement, which is consistentwith Yasin and Stalil (1990) findings. Managersin the UK have a rather high profile. T-test results showedthat, on average,the two groupsare statistically different in the strengthof the needfor achievement.The need for found in this study to have no significant relationship with job satisfaction in achievement was the Saudi sampleand in the UK sample,which did not support hypothesisseven.Theseresults are inconsistentwith what hasbeenfound in the literature such as Etuk (1980), Obi (1981), and Yasin and Stahl (1990). Basedon this finding, it can be concludedthat the needfor achievement
is not an important element to be considered when evaluating job satisfaction for managers

surveyedin this study.

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The majority of the subjectsin both sampleshad a rather high need for affiliation as results in 7 showed.No significancedifferenceswere found in the averageneedfor affiliation chapter betweenthe two groupsindicating a similarity betweenthe two samples.It was also found in this that job satisfactionhasno significant relationship with the need for affiliation in the Saudi study and the UK sample.Theseresults are incompatible with the literature (e.g., Etuk 1980; Nkereuwem, 1992).So, basedon the findings, it can be concluded that the need for affiliation is not an important elementin the job satisfactionof the managerssurveyed in this study and that increasingthe needfor affiliation for subjectssurveyedin this researchmay not lead to an increasein job satisfaction.

While the majority of the subjectsin the two sampleshave a rather low need for autonomy, 32.8% of the Saudisubjectshaverather high need for autonomy or higher comparedto 20.8% of the UK subjects.Differences in the meansare noticeablebetweenthe two samples.T-test results statistically confirm thesedifferences.A very weak, negative relationship was found in this study betweenjob satisfactionand the needfor autonomy in the Saudi sample,but no relationship was found in the UK sample.Theseresults are in conflict with what has beenreported in tile literature suchas Etuk (1980), Obi (1981), and Nkereuwem (1992). Basedon thesefindings, it can be concludedthat the needfor autonomy doesnot play a major role in managersjob satisfactionsurveyedin this study.

Resultsregardingthe needfor dominanceshowedthat managersin Saudi Arabia have a profile that is high in needfor dominance,which is consistentwith Yasin and Stahl (1990) findings. Managersin the UK also have a high profile. A difference in meansis noticeablebetweentile two groups.This difference was statistically confirmed by West. The needfor dominancewas found in this study to have a significant but very weak, negative relationship with job satisfaction

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in the Saudi sample, and none for the UK sample. These results are incompatible with what has

been found in the literature (e.g., Etuk 1980, Parker and Chusmir 1991). Thesefindings suggest that increasein the needfor dominancefor managerssurveyedin this study may not lead to Basedon thesefindings, it can be concluded that the need for greaterjob satisfaction. dominanceis not an important elementto be consideredwhen evaluating job satisfaction for surveyedin this study. managers

8.4 The Consequences of the Level of Job Satisfaction

The consequences the level ofjob satisfactionare one of the topics that have been investigated of in this study.Absenteeismand staff turnover are areason which attention is focusedin this and turnover often viewed as reaction to noxious work environments subject.Absenteeism (Bartel, 1979;Gupta & Jenkins, 1991). Nicholson et al (1977) in a review of 29 studies from work are tenuously related. On the contrary, thatjob satisfactionand absence concluded Shawand Gupta (2001) found that job satisfactionsignificantly predict job searchintention and Eby et al (1999) andNagy (2002) found a significant, negativerelation betweenjob absenteeism. turnover. Oliver (1998) imposedan ability to secureemployment elsewherefor satisfactionand the negativerelation betweenjob satisfactionand turnover. Branch (1998) and Tello & Greene (1996) have asserted that it is not only money that makesemployeeshappy and stay in the

life thereareotherthingslike job satisfaction the ability to balance andwork. organisation, and
All studiesreportedin the literature review supportthe notion that satisfactionwith the job favourableconsequences vice versa. accompanied and

The findings of this study supportthe notion that the level of job satisfactionhas an effect on an employee'sattitude towardsthe job and the organisation.Job satisfactionwas found to have a strongpositive correlation with the disagreement thinking to find a job outside the of

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disagreement of resigning from work, disagreement of hating to go to work, and organisation, the agreement of feeling of happiness while at work in both samples.

Tests for significant differences between correlations in the two samples were conducted in the

last chapter.No differenceswere found except correlation betweenjob satisfaction and thinking finding ajob outsidethe organisation.Saudi managersscored significantly higher than UK of have morejobs openingsin the labour market than the UK Saudimanagers may managers. that the Saudisare more sensitiveto job dissatisfactionsthan UKs. managersso

Thesefindings demonstrate resemblance the importance of job satisfaction and the impact the of that it hason employees'attitudesand behaviour towards their jobs and organisationsin the two different cultures.

The findings of this study correspondwith previous findings reported in the literature review that satisfactionwith the job accompaniedfavourable consequences vice and which stressed versa.

8.5 Discussion of Job Satisfaction Results overalljob satisfaction job satisfaction for factorsof both the SaudiandUK samples and interesting informationin termsof their relationships. ajob facetlevel, although At revealed job in therearedifferences the average satisfaction with some facet(co-worker,work itself, both samples between facetandvariables job promotion, supervision), and showa correlation
it. Differencesin the strengthof the correlation do exist betweenthe two associated with samples.

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Again, when correlating job facets satisfaction and overall job satisfaction, a strong correlation

betweenajob facet and overall job satisfaction was shown in each sample, but with different The rest of this sectionwill be devoted to discussingjob satisfaction results. strengths.

8.5.1 Satisfaction with work group Satisfactionwith the work group was the first factor in this study to be consideredin relation to job satisfaction.This study suggests that personaland work relations are highly related to overall the satisfactionwith the work group. It is self-evident that people have social characteristics,and they enjoy being with others.Maslow (1970) considersthis needas one of the third category "the In this category,Maslow meantthe need for belonging and love that employees social needs". to be fulfilled; which draws attention to the importanceof interpersonalrelations and pursue the overall job satisfaction(Armstrong, 1996). Leppa (1996) statedthat socialisationon interpersonalrelationsare an important part ofjob satisfaction.

This study proved that the personaland work relations a respondenthas in the work place to his satisfactionwith co-workers. It was found that the overall contribute significantly significantly in both sampleswith the variables associated satisfactionwith co-workerscorrelates this factor in this study. However, testsfor significant differences betweencorrelations with showedthat Saudimanagers scoredsignificantly higher than UK managersin the personal This indicatesthat this variable plays more role in the relation with subordinates variable. satisfactionwith co-workersin the Saudi samplethan in the UK sample.

The findings of this study imply that the variablesthat have been investigatedin this study in relation to the satisfactionwith co-workersare good predictors to the satisfaction with the coworker factor in two different cultures.

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8.5.2 Satisfaction with work itself

by in This factor hasbeenwidely discussed many researchers this field and considereda major factor in detemining job satisfaction(Gruneberg, 1981). The findings of this study indicate that the work itself requiresthe satisfaction with different aspectsof the job such as: satisfactionwith the autonomy,the varietyof the job. In this study, satisfactionwith the variety and the autonomy of the job was found to contributesignificantly to the satisfaction with the work itself. Dale et al (1997) and Evans& Lindsay(1996) statedthat employeesatisfaction can be enhancedif a job incorporates task significance,autonomy,skill variety, task identity, and feedbackabout performance.The findings of thesestudiescorrespondwith other previous studies such as: Hackman& Oldham(1976),Hackman& Lawler (1971), Locke (1984), Jaffe et al (1994), and Dodd & Ganster(1996).Locke (1976) addedthat ajob has to have a senseof challenge.

This research finding coincideswith the previous researchfindings. Employee satisfaction with the work itself was found to have strong correlationswith all the variables associated with this factor in this study in both samples.The researchfindings also support the notion which believes thatjobs haveto be designedto fulfil the human/mentalneedsof the employees,which will increase morale and leading to improvementof quality and productivity the motivation (Dahlgaardet al, 1998).

It was found in the literature that it is important for in low PD culturcs (like the UK) to managers havea greatdeal of power over work assignments conditions of work while it less important and

for managers high PD (like Saudi Arabia) (Adler, 1997;Cole, 1989). in It was found in this study that the responsibility has in planning one's work and the responsibility one has in doing one a significant correlation with the overall satisfactionwith work itself.

one's work variables had But this

significant correlation was strongerin the Saudi samplethan in the UK sample,which

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meansthat thesetwo variablesexplain more of the variability of the relationship in the Saudi than in the UK sample(Hinton, 1995; Sekaran,1992).This is inconsistentwith what has sample been found in the literature.

Also it was reportedin the literature that employeesin individualistic cultures (such as UK) importanceon freedom and challengein their jobs and initiative is usually place more in the job, while it is the oppositein a collectivistic culture (such as Saudi Arabia) encouraged (Hofstede, 1991).It was found in this study that satisfactionwith challengesone faced in doing the job had a strongercorrelation with the overall satisfactionwith work itself in the UK sample than in the Saudi sample,indicating its importancefor managersin the two samples.This result is consistentwith Hofstede'sreport.

Tests for significant differencesbetweencorrelations in the two samplesfound no significant differences.One could concludethat managers'perceptionof the work itself factor is the samein two different cultures.This implies that, significantly, the samevariables are good measuresfor the satisfactionwith work itself in two different cultures.

8.5.3 Satisfaction with promotion Satisfactionwith promotion was the third factor in this study to be consideredin relation to the overall job satisfaction.Satisfactionwith promotion was examinedin this study from two angles: the opportunity one has for promotion in one's job, and the fairnessof the promotion systemin the organisation.It was found in the literature that opportunity for promotion wasconsidcredas favouredmotivating items by employees(Ahmad, 1989; Quarles, 1994; Vinokur-Kaplan ct al, 1994).Fairnessissuesare important factors in any organisation(Greenberg,1990). Tyagi (1990) found that inequity in promotion hasa negativeassociationwith the extrinsic motivator.

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The finding of this study corresponds with what been found in the literature. It was found that has strong correlations with satisfaction with the opportunity for satisfactionwith promotion in thejob and the fairnessof the promotion systemin the organisation in both promotion Also, no significant differencesbetweencorrelations were found. samples.

Theseresultsimply that managersin the two samplesperceivethe two variables investigatedin in relation to promotion in the sameway despitethe cultural differences. this study

8.5.4 Satisfaction with pay Satisfactionwith pay was the fourth factor in this study to be consideredin relation to overall job Pay is arguablyone of the most critical, if not the most critical, outcome of satisfaction. for employees(Gupta & Shaw, 1998). The trend of investigating pay organisationalmembership hasmoved from studying actual pay and people's attitude about it towards concentratingon the different kinds of pay attributessuch as pay satisfaction and perceptionof pay precursorsof fairness(Shaw & Gupta,2001). The Equity theory (Adam, 1963) and tile Discrepancytheory (Lawler, 1971,1981) postulatethat pay satisfactionis the result of social comparisonwith to relevantreferents.Inequity in pay was found to be associated with low pay satisfaction respect (Carr et al, 1996;Perry, 1993; Summers& DeNisi, 1990; Sweeny, 1990). Employeescould have internal or externalreferentswhenjudging pay fairness.

The findings of this study are in the samedomain of those in the literature. Satisfaction with pay in the Saudiand the UK samplewas found to correlatesignificantly with satisfaction with pay comparedto the pay of othersholding similar positions in the sameorganisationand in different to one's expectationwhenjoining the organisation,and pay in organisations, pay compared relation to the cost of living in the two samples.However, Saudi managersscoredsignificantly

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higher in pay in relation to work one does than UK managers; indicating that Saudis are more

to thesevariablesthan UK managers. sensitive

From theseresults,one could concludethat the variables investigated in this study in relation to the satisfactionwith pay factor are good predictors for the satisfaction with pay in two different cultures.

8.5.5 Satisfaction with supervision Satisfactionwith supervisionwas the fifth factor in this study to be consideredin relation to job satisfaction.Vroom.(1964) statedthat the supervisorwho is competent,democratic, overall to his subordinates, has a good relationship with his employeeswill causethe and considerate to havepositive feeling towards their jobs. In the literature, it was found that workers feedbackfrom supervisors,supervisor betweensupervisorsand subordinates, relationship fair treatmentwere amongthe most influential variables to the satisfactionwith support,and (Bruce & Blackburn, 1992;Bettencourt& Brown, 1997; Deluga, 1998; Gerstner& supervisors Day, 1997;London & Larsen, 1999).

havebeenfound in the literature.The overall In this study,theresultswereconsistent with what

satisfactionwith the supervisorcorrelatestrongly with the competenceof the supervisor, the delegationof responsibility, the feedback,and the personalrelations and the help one gets from in the two samples. However, significant differencesbetweencorrelations were one's supervisor found in the two samples,which could be due to the respondents'preferences.

It was found in this study that the supervisor'sdelegationof responsibility to one to do the work had a significant correlation with the overall satisfactionwith the supervisorin the two samples

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(r = 0.5 70 for the UK sample, the lowest amongst the five variables, and r=0.82

7 for the Saudi

the secondhighestamongstthe five variables); then r squareis 0.33 for the UK sample sample,
and 0.67 for the Saudi sample. This indicates that this variable is more important for managers in

the Saudisamplethan in the UK samplefor overall satisfactionwith the supervisor. This result hasbeenfound in the literature. It was found in the literature that subordinates contradictswhat in low PD countries(like the UK) prefer managerswho consult them and delegateresponsibility for them to do their work. In high PD countries (like Saudi Arabia), subordinates' preferencefor a manager'sdecision-makingstyle polarized betweenautocratic-paternalisticand majority rule (Hofstede, 1991).

The significant correlationsbetweensatisfactionwith supervisionand the variables associated with it in both samplesimply that thesevariables are good measures the satisfaction with of supervisionin two different cultures.

8.5.6 Satisfaction with recognition Satisfactionwith recognition was the sixth and last factor in this study to be consideredin relation to the overall job satisfaction.Recognition of a job well done or full appreciation for is work done from supervisorsand top management often among the top motivator of employees (Koch, 1990; Stuart, 1992),and involves feedback.Positive feedbackfollows the principles of the ReinforcementTheory, which statesthat behaviour is contingent on reinforcement. Examples of positive reinforcementin this context include a thanks letter from top management,a bonus from supervisoror colleagues(Blegen et al, 1992; Knippen & pay, verbal acknowledgement Green,1990; Steele,1992).

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The findings of this study correspondwith what has beenfound in the literature. It was found that satisfactionwith recognitioncorrelatesignificantly in both sampleswith the satisfaction with the the financial recognitionfrom top management, satisfaction with praise from top
management, the satisfaction with praise from the supervisor, and the satisfaction with praise

from colleagues both samples. significant differencesbetweencorrelations were found. in No

in Theseresultsimply that managers both samplesseeksimilar requirements or needsfrom their organisationregardingthe recognition factors.

8.5.7 Overall job satisfaction Researches job satisfactionhaverevealedseveraljob facets or factors that have significant on the level ofjob satisfaction.Six factors were examinedin this study in relation to the effect on overall job satisfaction,which are: co-worker (workgroup), work itself, promotion, pay, supervision,and recognition.

In the literature, it was found that satisfactionwith the workgroup has a positive impact on the level of overall job satisfaction(Gruneberg,1981; Lawler, 1973; Leppa, 1996). Overall job satisfactionwas found in this study to have a significant correlation with the satisfaction with the work group factor in both samplesimplying the importanceof this factor for managersin both samplesalthoughthey camefrom two different cultures.

The result of this study regardingthe relationship betweenthe overall satisfaction with work itself and the overall job satisfactioncorresponds with what has been found in the literature. Satisfactionwith the work itself is considered,in the literature, as a major factor in determining job satisfaction(Gruneberg,1981;Locke, 1984; Zeffan, 1994). In this study, a strong significant

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found betweenthe two variables in the two samples,indicating the role this correlation was in relation to the overall job satisfaction regardlessof the cultural differences. factor plays

that this job facet has a direct effect Previous studiesabout satisfactionwith promotion reported job satisfaction(Quarles,1994; Wiley, 1997). Lack of statusand promotion could result in an on job dissatisfaction(Travers and Cooper, 1993).The finding of this study corresponds employee's Job satisfactionwas found to have a strong, significant relationship with the with previousones. in the two samples,which leads one to realise the important of this satisfactionwith promotion factor acrosscultures.

job satisfaction(Kadushin and Kulys, 1995). Lawler (1973) Pay is considereda predictor of is one of the strongestfactors in job satisfaction. The importance of believesthat pay satisfaction in relation to job satisfactionwas clear in this study. Overall job satisfaction has a significant pay in the two samplesassertingthe important of this factor correlationwith the satisfactionwith pay job satisfactionin the two different cultures. in relation to the overall

found to be one of the most influential factors in determining the overall job Supervisionwas 1973;Locke, 1976).This study supportprevious findings. Overall job satisfaction(Lawler, found to have a significant correlation with the satisfaction with supervisorsin satisfactionwas the two samples,which implies that this factor is a major contributor to the overall job despitethe different counties. for managers satisfaction

Recognitionis consideredas one of the important factors affecting the level of job satisfaction the occupationallevel (Perssonet al, 1993; Starcevich, 1972). In this study, regardless of found to be an important factor in determining overall job satisfactionsince recognition was also

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there was a strong correlation in the two samples, underlying the importance of this factor in

to job satisfactionin the two different cultures. relation

One of the research under consideration in this study was to find out if there are any questions differencesin the importanceofjob factors for managersin the two different cultures. In deciding the importanceof a correlation, one has to considerhow much of the variability of the in one variable can be explained by the variability of scoresof the other variable. There scores be a significant correlation, but if it only explains a small amount of the variability then it may be of much importance.The squareof the correlation coefficient, called the coefficient may not of determination,is usedto explain the proportion of the variability in a correlation (Hinton, 1995; Sekaran,1992).Basedon this, results presentedin the last chapter showedthat co-worker, have explainedmore the variability in the relationship with the promotion, and recognition in the UK samplethan in the Saudi sample,pointing out that managersin the overall satisfaction UK samplemay value thesefactors more than the Saudi managers.On the other hand, factors like work itself, pay, and supervisionsmay be valued more by the Saudi managers.

Theseresultsare consistentwith what has beenfound in the literature to a great extent. In Hofstede'sMasculinity cultural dimension, employeesin high MA cultures (such as Great Britain) regardedrecognition, advancement, challengerelatively more important than did and 1991). It has been suggested employeesin lower MA cultures( such as Saudi Arabia) (HoEstede, (e.g., Kilby, 1960)that employeesin developing countries(like Saudi Arabia) place more value on factors such as pay, supervision,and relations with the work group, and those in developed countries(like UK) value factors such as work itself, promotion, and recognition. Results of this study are consistentwith other studiesexceptthe co-worker and work itself factors have

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deviated.It was found that thesetwo factors are relatively more important for Saudi mangers than for UK managers.

The last chapterdemonstrated significant difference betweenthe two samplesin the average a
itself, promotion, supervisor; but no significant difference in satisfaction with co-worker, work

the averagesatisfactionwith pay, recognition, and overall job satisfaction. Also, tests for differencesbetweencorrelationsrevealedno differences except in the supervisor significant factor. The strongrelationshipbetweeneachfactor and the variables associatedwith it in both that the difference/nodifference may be a result of the subjects' personal samplessuggest towardsthe variables.Theseresults are in agreementwith Adler's (1997) opinion that preference humanneedsmay haveuniversal form, but their importance and the ways in which they show differ acrosscultures. themselves

8.6 Job Satisfaction and Demographic Variables

Demographicvariablesfall in the third categoryof (Glisson and Durick, 1988) classiricd that correlateor contribute to job satisfaction.Third category variables describe categories

in to theworkerswho performthe tasks.Six factorswereselected be examined characteristics of

to overall job satisfaction:age,annual grosssalary, length of service in current job, relation length of servicefor current organisation,education,and number of dependants(family sizc).

Age is consideredone of the important factors that influencejob satisfaction (Weaver, 1980). There is no agreement the shapeor pattern of the relationship betweenage andjob on satisfaction.Three patternswere found: a positive (Doering et al, 1983; Rhodes, 1983), U-sliape (Clark et al, 1996; Warr, 1992),and curvilinear relationship (Zeitz, 1990). In this study, agewas found to have a significant correlationwith job satisfactionin the Saudi sample, and a non-

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in the UK sample. Age and job satisfaction relationship in the significant, very weak relationship

Saudi samplemay supportthe positive pattern of the kind of relationship betweenage andjob
in the UK it may support the U-shapc one. However, tests for significant satisfaction; while

differencesbetweencorrelationsshow that there are no significant differences implying that age has the sameinfluence in job satisfactionin the two samples.

Annual grosssalarywas found in the literature to be related to job satisfaction (Sheider & Vaught, 1993;Sweenyet al, 1990).In this study,job satisfaction and annual salary were found to have a moderatelystrong, significant relationship in the Saudi sample,and a very weak nonin the UK sample.A significant difference betweenthe two correlations was found, significant indicate that annualsalary in this study has played a more important role in tile Saudi sample this than in the UK samplein shapingthe satisfactionwith the job.

Length of servicein the currentjob was found to have a very weak or non-significant in both the Saudi and UK samples.The number of years relationshipwithjob satisfaction for the sameorganisationcorrelatessignificantly with job satisfaction in the Saudi working but this relationship is very weak, and a non-significant, very weak positivc relationship sample, found in the UK sample.However, no significant differenceswere found between was indicating that thesetwo variables significantly have the same influencc on job correlations, in the two different cultures. Thesefindings do not correspondwith Shokry's satisfaction finding (1991) who reporteda very strong, significant relationship betweenthe timc onc spends in thejob and in the organisationandjob satisfaction.

It is interestingto notice the relationshipbetweeneducationandjob satisfaction in the study. Although the relationship is significant in the Saudi sample,it is a very weak, positive one. In the

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UK sample, the relationship is significant but a very weak negative one. Test for significant

differences betweencorrelationsshow a significant difference, implying that education influence job satisfactiondifferently in the two samples.Thesefindings support the conclusion from
that there is no seemingly reciprocal relationship between educational levels and previous studies job satisfaction (Al-Helelah, 1993; A -Saa 1,1996, Glenn & Waver, 1982).

Numbers of dependants played a significant but weak role in the level of managers'job, satisfactionin the Saudisample,and a non-significant, very weak role in the UK sample. This is from the relationshipsthat this factor has with job satisfaction in each sample. It has a clear positive and moderatelyweak correlation with job satisfaction in the Saudi sample,and a in the UK sample.Significant difference betweencorrelations negativevery weak correlation has in the last chapterimplying that the number of dependants different influences was reported in the two cultures.

8.7 Cross-Cultural

Comparison in Job Satisfaction

Comparisonshavebeenmadeof the job satisfactionof employeesfrom different countries. Feelingsabout the job are likely to differ acrossdifferent countries. In a 1995 Gallup Organisationpoll, countriesdifferencesin life satisfaction,which include job satisfaction, were found. Overall, eighteencountry were included in the survey, 46% of the people reported bcillg satisfiedwith their job. What factors or variables affect job satisfaction acrosscountries? The Hugick & Leonard (1991) survey included 16 aspectsof work, as well as overall satisfaction. They reportedthat Americansoverall like theirjobs, but they did not feel the sameabout all facetsof work. Spector& Wimalasiri (1986) found that Americans and Singaporeans had approximatelythe sameoverall job satisfaction,but the facetssatisfaction profiles wcre differwit. Similar resultswere reportedby Marion-Landais (1993) when he comparedDominican and

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Americans. Adigun &Stephenson (1992) reported that the same variables affect British and -

Nigerian employees'job satisfactionbut with different strength. Results of this study correspond in this area. Both sampleshave the samefactor structure, but significant with previousresearch differenceswere found in the averagesatisfaction in somejob facets and the influence these hason a job facet or overall job satisfaction.This implies that the samevariables affect variables Saudi and UK managers with different strengths. but

All thesestudiesutilised almost similar aspectsof work. Thesestudies show clearly that there are differencesin job satisfactionand in patternsof facetssatisfaction acrosscountries, which could be causedby different cultural experiences and different needsstrength. Results found in the literature and in this study lead to the conclusionthat culture has an effect on the importance and the factorsrelatedto job satisfaction.As Adler (1997) stated; strengthof

"Human needsmay well includejundamental or universal aspects,bill their differ across cultures importanceand the ways in which they expressthemselves p. 160

8.8 Conclusion
Understandingand studyingjob satisfactionis a complex issue;many factors may contribute to the overall level ofjob satisfactioneither directly or indirectly. The results of tile study agrce with the idea that different peoplehave different attitudestowards their job despitetile similarity of the circumstances surroundingthem. In other words, respondents not always alike when it are comesto their emotional feelings towards theirjob even when they sharc similar charactcristics suchas ageor education.

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Satisfaction with co-workers was found to be a significant factor in determining the overall level of job satisfaction for managers in the two samples of this study. Organisations should pay close attention to variables such as the personal and work relations between employees because they correlate strongly with the satisfaction with co-workers. These findings are consistent with other previous studies and with what has been discussed in the literature review.

In the presentstudy, satisfactionwith the work itself has played a significant positive role in the overall job satisfactionin both samples.Variables such as the opportunity to use constructing one skill, the variety of the work, the degreeof challenge,and the responsibility of planning and doing the work are variablesthat organisationsshould look at when designingjobs becausesuch the satisfactionwith work itself. These findings agreedwith variablescorrelatestrongly with in severalprevious studiespresented the literature review.

With regardto satisfactionwith promotion, it was found that it has played a significant role in the overall level of job satisfactionin the Saudi and UK samples.Tile fairness of the promotion systemand opportunity for promotion affect significantly the chancefor a managerto get ahead in the future. Thesefindings are consistentwith previous studies.

In this study also satisfactionwith pay was found to correlatepositively and strongly with tile overall job satisfactionin both samples.This meansthat satisfactionwith pay plays a significant role in determiningthe overall job satisfaction.Thesefindings are consistentwith previous studies.It was found also that the samevariablesaffect managers'satisfaction with pay in both samples.

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Supervisionwas found to be a key factor in determining the overall level ofjob satisfaction in this study for the Saudiand UK samples.The findings in this study are consistent with other found that commitment to do well in the work place and to increasethe level of studieswhich job satisfactionare relatedto the supervisorytreatment, trust and feedback. It was found also that the variablesthat havebeenstudiedin relation to the satisfaction with supervision correlate it in both samples. positively and strongly with

Satisfactionwith recognition was found to be a major factor in determining the overall job in our study.Recognition satisfaction was testedagainst variables that measure satisfaction like financial recognition, and intangible ones like praise. Strong positive tangible recognition found betweensatisfactionwith recognition and all the other variables in both correlation was samples.Our findings are consistentwith similar previous studies.

I \A statistical significant difference was found betweenthe Saudi and UK samplesin the avcr,, lgc itself, promotion, and supervision. No statistical significant satisfactionwith work groups,work differencewas found betweenthe two samplesin the averagesatisfaction with pay, rccognition

andoverallsatisfaction.

The findings in this study in both samplescorrespondwith severalprevious studies reported in the literature review chapterwhich stressthat satisfactionwith the job accompaniedfavourable consequences vice versa. and

/ Job ,,, satisfactionwas found in this study to have a very weak or almost no rclationship with four motivation needsin both samples.This leadsus to concludethat need for achicvcmcnt, necd for

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for autonomy,and need for dominance did not play an important role in the job affiliation, need in this study. surveyed satisfaction of managers

Age was found to have a positive moderatelyweak relationship with job satisfaction in tile Saudi relationship in the UK sample.These findings tend to support sampleand a positive very weak with age. One should notice the different minor effect the notion that job satisfactionincreases that agehason job satisfactionin two different cultures.

Annual grosssalarywas found to have a moderately strong positive relationship with job in the Saudi sampleand a positive very weak relationship in the UK sample.The satisfaction that was found in the literature is obvious in the Saudi positive effect of salaryonjob satisfaction but it is not the samein the UK sample. sample,

Length of servicein the currentjob was found to have a very weak or no relationship with job in both the Saudi and UK samples.Number of yearsworking for the same satisfaction job satisfactionin the Saudi samplebut this rclationship organisationcoffelate significantly with is very weak. A non-significant, very weak positive relationship was found in the UK sample.

It is interestingto notice the relationshipbetweeneducationandjob satisfaction in the study. Although the relationship is significant in the Saudi sample,it is a very weak positive one. In the UK sample,the relationship is significant but a very weak negative one. These findings support the conclusionfrom previous studiesthat there is no seemingly reciprocal relationship betwecn educationallevels andjob satisfaction.

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in the level of managers'job, satisfaction Numbers of dependants weak role played a Modcrately in the Saudi sample,anda very in the UK sample. This is clear from the relationships weakrole that this factor has withjob satisfaction each sample. It has a positive and moderately weak in in the Saudisample, and a negative very weak correlation correlation with job satisfactionin the UK sample. It is interestingto dependants affects job satisfaction the seehow number of

differently in two different cultures.

8.9 Limitations of the Study Lessons to be learned and

Generalizingon the basisof this limited data and time constraint is is done within a which study difficult and might well be However, we have found something which might risky to make. usefully be leamedfrom this study.

As hasbeenmentioned in previouschapters, scopeof this study is limited to middle the managers in the private sector SaudiArabia and the North East region in the UK. In working in this case,a generalization the results be made,cautiously, if they are limited to of can only similar respondents.

In this study it was not possibleto do analysisof participating organisationsand make interviews with respondents Owing to the full accessdenial by the organisations,as mentioned in earlier

It chapters. is recommendedthat a full interviews to be included in analysis of organisationsand future researches.

to be considered from this study. First, the application of the motivation theoriesthat go beYond laboratory the the factors that apply in a rcal lifc should recognise

Thereare other points

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behaviour is influenced by social values, group and family pressure, job context, where

requirements,and other mandatoryconditions.

the level of satisfaction with the overall job satisfaction Second,it is importantto rememberthat job factor may vary from time to time dependingon the degreeof satisfaction with the or with a it. The main concernof this study was to explore the variables with variablesassociated job satisfaction,not only measuringthe job satisfaction. associated with

to do their work to benefit from this work Third, the idealistic situation, employeesare motivated in fulfilling someneedsand get compensationfrom this job such as pay. If the outcome frorn the and turnover are is lessthan what one desires,negativebehaviour such as absenteeism work likely to occur.

in a developingcountry is a difficult task. Researchers may be faced with Fourth, doing research lack of consciousness the importanceof researchand time, the of someobstaclessuchasthe databases,and the deficiency of the communication system.One obstaclethat tile shortageof in doing this researchwas the bad statusof tile postal service in Saudi researcher encountered in the methodologychapter,forcing the researcherto delivcr the Arabia, as mentioned One may questionthe differencesin the methods of distributing the questionnaires personally. betweenthe two samples.This could be justified by assertingthat the rcsearclier questionnaires "Post-Man" only, and it was the only way to deliver the questionnairesand was working as a carry on with this research.

Finally, it is important to indicate that the overall job satisfaction has significant relationships with job contentfactors (such as work itself and recognition) andjob context factors (such as pay

180

and interpersonal relations) in both samples. These findings underline the importance of these

factors in relation to job satisfactionin two different cultures.

8.10 Recommendation for Management Practice

derived from the present The purposeof this sectionis to highlight severalrecommendations is study. The aim of theserecommendations to find ways to boostjob satisfactionamong middle The researcher would like to proposethe following recommendations: managers.

1. Management treatjob satisfactionas a key measureof the quality of practitioners should life in organisations.Peoplespendpart of their lives at work; therefore,the topic of job is relevant and important to organisationsand to society in generalbecause of satisfaction the humanitarianperspectivewhich suggests that people deserveto be treated fairly and Thus,job satisfactionis, perhaps,a reflection of good treatment. with respect. 2. An overall job satisfactiondoesexist amongstmanagers surveyedin this research;

however, therearecertainareas job dissatisfaction. of

3. The factor which provides the most dissatisfactionand might, therefore,warrant attention

is the promotionfactor.Morethanhalf of the Saudisample about41% of the UK and dissatisfied morewith this factor.A positivechange be sample wererather or may
neededto bring about positive satisfactionwith the promotion factor. 4. Maintaining good work and personalrelationshipsamongemployeesin the organisation are big incentive forjob satisfaction. 5. Financial recognition was not the only recognition contributing towards the overall job satisfaction,but the praiseone getsfrom colleagues,supervisors,and top management were also important. Managementpractitioners should be awareof this point.

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IjI!

Ir, i

6. The responsibility one has to do and plan one's own job was found to have a major influence on the overall job satisfaction.So, thesevariableshave to be taken into considerationwhen setting tasks. 7. Employeesalways comparetheir pay with othersin their organisationor in other
Therefore, pay has to be fair in the organisation and competitive compare organisations.

Also, the pay systemhas to take the cost of living into to other organisations. consideration. 8. A dissatisfiedemployeemay leavethe organisationat anytime. It was found in this study job dissatisfactionhasa strongpositive correlation with looking for anotherjob, that hatedof going to work, and thinking of resigning from work. Turnover and absenteeism found to be not only costly, but also causedisruptions for organisations.Therefore, were is a major task facing management. maintaining employeesand making work appealing 9. Measuringjob satisfactionregularly is a good way of detectingany deficiency in the and and it is a good method of communicationbetweentop management organisation, employees.

8.11 Recommendations for Future Research

in Recommendations madein this sectionfor researchers areinterested cross-cultural who are
and study, international management, those studying attitudesof workers in developing countries suchas Saudi Arabia. Basedon the findings, discussion,and conclusionsof this study, the following areasof researchare recommended future study: for

for 1. As with most studies,replication of this study is suggested crossvalidation purposes.

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2. A replication of the present study using a different sample of non-managerial and supervisory help to improve our knowledge regarding the impact of motivation and job ranks would

in a non-westernwork environment. satisfaction

3. A comparison of private versus public institutional managers using a national sample to

determinethe level of overall job satisfactionof thesemanagersand their impact on motivation and cultural variables. 4. A replication of the presentstudy using samplesof public managers. 5. A casestudy form of researchamonga wide variety of industrieswould give a strong indication of what the results findings would meanwhen comparedwith the presentform of basingthe degreeof relationship of job satisfaction,motivation, and cultural factors on factors. quantitative 6. A study to determinewhether differencesexist in motivation andjob satisfactionof in SaudiArabia and their counterpartsin other relateddevelopingArab countries. managers 7. Future researchshould look at the non-westemculture to expandmotivation theories.Nonthe African, Asian, Middle Eastern,South and Central American westerncultures such as culturesmany have different interpretationof instrumentsbasedon the westerntheoriesand that follow up studiesbe conductedto addressthis cultures.Therefore,it is recommended

issue.

8.12 A Final Comment

Having reachedthe end of this section,the researcher may say that all the researchquestions have beenaddressed hopefully the presentresearch beenable to provide some insights has and into job satisfactionin the Saudiand UK organisations,and to the field of job satisfactionin general.It is also hopedthat this study has fulfilled a gap particularly in the field of job satisfactionand has openedthe gatesto new thought and studies.

183

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202

APPENDICES

203

Appendix 1: English Questionnaire

204

UN IVERSITY OF N EWCASTLE

Dear Sir/iMadam

School of Management Armstrong Building University of Newcastle Newcastle upon Tyne NE-17RU Chief Executive Dr Roger Vaughan FEng

University. I am a doctoral student in the School of Management I am at Newcastle the relationship a study for my Ph. D. research to investigate conducting of motivation and some demographic and cultural factors in the private sector needs, job satisfaction in both the UK and Saudi Arabia. I am hoping that you will be able to assist me in my study. My research depends totally on this questionnaire you are holding, so I would bc grateful if you would it for me. I guarantee that it is completely spend 7 to 10 minutes to complete will bc held in strictest confidencc. anonymous and all information in this questionnaire. The first one, which I constructed There are two measurements with various aspects of your job. Tile myself, is to measure the level of satisfaction second measure is a published one, and it measures the motivational needs. For each pages, please tick tile box that describes your staternent or question on the following feeling or opinion. There are also some biographical questions about you, which are needed for comparison reasons only when I do the analysis. You will see that no names are required, and no one will be able to identify the names All responses will be kept strictly confidential, of participants. and will be used for research purposes only. Nobody other than the researcher will see any responses that you have given in your completed questionnaire. Your participation is very important. Your reply is vital to complete this study. Please do not put down and forget it, I need a high response rate if my findings are to mean anything! Your Yours co-operation faithfully in this research effort is deeply appreciated.

AJ Fahad Alnoeim

Oirect dial - 0191 222 8010 Switchboard - 0191 222 6000 Fax - 0191 222 8131 e-mail - rogenvaughanOncl. ac. uk

205

This part concernswith your satisfaction/dissatisfaction presentwith variousaspects of at your job. Pleasetick on eachline the level that you feel to express.

Vecy satisfied 1. The personal relation you have with your colleagues. 2. The work relations you have with your subordinate. 3. The personal relations you have with your subordinate. 4. All in all, how satisfied are you with your work-group? 5. The opportunity to use your skills in doing your work.

Satisfied

Rather satisried

Rather ilksatisfied

Dissatisfied

Very dissatisfied

6. The variety of your work. 7. The opportunity to learn new things at work.

8. The degree of challenge you are faced with in doing 0C your work. 9. The responsibility you have in planning your own work. 10. The responsibility you have in doing your own work.

11. All in all, how satisfied are you with the work you do? 12. the opportunity for promotion in your job

13. The fairness of the promotion system for all employees. 14. All in all, how satisfied are you with your chance for vromotion in this oreanisation in the future?

15.Your net pay in relation to the cost of living in the city you live in. 16.Your pay in relation to the work you do. 17.Your presentpay comparedto your expectationwhen you joined the organisation. 18.Your pay compared others' pay holding similar to positionsin the organisation. 19.Your pay comparedto others' pay holding similar positionsin different organisations. 20. All in all, how satisfiedare you with your pay? 2 1.The competence your supervisorin making decision of at work. 22. Your supervisor'sdelegationof responsibilitiesto you to do your work. 23. The feedbackyou get from your supervisorregarding your performance. 24. The personalrelationsbetweenyou and your up r isor. 25. The help you get from your supervisorwhen you are with any problemat work. _faced in All all, how satisfiedare you ith your ; upervisor? _26.

206

Very satisfied

Satisfied

Rather satisfied

Rather dissatisfied

Dissatisfied

Very disatisfied

27. The financial recognitionyou get from top management for a job welI done. for 29. The praiseyou get from top management a job well (lone. 29. The praiseyou get from your supervisorfor a job well done. 30. The praiseyou get from your colleaouesfor a job well done. 3 1.All in all, how satisfiedareyou with the recognition you ,et in this organisation? 32. On the whole, how satisried are you with your job?

Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements:
Strongly Agree Rather agree Rather disagree Disagree Strongly disagree

33.1 am thinking of finding a job outside this organisation. 34.1 am thinking of resigning from my job. _ hate goingg to work. _35.1 feel happy when I am at work. 1 36.1

Below are listed somestatements describe that variousthings you might do, or try to do, in box indicatebelow by marking the appropriate your job (or the way you feel about it). Please how much you agreewith eachstatement.
Strongly agree Agree Rather agree Rather disigree isagree 37.1 do my best work when my job assignments are fairly difficult. 39.1 try very hard to improve my past performance at work.

Strongly digagree

39.1 take moderate risks and stick my neck out to get ahead at work. 40.1 try to avoid any added responsibility in myjob. 4 1.1 try to perform better than my co-worker. 42. When I have a chance, I prefer to work in a group of by myself. _instead 43.1 pay a good deal of attention to the feeling of others at work. 44.1 prefer to do my own work and let others do theirs. 45.1 express my disagreement with others openly.

46.1 find myself talking to those around me about nonbusiness related matters. 47. In my work assignments, I try to be my own boss.

207

Str6ngly agree 48.1 V my own way at work, regardless of the opinions of others. 49.1 disregard rules and regulations that hamper my personal freedom at work. 50.1 consider myself a "team player" at work. 5 1.1 try my best to work alone at work. 52.1 seek an active role in the leadership of any group with which I am involved. 53.1 avoid trying to influence those around me to see things my way. 54.1 find myself organising and directing the activities of others. 55.1 strive to gain more control over the events around me at work. 56.1 strive to be "in command" when I am working in a group.

Agree

Rather agree

Rather di%agree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

This part containssomebiographicalquestionsaboutyou. It is needed comparison for tick the appropriatebox. only when I do the analysis.Plpase reasons
=to 1. your age is: Up to 12000L 2. Your annualgrosssalary is: Less than 1 year 3. You havebeendoin- this a job in this o ganisationfor: Less than 1 year 4. You havebeendoing this job in this organisationfor: II 15. your level of education_ II 1 6. Numberof dependants:
1 7. Name of your organisation

:: 1--30

31-40

41-50

51-60

1 61 or over

12001 'E 18000;

18001, 24000E

24001 30000f-

3006-1--- More than 36000E 36000L

1-3 years 4-6 years

7-9 years

More than9 years

1-3 years 4-6 years

7-9 years

More than9 years

High school I None I

II

Diploma

Bachelor

Master

PhD

1-5

4-6

7-9

More than

208

Appendix 2: Arabic Questionnaire

Kingdorn of Saudi Arabia Education Ministry of Higher

King Saud University Oasseem Branch & Economic College of Business

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Appendix 3: Letter from the Dean

KIPIt:,hon )I %umbArahia Minist ry of Higher Educalion KING SAUD UNIVERSITY Oa, ccm Branch S OFOUSINE. S. & ECONOMIC'S Deall's Orrice

COLLEGE

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Appendix 4: Scree plot for the Saudi sample

ScreePlot
14 12

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ComponentNumber

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Appendix 5: Scree plot for the UK sample

ScreePlot
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216

Appendix 6: The factor matrix Saudi sample (Orthogonal Rotation)

Variables
Pay 16 Pay 17 Pay 18 Pay 15 Pay 19 Competence 21 Delegation 22 Feedback 23 Help 25 Sup.rel 24 Variety 6 Learn new 7 Skills 5 Responsibility 10 Responsibility 9 Challenge 8 F.Recog 27 Praise 28 Praise 29 Praise 30 Fairprorn 13 Promotion 12 Subordinate 3 Colleague 1 Subordinate 2 Eir-envalue

Factor 1
852 . 836 . 821 . 808 . 763 .

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

Factor 5

Factor 6

830 . 808 . 773 . 761 . 636 .

751 .

839 . 812 . 770 . 634 . 621 . 584 .

792 . 754 . 724 . 502 .

672 . 647 .

12.204

2.357

1.695

1.406

1.124

844 . 839 . 600 . 830 .

ExtractionMethod: Principal Component. RotationMethod: Varimax.

217

Appendix 7: The factor matrix UK sample (Orthogonal Rotation)

Variables
Pay 16 Pay 19 Pay 15 Pay 1517 Pay 18 F.Recog 27 Help 25 Sup.rel 24 Feedback 23 Competence 21 Delegation 22 Variety 6 Responsibility 10 Responsibility 9 Challenge 8 Skills 5 Learn new 7 Praise 29 Praise 30 Praise 28 Promotion 12 Fairprom. 13 Colleague 1 Subordinate 2 Subordinate 3 Eigenvalue

Factor 1
932 . 904 . 877 . 859 . 805 . 765 .

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

Factor 5

Factor 6

878 . 828 . 771 . 757 . 549 .

683 .

817 . 807 . 759 . 630 . 586 . 582 .

811 . 719 . 524 .

801 . 793 .

9.970

3.498

1.769

1.573

1.132

789 . 745 . 687 . 981 .

ExtractionMethod: Principal Component. RotationMethod: Varimax.

218

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