International Relations Outline

International Relations
*Exam to be held on Thursday, 14 October 2010, 14:00 17:00 in room A144. **Exam re-take on 6 December 2010. Globalization and the Evolution of International Society 1. The concept of globalization - Globalization is the increasing interdependencies in the world, not only in the field of economics but also information, culture, science and military affairs. Growing interconnectedness between national societies render national boundaries out-dated. - Any part of the world is being affected by major events in other parts (global village). 2. Does it represent a new phenomenon? Is globalization new? - No, big (geographical) discoveries of the 15th and 16th century and subsequent European imperialism (overseas territorial expansion) was the first wave of globalization. Prior to WWI there were high levels of interdependency among European nations as the result of industrialization (second wave) and the scramble for Africa (modern imperialism). The third wave incorporated changes in communication and technology. - Yes, because present-day globalization has wider scope, greater intensity and pace, and stronger impact on daily lives of large numbers of people. Time-space dimension has revolutionized. - Prominent role of multinational corporations (large shares of world trade and investment). About 30% of global economic output is from multinational corporations and 70% of global trade is controlled by multinational corporations and 80% are directly affected by such trades. 3. If so, did globalization cause a transformation of international relations? - Changing nature of the (nation-) state and the rise of non-state actors (disaggregation of the state and networks). o International relations have traditionally relied on the action and inactions of nation-states. o The very notion of nation-states has become problematic on several accounts. a. If a nation-state represents 90% of the majority, only a small amount of nations fall under the definition. Most states are multi-national states (not homogeneous). b. Present day states are widely different from states a century or even fifty years ago; before it was an individual writ large (suggesting that the state could be conceived of as a unitary act under a central authority). c. Many states are the amalgamation of loose or semi-autonomous organizations (e.g. U.S., where there is a growing scope and diversity of foreign policy; foreign policy often denied as an alternative course of actions). The state as a unitary actor is not realistic. d. Rise of non-state actors has to be considered as well, such as NGOs and terrorist groups. e. Be mindful of the changing nature of the nation-state and the state cannot be examined as an individual personality or as a unitary actor. - Growing scope and diversity of foreign-policy agenda o Interests include trade and national security. The foreign-policy agenda has exploded enormously, it will include the two, but also human rights, environmental, financial, disease, etc. so we have seen a wide expansion of foreign-policy goals. - Increasing costs of unilateral use of power. o The primary example is of the United States and the Iraq War. Here we must also examine the distribution of power. But even the US has also realized how the unilateral use of power

International Relations Outline was damaging to the reputation of the US and also to their efforts in establishing friendly and allied nations. o This is a rather new feature of international relations with regard to the political cost of damage to reputation and the reluctance of other nations to take part in particular actions. - Blurring the distinction between domestic and foreign policies (internationalization of domestic policies and domesticization of foreign policy). o This is with regards to environmental, financial and other policies on the international scale. o The domesticization of foreign policy forces us to examine the domestic roots of the direction of the policy, such as the Middle East policy and public opinion. 4. Can it be taken as a blessing or a curse? It depends - Globalization breeds winners and losers - Powerful force for the creation of prosperity but often widening the gap between rich and poor o Globalization has created major economic growth (e.g. China, Japan and Korea) and some stagnation but it is still unprecedented to see such an amount of growth. - Major vehicle for the transfer of technology and knowledge but at the same time posing a threat to traditional cultures and values (coca-colonization of the world) o There is also the destruction of local jobs as well as traditional cultures and values. - Weakens control of national governments and fuels races to the bottom. Makes the case for strengthening international regulation and global governance compelling. o The races to the bottom, where countries are trying to out compete other countries by lowering taxes, lax standards on employment, sacrificing environmental rules. So there need to be international organizations to compensate for the weakened control of national governments. o So globalization may be a force for good but there must be acknowledgement of the negative impact of globalization and a method to combat those negative impacts. It is an unstoppable force and no country can just ignore it. Chapter 1: Globalization and global politics A. Making sense of globalization Over the last three decades the scale and scope of global interconnectedness has become increasingly evident in every sphere from the economic to the cultural. Sceptics do not regard this as evidence of globalization if that term means something more than simply international interdependence, i.e. linkages between countries. B. Conceptualizing globalization Globalization is evident in the growing extensity, intensity, velocity and deepening impact of worldwide interconnectedness. Globalization denotes a shift in the scale of social organization emergence of the world as a shared social space, the relative deterritorialization of social, economic, and political activity, and the relative denationalization of power. Globalization can be conceptualized as a fundamental shift or transformation in the spatial scale of human social organization that links distant communities and expands the reach of power relations across regions and continents. Globalization is to be distinguished from internationalization and regionalization. C. Contemporary globalization Contemporary globalization has proved robust in the aftermath of 9/11 than sceptics recognize. Contemporary globalization is a multidimensional, uneven and asymmetrical process. Contemporary globalization is best described as a thick form of globalization or globalism. D. A world transformed: globalization and distorted global politics 2

International Relations Outline Globalization is transforming but not burying Westphalian ideals of sovereign statehood. It is producing the disaggregated state. Globalization requires a conceptual shift in world politics from a geopolitical perspective to the perspective of geocentric or global politicsthe politics of worldwide social relations. Global politics is distorted global politics because it is afflicted by significant power asymmetries. E. From distorted global politics to cosmopolitan global politics Globalization creates a double democratic deficit in that it places limits on democracy within states and new mechanisms of global governance which lack democratic credentials. Global politics has its own global political theory which draws upon cosmopolitan thinking. Cosmopolitan offers an account of desirability and feasibility of democratization of global politics. Distorted global politics can be interpreted as expressing a contest between the forces of statism and cosmopolitanism in the conduct and management of world affairs. Evolution of International Society The evolution of international society us that international (or world) politics represents more than an international system (i.e., a collection of interrelated units), this plays an important part in one of the classics of International Relations literature: Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics (1977). Title: Contradiction in terms? The anarchy is from an absence of authority and is a basic status of international law. Nevertheless, there is some order in the international system which is why we can speak of an international society. Bulls Thesis - Also in political systems lacking central authority (like international relations) there can be some degree of order. - For example, the European state-system, which is commonly referred to as the Westphalian order was marked by common bonds of understandings, international norms and join institutions (diplomacy, international law and the balance of power). o The option of war was considered a legitimate or lawful alternative to statecraft at the time. - Thus, the option of war was open as a foreign-policy instrument but circumscribed by a set of rules (limited wars, no unconditional surrender). o After the end of WWII, the demand of unconditional surrender was accepted and the losing party could not sit at the negotiation table. o Limited war was about the idea of civility and was absent at the time. - But the idea of international society falls short of the idea of international community (with strong we-feeling and identification with common interests). o It is highly doubtful whether we can speak of an international community (a clear distinction between community and society). A community is characterized by being together, common interests and views that would define an international community. We can hope that international politics will create an international community but we have not arrived there because of the enormous difference in views with regard to numerous subjects. This is idealized by the member states of the United Nations. Transition to Post-Westphalian Order - Erosion of national sovereignty and deterritorialization of political authority. EU as instance of New Medievalism (overlapping authorities and multiple loyalties)?

International Relations Outline o There is exclusive political control fixed over a set territory. But the question changes within the EU and expands from where you live to what you are doing? What is your status in the economic process? o New Medievalism shows the EU as a system of governance without a of government it is a system of governance because binding and authoritative decisions are made in the framework of the EU but at the same time there is no clear sense of political authority (like the autonomous states of medieval times who all took part in the decision making process). There is no clear centre of political authority like there is in a nation-state, there is a diffuse pattern of power. o Multiple loyalties. In an established nation-state there is only one loyalty to the established nation. But as a member of the EU, there is an individual loyalty to both the European Citizen and their nation-state. o But the battles in the EU is not applicable to the entire world, the whole idea of the nationalsovereign is the legacy from the European states. Traditional definitions of national sovereignty need to be retooled to understand other nations. Ideas of national sovereignty and non-interference in countries, such as China and India, follow the traditional definitions of sovereignty while this has been changing in more Western countries. Chinas particular affinity for traditional definitions of sovereignty may stem from its history of humiliation and interference by Western countries. - The principle of non-intervention is being challenged (human rights, responsibility to protect) o Five years ago in the UN World Summit, the responsibility to protect was accepted. - Revolution in military technology has rendered national defense obsolete - Transnational ideologies and movements link people to common causes across national borders. o During the cold war, communism was the ideology. Now the transnational terrorist movement is united by a transnational ideology. Chapter 2: The evolution of international society A. Introduction: the idea of international society International society is any association of distinct political communities which accept some common values, rules, and institutions. It is the central concept of the English School of International Relations. Coined to refer to relations among European states, the term may be applied to many different sets of political arrangements among distinct political communities. B. Ancient worlds Elements of international society may be found from the first organized human communities. Early forms of diplomacy and treaties existed in the ancient Middle East. Relations among city-states of ancient Greece were characterized by developed societal characteristics, such as arbitration. Ancient China, India, and Rome all had their own distinctive international societies. C. The Christian and Islamic orders Medieval Europes international society was a complex mixture of supranational, transnational, national, and subnational structures. The Catholic Church played a key role in elaborating the normative basis of medieval international society. Islam developed its own distinctive understanding of international society. D. The emergence of the modern international society The main ingredients of contemporary international society are the principles of sovereignty and non-intervention and the institutions of diplomacy, the balance of power and international law. These took centuries to develop, although the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was a key event in their establishment throughout Europe. The Napoleonic wars were followed by a shift to a more managed, hierarchal international society 4

International Relations Outline within Europe and an imperial structure in Europes relations with much of the rest of the world. The League of Nations was an attempt to place international society on a more secure organizational foundation. E. The globalization of international society The United Nations was intended to be a much improved League of Nations but the cold war prevented it from functioning as such. Decolonization led to the worldwide spread of the European model of international society. The collapse of the Soviet Union completed this process. F. Conclusion: problems of global international society Globalization poses serious problems for a sovereignty-based international society. These include the challenges emanating from new forms of community, failing states in Africa, American hypowerpower, growing resistance to Western ideas, and global poverty and environmental issues. The End of the Cold War and the Emerging Power Structure Leading Questions: 1. What caused the end of the antagonism between the West and East (1947 -1989/1991)? o There was the armed intervention of Hungary by the USSR in 1956 and the Western powers were reduced to issuing statements. In the latter half of the 1960s there was the Czech intervention where the Western powers were again reduced to issuing verbal protests. o Both powers used everything short of actual military action between them to undermine the other power (e.g. propaganda and economics). 2. How do we conceptualize the patterns in distribution of capabilities between the major powers? o Unipolar system, greater strength in economic/military power in one actor, (e.g. US postcold war). o Bipolar distribution of power (e.g. during the cold war, between the USSR and US). o Multipolar distribution of power (e.g. mostly current system, power distribution between many state and non-state actors; H. Kissinger advocates this because he believes it is stable). o Diffuse examines the link between the system of power and the stability of the system. Different Images of the Cold war - The Cold War as ideological conflict (clash of two secular religions or social systems) o Ronald Reagans characterized the USSR and communism as the evil empire; the more a conflict is perceived in moral terms or values, the more difficult it is to resolve or settle it. - The Cold War as more or less inevitable outcome of struggle for power and mastery of Europe o Argument: many bids for hegemony by major European powers to gain ascendancy (17th to 19th century), likewise the cold war fits into this pattern. After Germanys surrender in May 1945 and was unrepresented in the conference; the US and the USSR filled the power vacuum. Has the EU overcome this pattern? - The Cold War as accidental/inadvertent conflict in human misperceptions and miscalculations o Misconceptions came from Western leaders misreading Eastern leaders and vice-versa (mirror-image often occurring in politics); the build-up of arms caused both sides to believe in an imminent attack. Open exchange may have prevented the cold war. Causes of the end of the cold war - Imperial overstretch: USSR was unable to carry the burdens of empire and sustain the arms race with the US. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) concluded the demise of the powers was overstretch, where great powers assumed political and military burdens than their economic strength can bear (USSR economy heavily focused on war time settings). 5

International Relations Outline Failure of state-controlled economy. Rigid central planning was counter to demands and requirements of modern economy which rely on decentralization and people in lower echelons. - The death of communist ideology (classless society) as source of legitimacy o Ideology acts as a source of legitimacy (gives someone the right to rule) (E.g.: China was ruler-ship on behalf of a classless society, now it may have evolved to an economic basis). - Impact of Helsinki process (1975). Conference on European security and cooperationfinal act a relaxation of tension (dtente); agreement on fundamental principles like: non-intervention, human rights, exchange of information and people (latter two were conducive to opening the political and social Soviet system, and helped human rights organizations gain access). - The (decisive?) role of Mikhail Gorbachev. Many are still mystified the cold war ended peacefully. Gorbachev was willing to give power to others and played a positive part in leading to the end of the cold war. Gorbachev is popular in the West but is deeply unpopular in Russia. Chapter 3: International history 1900 90 A. Modern total war Debates about the origins of the First World focus on whether responsibility should rest with the German government or whether war came because of more complex systemic factors. The Paris Peace settlement failed to address the central problems of European security, and in restructuring the European security, and in restructuring the European state system created new sources of grievance and instability. The rise of Hitler posed challenges that European political leaders lacked the ability and will to meet. The German attack on the Soviet Union extended the scope and barbarity of the war from short and limited campaigns to extended, large-scale, and barbaric confrontation, fought for total victory. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour brought America into the war in Europe and eventually led Germany into war on two fronts (again). Debate persists whether the atomic bomb should have been used and the effect on the cold war. B. End of empire The First World War produced the collapse of four European Empires (The Russian, German, AustroHungarian, and the Ottoman Empire in Turkey). Different European powers had different attitudes to decolonization after 1945: some decided to leave (British), others preserved their empires, in part (the French) or whole (the Portuguese). European powers adopted different attitudes to different regions/countries For example, British withdrawal from Asia came much more quickly after 1945 than from Africa. Decolonization was relatively peaceful in many cases; it led to revolutionary wars in others (Algeria, Malaya, and Angola), scale and ferocity reflected colonial power and nationalist movements. The struggle for independence/national liberation became embroiled in cold war conflicts when the superpowers and/or their allies became involved, for example Vietnam. Whether decolonization was judged successful depends, in part, on whose perspective you adopt that of the European power, the independence movement, or the people themselves. C. Cold war There are disagreements about when and why the cold war began, and who was responsible. Distinct phases in East-West relations, when tension and risk of confrontation grew and receded. Some civil and regional wars were intensified and prolonged by superpower involvement; others may have been prevented or shortened. The end of the cold war has not resulted in the abolition of nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons were an important factor in the cold war. How far the arms race had a momentum of its own is a matter of debate. Agreements on limiting and controlling growth of nuclear arsenals played an important role in Soviet-American (and East-West) relations. 6

International Relations Outline Various international crises occurred in which there was the risk of nuclear war. Judging how close we came to nuclear war at these times remains open to speculation. Pax Americana (1991 2003? [because of the Iraq war and a lack of legitimacy]) - Unipolarity: the US as the sole remaining superpower[both hard power and soft power] - Preponderance in terms of hard power: share of world economic output, military strength (global power projection capabilities) and research and development o The US was willing to share public goods like oil and other resources. The US holds 20% of economic output and its defense budget is 45-50% of the worlds. It is one thing to have various forms of hard power, but it is another thing to have political outcomes your liking. - Soft power: attraction of US life-style/popular culture, ideas and values, top universities, and entertainment products Limits to US Power - US military forces became overextended (unable to wage two regional wars). 9/11 showed vulnerability of American society - The unanswered challenge of asymmetrical warfare. Showdown between the powerful and the weak but the weak is still prevail despite modest capabilities (relying on special tactics). - Financial weakness: structural deficit on current account. US is largest debtor nation in the world (e.g. the US is held hostage by China through its debts). - US leadership claims are not universally accepted (problem of legitimacy) The Rise of the BRICS - Brazil, Russia, India and China: heterogeneous group. Impressive economic growth rates. Increasing share of world output. The measurement of power can be its purchasing power. o Debatable whether Russia is included, since it may be a power in decline than on the rise (less than the entirety of the Benelux). - Countervailing power? Latent tensions and rivalries between China and India, as well as between China and Russia. Between India and China there are unsettled border wars ( 1960s), regional disagreements, and the difference between the political systems. Between Russia and China, the former fears mass migration into its territories. - China the strongest. Will it surpass the US? Still lacks global (military) power capabilities and universal (ideological) message. Rise to prominence only because of economic performance. o The share of output and purchasing power of China is 10%. But we must keep in mind the population difference between China and the US, so the income difference is still very large. This is why China is still able to make claims to its position as a developing nation. Europe (EU) Superpower in the Making? - Pros: Largest trading bloc in the world, major donor of development assistance and largest contributor to UN system [but it has about the same output as the US]. - Cons: Weak foreign-policy structure, limited military capabilities, lack of strategic consensus, unfavourable demographic trends, and perhaps too little economic vitality o Theres a strong position for trade, in classical inter-government cooperation but there are only state-to-state structures in place. Theres also the aging of Europe (greater in Japan). Conclusion - New multipolarity (US, China, India, Japan, Russia, Europe and Brazil) or bipolarity (Chimerica) - Joseph S. Nye, 3-layered structure: (1) military strategic domain. Predominantly unipolar (2) economic and financial domain. Tripolar/multipolar (3) domain of new international issues (climate change, infectious diseases, terrorism, organized crime, and human rights). Diffuse power structure with relations between states, IGOs, NGOs and public-private partnerships.

International Relations Outline Chapter 4: From the cold war to the war on terror A. The end of the cold war The cold war was a complex relationship that assumed competition but remained cold in large part because of the existence of nuclear weapons. Most experts assumed the cold war would continue and were surprised at its peaceful conclusion. There is no consensus as to why the cold war came to an end. The end of the cold war dividedand still dividesscholars into mainstream realists and ideas-oriented constructivists. B. Mapping the post-cold war era Though globalization is a much disputed term, analysts agree that it describes a one-world system where all actors have to play by the same economic rules. Globalization has produced many winners and a large number of losers, but there would appear to be no escaping its competitive logic. C. From superpower to hyperpowerUS primacy Most experts did not anticipateand some did not look forward tothe new American hegemony following the end of the cold war. In spite of the spread of democracy and globalization, most US policy-makers still viewed the world as a threatening and dangerous place during the 1990s. After the fiasco in Somalia, the majority of Americans were reluctant to use US force abroad. The United States after the cold war is best described as a superpower without a mission. D. Europe in the new world system Europeans after the cold war were divided over a series of key issues, most notably the degree of European integration, economic strategy, and the foreign policy aspirations of the European Union. The European Security Strategy of 2003 was one of the first serious efforts by the EU to think about its international role under conditions of globalization. Many issues face Europe, including Turkish membership of the EU, the position of Europes Muslims, and Chinas economic challenge. E. Russia: from Yeltsin to Putin The first Russian President, Boris Yeltsin, sought a new partnership with the West but was often accused by his domestic enemies of not defending the Russian national interest. Vladimir Putin, Yeltins successor, has pursued more authoritarian policies at home, brought Russias economic assets back under state control, and pursued a more nationalistic foreign policy abroad. A new cold war between the West and Russia is unlikely because of the important economic and political changes that have occurred in Russia since the collapse of the USSR in 1991. F. East Asia: primed for rivalry? Compared to Europe after 1945, the international relations of East Asia during the cold war were highly volatile, marked by revolutions, wars, and insurgencies. End of the cold war left many issues and Aaron Friedberg (1993) to conclude that Asia was primed for further rivalry. Friedbergs thesis has been challenged as being too pessimistic: economic growth, regional integration, Americas presence and Japans peaceful foreign policy continue to make the region less dangerous than he suggested. Questions facing the region and the US is rising China. Realists insist it will challenge the status quo. Others believe it can rise peacefully. G. The haves and the have nots One of the defining areas of instability during the cold war was the Third World. With the end of the cold war the term Third World has been challenged by many analysts. China and India are examples where globalization has produced high levels of development. Inequality creates security challenges in the form of migration, refugees, and in certain instances, 8

International Relations Outline political violence directed against the more powerful West. H. The war on terror: from 9/11 to Iraq 9/11 effectively ended the post-cold war era and in the process transformed US foreign policy. The war to remove Saddam Hussein was sold as part of the war on terror; very few analysts, however, saw a connection between Iraq and 9/11. The reasons for going to war have been disputed, though most now believe it was a strategic error. The long-term impact of the Bush doctrine could weaken Americas global position in the long term. Thinking about World Politics Building (Constructing) Theories - Theories are a set of interrelated propositions (axioms) that allow for the deduction of testable hypotheses [e.g. Proposition/axiom: States seek to maximize their power or Political leaders are guided by making rational choices. from which you can infer further principles]. - Function of theories. Framework for (1) systematic description (what is relevant and irrelevant), (2) finding explanations, (3) making (conditional) predictions o Theories also provide a systematic description which allows you to define what is relevant and what is irrelevant. A theory is capable of confirmation or disconfirmation (according to the falsification principle (Karl Popper)); this requires good judgment in order to test the validity of the theory. And finally, theories provide the basis for making (conditional) predictions (If , then propositions). - Generalizations about international relations are from regularities and recurring patterns in behaviour of governments and their interactions [This includes caveats; consideration must be given to peculiar occurrences (e.g. Gorbachevs contribution to the end of the cold war)]. Distinction between international relations and the study of history. - Both disciplines seek to describe how and explain why international actors behave. By contrast: students of International Law prescribe how these actors, given relevant rules and opinions, should or are allowed to behave. Most historians focus on specific, discrete and individual phenomena and are sceptical about finding generalizations. Two cases of theory-formation 1. Power-transition theory (dynamic interaction between hegemonic powers and upcoming challengers)

International Relations Outline

With dynamic interaction, we see a relative decline of the US position or power Suppose China overtakes the US in the years 2050 or 2055, this theory predicts that the challenges or instability will increase in relation to the relative power position o The actual economic position of China, its voting power in established international institutions (World Bank and IMF), is no greater than The Netherlands, although there is a movement to make voting power more commensurate with the power of the nation. o Power positions may be important to indicate rising tension between states. 2. Decision-making in crisis-situations (impact of high levels of threat, surprise, and short-decision time on decisions of policy-makers) o Here we can see the specific impact of decision in crisis-situation, we can see the impact of the decision. First, we should find agreement on how a crisis-situation differentiates itself from regular situation; this can be broken down into three criteria: (i) high levels of threat; (ii) surprise; and (iii) short-decision time on decisions of policy-makers. Many decision makers have shortcomings during this time, findings include: political leaders only consider a few solutions, rather than a large number of options; being guided by emotions and stereotyped images of the opponent; group think occurs where a lot of attachment is placed on consensus and there is hardly any room for dissent/independent critical thinking. 3. Self-fulfilling and self-denying prophecies o Self-denying prophecies can be seen in the decision-making in crisis situation of the Cuban missile crisis (October 1962), see Barbara Tuchmans The Guns of August about the misinterpretation and misperception of political leaders. The Roots of Realism and Liberalism - Represent grand or meta-theories (provide pictures of international relations as a whole) - Different views of human nature. Realists: man is selfish and sinful. Liberals: natural goodness of man and human perfectibility (impact of Enlightenment). - Implications of international anarchy (state of nature). Thomas Hobbes: a war of every man against every man *Leviathan (1651)+. John Locke: state of nature is one of peace, goodwill, mutual assistance and preservation. Intermediary position was taken by Grotius. o For Hobbes, the only way to deal with the situation of anarchy was to have a strong sovereign state with a monopoly of force taken from individuals (this is problematic in international law because states continue to hold their ability to use force and thus the international society continues in a state of anarchy). o Locke, need international institutions in order to facilitate trade and interactions in general. Core ideas of realism - States are the sole actors in international relations and can be conceived of as unitary actors (individuals writ large) - International anarchy creates a security dilemma. International system is a self-help system. o Because there is no central authority taking care of state security, there is the dilemma that the search for security through the build-up of arms may cause other parties to react by also amassing their own arms and fuelling an arms race in a self-fulfilling prophecy. o The cost of unwarranted trust is greater than the cost of warranted trust. - The primary task of states is survival. Hans J. Morgenthau: Statesmen think and act in terms of interest defined as power. Ethical principles or moral considerations should not interfere with foreign-policy calculations. o Machiavelli separated political actions from ethical principles or moral considerations when dealing with foreign policy. 10

o o

International Relations Outline Preservation of the balance of power is the safest road to peace. Sources of war cannot be eliminated, only limited or constrained (arms control, not disarmament). Chapter 5: Realism A. Introduction: the timeless wisdom of Realism Realism has classical political theorists like Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Rousseau. Unifying theme: states find themselves in shadow of anarchy so their security cannot be taken for granted. Realism continues to attract academicians and inform policy-makers, although since the end of the cold war, we have seen heightened criticism of realist assumptions. B. One Realism, or many? Structural realism divides into two camps: those who argue that states are security maximizers (defensive realism) and those who argue that states are power maximizers (offensive realism). Neoclassical realists bring individual and unit variation back into the theory. C. The essential Realism Statism is the centerpiece of Realism. Two claims: (1) The state is the pre-eminent actor and all other actors in world politics are of lesser significance. (2) State sovereignty signifies the existence of an independent political community, one which has juridical authority over its territory. Key criticism: Statism is flawed both on empirical (challenges to state power from above and below) and normative grounds (the inability of sovereign states to respond to collective global problems such as famine, environmental degradation, and human rights abuses). Survival: Primary objective of all states is survival; the supreme national interest which all political leaders must adhere. Key criticism: Are there no limits to what actions a state can take in the name of necessity? Self-Help: No other state or institution can be relied upon to guarantee your survival. Key criticism: Self-help is not an inevitable consequence of the absence of a world-government; selfhelp is a logic that states have selected. There are examples where states have preferred collective security systems, or forms of regional security communities, in preference to self-help. Core ideas of liberalism - International conflicts are not intrinsic to international anarchy. Lack of institutions, evil policies and misinformation are responsible for outbreak of war. - Peaceful relations are feasible through (1) international institutions and law, (2) democratic regimes (Kantian view: democracies dont fight with one another) and (3) economic interdependence (war doesnt pay) -

o Immanuel Kant believed this would leave to perpetual peace. Liberals believe war can be eliminated (world organization, disarmament and collective security) o Realists believe in constraint through the balance of power. Chapter 6: Liberalism A. Introduction Liberalism: a theory of both government within states and good governance between states and 11

International Relations Outline peoples worldwide. Unlike Realism, which regards the international as an anarchic realm, Liberals seek to project values of order, liberty, justice, and toleration into international relations. The high-water mark of liberal thinking was reached in the inter-war period in the work of Idealists who believed that warfare was unnecessary and outmoded way of settling disputes between states. Domestic and international institutions are required to protect and nurture these values. Note: these values and institutions allow significant variations which accounts for debates in Liberalism. Liberals disagree on fundamental issues such as the causes of war and what kind of institutions are required to deliver liberal values in a decentralized, multicultural international system. An important cleavage within Liberalism, which has become more pronounced in our globalized world, is between those operating with a positive conception of Liberalism, who advocate interventionist foreign policies and stronger international institutions, and those who incline towards a negative conception, which places a priority on toleration and non-intervention. B. Core ideas in Liberal thinking on international relations Early liberal thought took the view that the natural order had been corrupted by undemocratic state leaders and out-dated policies such as the balance of power. Prescriptively, Enlightenment liberals believed that a latent cosmopolitan morality could be achieved through the exercise of reason and through the creation of constitutional states. In addition, the unfettered movement of people and goods could further facilitate more peaceful international relations. Important continuities between Enlightenment liberal thought and twentieth-century ideas, such as the power of world public opinion to tame states interest, liberal Idealism was programmatic. For idealists, the freedom of states is part of the problem of international relations. Two requirements follow: (1) the need for explicitly normative thinking: how to promote peace and build a better world. (2) states must be part of an international organization, and be bound by its rules and norms. Central to Idealism was the formation of an international organization to facilitate peaceful change, disarmament, arbitration, and (where necessary) enforcement. The League of Nations was founded in 1920 but its collective security system failed to prevent the descent into world war in the 1930s. C. Liberalism and globalization The victor states in the alliance against Germany pushed for a new international institution: the United Nations Charter was signed in June 1945 by 50 state in San Francisco. It represented a departure from the League: (1) Membership was near universal and (2) the great powers were able to prevent any enforcement action from taking place which might be contrary to their interests. Post-1945, liberals turned to international institutions to carry out functions the state could not. This was the catalyst for integration theory in Europe and Pluralism in the United States. By early 1970s Pluralism had mounted a challenge to Realism. It focused on new actors (transnational corporations, non-governmental organizations) and new patterns of interaction (interdependence, integration). Neo-liberalism a more sophisticated challenge to contemporary Realism. Neo-liberals explain the durability of institutions despite significant changes in context. Institutions exert a causal force on international relations, shaping state preferences and locking them into cooperative arrangements. Democratic peace Liberalism and neo-liberalism are the dominant strands in liberal thinking today. Neo-realism and neo-liberalism: similarities - Both schools have developed greater maturity in terms of scientific sophistication (concepts are well-defined, testable propositions can be confirmed or refuted) - Contrary to traditional realists, neo-realists recognize the impact of interdependence on foreign policy and the role of non-state actors in world politics - Contrary to traditional liberals, neo-liberals accept the assumption that international actors are mainly driven by self-interest (however, they define national interest wider than neo-realists). o Important part of national interests is that it is being shared with other states. 12

International Relations Outline Neo-realism and neo-liberalism: differences - Unlike neo-liberals, neo-realists emphasize the importance of power structures (Kenneth Waltz) and remain sceptical about the relevance of international institutions (John Mearsheimer) - Neo-realsists focus on military strategic issues; neo-liberals on economic and financial topics. - Neo-realists care about relative gains from transactions; neo-liberals about absolute gains. Contrast between zero-sum (gains and losses) and non-zero-sum games (win-win situations). o Example of zero-sum gains and losses: the trade between the US and China. Some argued the sale of advanced equipment to China was good for the balance of trade; others argued this aided China create military systems (contributing to the balance of strengths). Liberals say most transactions fall outside zero-sum scenarios and have a win-win situation in trade. Chapter 7: Contemporary mainstream approaches: neo-realism and neo-liberalism A. Introduction Neo-realism and neo-liberalism represent paradigms or conceptual frameworks that shape individuals images of the world and influence research priorities and policy debates and choices. There are several versions of neo-realism or neo-liberalism. Neo-liberalism often refers to neo-liberal Institutionalism. In the policy world, neo-liberalism is identified with the promotion of capitalism and Western democratic values and institutions. Rational choice approaches and game theory have been integrated into neo-realist and neo-liberal theory to explain policy choices and the behaviour of states in conflict and cooperative situations. Neo-realist and neo-liberal theories are status quo-oriented problem-solving theories and share assumptions about actors, values, issues, and power arrangements in international systems. Neorealists study security issues and are concerned with power and survival. Neo-liberals study political economy and focus on cooperation and institutions. B. Neo-realism Kenneth Waltzs structural realism claims the structure of the international system is key in shaping state behaviour. Waltzs neo-realism expands our view of power and capabilities. However, he agrees with traditional Realists, major powers still determine the nature of the international system. Structural realists minimize national attributes as determinants of a states foreign policy behaviour. To these neo-realists, all states are similar units, experiencing the same constraints of anarchy. Structural realists accept many assumptions of traditional Realism, that force remains an important and effective tool of statecraft and balance of power is still the central for order in the system. Joseph Grieco represents neo- or modern realists critical of neo-liberal Institutionalists who claim states are mainly interested in absolute gains. Grieco claims all states are interested in absolute and relative gains. How gains are distributed is an important issue. Two barriers to international cooperation: fear of those who might not follow the rules and the relative gains of others. Scholars in security studies present two versions of neo-realism or modern realism. Offensive neorealists emphasize the importance of relative power. Like traditional Realists, they believe conflict is inevitable in the international system and leaders must always be wary of expansionary powers. Defensive realists are often confused with neo-liberal Institutionalists. They recognize the costs of war and assume that it usually results from irrational forces in a society. However, they admit that expansionary states willing to use military force to make it impossible to live in a world without weapons. Cooperation is possible, but it is more likely to succeed in relations with friendly states. C. Neo-liberalism Contemporary neo-liberalism has been shaped by the assumptions of commercial, republican, sociological, and institutional Liberalism. Commercial and republican Liberalism provide the foundation for neo-liberal thinking in Western governments. These countries promote free trade and democracy in foreign policy programmes. 13

International Relations Outline Neo-liberal Institutionalists see institutions as mediator and means to achieve cooperation in the international system. Regimes and institutions help govern a competitive and anarchic international system and encourage multilateralism and cooperation as a means of securing national interests. Neo-liberal Institutionalists recognize that cooperation may be harder to achieve in areas where leaders perceive they have no mutual interests. Neo-liberals believe that states cooperate to achieve absolute gains and the greatest obstacle to cooperation is `cheating` or non-compliance by other states. D. The neo-neo debate The neo-neo debate is not a debate between polar opposite worldviews. They share epistemology, questions, and assumptions about international politics. This is an intra-paradigm debate. Neo-liberal Institutionalists and neo-realists study different worlds of international politics. Neorealists focus on security and military issues. Neo-liberal Institutionalists focus on political economy, environmental issues, and, lately, human rights issues. Neo-realists explain that all states must be concerned with the absolute and relative gains that result from international agreements and cooperative efforts. Neo-liberal Institutionalists are less concern about relative gains and consider that all will benefit from absolute gains. Neo-realists are cautious about cooperation and remind us the world is a competitive place where self-interest rules. Neo-liberal Institutionalists believe states and other actors can be persuaded to cooperate if they are convinced all states will comply and cooperation will result in absolute gains. This debate does not discuss issues challenging core assumptions of each theory. (E.g. neo-realism cannot explain foreign policy behaviour challenging national interest norms over human interests). Globalization has contributed to a shift in political activity away from the state. Transnational social movements have forced states to address critical issues and in several situations supported the establishment of institutions to promote cooperation, and fundamentally challenge state power. E. Neo-liberals and neo-realists on globalization Neo-realists think that states are still the principle actors in international politics. Globalization challenges some state authority and control, but politics is still international. Neo-realists are concerned about new security challenges from uneven globalization, namely, inequality and conflict. Globalization provides opportunities and resources for transnational social movements that challenge the authority of states in various policy areas. Neo-realists are not supportive of any movement that seeks to open critical security issues to public debate. Free market neo-liberals believe globalization is a positive force. Eventually, all states will benefit from the economic growth promoted by the forces of globalization. They believe that states should not fight globalization or attempt to control it with unwanted political interventions. Some neo-liberals believe states should promote capitalism with a human face or a market sensitive to the needs and interests of all people. New institutions created and older ones reformed to end uneven flow of capital, promote environmental sustainability, and protect the rights of citizens. Thinking About World Politics II N.B. Marxist and Social Constructivists are critical of realism and liberalism but share little. Marxism emphasizes material forces in social life, whereas social constructivism is focused on the impact of ideas. Introduction: Main features of Marxism - Karl Marx (Capital) *1818-1883] claimed to develop an ideology criticizing capitalism and a scientific theory for the laws of social development and human progress (historical materialism) o W.I. Lenin, the communist party acts as a vanguard of the working class (this was an excuse for party dictatorship). The path was believed to be victory of socialism over capitalism. 14

International Relations Outline Marxist ideas inspired the communist revolution (amongst others) in China by the end of 1949 and gave rise to debates over seat at the UN Security Council. The communist party led by Mao Tse-Tung, he also added to Marxismbecause China was predominantly a country of farmers (Marxism was focused more on the workers in the city) he put more focus on the country side (echoed by the revolution beginning in the Chinese countryside). o Communist parties have been popular in France and Italy (note theorist, Antonio Gramsci). o Post-USSR, Marxism waned as a theory but for a few exceptions (North Korea). Beforehand, Cuba supported Marxism but Fidel Castro has made comments indicating otherwise. o Friedrich Engels worked with Karl Marx to write the Communist Manifesto (1848). - Basic notions are means (modes) of production, relations of production and social classes. Class warfare is the driving force of history [antagonism between classes (proletariat and bourgeois)]. - Economic basis determines the superstructure of ideas (political and religious beliefs are dependent on social position) [The place you occupy in society determines your view of society]. Chapter 8: Marxist theories of international relations A. Introduction: the continuing relevance of Marxism Marx`s work retains its relevance despite the collapse of Communist Party rule in the former USSR. Marx`s analysis of capitalism has yet to be improved. Marxist analyses of international relations aims to reveal the hidden workings of global capitalism, to provide context for international events. B. The essential elements of Marxist theories of world politics Marxs ideas have been interpreted and appropriated in different and contradictory ways, resulting in a number of competing. Underlying these different schools are several common elements that can be traced back to Marx`s writings. C. World-system theory World-system theory (a direct development of Lenin`s work on imperialism and the Latin American Dependency School). Immanuel Wallerstein and his work on the modern world-system makes a key contribution to this school and has been developed by other writers who have built on his initial foundational work. D. Gramscianism Drawing upon Antonio Gramsci for inspiration, writers within an `Italian` school made a considerable contribution to thinking about world politics. Gramsci shifted the focus of Marxist analysis towards super-structural phenomena. In particular, he explored the processes by which consent for a particular social and political system was produced and reproduced and through the operation of hegemony. Hegemony allows the ideas and ideologies of the ruling stratum to become widely dispersed, and widely accepted, throughout society. Robert W. Cox `internationalized` Gramsci by transporting concepts (hegemony) to global contexts. E. Critical theory Critical theory (Frankfurt School). Habermas argued that emancipatory potential lies in the realm of communication and that radical democracy is the way in which that potential can be unlocked. Andrew Linklater developed critical theory themes to argue for the expansion of moral boundaries in the political community and pointed to the EU as a post-Westphalian institution of governance. F. New Marxism Rosenberg uses Marx`s ideas to criticize Realists theories of international relations, and globalization theory. He seeks to develop an alternative approach which understands historical change in world politics as a reflection of transformations in the prevailing relations of production. Benno Teschke, social property relations provides the means for analyzing the key elements of international relations and the transitions between one international system and another. o

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International Relations Outline World System Theory - Leading representative is Immanuel Wallerstein (main work: The Modern World System) - Argues that the development of modern international relations largely coincides with the emergence and expansion of capitalism from Europe incorporating many parts of the world o In the North and Western parts of Europe before expanding to America and then beyond. - Capitalism evolves through: mercantile, industrial, monopoly and post-industrial capitalism o The mercantile stage can be compared to the Dutch merchants. The industrial stage is best shown by Englands history. The monopoly stage is shown by conglomerates controlling the economy, we can see this presently in the financial industry. - Not states and relations between states but social classes and contradictions between classes are key to understanding international relations o The state is a committee serving the interest of the ruling class and not general interests. Center-Periphery Model - During monopoly capitalism an imperialistic two-tier structure developed. - A dominant core (center) of highly developed countries is exploiting a dependent periphery of less-developed countries (intermediary position taken by semi-periphery) - The root of exploitation is international division of labour which is detrimental to poor regions - High-value economic activities are reserved for the core countries; low-value activities (agriculture, extracting raw materials) imposed on the periphery - Sources of exploitation: (1) Unfair terms of trade AND (2) unequal spin-off effects o Example of unfair terms of trade:

The countries in the center are gaining much more than the peripheral countries (also assume that each core has its own attaching peripheral state). o Spin-off effect refers to externals like pollution and ill effects on a society as a whole. Johan Galtung pointed to feudal interactions (pattern of hub-and-spokes). Center plays the game of divide-and-rule o There are no relationships between the peripheral countries with one another. It is theorized that the core countries give privileges to some peripheral countries and not to others, thereby continuing a strategy of divide-and-conquer. Application to relationship between North and South America: dependencia theory (Andre Gunder Frank and Fernando H. Cardoso) o Dependencia theoryalthough put forward by Cardoso, he repudiated the theory later while serving in political office. Theory provoked a welter of criticism. Said to be overly simplistic, one-sided and outdated. How to explain the economic success of Asian tigers, China, India and some African Countries? 16

International Relations Outline China was particularly interesting because of its former strategy during The Great Leap Forward where isolated itself from the rest of the world for independence before opening itself for trade. Gradually, China made a move from agriculture to industrialization. o Theres also an idea of division of labour where Asia and Africa are relegated the low-end industrial jobs but are now given more high-tech jobs, like auto and medical manufacturing. Social Constructivism - Gained influence among younger generations of international relations students. Appeals to the belief (or hope) that man can make history: human agents may prevail over social structures - Scepticism whether social constructivism is a full theory and more than a research agenda? Two Important Claims [of Social Constructivism] - Epistemological claim: the social world/political reality is not something out-there, external to people, international system is not like the solar system. It exists only as an intersubjective awareness among people. It is constituted (constructed) by concepts, perceptions and ideas. Alexander Wendt: Anarchy is what states make of it. - Implication: the social world cannot be known by applying the scientific method of the natural sciences. Instead of finding laws that link causes and effects international relation scholars should turn to the method of interpretative understanding - Substantive claim: ideas (shared beliefs), norms and social movements play an important part in shaping international politics. Both realists and liberals overrate the importance of material forces (either military or economic). Fail to explain changing views on national sovereignty, human rights and the use of military force. States interests are continuously defined and redefined as the result of new experiences. - Implication: world orders are created and sustained not only by great power preferences and the underlying balance of physical forces but also by changing understandings of what constitute a legitimate international order. o Idea that international order is more than negative physical peace (the absence of war). Chapter 9: Social Constructivism A. The main Constructivists tenets Constructivists are concerned with human consciousness, treat ideas as structural factors, consider the relationship between ideas and material forces as a consequence of how actors interpret their material reality, and in how agents produce structures and how structures produce agents. Knowledge shapes how actors interpret and construct their social reality. The normative structure shapes the identity and interests of actors such as states. Social facts such as sovereignty and human rights exist because of human agreement, while brute facts such as mountains are independent of such agreement. Social rules are regulative, regulating already existing activities, and constitutive, making possible and defining those very activities. Social construction asks questions about the origins of what is now accepted as a fact of life and considers the alternative pathways that might have produced and can produce alternative worlds. Power can be the ability of one actor to get another to do what she would not do otherwise and the production of identities and interests that limit the ability of actors to control their fate. Although the meanings that actors bring to their activities are shaped by the underlying culture, meanings are not always fixed and the fixing of meaning is a central feature of politics. Although Constructivism and rational choice are generally viewed as competing approaches, at times they can be combined to deepen our understanding of global politics. B. Constructivism and global change A key issue in any study of global change is diffusion, captured by the concern with institutional 17 o

International Relations Outline isomorphism and the life-cycle of norms. Although diffusion sometimes occurs because of the view that the model is superior, frequently actors adopt a model either because of external pressures or its symbolic legitimacy. Institutional isomorphism and the internationalization of norms raise issues of growing homogeneity in world politics, a deepening international community, and socialization processes. Balance - What have the main theories (realism, liberalism, Marxism and constructivism) to say about international relations over the past 20 years? For instance: (1) globalization and the rise of Asia; (2) military interventionism of the US; (3) radicalization of the political Islam; (3) the revival of ethnicity and national identity in state formation; and (5) lasting poverty in many parts of Africa - Conclusion: no theory can provide the full story of all phenomena. Some are more relevant for explaining some developments, other are more insightful in explaining other developments o Globalization has been driven forward by technology [*Prof--liberalism offers the best theory to explain the drive of globalization]. Also keep in mind the role of ideas. Consider how globalization affects the above five topics.

Regulating World Politics Focus on: international law (IL) and international regimes. The two fields are closely connected and there is some overlap. But IL has broader scope; regimes are associated with issue-specific institutions and rules. Importance of regimes in promoting international cooperation is illustrated by discussing the threat of environmental degradation. Relevance of international law - Conflicting views: liberals and especially social constructivists are convinced of the great potency of IL to create order and justice in the world. By contrast, Marxists hold IL serves the interests of ruling classes while realists take a sceptical view. - Realists are on the side of legal positivism. Reject the belief in inalienable (natural) rights and general principles of civilization. Hold that voluntary consent and contractual obligation are the only foundation of IL. Main thesis: governments abide by IL only to the extent that compliance with rules serves the national interests. IL doesnt constitute an autonomous constraining force.

o The problem is that foreign policy and national interests are divergent. How realistic is the Realist position? - Louis Henkin: most states observe most legal rules most of the time. o There is also high and low politics. Low politics deals with economic and social issues; high politics deals with military and sovereignty issues (like control over monetary affairs). Generally, international politics deal with this kind of politics and we have difficulty finding clear violations of international law. An example of when there are issues of military or sovereignty at stake was the intervention in Kosovo by the US and UK. - Why? Self-interest and fear of retaliation are strong incentives to honour international obligations. IL is an important source of political legitimacy. Unlawful acts engender political costs (reputation damage). 18

International Relations Outline o During the WWII, fear of retaliation the mistreatment of prisoners of war. Still, larger and smaller states tend to have different priorities as to the progressive development of IL. Principle of legal equality is especially appealing for smaller states. Commitment to IL may serve as compensation for lack of physical power. Reputation of lawabiding country is a favourite small-power strategy. o It is in the interest of small trading countries (like NL) that rules of international law prevail in an international system, particularly where no military strength reinforce their claims. Chapter 16: International law A. Order and institutions States have incentives to end international anarchy but face common coordination and collaboration problems, and cooperation remains difficult under anarchy. To facilitate cooperation, states create international institutions; three levels exist in modern international society: constitutional institutions, fundamental institutions (international law falls here), and issue-specific institutions or regimes. B. The modern institution of international law Modern international law is a historical artefact, a product of the revolutions in thought and practice that transformed the governance of European states after the French Revolution (1789). Prior to the French Revolution, in the age of absolutism, law was understood as the command of a legitimate superior, and international law as a command of God, derived from natural law. In the modern period law has come to be seen as something contracted between legal subjects, or the representatives, and international law has been seen as the expression of the mutual will of nations. Because of its history, modern institution of international law has a number of distinctive characteristics, informed by the values of political Liberalism. The most distinctive characteristic are its multilateral form of legislation, its consent-based form of legal obligation, its language and practice of justification, and its discourse of institutional autonomy. C. From international to supranational law? So long as international law was designed to facilitate international order, it was circumscribed: states were the principle subjects and agents of IL; IL was concerned with the regulation of interstate relations; and the scope of IL was confined to questions of order. Global governance is pushing IL into new areas, raising questions about IL as supranational law. Individuals, and to some extent collectives, are gradually acquiring rights and responsibilities under international law, establishing their status as both subjects and agents under international law. Non-government actors are more important in developing and codifying international legal norms. International law is increasingly affecting domestic legal regimes and practices, and the rules of the international legal system are no longer confined to issues of order. As international humanitarian law evolves, issues of global justice are permeating the international legal order. D. The laws of war Placing limits on the legitimate use of force is one of the key challenges of the international community, and the laws of war have evolved to meet this challenge. The laws of war have traditionally been divided into those governing when the use of force is legitimate, jus ad bellum, and how war may be conducted, jus in bello. Laws governing when war is legally permitted have changed dramatically over the history of the international system, the most notable difference being between the nineteenth-century that to wage war was a sovereign right to the post-1945 view that war was only justified in self defence or as part of a UN mandated international peace enforcement action. Laws on war conduct divide into three categories: weaponry, combatants, and non-combatants. E. Theoretical approaches to international law 19

International Relations Outline Realists argue that IL is only important when it serves the interests of powerful states. Neo-liberals explain self-interested states construct dense networks of international legal regimes. Constructivists treat international law as part of the normative structures that condition state and non-state agency in international relations. Like other social norms, they emphasize the way in which law constitutes actors identities, interests, and strategies. New Liberals emphasize the domestic origins of state preferences and, in turn, international law. Within international law, they stress the need to disaggregate the state to understand transnational legal integration and interaction, and they prioritize international humanitarian law. Critical legal studies concentrates on the way in which inherent Liberalism of IL curtails its potential. International Regimes: General - Stephen Krasner: sets of implicit principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures around which actors expectations converge in a given area of international relations. Regimes may also comprise informal rules and policy understandings (cf. OSCE). o This is not based on a treaty but on similar principles. - Key assumption: international anarchy poses a major obstacle to cooperation because states always fear cheaters (risk of ill-founded trust are higher than the risk of ill-founded distrust). o Perhaps states can cooperate but theres always fear that there are no guarantees the other party will comply with the rules (a system of international anarchy). - States face a prisoners dilemma: non-cooperation seems to be the rational (profitable) shortterm strategy. But the shadow of the future looms. o The problem is the uncertainty about the behaviour of the other party. The idea is that it is better to rely on the others bad behaviour than on the cooperation of the other party. o Shadow of the future, the fact that non-cooperative behaviour will one day have a similar response in kind by other countries in reaction to the prior non-cooperative behaviour. - Regimes are supposed to breed trust and lower transaction costs.How? By collecting information on states foreign-policy behaviour and by acting as supervisor of rule compliance o Example: Market of used cars. Rumours of the poor status of the cars when sold but there are is also the economic status of the buyer. To resolve some issues, actors can look for guarantees and other information. Regimes act similarly to ensure compliance of States. - Regimes may also have the authority to apply sanctions, varying from hard sanctions (economic penalties, suspension of membership or voting rights) to soft sanctions (naming, shaming, and black-listing). Hegemony-Stability Theory - To what extent a leading (dominant) power is necessary to establish and sustain regimes? - Problem of collective action and public goods (available to a whole group, none excluded) - Creates free-rider dilemma (the temptation of profiteering without paying) o Organized international cooperation is to deal with the issue of free-riders. For example, many nations pay lip service to environmental issues but do not actually comply with the rules and do not share in the actual cost of the collective goals. - Thesis: public goods can only be produced if there is a hegemon being able and willing to take a disproportionate share of the costs and force free riders to pay their dues - Hegemonic power acts as a quasi-sovereign Chapter 17: International regimes A. Introduction Regimes present an important feature of globalization and a growing number of global regimes are being formed. Dtente, the loss of hegemonic status by the USA, and growing awareness of environmental problems sensitized social scientists to the need for a theory of regimes. 20

International Relations Outline B. The nature of regimes Regime theory is an attempt initiated in the 1970s by social scientists to account for the existence of rule-governed behaviour in the anarchic international system. Regimes have been defined by principles, norms, rules; and decision-making procedures. Regimes are classified in the formality of the underlying agreements and the degree of expectation that the agreements will be observed. Full-blown, tacit, and dead letter regimes can be identified. Regimes now help to regulate international relations in many spheres of activity. C. Competing theories of regime formation The market is used by Liberal Institutionalists as an analogy for the anarchic international system. In market/international setting, public goods get underproduced and public bads get overproduced. Liberal Institutionalists draw on the Prisoners Dilemma for impediments to regime formation. A hegemon, the shadow of the future, and an information-rich environment promote collaboration and an escape route from Prisoners Dilemmas. Realists argue that Liberal Institutionalists ignore power when examining regimes and draw on the Battle of the Sexes to illuminate the nature of coordination and its link to power in anarchic settings. The Environment: A Case Study - Exemplifies the problems of collective action, public goods and free-riding. - At stake is the preservation (protection) of global commons: the national resources owned by mankind as a whole (minerals in high seas, fish stocks, ozone layer, a healthy climate, etc.) - The tragedy of the commons: if actors continue to pursue their narrow self-interests, exhaustion of natural resources seems to be inevitable [E.g. several farmers share a common field but allow their herds to use the commons without consideration of the common. Eventually the field becomes unusable from over-grazing and none can use the field.]. - Need to redefine the national interest and the transformation of political leaders to statesmen. o The whole notion is to have sustainable development, meeting the needs of the present generation without endangering the needs of future generations. Strategies for Change 1. Privatization, e.g. the creation of exclusive economic zones (UNCLOS). But pure public goods cannot, by definition, be divided. 2. Establishment of international environmental regimes, setting limits to greenhouse emissions (UNFCCC/Kyoto protocol) or allocating fish catches. 3. Public awareness campaigns/greening national economies. Life-boat ethics (Titanic metaphor). o Insufficient lifeboats for passengers on Titanic and seating was based on class (with the rich taking some belongings); likewise, the capacity of natural resources is insufficient to give every world citizen a standard of living as in the rich parts of the world. Rich societies may be required to give up some luxuries to allow others to receive a decent standard of living. Chapter 20: Environmental issues A. Introduction Current use and degradation of Earths resources is unsustainable and closely connected to globalization. There are vast inequalities between rich and poor in use of Earths resources and the ecological shadow or footprint they impose. The international response is to attempt to provide global environmental governance in a system of states that involves international cooperation. B. Environmental issues on the international agenda: a brief history In late 19th-early 20th century international environmental politics was strictly limited, but around 1960 its scope expanded, environmental problems acquired a transnational and global dimension. The process was reflected in and stimulated by three great UN conferences of 1972, 1992, and 2002, whose most important role was to make the connection between the international environmental 21

International Relations Outline and developmental agendas, as expressed in the important concept of sustainable development. International environmental politics reflected the issue-attention cycle in developed countries and relied heavily on increasing scientific knowledge. C. The functions of international environmental cooperation International environmental meetings serve political objectives alongside environmental aims. A key function of international cooperation is transboundary regulation but attempts at environmental action may conflict with the rules of the world trade regime. International action is needed to promote environmental norms, develop scientific understanding, and assist the participation of developing countries. International cooperation is necessary to provide governance regimes for the global commons. D. Climate change Climate change, because of its all-embracing nature and its roots in essential human activities, pose an enormous challenge for international cooperation. A limited start has been made with the Kyoto regime but this is undermined by the absence of the United States. Much more radical arrangements will be required in the period after 2012 and these will have to involve the major developing world economies. E. The environment and International Relations theory The environment has been an area for IR in identifying conditions in which effective international cooperation can emerge. Scholars differ in the importance of explanatory factors in analysing international environmental regime-building activitiescrude calculations of the power and interests of key actors (states), cognitive factors (shared scientific knowledge), the impact of nongovernment actors, and even the system of states is part of the problem. IR scholars are also interested in the extent to which the environment in general and particular environmental problems are now being seen as security issues in academic, political, and popular discourse and whether this securitization of the environment is something to be welcomed. Normative Concerns N.B. the study of IR has a strong empirical orientation but states commitment to ethical and moral standards may be an important input to the formulation and implementation of foreign policy. International Ethics: General - The study of the nature of duties across borders. Cf. Stanley Hoffmanns classical treatise, Duties beyond borders. On the limits and possibilities of ethical international politics (1981). - While international law (IL) raises the question of legality of state action, international ethics raises the question of legitimacy (are state actions righteous, just or necessary?). State actions may be unlawful but yet legitimate. o In India and formation of Bangladesh (1971), the formation caused civil strife and refugees into India. Indias response was to send its army to enforce peace. People, aside from some in the Bangladesh army, saw the actions of India as legitimate self-defence and security. o In Tanzania and Uganda (late 1970s), at the time Uganda was ruled by a brutal dictator (Amin) and many refugees fled to Tanzania. The Tanzanian government took steps to remove the Ugandan dictator and issues remain if the actions were legitimate. o In the case of Kosovo, Serbia and Milosevic, at the end of the 1990s, Kosovo was a province of Yugoslavia and Milosevic was accused of committing ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. NATO, under the leadership of the US, came to the conclusion that action had to be taken to end the violence against ethnic Muslims through aerial

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International Relations Outline bombing. The issue was whether it was legitimate, most Western democracies believed that there was a moral right and a moral duty to end the Milosevic regime. Relationship Between Insiders and Outsiders - Are duties, if any, towards foreigners different from those towards own citizens? - Three different positions: (1) Cosmopolitan (universalist) view; (2) Realist view; and (3) Intermediate (middle) position taken by so-called pluralists and communitarians. Cosmopolitan View - The political writings of Immanuel Kant. Proponents (radical liberals) reject the insider-outsider distinction. All people are equal, moral point of view, national borders are morally irrelevant. - There is one humankind a single human community whose rules apply to all - Globalization is believed to buttress the cosmopolitan creed o Argument that this benefits the global elite. But there is a revival of parochial attitudes, scared about the effects of globalization (such as job protection and mass immigration). So attention should be paid to the double-edged character of globalization. Realist View - Realists reject the universal meaning of ethical principles. International anarchy and self-help dictate statesmen to accept national self-interest and survival as the only viable ethics. - Political leaders primary duty is to protect the well-being of their own citizens. Individuals can sacrifice themselves; statesmen may not endanger the fate of their country. - Ethical standards that apply to human relations are not applicable to relations between states. o George Kennan, a famous American diplomat and scholar, emphasized the argument underlying a qualitative difference between normal human relations and between states. *+ the functions, commitments and moral obligations of governments are not the same as those of the individual. Government is an agent, not a principle. Its primary obligation is to the interests of the national society it represents, not to the moral impulses that the individual elements of that society may experience. No more than the attorney vis--vis the client, or the doctor vis--vis the patient, can government attempt to insert itself into the consciences of those whose interests it represents. (Keenan 1985/1986:205-206). - Hans J. Morgenthau: a foreign policy guided by universal moral principles is bound to lead to moral crusades and exhaustion of national resources. o Example: British intervention on the German invasion of Belgium in 1940 and nonintervention in the invasion of Finland by the USSR. The former was based on morality; the latter was determined to be too risky and would exhaust national resources. o Foreign policy arguments framed in moral crusades are harder to negotiate compromises. Intermediate Position - Pluralists and communitarians contend that morality is not universal but local (circumscribed by particular cultures, geography and time). Different cultures embrace their own ethics. - States may agree to a minimum core of ethical standards for co-existence as enshrined in IL. - Leading advocate of this is Michael Walzer who distinguished thick and thin moral codes. The last ones refer to what is unjust (human wrongs) rather than what is just. Ethical pluralism doesnt prevent the adoption of thin codes (for instance, banning genocide and torture). o Walzer posited that it is much easier to find agreement between states about human wrongs than human rights (such as genocide and torture). Chapter 11: International ethics A. The ethical significance of boundaries: cosmopolitanism and its alternatives Globalization lends support for cosmopolitan ethical theory. Cosmopolitanism advances a universal human community in which everybody is treated as equal (most important thinker: Immanuel Kant). 23

International Relations Outline Cosmopolitanism has both moral and political meaning, but does not require a world state. Cosmopolitans emphasize both positive and negative duties, usually expressed in terms of responsibilities not to harm and responsibilities to provide humanitarian assistance or hospitality. B. Anti-cosmopolitanism: realism and pluralism Realism and pluralism are common objections to cosmopolitan ethics and moral universalism. Realists: necessity demands a statist ethics, restricting moral obligations to the nation-state. Pluralism is an `ethics of coexistence` based on sovereignty. C. Global ethical issues There are two components of the just war tradition: jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Just war is different from holy war, it contains elements of cosmopolitanism and communitarianism. Discussions of global justice are dominated by utilitarian and Rawlsian theories. Disagreement over inequality as a moral problem. Cosmopolitans: a responsibility of the rich to help the poor from positive and negative duties. Human Rights: A Political Perspective - Universalist ethical vocabulary reflected in body of human-rights treaties after WWII. o Universalism means that the right is applied anywhere, to all and at all times. - Premise of universalism challenged by (1) communist countries giving priority to economic and social rights over political and civil rights; (2) the Asian values debate (individualism vs. collectivism); and (3) the rise of the political Islam (application of sharia law). Universalism doesnt mean uniformity in implementation. Vienna Declaration (1993). o Communist countries suggest a hierarchy to rights, with economic and social rights over other categories (like civil liberties); what is the point of freed speech when starving? o The Asian value debate places greater value on the collective rather than the individual, relying on the ideas of Confucius. o The Vienna Declaration focused on the universal application of human rights but with specific consideration of local customs. - Does the global power-shift from West to East lead to a weaker commitment to human rights? - Tensions between the quest for order (stability) and justice. In foreign policy human-rights considerations need to be balanced with strategic and economic interests. Proposition: No government can afford human rights to be the principal foreign-policy goal in all circumstance. - Double standards: complaints about selective indignation justified? Democratic governments forced to coalesce with autocratic rulers in order to fight a greater evil (e.g. of Stalin and Hitler). o Condoleezza Rice (Spring 2005): over 6 years, US pursued stability over democracy in the Middle East and achieved neither. o To what extent can you dirty your hands? W. Churchill was interrogated in Parliament after a treaty with USSR and Stalin; he said: to defeat Hitler, he would make a pact with a devil. Chapter 29: Human rights A. Introduction Modern idea 3 generations of rights: broadly political; economic & social; and the rights of peoples. Contemporary problems concerns compliance with human rights, especially in the war on terror. The universal status of human rights was challenged by critics who stress the Western, masculine, intolerant nature of this universalism. B. On rights in general We need to establish the status of rightswhat a right is, what kind of rights people have, whether rights imply duties, and why? Distinction between rights as claims, liberties, powers, and immunities helps to clarify these questions. The origin of rights can be traced to natural law and the political practice of extracting charters of 24

International Relations Outline liberties. Natural law generates universal rights and duties, while a charter confers local and particular liberties. A potential conflict exists between these two sources of the idea of rights. C. The liberal account of human rights From medieval theory and practice emerged, liberal position on human rights, combining universal and particularist thinkinguniversal rights established by contract between rulers and ruled. 19th century Liberalism supported international humanitarian reform but within limits of sovereignty norms and non-intervention. For some, latter norms did not apply when standards of civilization in question. 20th century thinking on human rights was less restricted from world wars and Holocaust. D. 1948 and the modern agenda The politics of the Universal Declaration of 1948 allow us to identify the 3 major human rights issues of the post-1945 era: (1) the contest between the sovereignty norm and the norm of universal domestic standards; the contest between political and liberal and social and economic formulations of human rights; (3) there is the assertion of the rights of people to be different. E. Political and economic rights The politics of rights varies according to the constitutional or non-constitutional regime involved. The international community rarely acts on human rights cases unless public opinion is engaged. Economic and social rights are conceptually different from political rights, and present a more basic challenge to existing norms of sovereignty and non-intervention. F. Universalism challenged The human rights template severely limits the degree of acceptable variation in social practices. This universalism can be challenged on feminist grounds as privileging patriarchy. More generally, the liberal position on rights privileges a particular account of human dignity. Cultural critics of universal rights can be seen as self-serving, but no neutral criteria for assessing this criticism exists. But a set of basic rights may be defensible or the idea of a human rights culture. Humanitarian Intervention (HI) - Definition: Any action undertaken by a state, a group of states or an international organization which coercively interferes in the domestic affairs of another state for humanitarian reasons. - Key IL questions: When is HI justified (to stop genocide, ethnic cleansing, etc.)? Is authorization by UNSC necessary? What is the scope of art 39 UN Charter? Notion of responsibility to protect. o Art 39 is about international peace and security, which allows military action by UNSC; this requires a breach of the peace. Many states maintain a narrow reading of this article. - Key IR questions: Is it realistic to expect governments to consider coercive action for humanitarian reasons only? What is the impact of HI on the stability of the international system? What is the effectiveness of HI? o We also must examine the concepts of just war, the principles of proportionality, etc. Humanitarian Intervention: Effectiveness - Mixed record: successes (Bosnia, Kosovo) but also failures (Haiti, Somolia). - Conditions of success: (1) the level of international support for intervention (legitimacy); (2) the situation in the target-state (failed state or not, ethnic cleavages or not, wide domestic support for intervention or not); (3) application of comprehensive strategy (integration of military with civilian tools); (4) long-term commitment to assist target-state. o If the target-state is a failed state, it takes more effort to fix because it requires rebuilding the entire government. A comprehensive strategy requires more than military means of improving a state; It must be followed by justice, economic development, etc. Chapter 30: Humanitarian intervention in world politics A. The case for humanitarian intervention Counter-restrictionists argue in favour of a legal right of humanitarian intervention based on 25

International Relations Outline interpretations of the UN Charter and customary international law. The claims for a moral duty of humanitarian intervention stem from the basic proposition that all individuals are entitled to a minimum level of protection from harm by virtue of their common humanity. The case against humanitarian intervention States will not intervene for primarily humanitarian purposes. States should not place their citizens in harms way in order to protect foreigners. A legal right of humanitarian intervention would be vulnerable to abuse by states cloaking self-interest in humanitarian claims. States will apply principles of humanitarian intervention selectively. In the absence of consensus about principles to guide HI, a right of HI would undermine international order. HI will always be based on the cultural preferences of the powerful. The 1990s: a golden era of humanitarian activism? The 1990s a golden era of humanitarian activism because of an increase in HI. Although some interventions were motivated by humanitarian concerns, others were not. Most were prompted by mixed motives. The legality and legitimacy of HI remains hotly contested but a norm of intervention authorized by the Security Council emerged in the 1990s. Interventions tended to be more successful in stopping immediate killing and less successful in building long-term peace. Humanitarian intervention and the war on terror Optimists argued 9/11 injected self-interest into humanitarian endeavours, making states more likely to intervene. Sceptics warned the war on terror would crowd out humanitarianism and encourage powerful states to cloak self-interest in humanitarian concern. There was a major debate about whether or not the war in Iraq could be justified as a legitimate HI. Iraq has made many states more wary of embracing a humanitarian exception to the rule of non-intervention. A combination of prudence and statism has contributed towards inactivity in the face of the humanitarian catastrophe in Darfur. The responsibility to protect The responsibility to protect switches from a debate about sovereignty versus human rights to a discussion of how to protect endangered peoples. The ICISS report attempted to move HI forward by forging a new consensus around the criteria for judging when armed intervention for humanitarian purposes was justifiable. There are good reasons to think that criteria alone will not galvanize action or consensus in difficult cases. The responsibility to protect was adopted by states at the 2005 World Summit, but in a significantly revised form.

B.

C.

D.

E.

International and Global Security I: Patterns The Concept of Security - Traditionally, the focus state security meant: defense of national sovereignty and protection of political independence and territorial integrity [this has widened to include other things]. - Recently, the concept is redirected at the human security, i.e., the physical safety and social well-being of human individuals [In Larger to Freedom Report by the High Panel (UN, 2005)]. Comprehensive Security - Military dimension has lost its exclusive significance (security not equated with military security) - Emphasis is placed on the interconnection of security, development and human rights - UN World Summit Declaration (2005): We recognize that development, peace and security and human rights are interlinked and mutually reinforcing - Peace may be defined as the absence of threats to security (negative peace) or the realization of justice and the elimination of root causes of violence (positive peace) 26

International Relations Outline Chapter 13: International and global security A. What is meant by the concept of security? Security is a contested concept and has broadened to include political, economic, societal, environmental, and military aspects. Differing arguments exist about the tension between national and international security. Different views have emerged about the significance of 9/11 for the future of international security. B. The traditional approach to national security Debates about security have traditionally focused on the role of the state in international relations. Realists and neo-realists emphasize the perennial problem of insecurity. The security dilemma is seen by some writers as the essential source of conflict between states. C. The difficulties of cooperation between states Trust is difficult between states, according to realists and neo-realists, because of cheating. Realists and neo-realists also point out the problem of relative gains whereby states compare their gains with those of other states when making their decisions about security. D. The opportunities for cooperation between states Neo-realists reject the significance of international institutions achieving peace and security. Liberal Institutionalism sees institutions as an important mechanism for achieving international security. Liberal Institutionalists accept many assumptions of Realism about the importance of military power in international relations, but argue that institutions can provide a framework for cooperation which can help to overcome the dangers of security competition between states. E. Alternative views on international and global security Constructivists base their ideas on two assumptions: (1) that the fundamental structures of international politics are socially constructed; and (2) that changing the way we think about international relations can help to bring about greater international security. Some Constructivists accept the assumptions of neo-realism, but reject that structure consists only of material capabilities. They stress the importance of social structure defined in terms of shared knowledge and practices as well as material capabilities. Constructivists argue material things acquire meaning only through the structure of shared knowledge in which they are embedded. The power politics and realpolitik practices emphasized by Realists are seen as derived from shared knowledge which can be self-fulfilling. F. Critical security studies Critical security theorists argue too much emphasis is given by most approaches to the state and wish to shift the main referent to the individual and suggest emancipation is key to greater domestic and international security. Feminists argue gender is left out of international security, despite the impact of war on women. Post-modernists reconceptualise global security, looking at questions ignored by traditional approaches. There is belief among post-modernists that the nature of international politics can be changed by altering the way we think and talk about security. G. Global society and international security Global society school argue the end of the 20th century witnessed an accelerating process of globalizationseen in economic development, communications, and culture. Global social movements are also a response to new risks associated with the environment, poverty, and WMD. Fracture of statehood is creating new kinds of conflict within rather than between states which the state system cannot deal with. This has encouraged an emerging politics of global responsibility. Disputes about whether globalization contributes to weakening the state or simply its transformation, and whether a global society can usher in a period of peace and security.

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International Relations Outline Shifting Patterns in Warfare - Shifting away from interstate warfare to intrastate wars. Transformation of war: conventional battles with big armies are giving away to irregular (non-conventional) warfare. - Asymmetric warfare (e.g. guerrilla wars, intifadahs, acts of terror and urban warfare) entails struggles between the strong vs. weak (Goliath vs. David). The weak deliberately refuse to play by the rules of the strong; seeks to hit the vulnerabilities of the strong, win the battle of the hearts and minds, and exhaust the opponent. Challenge to Humanitarian Law - Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force (2005), makes the point that modern wars tend to be wars among the people. One of the tactics employed by weaker parties is taking shelter among civilians, blurring the distinction between combatants and non-combatants. Try to provoke disproportionate responses by the strong, in order to influence public opinion. - What are the implications for international humanitarian law, based on the principles of the avoidance of needless suffering, protection of civilians and proportionality in warfare? Incidence of Warfare - Since early 1990s the world has become less dangerous: both the number of armed conflicts and the number of casualties have decreased. This is in spite of the Balkan Wars, Rwandan Massacres, Congo, Sri Lanka and others, as well as military interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan. - How come? Hypotheses: (1) The end of the Cold War also put an end to proxy wars (exporting East-West rivalries to Third World); (2) More countries adopted democratic models of governance; (3) the moral threshold for waging war has raised (delegitimation of war); and (4) The successful intervention of the UN and other international organizations in armed conflict Chapter 12: The changing character of war A. Introduction War has been a central feature of human history. Since the end of the cold war both frequency and lethality of war has shown a sharp decline. War between great powers has become more unlikely than in previous eras. Changes in the international system may be changing the character of war. B. Definitions War in the contemporary era is not always easy to define; war is a brutal form of politics. C. The nature of war Contemporary warfare is being influenced by globalization. War requires highly organized societies and can be a powerful catalyst for change. The nature of war remains constant, but its form reflects the particular era and environment in which it occurs. D. The revolution in military affairs Dramatic technological advances mean a revolution in military affairs may be underway, few states possess such technology. The `information age` is increasingly reflected in information warfare. Opponents with little or no access to revolution in military affairs (RMA) technology are likely to use asymmetric warfare to fight the war on their own terms. E. Post-modern war Most recent conflicts have been characterized by the kind of ferocity that was typical of modern war, but overall casualty levels have been much lower. The post-modern age has seen warfare take numerous, varied forms. Virtual war, with few casualties, is an attractive option, but is extremely difficult and probably impossible to achieve. F. New wars New wars, following state collapse, are often conflicts over identity as much as territory and follow a pattern of warfare that has been typical since the late 1950s. Such conflicts typically occur in countries where development is lacking and there is significant economic insecurity. 28

International Relations Outline UN Peacekeeping - Distinction between UN-led operations and UN-authorized operations carried out by regional organizations (NATO, EU and African Union) or coalitions of the willing acting as sub-contractor. - Profile of classical peacekeeping: deployment of lightly armed forces as a buffer between two (former) hostile states. Legal basis: Chapter 6 of UN Charter. Only self-defense permitted. o This also required the consent of states. - Over the past 10-15 years movement towards more robust military operations: Mixed mandates (Chapter 6 and 7) allowing for wider rules of engagement than strict self-defense. [E.g. military law enforcement operations in connection to the UN have included Korea and desert storm]. - Conclusion: Despite some successful operations the UN is not able (yet) to conduct complex and large-scale military operations. Reasons: lack of well-developed command and control structure, logistical facilities and other resources. - Question: does it make sense to make the case for a standing UN army? Will article 43 UN Charter ever be implemented? (obligation of member states to make troops available to the UN on the Secretary Generals call in accordance with a special agreement or agreements) Chapter 28: Human security A. What is human security? Human security represents a vertical and horizontal expansion of the traditional notion of national security, protection of state sovereignty and territorial integrity from external military threats. Human security is distinguished by 3 elements: (1) its focus on the individual/people as the referent object of security; (2) its multidimensional nature; (3) its universal or global scope, applying to states and societies of the North as well as the South. Human security influenced by 4 developments: (1) rejection of economic growth as main indicator of development and accompanying notion of human development as empowerment of people; (2) rising incidence of internal conflicts; (3) impact of globalization in spreading transnational dangers such as terrorism and pandemics; and (4) post-cold war emphasis on human rights and HI. B. Debates about human security Human security criticized: (1) too broad to be analytically meaningful or serve as the basis for policymaking; (2) creating false expectations about assistance to victims of violence the international community cannot deliver; and (3) ignoring the role of the state in providing security to the people. Even among its advocates differences exist as to whether human security is about freedom from fear (stresses protecting people from violent conflicts through measures such as a ban on landmines and child soldiers) or freedom from want (broader notion involving reducing threats to the well-being of people, such as poverty and disease). Ultimately both sides agree human security is about security of individuals than states, and protecting people requires going beyond traditional principles of state sovereignty. C. Dimensions of human security There has been a decline in the number of armed conflicts and deaths caused by conflicts. Factors contributing to this include economic interdependence among nations, end of colonialism and cold war, and growing role of international institutions and international community in peace operations. But the outlook is not all rosy. The world has experienced horrific acts of violence and genocide in recent years (Congo) and new forms of violence may emerge. The growing number of weak or failing states (Iraq, Afghanistan, Burma, Nepal, Bangladesh, & Pakistan) poses a threat to human security. There is an interactive relationship between armed conflict and non-violent threats to human security (poverty and disease). Wars and internal conflicts can lead to impoverishment, disease outbreaks, and environmental destruction. Conversely, poverty, inequality and environmental degradation can lead to weakening and even collapse of states. Human security research should 29

International Relations Outline look at the direct and indirect consequences of conflict and the socioeconomic, political, and ecological factors that contribute to conflict. This opens the way for reconciling the two conceptions of human security s freedom from fear and freedom from want. Women in armed conflicts are victims and actors (combat and support roles). Rape and other sexual violence feature as an instrument of war and as crimes against humanity. International community seeks to increase participation of women in UN peace operations and conflict resolution functions. D. Promoting human security The most important multilateral actions to date promote human security include the International Criminal Court and the Anti-Personnel Land Mines Treaty. UN agencies (UNHCR, UNICEF, and UNIFEM) have been crucial in addressing human security issues (refugees and the rights of children). Canada and Japan have made human security a major part of their foreign policy. Their approach contrasts between freedom of fear and freedom from want conceptions of human security. Non-governmental organizations promote human security by acting as a source of information and early warning about conflicts, providing a channel for relief operations, supporting government or UN-sponsored peace building and rehabilitation missions, and promoting sustainable development. The September 11 attacks on the United States and the war on terror have revived the traditional state-centric approach to national security at the expense of civil liberties and human security. International and Global Security II: Issues The Threat of Terrorism: General - Terrorism represents the lowest form of irregular warfare. Its a technique of political violence applied by the weak to offset asymmetries in the distribution of capabilities - Terrorism is no novel phenomenon but globalization made new technologies available to radical groups and made preparations by them for violent attacks much easier [Most terrorist organizations are decentralized and in autonomous cells (from Russian and French revolutions), modern terrorists cause cataclysmic terrorism because of easier communication]. Main Characteristics [of Terrorism] - Violent acts perpetrated by sub-national or transnational groups without discrimination against civilians or symbolic targets and driven by political motives (in contrast with organized crime) - Principal goal is to scare people and to undermine their trust in the government; another goal is to provoke authorities to take disproportionate action which makes citizens to question the legitimacy of the governments authority (infringement of civil liberties) Root Causes of Terrorism - Cultural and religious conditions. Terrorism, especially in the Islamic world, may be seen as reaction to globalization and modernization as a vehicle to the spread of secular, materialistic life-style. The gap between the pretension of moral superiority and the reality of economic backwardness and dependence of the West creates feelings of resentment and humiliation. - Economic conditions. Poor living conditions are said to breed terrorists. But most terrorist leaders had a middle-class background. Struggle with their identity? o Is it an insult to the poor who reject terrorism by blaming poverty as one of the causes of terrorism? Absolute levels of poverty and inequality are very poor predictors for the outbreak of violencerelative deprivation (A. de Tocqueville), examine the living conditions of peer groups vs expected living conditions, the more difference between the two the more likely violence will break out. Also see Tedd Gurrs Why Men Rebel? - Social conditions, especially relevant to home-grown terrorism. Social exclusion and marginalization of particular groups, particularly second-generation immigrants 30

International Relations Outline Political grievances, like Israeli-Palestinian conflict and US military presence in the Middle East Lesson learned: high-publicized campaigns where terrorism features as war are likely to backfire, it plays into terrorists conception of an apocalyptic struggle between good and evil Chapter 21: Terrorism and globalization A. Definitions Terrorism, or acts of violence by sub-state groups, separates from criminal acts on the purpose for which violence is applied, namely political change. Terrorists succeed when their motivations or grievances are perceived as legitimate by a wider audience. Disproportionate or heavy-handed responses by states to acts of terrorism serve to legitimize terrorist groups. The technologies associated with globalization have improved terrorist capabilities. B. Terrorism: from transnational to global phenomenon (1968-2001) Majority of transnational terrorist attacks since 1979 targeted American citizens and symbols. Trends since 1968 include greater casualties, increasing sophistication, and suicide attacks. Transnational Marxist-Leninist groups have been replaced by global militant Islamic terrorist groups. C. Terrorism: the impact of globalization Cultural, economic, and religious aspects provide necessary, but insufficient explanations for globalized terrorist violence individually. The current wave of terrorist violence uses religion as a motivator and to provide the justification to kill non-combatants. The ultimate purpose for modern militant Islamic violence as applied is obtaining political power in order to conduct political, social, economic, and religious reform according to Sharia law. D. Globalization, technology, and terrorism Globalization permitting rapid exchange of ideas and goods can also be leveraged and exploited by terrorist groups. Technologies associated with globalization allow terrorists to operate in highly distributed global network that shares information and allows small cells to conduct highly coordinated, lethal attacks. Globalization may allow some terrorist groups to acquire, manufacture, and use weapons of mass of destruction in order to conduct catastrophic attacks. E. Combating terrorism States, individually and collectively, have political, military, legal, economic, and technologies advantages in the struggle against terrorist groups. Differences between states over the nature and scope of the current terrorist threat, and the most appropriate response to combat it, reflect subjective characterizations based on national biases and experiences. WMD Proliferation - Why do (did) governments want to keep or acquire nuclear, chemical and biological weapons? Considerations of security and national status (prestige) - Why is the spread of WMD considered a threat to global security? (1) The increasing likelihood of accidental war; (2) the lack of strategic stability between nuclear dyads; (3) the vulnerability of command and control systems; and (4) terrorist groups acquiring nuclear weapons. - Counter-arguments: nuclear weapons induce a sense of responsibility and caution on leaders. If nuclear weapons prevented the outbreak of a new world war in the East-West context, why can they not forestall future conflicts? [the constant threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD)]. Towards a Nuclear-Free World? - Article VI of Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): to pursue negotiations in good faith to end the nuclear arms race and, ultimately, conclude a treaty on general and complete disarmament - President Obamas Prague speech of April 2009 calling for the abolition of nuclear weapons. Is this attainable? Problems: (1) is it possible to disinvent knowledge to produce nuclear weapons? And (2) are states ready to accept an intrusive and far-reaching inspection regime? -

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International Relations Outline The relationship between vertical and horizontal proliferation. The importance of Comprehensive Test Ban Agreement and Fuel Cut-off Treaty. o As long as some states continue to advance their nuclear technology, theres no reason for other states to disarm their nuclear arsenal. Chapter 22: Nuclear proliferation A. Nature of nuclear weapons and their effects Nuclear production requires a broad technological infrastructure and individuals with key skills. Nuclear reactors and weapons differ in management of chain reaction and in the energy produced. Nuclear weapons produce energy in 3 formsblast, heat and nuclear radiationand the phenomenon known as EMP. The United Nations introduced the category known as WMD (1948). A new category is chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear capabilities (CBRN). Nuclear weapons were used at the end of WWII and have not been used in conflict since. The testing of thermonuclear weapons indicate the greater explosive capacity of this type of weapon, although the trend has been towards weapon designs with lower yields. B. Diffusion of nuclear and missile technology The nature of nuclear weapons and dissemination of capabilities to manufacture them around the world since 1945 makes nuclear proliferation a good illustration of globalization of world politics. The end of the cold war and the dissolution of the former Soviet Union generated new problems. A debate has emerged over the merits of the further proliferation/spread of nuclear weapons. Because of new proliferation challenges generated by what some analysts call the second nuclear age, a debate has begun over whether the nuclear non-proliferation regime should be supplemented or supplanted by a new more flexible approach to global nuclear governance. A major element of the nuclear proliferation process is the acquisition of the technologies to produce fissile material to construct either fission (nuclear) or fusion (thermonuclear) weapon. Post-1945, the spread of nuclear technology for civil and military purposes meant states, beyond the five which possess nuclear weapons, have the capacity to produce nuclear devices quickly. Over the same period the structure of the civil nuclear trading market has also changed, leading to proliferation concerns because there are more nuclear suppliers around. There has also been a diffusion of ballistic missile and space-launch technology since 1945. A debate over deploying defensive systems to counter ballistic missiles has emerged and the ABM Treaty agreed in 1972 between the United States and the former Soviet Union is no longer in force. C. Theorizing nuclear proliferation and non-proliferation The characterization of motivations for acquiring nuclear weapons has become more complex. There are difficulties in determining whether nuclear proliferation has occurred. A number of states have the potential to manufacture nuclear weapons if they wanted, and a few embarked on military nuclear programmes before abandoning them. The role of non-state actors has added a further dimension to the nuclear proliferation issue. There is an ongoing task to ensure the safety and security of nuclear materials around the world. D. Evolution of global nuclear control and anti-proliferation measures Nuclear control and anti-proliferation measures have been evolving since 1945. The IAEA has established a global safeguards system. Attempts to implement a CTBT and negotiate a FMCT have stalled after 1995. A number of NWFZs have been negotiated. The NPT now has 188 parties, although India, Israel, and Pakistan remain non-signatories. In 1987 the MTCR began operating and The Hague code of Conduct was introduced in 2002. NPT Review Conferences have been held every five years since 1970. 32 -

International Relations Outline Since 1995, the NPT has encountered several challenges related to new incidences of nuclear testing, attempts to achieve universality, disposal of fissile material, compliance and verification. New measures were implemented in response to continuing globalization nuclear proliferation. Failed (Fragile) States - Definition: states whose central authority has collapsed (or was never developed) and, consequently, are unable to deliver essential public services (security, health, education). - Background conditions: (1) ethnic divisions; (2) low level of economic development; (3) scarcity of natural resources; (4) long history of conflict; and (5) war-lordism - Why are failed states a source of international insecurity? Potential safe haven for terrorists and criminals. Catalysts of mass migration. Magnet of arms trafficking and foreign interventions. What needs to be done? - Comprehensive long-range strategy of peace-building and reconstruction of capacity-building (develop state structure), local community-development, education and training-programs - Application of power-sharing (inclusive government) models rather than winner-take-all systems. Room for transitional justice to promote reconciliation - Matter of controversy: to what extent the international community should take over government functions in failed states? (revival of trusteeship idea) o There are issues with the importation of democracy because it may not be culturally relevant or even at a point in the social/cultural structure for it to be accepted.

International Political Economy IPE refers to interaction of political and economic forces, the interplay of state and international organization actions and operating international markets. IPE represents a relatively new field; scholars speak of a paradigm shift from geopolitics (control of territories) to geo-economics (control of markets). Intro: Transformation of the World Economy - World economy has become more integrated: in 1950 share of national exports was as little as 8% 60 years later grown to almost 30% - Rising share of emerging countries (especially China, India and Brazil) in global output (25-30%) - Shifting patterns in international division of labour (industrial development of many poor countries; outsourcing of economic activities from developed to developing countries) o Walstein model explained a large number of states but is irrelevant to Asian states. - Abolition of capital restrictions in advanced countries set off enormous expansion of capital flows across national borders Trade Policies - Free-trade (economic liberals) vs. protectionism (mercantilists) - Classical free-traders argument: the removal of trade barriers creates a better division of labour. Due to specialization and economies of scale, wealth will increase. - David Ricardos notion of comparative advantage: some nations may be more efficient in both producing A (chips) and B (ships), but specialize where competitive edge is relatively largest - Temporary protection of infant industries is accepted in view of their initial disadvantages (small scale and limited know-how). - Mercantilism may be defined as a national trade policy directed at accumulating national wealth and resultant national power by encouraging exports and discouraging imports. Wealth and power are believed to be interchangeable, each helping the acquisition of the other. - Protectionist trade policies comprise import barriers (tariffs and non-tariffs), export subsidies, state aid to domestic industries and currency manipulation 33

International Relations Outline o Currently there are trade wars between the US and China because of the RMB, the US have applied tariffs to Chinese goods to force imports to cost the same as locally made goods. - Current manifestations are visible in protecting ailing industries and farmers, as well as supporting key strategic sectors (e.g. aviation and aerospace industries). Chapter 26: Global trade and finance A. A globalizing economy Globalization of economic activity understood differently. Sceptical interpretations: current levels of cross-border trade, money movements, and investment flows are not new or as great as some claim. Globalists interpretations: large-scale relaxations of border controls take international economic activity to unprecedented levels. Geographical conceptions: proliferation of economic transactions where territorial distance and borders present limited if any constraint. B. Global trade Transborder production and associated intra-firm trade have developed in a number of industries since mid-20th century. Many states created special economic zones to attract global factories. Much contemporary commerce involves transborder marketing of global brand-name products. The growth of a substantial global dimension to world trade may have discouraged protectionism. C. Global finance Globalization has changed forms of money with the spread of transborder currencies, distinctly supraterritorial denominations, digital cash, and global credit cards. This has also reshaped banking with the growth of supraterritorial deposits, loans, branch networks, and fund transfers. Securities markets have gained a global dimension through the development of transborder bonds and stocks, transworld portfolios, and electronic round-the-world trading. Globalization has likewise affected the instruments and modes of trading on derivatives markets. D. Continuity and change in economic globalization Global trade and finance have spread unevenly between different regions and different people. Transborder commerce has often widened material inequalities within and between countries. Territorial geography continues to be important in the contemporary globalizing economy. Lacking Westphalian sovereign powers, states exercise great influence in global trade and finance. Economic globalization weakened cultural diversity and national attachments in some respects, it has promoted them in others. Post-War International Economic Order - Refers to the whole set of institutions, principles and rules that purports to regulate economic and financial transactions across the world. Main institutions: Bretton Woods institutions (World Bank and IMF), GATT/WTO, Bank for International Settlements (Basel, est. 1930), UNCTAD, and G7-8/G20 (informal consultative groups) o G20 has overtaken the G8 with the inclusion of emerging countries who take larger portions of the markets. As attorneys, it is important to have international equality but this is not reflected in the amount of economic control distributed across countries. - Main principles and rules: balanced (and sustainable) economic growth, trade liberalization and non-discrimination (most favoured-nation clause), and monetary stability (but in early 1970s system of fixed exchange-rates was abandoned) o Balanced economic growth is sustainable so future generations can use current resources. o Dumping policies are prohibited (selling products on global market at lower prices than in the home market). o System of fixed exchange-rates allowed currencies to be at a set rate. During Vietnam War, because of war pressures, fixed rates were changed so debts could more easily be paid off.

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International Relations Outline The European market uses floating currencies, but this is may be cause problems because its hard to use floating currencies to forecast future costs (particularly for imports and exports). Calls for Reform of Economic Order - Growing criticism of so-called Washington consensus: common views of US administration and World Bank/IMF as to reduction of state interference in economic life (good governance is less governance) and creating free-markets - Complaints of developing countries about trade protectionism of rich countries (agriculture, cotton, multi-fibre, etc.) - Weak influence of emerging countries in international institutions (voting weights in IMF/World Bank strongly in favour of western countries) o Right now the voting power in the IMF: Europe having 30%, the US having 70%. Its strange India has the same amount as NL. There is an argument of redistribution of voting power, between the ins and outs, but it is clear that the voting rights are unevenly distributed. Impact of Financial Crisis (2008-2010) - Immediate causes: excessive and imprudent leading practices (supply of loans at low interest rates without solid collaterals, facilitated by invention of exotic financial products like derivatives). Created unsustainable debts - Root (underlying) causes: global imbalances (huge current account surpluses in China and equally huge US deficits) - Wide-spread support for strengthening international supervisory and regulatory mechanisms. Deleverage, bigger capital buffers, more transparency, limiting bonuses, etc. but where & how? Chapter 14: International political economy in an age of globalization A. The post-war world-economy After WWII international institutions were created to facilitate cooperation in the world-economy. The cold war postponed the operation of these institutions, as the United States stepped directly to manage the reconstruction of Europe and the international monetary system based on the dollar. The Bretton Woods system of managed exchanged rates and capital flows operated until its breakdown in 1971 when the USA announced it would no longer convert the dollar to gold. The 1970s were marked by a lack of international economic cooperation among the industrialized countries, which floated their exchange rates and indulged in new forms of trade protectionism. Developing countries dissatisfaction with the international system came to a head in the 1970s when they pushed unsuccessfully for a new international economic order. Trade negotiations broadened to new areas but this led to resistance from emerging economies. In 2007 a power shift became obvious in the global economy, with emerging economies like China and India playing prominent roles in negotiations in trade, finance, and development assistance. B. Traditional and new approaches to IPE Rational choice explains outcomes in international political economy (IPE) as the result of actors choices, which are assumed always to be rationally power or utility maximizing within given particular incentives and institutional constraints. Institutionalists apply rational choice to states in their interactions with other states in order to explain international cooperation in economic affairs. Constructivist approaches pay attention to how governments, states, and other actors construct their preferences, highlighting the role of identities, beliefs, traditions, and values in this process. Neo-Gramscians highlight that actors define and pursue their interests within a structure of ideas, culture, and knowledge which itself is shaped by hegemonic powers. C. The globalization debate in IPE Globalization poses some new constraints for all states, including the most powerful. In particular, 35

International Relations Outline the emergence of global capital markets means that all governments have to be cautious in their choice of exchange rate and interest rate policies. On other issues of economic policy, wealthier and more powerful countries are less constrained by globalization than is portrayed by the globalists. This is because the firms and investors whom governments are keen to attract are not solely concerned with levels of taxation and wages. They are equally concerned with factors such as the skills of the workforce, the provision of infrastructure, and proximity to markets. At the international level the more powerful states in the system get to set (and enforce) many of the rules of the new global economy. D. International institutions in the globalizing world-economy Institutionalists argue that international institutions will pay an important and positive role in ensuring that globalization results in widely spread benefits in the world-economy. Realists and neo-realists reject the institutionalist argument on the grounds that it does not account for the unwillingness of states ever to sacrifice power to other states. Constructivists pay more attention to how governments, states, and other actors construct their preferences, highlighting the role that state identities, dominant beliefs, and ongoing debates and contestation plays in this process. Effectiveness of Economic Sanctions - Sanctions to target-state may consist of trade embargoes, boycotting products, withdrawal of grants and loans, and halting currency support - Success seems to be critically dependent on: (1) economic vulnerability of target-state; (2) participation of all relevant players, plus water-tight control on implementation; (3) rapidity or swiftness of action taken by sanction-takers; and (4) financial compensation for weak-sanctiontakers [E.g. South Africa, its hard to tell if economic sanctions ended apartheid because of internal pressures within the country and within Africa. The countries who participated, asked for compensation (the sharing of costs) for applying the sanctions to one of their main traders]. - Moral dilemma of sanctions: causing pain among people who are already suffering from repressive regimes anyways. Smart sanctions (hurting political leaders but not ordinary people). o Smart sanctions could take the form of freezing assets in tax havens and seizing property in foreign jurisdictions. But do these really bite? What is the worth of the political position in comparison to the imposed sanctions? Ultimately, this may mean a reliance on military force, diplomatic pressure. Even though in few cases, the sanctions may bite, there is a responsibility to find less coercive means to have the goals met. Poverty Problem - Why did particular poor countries move forward and others remain poor? Two conflicting views: (1) Domestic conditions (bad geography, cultural barriers, wrong economic policies, weak state structures) Max Weber tried to link the Protestant work ethic and the development of capitalism in Europe (thus acting as a cultural advantage for richer countries) (2) External conditions (dependency on developed countries, lack of fairness of international economic order) - Export-led growth strategy (benefiting from cheap labour), rather than self-reliance, seems to be the most successful strategy. Caveats: increasing inequality due to limited trickle-down effects (need for anti-poverty programs) and high environmental costs o All countries claiming economic success relied on an export-growth strategy. The attempts of countries to delinking from other countries turned out as economic failure. However, a resort to the export-led growth strategy and links with other countries does not guarantee success. 36

International Relations Outline Chapter 27: Poverty, development and hunger A. Poverty The monetary-based conception of poverty has been almost universalized among governments and international organizations since 1945. Poverty is interpreted as a condition suffered by peoplethe majority of whom are femalewho do not earn enough money to satisfy their basic material requirements in the market-place. Developed countries regard poverty as something external and defining of the Third World. This provided justification for the former to develop the latter by promoting their further integration into the global market. However, such poverty is increasingly endured by sectors of the population in the North, as well as the Third World, hence rendering traditional categories less useful. A critical alternative view of poverty places more emphasis on lack of access to communityregulated common resources, community ties, and spiritual values. Poverty moved up the global political agenda at the start of the 21st century. B. Development Development is a contested concept. Orthodox or mainstream approach and the alternative approach reflect very different values. Development policies over the last 60 years dominated by the mainstream approachembedded liberalism and, more recently neo-liberalismwith a focus on growth. The last two decades of the 20th century saw the flourishing of alternative conceptions of development based on equity, participation, empowerment, sustainability, etc., with input especially from NGOs and grassroots movements and some parts of the UN. The mainstream approach has been modified slightly and has incorporated the language of its critics (e.g. pro-poor growth). C. Hunger Recent decades global food production burgeoned, paradoxically hunger and malnourishment remain widespread. The orthodox explanation for the continued existence of hunger is that population growth outstrips food production. An alternative explanation for the continuation of hunger focuses on lack of access or entitlement to available food. Access and entitlement are affected by factors such as the NorthSouth global divide, particular national policies, rural-urban divide, class, gender, and race. Globalization can simultaneously contribute to increased food production and increased hunger. The Future a New World Order? Blaise Pascal: He who plays the angel ends up as the beast. Kofi Annan: While the United Nations may not be able to take humanity to heaven, it must act to save humanity from hell. Edward Carr: If it is utopian to ignore the element of power, it is an unreal kind of realism which ignores the element of morality in any world order. International or World Order? - International order is an institutional arrangement which is focused on stable and peaceful relations between states; it is based on the principles of national sovereignty and nonintervention - World order, embraces the human community as a whole while seeking to address the needs of individuals; it is based on the notion of common survival and the responsibility to protect o Common survival is a returning issue (e.g. medieval times, common survival people during plague infestation). 37

International Relations Outline o We are moving half way to the world order arrangement and many political leaders still give weight to negative peace and stability over justice. - To what degree the quest for justice may imperil peace and stability? - In what respects the realization of justice is necessary to secure peace and stability? World Government (Federation) - Albert Einstein: there is no salvation for civilization, or even the human race, other than the creation of a world government. - Assumption: international anarchy is at the root of the war problem - Is it feasible? Are nations ready to surrender sovereignty on matters of life and death? - Is it desirable? The fear of the creation of a super-Leviathan o Here the European example is illuminating because of the concentration of power in Brussels; there was fear of a concentrated super-state and an infringement of State power. - Is it relevant? In view of the likelihood of civil strife. o The problem is that there are many emerging threats to States. Global Policy Networks - A networked world order. Cf. Anne-Marie Slaughter, The New World Order (2004) - Loose alliances involving government officials, as well as representatives of NGOs and transnational corporations - Examples to be found in policy fields like health, environment, human rights, and development - Realistic assumption: states are no unitary actors (they are disaggregated) - But are networks relevant in the domain of high politics? Pax Americana - International order based on the ability and readiness of the US to ensure the availability of essential public goods - US is still the preeminent power in the world but its relative power is decreasing - Reluctance among American people to support the role of global cop - International legitimacy is lacking Global Concert Model - Balance of power between the US, China, India Russia and the EU - Joint responsibility for the delivery of global public goods - Assumption: stakeholders will find agreement on distribution of diplomatic influence and basic rules of the game - Another assumption: common interests outweigh mutual disagreements (no bids for hegemony) Multi (Inter) Regionalism - Strength of the approach: it appeals to regional solidarity, stronger sense of commitment and greater commonality of interests at the regional than at the global level - Weakness of the approach: some regions are over-organized while others are under-organized. How do we deal with problems that go beyond the regional scale? (global problems require global solutions) How do we prevent (economic) rivalries between regions? o (E.g. over-organized region = Europe; under-organized area = Asia-Pacific or US-Canada area). - Can the EU, being the most advanced form of regional integration, serve as a role model? - How does the regional approach relate to the (supreme) authority of the United Nations? Chapter 25: Regionalism in international affairs A. Regional cooperation and regional integration Regionalism has various dimensions and takes different forms. Some regional integration processes are more state-led, others more market-led. A difference between cooperation arrangements and integration processes, both approaches may be followed in a regional system. 38

International Relations Outline B. Regional cooperation in a global context Regionalism seen as one level in emerging system of global governance, the relationship between regionalism and multilateralism is debated in regard to economic liberalization and intl security. Regionalist experiences in each continent have followed different patterns which reflect their different historical and cultural contexts. The earlier waves of regionalism arose in a context of postcolonial restructuring, economic protectionism, or regional security concerns. A new wave of open regionalism began around 1990 with the end of the cold war and the surge in globalization. C. The process of European integration Process of integration in post-war Europe launched in context of long debates about creation of a federal system, but ultimately choice was in favour of a gradual path towards an ever closer union. Integration has proceeded by conferring competence for many economic sectors to supranational institutions which can take decisions that are binding on the member states. Over time, more politically sensitive areas, such as monetary policy or internal and external security, have also become the domain of the European Union. Successive reforms of the EU treaties have sought to maintain and enhance the legitimacy and efficiency of a Union that had grown, by 2007, to twenty-seven member states, the latest stage being the debate over a formal European constitution. D. Conclusion The creation of regional governance structures is not a contradiction to globalization but the expression of local attempts to accommodate and respond to the challenges of globalization. Despite the observation of a global trend towards greater regionalism, important differences remain between the depth and the scope of regional institutions that develop in different parts globally. Regional cooperation and integration are not linear processes but depend on the varying contingencies that provide opportunities and limits in different regional contexts. Effective Multilateralism - Strengthening streamlining and reforming the existing body of global organizations and regimes as approach to global governance - Institutions must be able to do what they say/they must be able to enforce decisions if necessary (must bite) - System of global governance must reflect the new balance of forces in the world; emerging powers should be given a stronger say in global decision-making - Reform of the UNSC and limiting the veto-power of the permanent members o Historically, the challenge of world order, though setbacks, the world has improved over. Chapter 18: The United Nations A. A brief history of the United Nations UN was established to preserve peace after WWII. The institutions of the UN reflected lessons learned from its predecessor, the League of Nations. The institutions and mechanisms of the UN reflect both the demands of great power politics (i.e. Security Council veto) and universalism. They also reflect demands to address the needs and interests of people, as well as the needs and interest of states. The tension between these various demands are a key feature of UN development. B. The United Nations and the maintenance of international peace and security The cold war and the decolonization process discouraged more active involvement by the UN within states. After the cold war, it became more difficult for states and diplomats to accept that what happened within states was of no concern to outsiders. It became more common for governments to see active membership in the UN as serving national interest as well as being morally right. By the mid-1990s the UN had become involved in maintaining international peace and security by resisting aggression between states, by attempting to resolve disputes within states (civil wars) and 39

International Relations Outline by focusing on conditions within states, including economic, social, and political conditions. C. The United Nations and intervention within states New justifications for intervention in states were considered by 1990s. Most UN operations were justified in the traditional way: as a response to a threat to international peace and security. D. The United Nations and economic and social questions The number of institutions within the UN system that address economic and social issues has significantly increased. Several programmes and Funds were created in response to Global Conferences. Despite a shortage of funds and coordination problems, the UN has done important work in key economic and social areas. Millennium Development Goals focused on measurable socioeconomic targets and further integrate the work of the UN at the country level, but progress towards reaching the goals have been uneven. E. The reform process in the economic and social arrangements of the United Nations Mid-to late 1990s under then Secretary-General Kofi Annan, the UN embarked on an overarching reform effort. Reform of the economic and social arrangements of the UN aimed at improving coordination, eliminating duplication, and clarifying spheres of responsibility (resulted in strengthened norms of the multilateral system). Chapter 19: Transnational actors and international organizations in global politics A. Problems with the state-centric approach State has three meanings: a legal person, a political community, and a government. The countries and governments around the world may be equal in law, but have few political similarities. Many governments control less resources than many transnational actors. It cannot be assumed that all country-based political systems are more coherent than global systems, particularly as national loyalties do not match country boundaries. By abandoning the language of states and non-states, we can admit the possibility many types of actors in global politics. By distinguishing government from society and nation from country, we can ask whether private groups, companies, and national minorities engage in transnational relations. B. Transnational companies as political actors The ability of TNCs to change transfer prices means they can evade taxation or government controls on international financial transactions. The ability of TNCs to use triangulation means individual governments cannot control their countrys international trade. The ability of TNCs to move production means individual governments are constrained in regulating and taxing companies. The structure of authority over TNCs generates the potential for intense conflict between governments, when the legal authority of one government has extraterritorial impact on the sovereignty of another government. In some economic policy, governments lost sovereignty and now have to exercise at the global level rather than by independent governments. C. Non-legitimate groups and liberation movements as political actors Effective action against transnational criminals by individual governments is difficult for the same reasons as control of TNCs is difficult. Groups using violence to achieve political goals generally do not achieve legitimacy, in exceptional circumstances they may be recognized as national liberation movements and take part in diplomacy. Transnational activities of criminals/guerrillas shift domestic problems into global politics. Terrorism may be particular to individual countries, have transnational aspects or be carried out by groups in a transnational network, but it is not a single political force. Governments cannot act as independent sovereign actors in response to terrorism nor in using violence themselves. D. Non-governmental organizations as political actors Most transnational actors can be recognized as NGOs by the UN, if they are not individual 40

International Relations Outline companies, criminals, or violet groups and do not exist solely to oppose an individual government. The ECOSOC statute provides an authoritative statement that NGOs have a legitimate place in intergovernmental diplomacy. Creation of a global economy leads to the globalization of unions, commercial bodies, the professions, and scientists in international NGOs, which participate in international regimes. Governments can no longer control the flow of information across the borders of their country. Improved communications make it more likely that NGOs will operate transnationally and make it very simple and cheap for them to do so. NGOs from each country may combine in four ways: as international NGOs, as advocacy networks, as caucuses, and as governance networks. E. International organizations as structures of global politics International organizations are structures for political communication. They are systems that constrain the behaviour of their members. Governments form intergovernmental organizations and transnational actors form international non-governmental organizations. In addition, governments and transnational actors accord each other equal status by jointly creating hybrid international NGOs. International organizations are more than the collective will of their members. They have distinct impact upon other global actors. F. Conclusion: issues and policy systems in global politics The high politics/low politics distinction is used to marginalize transnational actors. It is invalid because politics does not reduce to these two categories. A simple concept of power will not explain outcomes. Military and economic resources are not the only capabilities: communication facilities, information, authority, and status are also important political assets. In addition, skills in mobilizing support will contribute to influence over policy. Different policy domains contain different actors, depending on the salience of issues debated. TNCs gain influence through the control of economic resources. NGOs gain influence through possessing information, gaining high status and communicating effectively. TNCs and NGOs have been the main source of economic and political change in global politics. Chapter 32: Globalization and the post-cold war order A. Introduction Principal characteristics of the contemporary order that give it its distinctive quality are difficult to discern. As we live in its midst, it is hard to get any sense of historical perspective. International order now delivers a range of international goods, but also a wide range of bads. B. A typology of order Order is specific to states, peoples, groups, or individuals. International order focuses on stable and peaceful relations between states, often related to the balance of power. It is primarily about military security. World order is concerned with other values, such as justice, development, rights, and emancipation. A pattern of order may advance values at the expense of others. Often a tension, e.g., between state-centred concepts of order and those promoting individual values. For instance, policies based on the balance of power might lead to support for regimes with bad human rights records. A key question about globalization is whether it supersedes other ideas of international order, or whether it can be incorporated into more traditional ideas. C. The elements of contemporary order Order is shaped by the changed nature of states and of the tasks they perform. There are complex questions about whether the end of the cold war has released a new agenda of nationalism and national identity, or whether these issues have been present all along. 41

International Relations Outline Security is increasingly dealt with on a multilateral basis even when this does not conform to classical collective society models. The global economy is primarily shaped by relations between 3 key groupings (North America, Western Europe and East Asia) and is managed by a panoply of western-dominated institutions. There are dense patterns of international institutions in all functional areas. There are strong trends towards regionalism, but they take different forms in various regions. Human rights have a much higher profile than in earlier historical periods. Are there two separate orders in the North and South, or a more complex diversity of orders? D. Globalization and the post-Westphalian order? Globalization is portrayed as an effect of the end of the cold war; this led to its geographical spread. At the same time, globalization is one of the factors that contributed to the end of the cold war. It was the USSRs marginalization from globalization that revealed, and intensified, its weaknesses. Accordingly, globalization should be regarded as an element of continuity between the cold war and post-cold war orders, and the latter should not be regarded as wholly distinct. There is a reason for scepticism that globalization is the exclusive hallmark of contemporary order. One reasons is that, as a long-term historical trend, globalization is not specific to the late twentieth or the early twenty-first century. Globalization is associated with a borderless world where old Westphalian order no longer applies. Globalization is too much outside our control to form order on its own. We are its objects rather than its subjects. E. Globalization and legitimacy There is evidence of resistance to globalization. Some is generated by the feeling that traditional democracy does not offer effective representation in the global order. National elections may not make politicians accountable if they cannot control wider global forces. There is a heated debate about whether global civil society can help democratize international institutions, or whether they themselves are largely undemocratic. Some governments in the South remain suspicious of social movements that may be better organized in developed countries. F. An international order of globalized states? Globalization is often thought of as an extreme form of interdependence. This sees it exclusively as an outside-in development. The implication of such analyses is that states are now much weaker as actors. Consequently, they are in retreat or becoming obsolete. If this were the case, ideas of international order would be much less relevant to our concept of order. But if globalization is considered as a transformation in the nature of states themselves, it suggests that states are still central to the discussion of order: they are different but not obsolete. This leads to the idea of a globalized state as a state form, and introduces an inside-out element. In this case, there is no contradiction between the norms and rules of a state system operating alongside globalized states. This international order will nonetheless have different norms and rules in recognition of the new nature of states and their transformed functions. Rules of sovereignty and non-intervention are undergoing change as symptoms of this adaptation.

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