Architecture Structure Concepts For Architects

Draft
LECTURE NOTES
AREN4525 STUCTURAL CONCEPTS AND SYSTEMS FOR ARCHITECTS
VICTOR E. SAOUMA SPRING 1997
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
July 8, 2003
02
Draft
In order to invent a structure and to give it exact proportions, one must follow both the intuitive and the mathematical paths.
-Pier Luigi Nervi
Victor Saouma
Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Draft
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Science and Technology . . . . . . 1.2 Structural Engineering . . . . . . . 1.3 Structures and their Surroundings 1.4 Architecture & Engineering . . . . 1.5 Architectural Design Process . . . 1.6 Architectural Design . . . . . . . . 1.7 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Load Transfer Mechanisms . . . . 1.10 Structure Types . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 Structural Engineering Courses . . 1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 112 113 21 21 21 22 22 24 25 25 25 29 211 214 216 218 218 218 219 219 220 220 221 221 221 225
2 LOADS 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Dead Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 2-1 Live Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 2-2 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 2-3 Earthquake Load on a Frame . . . . . . . . . . E 2-4 Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 2.4 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 2-5 Hydrostatic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 2-6 Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) . . 2.5 Other Important Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Load Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Load Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Structural Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Tributary Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
02
CONTENTS 31 31 31 35 36 36 37 37 38 317 41 41 43 44 46 48 51 51 51 53 53 54 55 55 56 57 58 58 59 59 510 512 514 514 514 515 516 518 518 519 522 524 526 528 537 537 538 539 539
Draft
3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS 3.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Structural Steel . . . . 3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . 3.2 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Steel Section Properties . . . 3.7 Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER 4.1 Materials, & Geometry . . . . . 4.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . .
5 REVIEW of STATICS 5.1 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Equations of Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Static Determinacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Geometric Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-1 Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-2 Three Span Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-3 Three Hinged Gable Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Basic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Determinacy and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Method of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-4 Truss, Method of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Shear & Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.1 Design Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations . . . . . . . 5.3.1.3 Moment Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-5 Simple Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . . E 5-6 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-7 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load E 5-8 Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame . . . . . . . . . . . E 5-9 Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame . . . . . . 5.3.2 Formulaes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Basic Kinematic Assumption; Curvature . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Stress-Strain Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Internal Equilibrium; Section Properties . . . . . . . . 5.4.3.1 Fx = 0; Neutral Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor Saouma
CONTENTS
03 5.4.3.2 M = 0; Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . Beam Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 540 541 542 542 61 61 64 64 65 67 67 71 71 71 73 74 75 76 76 77 78 78 710 712 712 713 714 715 716 717 717 717 717 718 718 719 719 720 81 81 81 83 83 86
Draft
5.4.4 E 5-10 5.4.5 E 5-11
6 Case Study II: GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE 6.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Cable Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 A BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE 7.1 Before the Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 The Medieval Period (477-1492) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 The Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Brunelleschi 1377-1446 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.3 Alberti 1404-1472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.4 Palladio 1508-1580 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.5 Stevin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.6 Galileo 1564-1642 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.1 Hooke, 1635-1703 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.2 Newton, 1642-1727 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.3 Bernoulli Family 1654-1782 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.4 Euler 1707-1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 The pre-Modern Period; Coulomb and Navier . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 The Modern Period (1857-Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.1 Structures/Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.2 Eiel Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3 Sullivan 1856-1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.4 Roebling, 1806-1869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.5 Maillart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.6 Nervi, 1891-1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.7 Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.8 et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Case Study III: MAGAZINI GENERALI 8.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
04
CONTENTS 91 91 92 93 93 95 97 97 97
Draft
9 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and GUIDELINES 9.1 Safety Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Ultimate Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Probabilistic Preliminaries . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 9-1 LRFD vs ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS 10.1 Nominal Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel 10.3 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Bending Capacity of Beams . . . 10.3.2 Design of Compact Sections . . . 10.4 Partially Compact Section . . . . . . . . 10.5 Slender Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 10-1 Z for Rectangular Section . . . . E 10-2 Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
101 . 102 . 102 . 104 . 104 . 106 . 106 . 107 . 107 . 107 . 108 111 . 111 . 111 . 112 . 112 . 113 . 113 . 114 . 114 . 115 . 116 . 117 . 118 . 119 . 119 . 1110 . 1110 121 . 121 . 121 . 124 . 124 . 124 . 124 . 124 . 125 . 128 . 1210
11 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Modes of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . . 11.1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method . 11.2.1 Equivalent Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.2 Balanced Steel Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 11-1 Ultimate Strength Capacity . . . . . . . . . . E 11-2 Beam Design I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 11-3 Beam Design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.2 Prestressing Forces . . . . . . 12.1.3 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . 12.1.4 Tendon Conguration . . . . 12.1.5 Equivalent Load . . . . . . . 12.1.6 Load Deformation . . . . . . 12.2 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . E 12-1 Prestressed Concrete I Beam 12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
CONTENTS
05 Cross-Section Properties Prestressing . . . . . . . Loads . . . . . . . . . . Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1210 1212 1213 1213
Draft
12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4
13 Three-Hinges ARCHES 13.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.1 Uniform Horizontal Load . . . . . . . E 13-1 Design of a Three Hinged Arch . . . . 13.2 Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) . 13.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches
131 . 131 . 131 . 133 . 135 . 135 . 138 . 138 . 1311 . 1312 . 1313 141 . 141 . 141 . 141 . 142 . 145 . 145 . 145 . 147 . 148 . 148 . 149 . 1410 . 1411 . 1413 . 1413 . 1415 . 1427 . 1427 . 1428 . 1428 . 1429 . 1430 . 1432 . 1434
14 BUILDING STRUCTURES 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1.1 Beam Column Connections . . . . . . . . . 14.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames . . . . . . . . . 14.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads . . . . . . . . 14.2 Buildings Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1 Wall Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall . . 14.2.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall . . 14.2.2 Shaft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem . . . . 14.2.3 Rigid Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings . . . . . . . . . 14.3.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . E 14-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected 14.4 Lateral Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1 Short Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.2 Tall Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.3 Walls and Lintel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.4 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.5 Trussed Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.6 Example of Transverse Deection . . . . . . 14.4.7 Eect of Bracing Trusses . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to Vertical and Horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
Draft
List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D) . Basic Aspects of Cable Systems . . . . . . . . Basic Aspects of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variations in Post and Beams Congurations Dierent Beam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Forms of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Air Supported Structures . . . . Basic Forms of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 22 25 26 27 28 210 212 213 218 221 222 223 224 225 32 32 34 34 35 37 38 317 41 43 43 44 45
Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snow Map of the United States, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loads on Projected Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibrations of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load Placement to Maximize Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load Transfer in R/C Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Way Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concept of Tributary Areas for Structual Member Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel . . . . . . Standard Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . . Residual Stresses in Welded Sections . . . . . . . . . Inuence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Concrete microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W and C sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . prefabricated Steel Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eiel Eiel Eiel Eiel Eiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Curve of a Rolled Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tower (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . .
02
LIST OF FIGURES Eiel Eiel Eiel Eiel Tower, Tower, Tower, Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 47 47 48 52 53 54 54 59 510 511 511 514 515 515 517 517 537 543 544 62 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 610 72 73 73 74 75 77 79 79 710 711 711 712 713 714 715 716 719
Draft
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 8.1 8.2
Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclined Roller Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X and Y Components of Truss Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam . . . . . . . . . Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment Deformation of a Beam un Pure Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elastic Curve from the Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Analysis of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cable Structure Subjected to p(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge Truck Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dead and Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location of Cable Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load . . . . . Cable Reactions in Side Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . Hamurrabis Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archimed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pantheon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, (Vitruvius 1960) Hagia Sophia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Florences Cathedral Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palladios Villa Rotunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stevin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, Cover Page . . . . Galileos Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experimental Set Up Used by Hooke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isaac Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Cover Page . Leonhard Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nervis Palazetto Dello Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
LIST OF FIGURES
03 . . . . 83 83 84 84
Draft
8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6
Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . .
. 85 . 85 . 86
Load Life of a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Denition of Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Lateral Bracing for Steel Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Failure of Steel beam; Plastic Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Failure of Steel beam; Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Failure of Steel beam; Lateral Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading . . . . . . . . . . Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels . . . . . . . . . . Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections . Failure Modes for R/C Beams . . . . . . . Internal Equilibrium in a R/C Beam . . . Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . Reinforcement in Continuous R/C Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 103 103 104 104 105 107 112 113 114 115 1111 122 122 123 125 126
Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . Determination of Equivalent Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8 Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9 Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . Victor Saouma
. 126 . 127 . 1211 . 1212 . . . . . . . . . . . 132 132 133 133 135 136 136 137 138 139 1310
04
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310 1311 1312 1314
Draft
13.12Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . 13.13Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . 13.14Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) . 13.15Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979) . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Axial and Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Trussed Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . . . . . 14.10Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces . . . 14.11Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments . . . . 14.12Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . . . . . 14.13***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . . . 14.14Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force . . . 14.15Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.16Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . 14.17Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.18Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.19Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . 14.20Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . 14.21Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.22Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.23Shear Deformation in a Short Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.24Flexural Deformation in a Tall Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . 14.25Deection in a Building Structure Composed of Two Slender Walls and Lintels, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.26Portal Method to Estimate Lateral Deformation in Frames, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . 14.27Shear and Flexural Deection of a Rigid Frame Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . 14.28Side-Sway Deection from Unsymmetrical Vertical Load, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . 14.29Axial Elongation and Shortening of a Truss Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . 14.30Transverse Deection, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.31Frame Rigidly Connected to Shaft, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.32Eect of Exterior Column Bracing in Buildings, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . .
. 141 . 142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 144 146 148 149 1410 1411 1412 1412 1414 1414 1415 1415 1417 1418 1420 1421 1423 1424 1425 1428 1428
. 1429 . 1430 . 1431 . 1431 . 1431 . 1432 . 1434 . 1435
Victor Saouma
Draft
List of Tables
1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Structural Engineering Coverage for Architects and Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 tab:secae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Unit Weight of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weights of Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind Velocity Variation above Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coecients of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of Major Structural Steels Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . Joist Series Characteristics . . . . . Joist Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 23 23 24 27 28 29 29 210 213 214 215 219 33 35 317 319
Equations of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete . . . . . . . . . Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . Strength Reduction Factors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Structural Span-Depth Ratios for Horizontal (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and Components . . . . . . . . . . . 93 . 95 . 96 . 98
14.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426 14.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427
02
LIST OF TABLES
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1
Science and Technology
There is a fundamental dierence between science and and technology. Engineering or technology is the making of things that did not previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of things that have long existed. Technological results are forms that exist only because people want to make them, whereas scientic results are informations of what exists independently of human intentions. Technology deals with the articial, science with the natural. (Billington 1985)
1.2
2
Structural Engineering
Structural engineers are responsible for the detailed analysis and design of:
Architectural structures: Buildings, houses, factories. They must work in close cooperation with an architect who will ultimately be responsible for the design. Civil Infrastructures: Bridges, dams, pipelines, oshore structures. They work with transportation, hydraulic, nuclear and other engineers. For those structures they play the leading role. Aerospace, Mechanical, Naval structures: aeroplanes, spacecrafts, cars, ships, submarines to ensure the structural safety of those important structures.
1.3
3
Structures and their Surroundings
Structural design is aected by various environmental constraints: 1. Major movements: For example, elevator shafts are usually shear walls good at resisting lateral load (wind, earthquake). 2. Sound and structure interact: A dome roof will concentrate the sound A dish roof will diuse the sound 3. Natural light: A at roof in a building may not provide adequate light.
12
INTRODUCTION A Folded plate will provide adequate lighting (analysis more complex). A bearing and shear wall building may not have enough openings for daylight. A Frame design will allow more light in (analysis more complex).
Draft
1.4
4
4. Conduits for cables (electric, telephone, computer), HVAC ducts, may dictate type of oor system. 5. Net clearance between columns (unobstructed surface) will dictate type of framing.
Architecture & Engineering
Architecture must be the product of a creative collaboration of architects and engineers.
Architect stress the overall, rather than elemental approach to design. In the design process, they conceptualize a space-form scheme as a total system. They are generalists. The engineer, partly due to his/her education think in reverse, starting with details and without sucient regards for the overall picture. (S)he is a pragmatist who knows everything about nothing. Thus there is a conceptual gap between architects and engineers at all levels of design.
Engineers education is more specialized and in depth than the architects. However, engineer must be kept aware of overall architectural objective. In the last resort, it is the architect who is the leader of the construction team, and the engineers are his/her servant. A possible compromise might be an Architectural Engineer.
10
1.5
11
Architectural Design Process
Architectural design is hierarchical:
Schematic: conceptual overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. Collaboration is mostly between the owner and the architect. Preliminary: Establish basic physical properties of major subsystems and key components to prove design feasibility. Some collaboration with engineers is necessary. Final design: nal in-depth design renements of all subsystems and components and preparation of working documents (blue-prints). Engineers play a leading role.
1.6
12
Architectural Design
Architectural design must respect various constraints:
Functionality: Inuence of the adopted structure on the purposes for which the structure was erected. Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place severe limitations on the structural system. Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest components of a structure are labors and materials. Design cost is comparatively negligible. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
1.7 Structural Analysis
13
Draft
13
Buildings may have dierent functions:
Residential: housing, which includes low-rise (up tp 2-3 oors), mid-rise (up to 6-8 oors) and high rise buildings.
Commercial: Oces, retail stores, shopping centers, hotels, restaurants. Industrial: warehouses, manufacturing. Institutional: Schools, hospitals, prisons, chruch, government buildings. Special: Towers, stadium, parking, airport, etc.
1.7
14
Structural Analysis
Given an existing structure subjected to a certain load determine internal forces (axial, shear, exural, torsional; or stresses), deections, and verify that no unstable failure can occur. Thus the basic structural requirements are:
15
Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values: < f Stiness: deections should be controlled: < max Stability: buckling or cracking should also be prevented
1.8
16
Structural Design
Given a set of forces, dimension the structural element.
Steel/wood Structures Select appropriate section. Reinforced Concrete: Determine dimensions of the element and internal reinforcement (number and sizes of reinforcing bars).
17 For new structures, iterative process between analysis and design. A preliminary design is made using rules of thumbs (best known to Engineers with design experience) and analyzed. Following design, we check for
Serviceability: deections, crack widths under the applied load. Compare with acceptable values specied in the design code. Failure (limit state): and compare the failure load with the applied load times the appropriate factors of safety. If the design is found not to be acceptable, then it must be modied and reanalyzed.
18 For existing structures rehabilitation, or verication of an old infrastructure, analysis is the most important component.
19
In summary, analysis is always required.
Victor Saouma
14
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)
1.9
20
Load Transfer Mechanisms
From Strength of Materials, loads can be transferred through various mechanisms, Fig. 1.1
Axial: cables, truss elements, arches, membrane, shells Flexural: Beams, frames, grids, plates Torsional: Grids, 3D frames Shear: Frames, grids, shear walls.
1.10
21
Structure Types
Structures can be classied as follows:
Tension & Compression Structures: only, no shear, exure, or torsion. Those are the most ecient types of structures. Cable (tension only): The high strength of steel cables, combined with the eciency of simple tension, makes cables ideal structural elements to span large distances such as bridges, and dish roofs, Fig. 1.2. A cable structure develops its load carrying capacity by adjusting its shape so as to provide maximum resistance (form follows function). Care should be exercised in minimizing large deections and vibrations. Arches (mostly compression) is a reversed cable structure. In an arch, exure/shear is minimized and most of the load is transfered through axial forces only. Arches are used for large span roofs and bridges, Fig. 1.3
Victor Saouma
1.10 Structure Types
15
Draft
Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems
Victor Saouma
16
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches
Victor Saouma
17
Draft
Trusses have pin connected elements which can transmit axial forces only (tension and compression). Elements are connected by either slotted, screwed, or gusset plate connectors. However, due to construction details, there may be secondary stresses caused by relatively rigid connections. Trusses are used for joists, roofs, bridges, electric tower, Fig. 1.4
Figure 1.4: Types of Trusses Post and Beams: Essentially a support column on which a beam rests, Fig. 1.5, and 1.6. Beams: Shear, exure and sometimes axial forces. Recall that = beams, i.e. span/depth at least equal to ve.
Mc I
is applicable only for shallow
Whereas r/c beams are mostly rectangular or T shaped, steel beams are usually I shaped (if the top anges are not properly stiened, they may buckle, thus we must have stieners). Frames: Load is co-planar with the structure. Axial, shear, exure (with respect to one axis in 2D structures and with respect to two axis in 3D structures), torsion (only in 3D). The frame is composed of at least one horizontal member (beam) rigidly connected to vertical ones1 . The vertical
1 The precursor of the frame structures were the Post and Lintel where the post is vertical member on which the lintel is simply posed.
Victor Saouma
18
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Congurations
Victor Saouma
19
Draft
VIERENDEEL TRUSS TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS
OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM
BRACED BEAM
CABLE-STAYED BEAM
SUSPENDED CABLE SUPPORTED BEAM
BOWSTRING TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED STRUTED ARCH OR CABLE BEAM/TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED MULTI-STRUT BEAM OR TRUSS
GABLED TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME
CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME
Figure 1.6: Dierent Beam Types Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
110
INTRODUCTION members can have dierent boundary conditions (which are usually governed by soil conditions). Frames are extensively used for houses and buildings, Fig. 1.7.
Draft
Figure 1.7: Basic Forms of Frames Grids and Plates: Load is orthogonal to the plane of the structure. Flexure, shear, torsion. In a grid, beams are at right angles resulting in a two-way dispersal of loads. Because of the rigid connections between the beams, additional stiness is introduced by the torsional resistance of members. Grids can also be skewed to achieve greater eciency if the aspect ratio is not close to one. Plates are at, rigid, two dimensional structures which transmit vertical load to their supports. Used mostly for oor slabs. Folded plates is a combination of transverse and longitudinal beam action. Used for long span roofs. Note that the plate may be folded circularly rather than longitudinally. Folded plates are used mostly as long span roofs. However, they can also be used as vertical walls to support both vertical and horizontal loads. Membranes: 3D structures composed of a exible 2D surface resisting tension only. They are usually cable-supported and are used for tents and long span roofs Fig. 1.8. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
111
Draft
Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures
Victor Saouma
112
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Shells: 3D structures composed of a curved 2D surface, they are usually shaped to transmit compressive axial stresses only, Fig. 1.9.
Figure 1.9: Basic Forms of Shells Shells are classied in terms of their curvature.
1.11
Structural Engineering Courses
22 Structural engineering education can be approached from either one of two points of views, depending on the audience, ??.
Approach Emphasis Analysis Structures Design
Architects Global Structure Approximate, rules of thumbs preliminary Most Approximate
Engineers Elemental Component Exact, detailled Final Trusses, Frames Per code
Table 1.1: Structural Engineering Coverage for Architects and Engineers Table 1.2: tab:secae
Victor Saouma
1.12 References
113
Draft
1.12
Architects: Start from overall design, and move toward detailed analysis. Emphasis on good understanding of overall structural behavior. Develop a good understanding of load transfer mechanism for most types of structures, cables, arches, beams, frames, shells, plates. Approximate analysis for most of them. Engineers: Emphasis is on the individual structural elements and not always on the total system. Focus on beams, frames (mostly 2D) and trusses. Very seldom are arches covered. Plates and shells are not even mentioned.
References
23 Following are some useful references for structural engineering, those marked by were consulted, and borrowed from in preparing the Lecture Notes or are particularly recommended.
Structures for Architect 1. Ambrose, J., Building Structures, second Ed. Wiley, 1993. 2. Billington, D.P. Rober Maillarts Bridges; The Art of Engineering, Princeton University Pres, 1979. 3. Billington, D.P., The Tower and the Bridge; The new art of structural engineering, Princeton University Pres,, 1983. 4. Billington, D.P., Structures and the Urban Environment, Lectures Notes CE 262, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University, 1978 5. French, S., Determinate Structures; Statics, Strength, Analysis, Design, Delmar, 1996. 6. Gordon, J.E., Structures, or Why Things Dont Fall Down, Da Capo paperback, New York, 1978. 7. Gordon, J.E., The Science of Structures and Materials, Scientic American Library, 1988. 8. Hawkes, N., Structures, the way things are built, MacMillan, 1990. 9. Levy, M. and Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Fall Down, W.W.Norton, 1992. 10. Lin, T.Y. and Stotesbury, S.D., Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John Wiley, 1981. 11. Mainstone, R., Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane Publishers, 1975. 12. Petroski, H., To Enginer is Human, Vintage Books, 1992. 13. Salvadori, M. and Heller, R., Structure in Architecture; The Building of Buildings, Prentice Hall, Third Edition, 1986. 14. Salvadori, M. and Levy, M., Structural Design in Architecture, Prentice hall, Second Edition, 1981. 15. Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Stand Up; The Strength of Architecture, Norton Paperack, 1990. 16. Sandaker, B.N. and Eggen, A.P., The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of Design, 1992. 17. Schueller, W., The design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall, 1996. Structures for Engineers 1. Arbadi, F. Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. 2. Biggs, J.M., Introduction to Structural Engineering; Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1986. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
114
INTRODUCTION 3. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988. 4. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, 1989
Draft
5. White, R. Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R., Structural Engineering; Combined Edition, John Wiley, 1976. 6. Nilson, A., and Winter, G. Design of Concrete Structures, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill, 1991.
7. Galambos, T., Lin, F.J., and Johnston, B.G., Basic Steel Design with LRFD, Prentice Hall, 1996. 8. Salmon C. and Johnson, J. Steel Structures, Third Edition, Harper Collins Publisher, 1990. 9. Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N. and Stallmeyer, J.E., Design of Steel Structures, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 1992. 10. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, Dover Publications, 1960. 11. Palladio, A., The Four Books of Architecture, Dover Publication. Codes 1. ACI-318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute 2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction. 3. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Ocials, 5360 South Workman Road; Whittier, CA 90601 4. Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National Standards Institute, Inc., New York, 1972.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 2
LOADS
2.1
1
Introduction
The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another: bridge deck to pier; slab to beam; beam to girder; girder to column; column to foundation; foundation to soil. There can also be secondary loads such as thermal (in restrained structures), dierential settlement of foundations, P-Delta eects (additional moment caused by the product of the vertical force and the lateral displacement caused by lateral load in a high rise building). Loads are generally subdivided into two categories
Vertical Loads or gravity load 1. dead load (DL) 2. live load (LL) also included are snow loads. Lateral Loads which act horizontally on the structure 1. Wind load (WL) 2. Earthquake load (EL) this also includes hydrostatic and earth loads.
4
This distinction is helpful not only to compute a structures load, but also to assign dierent factor of safety to each one. For a detailed coverage of loads, refer to the Universal Building Code (UBC), (UBC 1995).
2.2
6
Vertical Loads
For closely spaced identical loads (such as joist loads), it is customary to treat them as a uniformly distributed load rather than as discrete loads, Fig. 2.1
22
LOADS
Draft
2.2.1 Dead Load
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM
w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN
SUPPORT BEAM
SPAN
ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD TYPICAL SYSTEM OF JOISTS
Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads
7 Dead loads (DL) consist of the weight of the structure itself, and other permanent xtures (such as walls, slabs, machinery).
For analysis purposes, dead loads can easily be determined from the structures dimensions and density, Table 2.1 Material Aluminum Brick Concrete Steel Wood (pine) lb/ft3 173 120 145 490 40 kN/m3 27.2 18.9 33.8 77.0 6.3
Table 2.1: Unit Weight of Materials For steel structures, the weight per unit length of rolled sections is given in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction.
10 For design purposes, dead loads must be estimated and veried at the end of the design cycle. This makes the design process iterative.
11
Weights for building materials is given in Table 2.2 For preliminary design purposes the average dead loads of Table 2.3 can be used:
12
2.2.2
Live Loads
13 Contrarily to dead loads which are xed and vertical, live loads (LL) are movable or moving and may be horizontal. 14 Occupancy load may be due to people, furniture, equipment. The loads are essentially variable point loads which can be placed anywhere.
15
In analysis load placement should be such that their eect (shear/moment) are maximized.
16 A statistical approach is used to determine a uniformly distributed static load which is equivalent to the weight of the maximum concentration of occupants. These loads are dened in codes such as the Uniform Building Code or the ANSI Code, Table 2.4.
17
For small areas (30 to 50 sq ft) the eect of concentrated load should be considered separately.
Victor Saouma
2.2 Vertical Loads
23
Draft
Material
lb/ft2 1 1 2-10 12 1 4 1-5 6 3 9-14 3 2 17 40 14 2 10 5 40 120 30 55 80 21 38 55
Ceilings Channel suspended system Acoustical ber tile Floors Steel deck Concrete-plain 1 in. Linoleum 1/4 in. Hardwood Roofs Copper or tin 5 ply felt and gravel Shingles asphalt Clay tiles Sheathing wood Insulation 1 in. poured in place Partitions Clay tile 3 in. Clay tile 10 in. Gypsum Block 5 in. Wood studs 2x4 (12-16 in. o.c.) Plaster 1 in. cement Plaster 1 in. gypsum Walls Bricks 4 in. Bricks 12 in. Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate) 4 in. 8 in. 12 in. Hollow concrete block (light aggregate) 4 in. 8 in. 12 in.
Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials
Material Timber Steel Reinforced concrete
lb/ft2 40-50 50-80 100-150
Table 2.3: Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings
Victor Saouma
24
LOADS Use or Occupancy Assembly areas Cornices, marquees, residential balconies Corridors, stairs Garage Oce buildings Residential Storage lb/ft2 50 60 100 50 50 40 125-250
Draft
Table 2.4: Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995)

18 Since there is a small probability that the whole oor in a building be fully loaded, the UBC code species that the occupancy load for members supporting an area A larger than 150 ft2 (i.e. a column with a total tributary area, including oors above it, larger than 150 ft2 ) may be reduced by R where
R = r(A 150) 23.1 1 +
DL LL
(2.1)
where r = .08 for oors, A is the supported area ( ft2 ) DL and LL are the dead and live loads per unit area supported by the member. R can not exceed 40% for horizontal members and 60% for vertical ones.
Example 2-1: Live Load Reduction In a 10 story oce building with a column spacing of 16 ft in both directions, the total dead load is 60 psf, snow load 20 psf and live load 80 psf. what is the total live load and total load for which a column must be designed on the ground oor Solution: 1. The tributary area is 16 16 = 256f t2 > 150 2. The reduction R for the roof is is R = .08(16 16 150) = 8.48% 3. Maximum allowable reduction Rmax = 23.1 1 +
60 80
= 40.4% which is less than 60%
4. The reduced cumulative load for the column of each oor is

Floor A A 150 R R% LL (100 R) LL/100 Roof 256 106 8.48 8.48 20 18.3 10 512 362 28.96 28.96 80 56.83 9 768 618 49.44 40.4 80 47.68 8 1024 874 69.92 40.4 80 47.68 7 1280 1130 90.40 40.4 80 47.68 6 1536 1386 110.88 40.4 80 47.68 5 1792 1642 131.36 40.4 80 47.68 4 2048 1898 151.84 40.4 80 47.68 3 2304 2154 172.32 40.4 80 47.68 2 2560 2410 192.8 40.4 80 47.68
The resulting design live load for the bottom column has been reduced from LLBef ore = (20) psf(256) ft2 + (9)(80) psf(256) ft2 = 189,440 lbs Roof Victor Saouma 9 oors Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects (2.2)
2.3 Lateral Loads
25
Draft
to
LLReduced = (18.3) psf(256) ft2 + (9)(47.68) psf(256) ft2 = 114,540 lbs Roof 9 oors
(2.3)
k 5. The total dead load is DL = (10)(60) psf(256) ft2 (1,000) lbs = 153.6 Kips, thus the total reduction in load is from 153.6+189.4 = 343 k to 153.6+114.5 = 268.1 k a reduction of 343268 100= 22% . 343
2.2.3
Snow
19 Roof snow load vary greatly depending on geographic location and elevation. They range from 20 to 45 psf, Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Snow Map of the United States, ubc Snow loads are always given on the projected length or area on a slope, Fig. 2.3.
20
21 The steeper the roof, the lower the snow retention. For snow loads greater than 20 psf and roof pitches more than 20 the snow load p may be reduced by
R = ( 20)
p 0.5 40
(psf)
(2.4)
2.3
2.3.1
22
Lateral Loads
Wind
Wind load depend on: velocity of the wind, shape of the building, height, geographical location, texture of the building surface and stiness of the structure. Wind loads are particularly signicant on tall buildings1 .
23
1 The primary design consideration for very high rise buildings is the excessive drift caused by lateral load (wind and possibly earthquakes).
Victor Saouma
26
LOADS
Draft
WIND LOAD
LIVE LOAD DEAD LOAD
Figure 2.3: Loads on Projected Dimensions When a steady streamline airow of velocity V is completely stopped by a rigid body, the stagnation pressure (or velocity pressure) qs was derived by Bernouilli (1700-1782) qs = 1 2 V 2 (2.5)
24
where the air mass density is the air weight divided by the accleration of gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2 . At sea level and a temperature of 15o C (59o F), the ai weighs 0.0765 lb/ft3 this would yield a pressure of qs = or qs = 0.00256V 2 (2.7) 1 (0.0765)lb/ft 2 (32.2)ft/sec2
3
LE N
RUN
TH
(5280)ft/mile V (3600)sec/hr
RISE
(2.6)
where V is the maximum wind velocity (in miles per hour) and qs is in psf. V can be obtained from wind maps (in the United States 70 V 110), Fig. 2.4.
25 During storms, wind velocities may reach values up to or greater than 150 miles per hour, which corresponds to a dynamic pressure qs of about 60 psf (as high as the average vertical occupancy load in buildings).
26
Wind pressure increases with height, Table 2.5. Wind load will cause suction on the leeward sides, Fig. 2.6 Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
27
Victor Saouma
2.3 Lateral Loads
27
Draft
Figure 2.4: Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995)
Height Zone (in feet) <30 30 to 49 50 to 99 100 to 499 500 to 1199 >1,200
20 15 20 25 30 35 40
Wind-Velocity 25 30 35 20 25 25 25 30 35 30 40 45 40 45 55 45 55 60 50 60 70
Map 40 30 40 50 60 70 80
Area 45 35 45 55 70 80 90
50 40 50 60 75 90 100
Table 2.5: Wind Velocity Variation above Ground
Victor Saouma
28
LOADS
Draft
Figure 2.5: Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996)

28 This magnitude must be modied to account for the shape and surroundings of the building. Thus, the design base pressure (at 33.3 ft from the ground) p (psf) is given by
p = Ce Cq Iqs The pressure is assumed to be normal to all walls and roofs and
(2.8)
Ce Velocity Pressure Coecient accounts for height, exposure and gust factor. It accounts for the fact that wind velocity increases with height and that dynamic character of the airow (i.e the wind pressure is not steady), Table 2.6. l Ce 1.39-2.34 1.06-2.19 0.62-1.80 Exposure D C B
Open, at terrain facing large bodies of water Flat open terrain, extending one-half mile or open from the site in any full quadrant Terrain with buildings, forest, or surface irregularities 20 ft or more in height
Table 2.6: Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995) Cq Pressure Coecient is a shape factor which is given in Table 2.7 for gabled frames. I Importance Factor as given by Table 2.8. where Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
2.3 Lateral Loads
29 Leeward Side 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 1.3 1.4 0.7
Draft
Windward Side Gabled Frames (V:H) Roof Slope <9:12 0.7 9:12 to 12:12 0.4 >12:12 0.7 Walls 0.8 Buildings (height < 200 ft) Vertical Projections height < 40 ft 1.3 height > 40 ft 1.4 Horizontal Projections 0.7
Table 2.7: Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995) Imprtance Factor I Earthquake Wind 1.25 1.15 1.25 1.15 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
I II III IV
Occupancy Category Essential facilities Hazardous facilities Special occupancy structures Standard occupancy structures
Table 2.8: Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995) I Essential Facilities: Hospitals; Fire and police stations; Tanks; Emergency vehicle shelters, standby power-generating equipment; Structures and equipment in government. communication centers. II Hazardous Facilities: Structures housing, supporting or containing sucient quantities of toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the safety of the general public if released. III Special occupancy structure: Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly, capacity > 300 persons. Buildings for schools through secondary or day-care centers, capacity > 250 persons. Buildings for colleges or adult education schools, capacity > 500 persons. Medical facilities with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included above Jails and detention facilities All structures with occupancy >5,000 persons. Structures and equipment in power generating stations and other public utilitiy facilities not included above, and required for continued operation. IV Standard occupancy structure: All structures having occupancies or functions not listed above.
29
For the preliminary design of ordinary buildings Ce = 1.0 and Cq = 1.3 may be assumed, yielding p = (1.3).020256V 2 = .00333V 2 (2.9)
which corresponds to a pressure of 21 psf for a wind speed of 80 mph, Fig. 2.6, Table 2.9.
Example 2-2: Wind Load Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
210
LOADS
Draft
Height Above Grade (ft) 0-15 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400
Exposure B C Basic Wind Speed (mph) 70 80 70 80 10 13 17 23 11 14 18 24 12 15 19 25 12 16 20 26 14 18 21 28 17 22 25 33 18 24 27 35 20 26 28 37 21 28 29 38 23 30 31 41 25 33 33 43 29 37 36 47 32 41 38 50
Table 2.9: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
400 Exposure B, 70 mph Exposure B, 80 mph Exposure C, 70 mph Exposure C, 80 mph
350
300
Height Above Grade (ft)
250
200
150
100
50
10
15 20 25 30 35 40 Approximate Design Wind Pressure (psf)
45
50
Figure 2.6: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
Victor Saouma
2.3 Lateral Loads
211
Draft
Determine the wind forces on the building shown on below which is built in St Louis and is surrouded by trees. Solution: 1. From Fig. 2.4 the maximum wind velocity is St. Louis is 70 mph, since the building is protected we can take Ce = 0.7, I = 1.. The base wind pressure is qs = 0.00256 (70)2 = 12.54 psf.
2. The slope of the roof is 8:15=6.4:12 which gives Cq = 0.7 for both the windward and leeward sides. The vertical walls have Cq = 0.8 for the winward side and Cq = 0.5 for the leeward one. 3. Thus the applied pressure on the roof is p = 0.7 (0.7) 12.54 = -6.14 psf that is the roof is subjected to uplift. 4. The winward wall, the pressure is 0.7 0.8 12.54 = 7.02 psf , and for the leeward wall 0.7 (0.5) 12.54 = -4.39 psf (suction) , 5. The direction of the wind can change and hence each structural component must be designed to resist all possible load combinations. 6. For large structures which may be subjected to large wind loads, testing in a wind tunnel of the structure itself and its surroundings is often accomplished.
2.3.2
30
Earthquakes
Buildings should be able to resist
Minor earthquakes without damage Moderate earthquakes without structural damage but possibly with some nonstructural damages Major earthquakes without collapse but possibly with some structural damage as well as nonstructural damage
Victor Saouma
212
LOADS
Draft
31 32
This is achieved through an appropriate dynamic analysis. For preliminary designs or for small structures an equivalent horizontal static load can be determined. Actual loads depend on the following 1. Intensity of the ground acceleration (including soil/rock properties). 2. Dynamic properties of the building, such as its mode shapes and periods of vibration and its damping characteristics. 3. Mass of the building.
33 A critical factor in the dynamic response of a structure is the fundamental period of the structures vibration (or rst mode of vibration). This is the time required for one full cycle of motion, Fig. 2.7. If the earthquake excitation has a frequency close to the one of the building, then resonance may occur. This should be avoided.
Figure 2.7: Vibrations of a Building Earthquake load manifests itself as a horizontal force due to the (primarily) horizontal inertia force (F = ma). The horizontal force at each level is calculated as a portion of the base shear force V V = where: Z: Zone Factor: to be determined from Fig. 2.8 and Table 2.10. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects ZIC W RW (2.10)
34
35
2.3 Lateral Loads
213
Draft
Figure 2.8: Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995) Seismic Zone Z 0 0 1 0.075 2A 0.15 2B 0.2 3 0.3 4 0.4
Table 2.10: Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc I: Importance Factor: which was given by Table 2.8. C: Design Response Spectrum given by C= 1.25S 2.75 T 2/3 (2.11)
T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building in seconds. This can be determined from either the free vibration analysis of the building, or estimated from the following empirical formula T = Ct (hn )3/4 where: hn is the building height above base in ft. and Ct 0.035 steel moment resisting frames Ct 0.030 reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames Ct 0.020 all other buildings S: Site Coecient given by Table 2.11 Note that most of the damages in the 1990? earthquake in San Francisco occurred in the marina where many houses were built on soft soil. and C 0.075 RW Victor Saouma (2.13) (2.12)
214
LOADS Type S1 S2 S3 S4 Description A soil prole with either rock-like material or sti/dense soil less than 200 ft. Dense or sti soil exceeding 200 ft 70 ft or more soil containing more than 20 ft of soft to medium sti clay but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay. Soil containing more than 40 ft of soft clay S Factor 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Draft
Table 2.11: S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995) RW is given by Table 2.12. W Load total structure load.
36 The horizontal force V is distributed over the height of the building in two parts. The rst (applied only if T 0.7 sec.) is a concentrated force F1 equal to
Ft = 0.07T V 0.25V
(2.14)
is applied at the top of the building due to whiplash. The balance of the force V Ft is distributed as a triangular load diminishing to zero at the base.
37
Assuming a oor weight constant for every oor level, then the force acting on each one is given by Fx = (V Ft )hx (V Ft )hx = h1 + h2 + + hn n hi i=1 (2.15)
where hi and hx are the height in ft above the base to level i, or x respectively. Note that it is assumed that all oors have also same width.
Example 2-3: Earthquake Load on a Frame Determine the approximate earthquake forces for the ductile hospital frame structure shown below. The DL for each oor is 200 lb/ft and the LL is 400 lb/ft. The structure is built on soft soil. Use DL plus 50%LL as the weight of each oor. The building is in zone 3.
Solution:
Victor Saouma
2.3 Lateral Loads
215
Draft
RW Bearing wall system Light-framed walls with shear panels Plywood walls for structures three stories or less 8 All other light-framed walls 6 Shear walls Concrete 8 Masonry 8 Building frame system using trussing or shear walls) Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame 10 Light-framed walls with shear panels Plywood walls for structures three stories or less 9 All other light-framed walls 7 Shear walls Concrete 8 Masonry 8 Concentrically braced frames Steel 8 Concrete (only for zones I and 2) 8 Heavy timber 8 Moment-resisting frame system Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF) Steel 12 Concrete 12 Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF)only for zones 1 and 2 8 Ordinary moment-resisting frames (OMRF) Steel 6 Concrete (only for zone 1) 5 Dual systems (selected cases are for ductile rigid frames only) Shear walls Concrete with SMRF 12 Masonry with SMRF 8 Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame 6-12 Concentrically braced frame 12 Steel with steel SMRF 10 Steel with steel OMRF 6 Concrete with concrete SMRF (only for zones 1 and 2) 9 Structural System H (ft) 65 65 240 160 240 65 65 240 160 160 65
N.L. N.L. 160 -
N.L. 160 160-N.L. N. L. N.L. 160 -
Table 2.12: Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995)
Victor Saouma
216
LOADS
Draft
4. Check
1. The fundamental period of vibration is T = Ct (hn )3/4 = (0.030)(24)3/4 = 0.32 sec. (1.25)(2.0) 1.25S = = 5.344 > 2.75 2/3 T (0.32)2/3 (2.16)
2. The C coecient is C= use C = 2.75.
(2.17)
3. The other coecients are: Z =0.3; I=1.25; RW =12 2.75 C = 0.23 > 0.075 = RW 12 (2.18)
5. The total vertical load is W = 2 ((200 + 0.5(400)) (20) = 16000 lbs 6. The total seismic base shear is V = = (0.3)(1.25)(2.75) ZIC = 0.086W = RW 12 (0.086)(16000) = 1375 lbs (2.20-a) (2.20-b) (2.19)
7. Since T < 0.7 sec. there is no whiplash. 8. The load on each oor is thus given by F2 F1 = = (1375)(24) = 916.7 lbs 12 + 24 (1375)(12) = 458.3 lbs 12 + 24 (2.21-a) (2.21-b)
Example 2-4: Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 1996) Determine the approximate critical lateral loading for a 25 storey, ductile, rigid space frame concrete structure in the short direction. The rigid frames are spaced 25 ft apart in the cross section and 20 ft in the longitudinal direction. The plan dimension of the building is 175x100 ft, and the structure is 25(12)=300 ft high. This oce building is located in an urban environment with a wind velocity of 70 mph and in seismic zone 4. For this investigation, an average building total dead load of 192 psf is used. Soil conditions are unknown.
Victor Saouma
2.3 Lateral Loads
217
Draft
470 k
2638 k
1523 k
300/2=150
2(300)/3=200
84000 k
3108 k
5(20)=100
Solution: 1. The total building weight is W = (0.1926) ksf(100 175) ft2 25 storeys = 84, 000 k 2. the fundamental period of vibration for a rigid frame is T = Ct (hn )3/4 = 0.030(300)3/4 = 2.16 sec. > 0.7 sec. 3. The C coecient is C= 1.25S (1.25)(1.5) = = 1.12 2.75 2/3 2/3 T (2.16) (2.23) (2.22)
7(25)=175
25(12)=300
(2.24)
4. The other coecients are Z=0.4; I=1, RW =12 5. We check 1.12 C = 0.093 0.075 = RW 12 (2.25)
6. The total seismic base shear along the critical short direction is V = = (0.4)(1)(1.12) ZIC W = 0.037W W = RW (12) (0.037)(84000) = 3108 kip (2.26-a) (2.26-b)
7. Since T > 0.7 sec., the whiplash eect must be considered Ft = 0.07T V = (0.07)(2.16)(3108) = 470 k le 0.25V = (0.25)(3108) = 777 k ' (2.27-a) (2.27-b)
Victor Saouma
218
LOADS Hence the total triangular load is V Ft = 3108 470 = 2638 k (2.28)
Draft
8. let us check if wind load governs. From Table xx we conservatively assume a uniform wind pressure of 29 psf resulting in a total lateral force of PW = (0.029) psf(175 300) ft2 = 1523 k < 3108 k The magnitude of the total seismic load is clearly larger than the total wind force. (2.29)
2.4
2.4.1
38
Other Loads
Hydrostatic and Earth
Structures below ground must resist lateral earth pressure. q = Kh (2.30)
where is the soil density, K =

39
1sin 1+sin
is the pressure coecient, h is the height.
For sand and gravel = 120 lb/ ft3 , and 30 . If the structure is partially submerged, it must also resist hydrostatic pressure of water, Fig. 2.9.
40
Figure 2.9: Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures
q = W h where W = 62.4 lbs/ft3 .
(2.31)
Example 2-5: Hydrostatic Load Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
2.4 Other Loads
219
Draft
concrete
The basement of a building is 12 ft below grade. Ground water is located 9 ft below grade, what thickness concrete slab is required to exactly balance the hydrostatic uplift? Solution: The hydrostatic pressure must be countered by the pressure caused by the weight of concrete. Since p = h we equate the two pressures and solve for h the height of the concrete slab (62.4) lbs/ft3 (12 9) ft =
(62.4) lbs/ft 3 (150) lbs/ft
3
water (3) ft(12) in/ft = 14.976 in 15.0 inch
(150) lbs/ft3 h h =
2.4.2
Thermal
41 If a member is uniformly heated (or cooled) without restraint, then it will expand (or contract). This expansion is given by
l = lT where is the coecient of thermal expansion, Table 2.13 (/F ) 6.5 106 5.5 106
(2.32)
Steel Concrete
Table 2.13: Coecients of Thermal Expansion If the member is restrained against expansion, then a compressive stress = ET is developed. To avoid excessive stresses due to thermal loading expansion joints are used in bridges and buildings.
42
43
Example 2-6: Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) A low-rise building is enclosed along one side by a 100 ft-long clay masonary ( = 3.6 106 in./in./o F, E = 2, 400, 000 psi) bearing wall. The structure was built at a temperature of 60o F and is located in the northern part of the United States where the temperature range is between -20o and +120o F. Solution: 1. Assuming that the wall can move freely with no restraint from cross-walls and foundation, the wall expansion and contraction (summer and winter) are given by LSummer LWinter = = T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = 0.26 (2.33-a) in T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = -0.35 in (2.33-b)
Victor Saouma
220
LOADS
Draft
Summer Winter
2. We now assume (conservatively) that the free movement cannot occur (L = 0) hence the resulting stress would be equal to = E = E L = E T L = ET L L = = ET = (2, 400, 000) ET = (2, 400, 000)
lbs in lbs in2
2 (3.6
106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F = 518
lbs
(3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F = -691
in2 lbs in2
Tension2.34-a) ( Compression (2.34-b) (2.34-c)
Note that the tensile stresses being beyond the masonary capacity, cracking will occur.
2.5
2.5.1
44
Other Important Considerations

Load Combinations
Live loads specied by codes represent the maximum possible loads.
45 The likelihood of all these loads occurring simultaneously is remote. Hence, building codes allow certain reduction when certain loads are combined together.
46
Furthermore, structures should be designed to resist a combination of loads.
47 Denoting D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil: 48 For the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method of concrete structures, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building design code (318) (318 n.d.) requires that the following load combinations be considered:
1. 1.4D+1.7L 2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W) 3. 0.9D+1.3W 4. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H 5. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L) 6. 1.4(D+T) whereas for steel structures, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code, (of Steel COnstruction 1986) requires that the following combinations be veried 1. 1.4D 2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S) 3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S) 4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W 5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
Victor Saouma
2.5 Other Important Considerations
221
Draft
50
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
49 Analysis can be separately performed for each of the basic loads (L, D, W, etc) and then using the principle of superposition the loads can be linearly combined (unless the elastic limit has been reached).
Loads are often characterized as Usual, Unusual and Extreme.
2.5.2
Load Placement
51 Only the dead load is static. The live load on the other hand may or may not be applied on a given component of a structure. Hence, the load placement arrangement resulting in the highest internal forces (moment +ve or -ve, shear) at dierent locations must be considered, Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Load Placement to Maximize Moments
2.5.3
Load Transfer
52 Whereas we will be focusing on the design of a reinforced concrete or steel section, we must keep in mind the following:
1. The section is part of a beam or girder. 2. The beam or girder is really part of a three dimensional structure in which load is transmitted from any point in the structure to the foundation through any one of various structural forms.
53
Load transfer in a structure is accomplished through a hierarchy of simple exural elements which are then connected to the columns, Fig. 2.11 or by two way slabs as illustrated in Fig. 2.12.
2.5.4
Structural Response
54 Under the action of the various forces and loadings described above, the structure must be able to respond with proper behavior, Fig. 9.1.
Victor Saouma
222
LOADS
Draft
Figure 2.11: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
223
Draft
Figure 2.12: Two Way Actions
Victor Saouma
224
LOADS
Draft
Figure 2.13: Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
225
Draft
2.5.5
Tributary Areas
55 For preliminary analyses, the tributary area of a structural component will determine the total applied load.
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 000000 111111
11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 0000 1111 11 00
Figure 2.14: Concept of Tributary Areas for Structual Member Loading
Victor Saouma
226
LOADS
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
1
Proper understanding of structural materials is essential to both structural analysis and to structural design. Characteristics of the most commonly used structural materials will be highlighted.
3.1
3.1.1
3
Steel
Structural Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its properties can be greatly varied by altering the carbon content (always less than 0.5%) or by adding other elements such as silicon, nickle, manganese and copper.
Practically all grades of steel have a Young Modulus equal to 29,000 ksi, density of 490 lb/cu ft, and a coecient of thermal expansion equal to 0.65 105 /deg F. The yield stress of steel can vary from 40 ksi to 250 ksi. Most commonly used structural steel are A36 (yld = 36 ksi) and A572 (yld = 50 ksi), Fig. 3.1 Structural steel can be rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Usually the most desirable members are those which have a large section moduli (S) in proportion to their area (A), Fig. 3.2. Steel can be bolted, riveted or welded.
Sections are designated by the shape of their cross section, their depth and their weight. For example W 27 114 is a W section, 27 in. deep weighing 114 lb/ft. Common sections are:
S sections were the rst ones rolled in America and have a slope on their inside ange surfaces of 1 to 6. W or wide ange sections have a much smaller inner slope which facilitates connections and rivetting. W sections constitute about 50% of the tonnage of rolled structural steel. C are channel sections MC Miscellaneous channel which can not be classied as a C shape by dimensions. HP is a bearing pile section.
32
Draft
Figure 3.1: Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel
Figure 3.2: Standard Rolled Sections
Victor Saouma
3.1 Steel
33
Draft
10
M is a miscellaneous section. L are angle sections which may have equal or unequal sides. WT is a T section cut from a W section in two. The section modulus Sx of a W section can be roughly approximated by the following formula Sx wd/10 Ix Sx d wd2 /20 2 (3.1)
or
and the plastic modulus can be approximated by Zx wd/9 (3.2)
11
Properties of structural steel are tabulated in Table 3.1.

ASTM Desig. A36 A500 Shapes Available Shapes and bars Cold formed welded seamless sections; and Use Riveted, bolted, welded; Buildings and bridges General structural purpose Riveted, welded or bolted; Bolted and welded Building frames and trusses; Bolted and welded Atmospheric corrosion resistant Cold formed sections Bridges y (kksi) 36 up through 8 in. (32 above 8.) Grade A: 33; Grade B: 42; Grade C: 46 36 42 u (kksi)
A501 A529
Hot formed welded and seamless sections; Plates and bars 1 in and less 2 thick; Hot and cold rolled sheets; Cold rolled sheet in cut lengths Structural shapes, plates and bars
A606 A611 A 709
45-50 Grade C 33; Grade D 40; Grade E 80 Grade 36: 36 (to 4 in.); Grade 50: 50; Grade 100: 100 (to 2.5in.) and 90 (over 2.5 to 4 in.)
Table 3.1: Properties of Major Structural Steels

12 Rolled sections, Fig. 3.3 and welded ones, Fig3.4 have residual stresses. Those originate during the rolling or fabrication of a member. The member is hot just after rolling or welding, it cools unevenly because of varying exposure. The area that cool rst become stier, resist contraction, and develop compressive stresses. The remaining regions continue to cool and contract in the plastic condition and develop tensile stresses. 13 Due to those residual stresses, the stress-strain curve of a rolled section exhibits a non-linear segment prior to the theoretical yielding, Fig. 3.5. This would have important implications on the exural and axial strength of beams and columns.
Victor Saouma
34
Draft
Maximum compressive stress, say 12 ksi average Compression (-) (-)
Tension (+) (+)
Figure 3.3: Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections
say 20 ksi say 12 ksi

+ + + _ +
say 40 ksi
20 ksi
say 35 ksi tension

-
Welded H say 20 ksi compression Welded box
Figure 3.4: Residual Stresses in Welded Sections
Victor Saouma
3.1 Steel
35
Draft
Fy
Average stress P/A
Ideal coupon containing no residual stress
.3 .2 .1
Maximum residual compressive stress 1
Fp
Figure 3.5: Inuence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section
3.1.2
Reinforcing Steel
14 Steel is also used as reinforcing bars Members Table 3.2. Those bars have a deformation on their in concrete, with residual stress surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually have a yield stress of 60 ksi1 .
Bar Designation No. 2 No. 3 Average No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 No. 11 No. 14 No. 18
Diameter Area Perimeter (in.) ( in2 ) in 2/8=0.250 0.05 0.79 3/8=0.375 0.11 copressive strain 1.18 4/8=0.500 0.20 1.57 5/8=0.625 0.31 1.96 6/8=0.750 0.44 2.36 7/8=0.875 0.60 2.75 8/8=1.000 0.79 3.14 9/8=1.128 1.00 3.54 10/8=1.270 1.27 3.99 11/8=1.410 1.56 4.43 14/8=1.693 2.25 5.32 18/8=2.257 4.00 7.09
Weight lb/ft 0.167 0.376 0.668 1.043 1.5202 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.650 13.60
Shaded portion indicates ar which has achieved a stress
Table 3.2: Properties of Reinforcing Bars

15 Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from re), and becomes brittle at 30 deg. F 16 Steel is also used as wire strands and ropes for suspended roofs, cable-stayed bridges, fabric roofs and other structural applications. A strand is a helical arrangement of wires around a central wire. A rope consists of multiple strands helically wound around a central plastic core, and a modulus of elasticity of 20,000 ksi, and an ultimate strength of 220 ksi.
17
Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.

1 Stirrups
which are used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear usually have a yield stress of only 40 ksi.
Victor Saouma
36
Draft
3.2
19 20
Aluminum
18 Aluminum is used whenever light weight combined with strength is an important factor. Those properties, along with its resistance to corrosion have made it the material of choice for airplane structures, light roof framing.
Aluminum members can be connected by riveting, bolting and to a lesser extent by welding.
Aluminum has a modulus of elasticity equal to 10,000 ksi (about three times lower than steel), a coecient of thermal expansion of 2.4 105 and a density of 173 lbs/ft3 .
21 The ultimate strength of pure aluminum is low (13,000 psi) but with the addition of alloys it can go up. 22 When aluminum is in contact with other metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion may cause damage. Thus, steel and aluminum in a structure must be carefully separated by means of painting or a nonconductive material.
3.3
23
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement2 , water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed stone). An ideal mixture is one in which: 1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the particles of aggregates. 2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement. In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining 1/4 being the cement paste.
24 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being coarse aggregates.
25
Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given by E = 57, 000 fc fc (3.3) (3.4)
or E = 33 1.5 where both fc and E are in psi and is in lbs/ft3 .

26 Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
27
All concrete fail at an ultimate strain of 0.003, Fig. 3.1. Pre-peak nonlinearity is caused by micro-cracking Fig. 3.6. The tensile strength of concrete ft is about 10% of the compressive strength. Density of normal weight concrete is 145 lbs/ft3 and 100 lbs/ft3 for lightweight concrete.
28
29
30
2 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in a kiln and then pulverized. When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called hydration.
Victor Saouma
3.4 Masonry
37
Draft
Figure 3.6: Concrete microcracking Coecient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
.5fc fc linear u non-linear
31
32 When concrete is poured (or rather placed), the free water not needed for the hydration process evaporates over a period of time and the concrete will shrink. This shrinkage is about 0.05% after one year (strain). Thus if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur3 . 33 Concrete will also deform with time due to the applied load, this is called creep. This should be taken into consideration when computing the deections (which can be up to three times the instantaneous elastic deection).
3.4
Masonry
34 Masonry consists of either natural materials, such as stones, or of manufactured products such as bricks and concrete blocks4 , stacked and bonded together with mortar. 35 As for concrete, all modern structural masonry blocks are essentially compression members with low tensile resistance.
36
The mortar used is a mixture of sand, masonry cement, and either Portland cement or hydrated lime.
3.5
Timber
37 Timber is one of the earliest construction materials, and one of the few natural materials with good tensile properties.
38
The properties of timber vary greatly, and the strength is time dependent. Timber is a good shock absorber (many wood structures in Japan have resisted repeated earthquakes).
39
40 The most commonly used species of timber in construction are Douglas r, southern pine, hemlock and larch. 41 Members can be laminated together under good quality control, and exural strengths as high as 2,500 psi can be achieved.
3 For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement, can reduce the shrinkage by 75%. 4 Mud bricks were used by the Babylonians, stones by the Egyptians, and ice blocks by the Eskimos...
Victor Saouma
38
Draft
3.6
42
Steel Section Properties
Dimensions and properties of rolled sections are tabulated in the following pages, Fig. 3.7.
Figure 3.7: W and C sections ==============
Victor Saouma
3.6 Steel Section Properties
39
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation W 36x848 W 36x798 W 36x720 W 36x650 W 36x588 W 36x527 W 36x485 W 36x439 W 36x393 W 36x359 W 36x328 W 36x300 W 36x280 W 36x260 W 36x245 W 36x230 W 36x256 W 36x232 W 36x210 W 36x194 W 36x182 W 36x170 W 36x160 W 36x150 W 36x135 W 33x619 W 33x567 W 33x515 W 33x468 W 33x424 W 33x387 W 33x354 W 33x318 W 33x291 W 33x263 W 33x241 W 33x221 W 33x201 W 33x169 W 33x152 W 33x141 W 33x130 W 33x118 W 30x581 W 30x526 W 30x477 W 30x433 W 30x391 W 30x357 W 30x326 W 30x292 W 30x261 W 30x235 W 30x211 W 30x191 W 30x173 W 30x148 W 30x132 W 30x124 W 30x116 W 30x108 W 30x 99 W 30x 90
A in2 249.0 234.0 211.0 190.0 172.0 154.0 142.0 128.0 115.0 105.0 96.4 88.3 82.4 76.5 72.1 67.6 75.4 68.1 61.8 57.0 53.6 50.0 47.0 44.2 39.7 181.0 166.0 151.0 137.0 124.0 113.0 104.0 93.5 85.6 77.4 70.9 65.0 59.1 49.5 44.7 41.6 38.3 34.7 170.0 154.0 140.0 127.0 114.0 104.0 95.7 85.7 76.7 69.0 62.0 56.1 50.8 43.5 38.9 36.5 34.2 31.7 29.1 26.4
d in 42.45 41.97 41.19 40.47 39.84 39.21 38.74 38.26 37.80 37.40 37.09 36.74 36.52 36.26 36.08 35.90 37.43 37.12 36.69 36.49 36.33 36.17 36.01 35.85 35.55 38.47 37.91 37.36 36.81 36.34 35.95 35.55 35.16 34.84 34.53 34.18 33.93 33.68 33.82 33.49 33.30 33.09 32.86 35.39 34.76 34.21 33.66 33.19 32.80 32.40 32.01 31.61 31.30 30.94 30.68 30.44 30.67 30.31 30.17 30.01 29.83 29.65 29.53
Ix in4 67400 62600 55300 48900 43500 38300 34700 31000 27500 24800 22500 20300 18900 17300 16100 15000 16800 15000 13200 12100 11300 10500 9750 9040 7800 41800 37700 33700 30100 26900 24300 21900 19500 17700 15800 14200 12800 11500 9290 8160 7450 6710 5900 33000 29300 26100 23200 20700 18600 16800 14900 13100 11700 10300 9170 8200 6680 5770 5360 4930 4470 3990 3620
Sx in3 3170 2980 2690 2420 2180 1950 1790 1620 1450 1320 1210 1110 1030 953 895 837 895 809 719 664 623 580 542 504 439 2170 1990 1810 1630 1480 1350 1230 1110 1010 917 829 757 684 549 487 448 406 359 1870 1680 1530 1380 1250 1140 1030 928 827 746 663 598 539 436 380 355 329 299 269 245
Iy in4 4550 4200 3680 3230 2850 2490 2250 1990 1750 1570 1420 1300 1200 1090 1010 940 528 468 411 375 347 320 295 270 225 2870 2580 2290 2030 1800 1620 1460 1290 1160 1030 932 840 749 310 273 246 218 187 2530 2230 1970 1750 1550 1390 1240 1100 959 855 757 673 598 227 196 181 164 146 128 115
Sy in3 501 467 414 367 328 289 263 235 208 188 171 156 144 132 123 114 86 77 68 62 58 53 49 45 38 340 308 276 247 221 200 181 161 146 131 118 106 95 54 47 43 38 33 312 278 249 222 198 179 162 144 127 114 100 90 80 43 37 34 31 28 24 22
Zx in3 3830.0 3570.0 3190.0 2840.0 2550.0 2270.0 2070.0 1860.0 1660.0 1510.0 1380.0 1260.0 1170.0 1080.0 1010.0 943.0 1040.0 936.0 833.0 767.0 718.0 668.0 624.0 581.0 509.0 2560.0 2330.0 2110.0 1890.0 1700.0 1550.0 1420.0 1270.0 1150.0 1040.0 939.0 855.0 772.0 629.0 559.0 514.0 467.0 415.0 2210.0 1990.0 1790.0 1610.0 1430.0 1300.0 1190.0 1060.0 941.0 845.0 749.0 673.0 605.0 500.0 437.0 408.0 378.0 346.0 312.0 283.0
Zy in3 799.0 743.0 656.0 580.0 517.0 454.0 412.0 367.0 325.0 292.0 265.0 241.0 223.0 204.0 190.0 176.0 137.0 122.0 107.0 97.7 90.7 83.8 77.3 70.9 59.7 537.0 485.0 433.0 387.0 345.0 312.0 282.0 250.0 226.0 202.0 182.0 164.0 147.0 84.4 73.9 66.9 59.5 51.3 492.0 438.0 390.0 348.0 310.0 279.0 252.0 223.0 196.0 175.0 154.0 138.0 123.0 68.0 58.4 54.0 49.2 43.9 38.6 34.7
2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.2 4.5 5.0 5.3 5.7 6.1 6.5 3.5 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.5 5.9 6.4 7.6 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.7 6.2 6.8 4.7 5.5 6.0 6.7 7.8 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6 5.0 5.7 6.3 7.0 4.4 5.3 5.7 6.2 6.9 7.8 8.5
12.5 13.2 14.5 16.0 17.6 19.6 21.0 23.1 25.8 28.1 30.9 33.3 35.6 37.5 39.4 41.4 33.8 37.3 39.1 42.4 44.8 47.8 50.0 52.0 54.1 15.2 16.6 18.2 19.7 21.7 23.8 25.8 28.8 31.2 34.5 36.1 38.7 41.9 44.7 47.2 49.6 51.7 54.5 13.7 15.1 16.6 18.0 19.9 21.8 23.7 26.5 29.0 32.5 34.9 38.0 41.2 41.5 43.9 46.2 47.8 49.6 51.9 57.5
Victor Saouma
310
A in2 158.0 145.0 131.0 119.0 108.0 98.7 90.2 82.6 75.7 69.1 63.8 57.0 52.3 47.4 42.9 37.8 33.5 30.0 27.7 24.8 144.0 132.0 119.0 108.0 98.4 89.8 82.0 73.5 67.2 60.7 56.3 51.7 47.7 43.0 38.5 34.4 30.6 30.3 27.7 24.7 22.4 20.1 18.2 16.2 118.0 107.0 97.9 88.2 80.8 72.8 65.4 59.2 53.6 48.8 43.2 38.8 35.9 32.7 29.8 27.3 24.3 21.5 d in 32.52 31.97 31.42 30.87 30.39 30.00 29.61 29.29 28.98 28.66 28.43 28.11 27.81 27.59 27.38 27.63 27.29 27.09 26.92 26.71 29.65 29.09 28.54 27.99 27.52 27.13 26.73 26.34 26.02 25.71 25.47 25.24 25.00 24.74 24.48 24.26 24.06 24.53 24.31 24.10 23.92 23.73 23.74 23.57 26.02 25.47 25.00 24.53 24.13 23.74 23.35 23.03 22.72 22.48 22.06 21.83 21.68 21.51 21.36 21.62 21.43 21.24
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation W 27x539 W 27x494 W 27x448 W 27x407 W 27x368 W 27x336 W 27x307 W 27x281 W 27x258 W 27x235 W 27x217 W 27x194 W 27x178 W 27x161 W 27x146 W 27x129 W 27x114 W 27x102 W 27x 94 W 27x 84 W 24x492 W 24x450 W 24x408 W 24x370 W 24x335 W 24x306 W 24x279 W 24x250 W 24x229 W 24x207 W 24x192 W 24x176 W 24x162 W 24x146 W 24x131 W 24x117 W 24x104 W 24x103 W 24x 94 W 24x 84 W 24x 76 W 24x 68 W 24x 62 W 24x 55 W 21x402 W 21x364 W 21x333 W 21x300 W 21x275 W 21x248 W 21x223 W 21x201 W 21x182 W 21x166 W 21x147 W 21x132 W 21x122 W 21x111 W 21x101 W 21x 93 W 21x 83 W 21x 73
Ix in4 25500 22900 20400 18100 16100 14500 13100 11900 10800 9660 8870 7820 6990 6280 5630 4760 4090 3620 3270 2850 19100 17100 15100 13400 11900 10700 9600 8490 7650 6820 6260 5680 5170 4580 4020 3540 3100 3000 2700 2370 2100 1830 1550 1350 12200 10800 9610 8480 7620 6760 5950 5310 4730 4280 3630 3220 2960 2670 2420 2070 1830 1600
Sx in3 1570 1440 1300 1170 1060 970 884 811 742 674 624 556 502 455 411 345 299 267 243 213 1290 1170 1060 957 864 789 718 644 588 531 491 450 414 371 329 291 258 245 222 196 176 154 131 114 937 846 769 692 632 569 510 461 417 380 329 295 273 249 227 192 171 151
Iy in4 2110 1890 1670 1480 1310 1170 1050 953 859 768 704 618 555 497 443 184 159 139 124 106 1670 1490 1320 1160 1030 919 823 724 651 578 530 479 443 391 340 297 259 119 109 94 82 70 34 29 1270 1120 994 873 785 694 609 542 483 435 376 333 305 274 248 93 81 71
Sy in3 277 250 224 200 179 161 146 133 120 108 100 88 79 71 64 37 32 28 25 21 237 214 191 170 152 137 124 110 99 89 82 74 68 60 53 46 41 26 24 21 18 16 10 8 189 168 151 134 122 109 96 86 77 70 60 54 49 44 40 22 20 17
Zx in3 1880.0 1710.0 1530.0 1380.0 1240.0 1130.0 1020.0 933.0 850.0 769.0 708.0 628.0 567.0 512.0 461.0 395.0 343.0 305.0 278.0 244.0 1550.0 1410.0 1250.0 1120.0 1020.0 922.0 835.0 744.0 676.0 606.0 559.0 511.0 468.0 418.0 370.0 327.0 289.0 280.0 254.0 224.0 200.0 177.0 153.0 134.0 1130.0 1010.0 915.0 816.0 741.0 663.0 589.0 530.0 476.0 432.0 373.0 333.0 307.0 279.0 253.0 221.0 196.0 172.0
Zy in3 437.0 394.0 351.0 313.0 279.0 252.0 227.0 206.0 187.0 168.0 154.0 136.0 122.0 109.0 97.5 57.6 49.3 43.4 38.8 33.2 375.0 337.0 300.0 267.0 238.0 214.0 193.0 171.0 154.0 137.0 126.0 115.0 105.0 93.2 81.5 71.4 62.4 41.5 37.5 32.6 28.6 24.5 15.7 13.3 296.0 263.0 237.0 210.0 189.0 169.0 149.0 133.0 119.0 108.0 92.6 82.3 75.6 68.2 61.7 34.7 30.5 26.6
2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.7 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.2 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.7 7.5 8.5 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.7 6.0 6.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.6 5.4 6.0 6.5 7.1 7.7 4.5 5.0 5.6
12.3 13.4 14.7 15.9 17.6 19.2 20.9 22.9 24.7 26.6 29.2 32.3 33.4 36.7 40.0 39.7 42.5 47.0 49.4 52.7 10.9 11.9 13.1 14.2 15.6 17.1 18.6 20.7 22.5 24.8 26.6 28.7 30.6 33.2 35.6 39.2 43.1 39.2 41.9 45.9 49.0 52.0 50.1 54.6 10.8 11.8 12.8 14.2 15.4 17.1 18.8 20.6 22.6 24.9 26.1 28.9 31.3 34.1 37.5 32.3 36.4 41.2
Victor Saouma
311
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation W 21x 68 W 21x 62 W 21x 57 W 21x 50 W 21x 44 W 18x311 W 18x283 W 18x258 W 18x234 W 18x211 W 18x192 W 18x175 W 18x158 W 18x143 W 18x130 W 18x119 W 18x106 W 18x 97 W 18x 86 W 18x 76 W 18x 71 W 18x 65 W 18x 60 W 18x 55 W 18x 50 W 18x 46 W 18x 40 W 18x 35 W 16x100 W 16x 89 W 16x 77 W 16x 67 W 16x 57 W 16x 50 W 16x 45 W 16x 40 W 16x 36 W 16x 31 W 16x 26 W 14x730 W 14x665 W 14x605 W 14x550 W 14x500 W 14x455 W 14x426 W 14x398 W 14x370 W 14x342 W 14x311 W 14x283 W 14x257 W 14x233 W 14x211 W 14x193 W 14x176 W 14x159 W 14x145 W 14x132 W 14x120 W 14x109 W 14x 99 W 14x 90 W 14x 82
A in2 20.0 18.3 16.7 14.7 13.0 91.5 83.2 75.9 68.8 62.1 56.4 51.3 46.3 42.1 38.2 35.1 31.1 28.5 25.3 22.3 20.8 19.1 17.6 16.2 14.7 13.5 11.8 10.3 29.4 26.2 22.6 19.7 16.8 14.7 13.3 11.8 10.6 9.1 7.7 215.0 196.0 178.0 162.0 147.0 134.0 125.0 117.0 109.0 101.0 91.4 83.3 75.6 68.5 62.0 56.8 51.8 46.7 42.7 38.8 35.3 32.0 29.1 26.5 24.1
d in 21.13 20.99 21.06 20.83 20.66 22.32 21.85 21.46 21.06 20.67 20.35 20.04 19.72 19.49 19.25 18.97 18.73 18.59 18.39 18.21 18.47 18.35 18.24 18.11 17.99 18.06 17.90 17.70 16.97 16.75 16.52 16.33 16.43 16.26 16.13 16.01 15.86 15.88 15.69 22.42 21.64 20.92 20.24 19.60 19.02 18.67 18.29 17.92 17.54 17.12 16.74 16.38 16.04 15.72 15.48 15.22 14.98 14.78 14.66 14.48 14.32 14.16 14.02 14.31
Ix in4 1480 1330 1170 984 843 6960 6160 5510 4900 4330 3870 3450 3060 2750 2460 2190 1910 1750 1530 1330 1170 1070 984 890 800 712 612 510 1490 1300 1110 954 758 659 586 518 448 375 301 14300 12400 10800 9430 8210 7190 6600 6000 5440 4900 4330 3840 3400 3010 2660 2400 2140 1900 1710 1530 1380 1240 1110 999 882
Sx in3 140 127 111 94 82 624 564 514 466 419 380 344 310 282 256 231 204 188 166 146 127 117 108 98 89 79 68 58 175 155 134 117 92 81 73 65 56 47 38 1280 1150 1040 931 838 756 707 656 607 559 506 459 415 375 338 310 281 254 232 209 190 173 157 143 123
Iy in4 65 58 31 25 21 795 704 628 558 493 440 391 347 311 278 253 220 201 175 152 60 55 50 45 40 22 19 15 186 163 138 119 43 37 33 29 24 12 10 4720 4170 3680 3250 2880 2560 2360 2170 1990 1810 1610 1440 1290 1150 1030 931 838 748 677 548 495 447 402 362 148
Sy in3 16 14 9 8 6 132 118 107 96 85 77 69 61 56 50 45 39 36 32 28 16 14 13 12 11 7 6 5 36 31 27 23 12 10 9 8 7 4 3 527 472 423 378 339 304 283 262 241 221 199 179 161 145 130 119 107 96 87 74 68 61 55 50 29
Zx in3 160.0 144.0 129.0 110.0 95.4 753.0 676.0 611.0 549.0 490.0 442.0 398.0 356.0 322.0 291.0 261.0 230.0 211.0 186.0 163.0 145.0 133.0 123.0 112.0 101.0 90.7 78.4 66.5 198.0 175.0 150.0 130.0 105.0 92.0 82.3 72.9 64.0 54.0 44.2 1660.0 1480.0 1320.0 1180.0 1050.0 936.0 869.0 801.0 736.0 672.0 603.0 542.0 487.0 436.0 390.0 355.0 320.0 287.0 260.0 234.0 212.0 192.0 173.0 157.0 139.0
Zy in3 24.4 21.7 14.8 12.2 10.2 207.0 185.0 166.0 149.0 132.0 119.0 106.0 94.8 85.4 76.7 69.1 60.5 55.3 48.4 42.2 24.7 22.5 20.6 18.5 16.6 11.7 9.9 8.1 54.9 48.1 41.1 35.5 18.9 16.3 14.5 12.7 10.8 7.0 5.5 816.0 730.0 652.0 583.0 522.0 468.0 434.0 402.0 370.0 338.0 304.0 274.0 246.0 221.0 198.0 180.0 163.0 146.0 133.0 113.0 102.0 92.7 83.6 75.6 44.8
Victor Saouma
6.0 6.7 5.0 6.1 7.2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.4 7.2 8.1 4.7 5.1 5.4 6.0 6.6 5.0 5.7 7.1 5.3 5.9 6.8 7.7 5.0 5.6 6.2 6.9 8.1 6.3 8.0 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.6 5.1 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.1 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.3 10.2 5.9
43.6 46.9 46.3 49.4 53.6 10.6 11.5 12.5 13.8 15.1 16.7 18.0 19.8 21.9 23.9 24.5 27.2 30.0 33.4 37.8 32.4 35.7 38.7 41.2 45.2 44.6 51.0 53.5 24.3 27.0 31.2 35.9 33.0 37.4 41.2 46.6 48.1 51.6 56.8 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.7 6.1 6.4 6.9 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.7 10.7 11.6 12.8 13.7 15.3 16.8 17.7 19.3 21.7 23.5 25.9 22.4
312
A in2 21.8 20.0 17.9 15.6 14.1 12.6 11.2 10.0 8.9 7.7 6.5 98.8 89.6 81.9 74.1 67.7 61.8 55.8 50.0 44.7 39.9 35.3 31.2 28.2 25.6 23.2 21.1 19.1 17.0 15.6 14.7 13.2 11.8 10.3 8.8 7.7 6.5 5.6 4.7 4.2 32.9 29.4 25.9 22.6 20.0 17.6 15.8 14.4 13.3 11.5 9.7 8.8 7.6 6.5 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.5 d in 14.17 14.04 13.89 13.92 13.79 13.66 14.10 13.98 13.84 13.91 13.74 16.82 16.32 15.85 15.41 15.05 14.71 14.38 14.03 13.71 13.41 13.12 12.89 12.71 12.53 12.38 12.25 12.12 12.19 12.06 12.19 12.06 11.94 12.50 12.34 12.22 12.31 12.16 11.99 11.91 11.36 11.10 10.84 10.60 10.40 10.22 10.09 9.98 10.10 9.92 9.73 10.47 10.33 10.17 10.24 10.11 9.99 9.87
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation W 14x 74 W 14x 68 W 14x 61 W 14x 53 W 14x 48 W 14x 43 W 14x 38 W 14x 34 W 14x 30 W 14x 26 W 14x 22 W 12x336 W 12x305 W 12x279 W 12x252 W 12x230 W 12x210 W 12x190 W 12x170 W 12x152 W 12x136 W 12x120 W 12x106 W 12x 96 W 12x 87 W 12x 79 W 12x 72 W 12x 65 W 12x 58 W 12x 53 W 12x 50 W 12x 45 W 12x 40 W 12x 35 W 12x 30 W 12x 26 W 12x 22 W 12x 19 W 12x 16 W 12x 14 W 10x112 W 10x100 W 10x 88 W 10x 77 W 10x 68 W 10x 60 W 10x 54 W 10x 49 W 10x 45 W 10x 39 W 10x 33 W 10x 30 W 10x 26 W 10x 22 W 10x 19 W 10x 17 W 10x 15 W 10x 12
Ix in4 796 723 640 541 485 428 385 340 291 245 199 4060 3550 3110 2720 2420 2140 1890 1650 1430 1240 1070 933 833 740 662 597 533 475 425 394 350 310 285 238 204 156 130 103 89 716 623 534 455 394 341 303 272 248 209 170 170 144 118 96 82 69 54
Sx in3 112 103 92 78 70 63 55 49 42 35 29 483 435 393 353 321 292 263 235 209 186 163 145 131 118 107 97 88 78 71 65 58 52 46 39 33 25 21 17 15 126 112 98 86 76 67 60 55 49 42 35 32 28 23 19 16 14 11
Iy in4 134 121 107 58 51 45 27 23 20 9 7 1190 1050 937 828 742 664 589 517 454 398 345 301 270 241 216 195 174 107 96 56 50 44 24 20 17 5 4 3 2 236 207 179 154 134 116 103 93 53 45 37 17 14 11 4 4 3 2
Sy in3 27 24 22 14 13 11 8 7 6 4 3 177 159 143 127 115 104 93 82 73 64 56 49 44 40 36 32 29 21 19 14 12 11 7 6 5 2 2 1 1 45 40 35 30 26 23 21 19 13 11 9 6 5 4 2 2 1 1
Zx in3 126.0 115.0 102.0 87.1 78.4 69.6 61.5 54.6 47.3 40.2 33.2 603.0 537.0 481.0 428.0 386.0 348.0 311.0 275.0 243.0 214.0 186.0 164.0 147.0 132.0 119.0 108.0 96.8 86.4 77.9 72.4 64.7 57.5 51.2 43.1 37.2 29.3 24.7 20.1 17.4 147.0 130.0 113.0 97.6 85.3 74.6 66.6 60.4 54.9 46.8 38.8 36.6 31.3 26.0 21.6 18.7 16.0 12.6
Zy in3 40.6 36.9 32.8 22.0 19.6 17.3 12.1 10.6 9.0 5.5 4.4 274.0 244.0 220.0 196.0 177.0 159.0 143.0 126.0 111.0 98.0 85.4 75.1 67.5 60.4 54.3 49.2 44.1 32.5 29.1 21.4 19.0 16.8 11.5 9.6 8.2 3.7 3.0 2.3 1.9 69.2 61.0 53.1 45.9 40.1 35.0 31.3 28.3 20.3 17.2 14.0 8.8 7.5 6.1 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.7
6.4 7.0 7.7 6.1 6.7 7.5 6.6 7.4 8.7 6.0 7.5 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.0 9.9 7.8 8.7 6.3 7.0 7.8 6.3 7.4 8.5 4.7 5.7 7.5 8.8 4.2 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.4 8.2 8.9 6.5 7.5 9.1 5.7 6.6 8.0 5.1 6.1 7.4 9.4
25.3 27.5 30.4 30.8 33.5 37.4 39.6 43.1 45.4 48.1 53.3 5.5 6.0 6.3 7.0 7.6 8.2 9.2 10.1 11.2 12.3 13.7 15.9 17.7 18.9 20.7 22.6 24.9 27.0 28.1 26.2 29.0 32.9 36.2 41.8 47.2 41.8 46.2 49.4 54.3 10.4 11.6 13.0 14.8 16.7 18.7 21.2 23.1 22.5 25.0 27.1 29.5 34.0 36.9 35.4 36.9 38.5 46.6
Victor Saouma
313
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation W 8x 67 W 8x 58 W 8x 48 W 8x 40 W 8x 35 W 8x 31 W 8x 28 W 8x 24 W 8x 21 W 8x 18 W 8x 15 W 8x 13 W 8x 10 W 6x 25 W 6x 20 W 6x 15 W 6x 16 W 6x 12 W 6x 9 W 5x 19 W 5x 16 W 4x 13 M 14x 18 M 12x 12 M 12x 11 M 12x 10 M 10x 9 M 10x 8 M 10x 8 M 8x 6 M 6x 4 M 5x 19 S 24x121 S 24x106 S 24x100 S 24x 90 S 24x 80 S 20x 96 S 20x 86 S 20x 75 S 20x 66 S 18x 70 S 18x 55 S 15x 50 S 15x 43 S 12x 50 S 12x 41 S 12x 35 S 12x 32 S 10x 35 S 10x 25 S 8x 23 S 8x 18 S 7x 20 S 7x 15 S 6x 17 S 6x 12 S 5x 15 S 5x 10 S 4x 10 S 4x 8 S 3x 8 S 3x 6
A in2 19.7 17.1 14.1 11.7 10.3 9.1 8.2 7.1 6.2 5.3 4.4 3.8 3.0 7.3 5.9 4.4 4.7 3.5 2.7 5.5 4.7 3.8 5.1 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.3 5.6 35.6 31.2 29.3 26.5 23.5 28.2 25.3 22.0 19.4 20.6 16.1 14.7 12.6 14.7 12.0 10.3 9.4 10.3 7.5 6.8 5.4 5.9 4.5 5.1 3.7 4.3 2.9 2.8 2.3 2.2 1.7
d in 9.00 8.75 8.50 8.25 8.12 8.00 8.06 7.93 8.28 8.14 8.11 7.99 7.89 6.38 6.20 5.99 6.28 6.03 5.90 5.15 5.01 4.16 14.00 12.00 11.97 11.97 10.00 9.95 9.99 8.00 6.00 5.00 24.50 24.50 24.00 24.00 24.00 20.30 20.30 20.00 20.00 18.00 18.00 15.00 15.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 10.00 10.00 8.00 8.00 7.00 7.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00
Ix in4 272 228 184 146 127 110 98 83 75 62 48 40 31 53 41 29 32 22 16 26 21 11 148 72 65 62 39 34 33 18 7 24 3160 2940 2390 2250 2100 1670 1580 1280 1190 926 804 486 447 305 272 229 218 147 124 65 58 42 37 26 22 15 12 7 6 3 3
Sx in3 60 52 43 36 31 28 24 21 18 15 12 10 8 17 13 10 10 7 6 10 9 5 21 12 11 10 8 7 7 5 2 10 258 240 199 187 175 165 155 128 119 103 89 65 60 51 45 38 36 29 25 16 14 12 10 9 7 6 5 3 3 2 2
Iy in4 89 75 61 49 43 37 22 18 10 8 3 3 2 17 13 9 4 3 2 9 8 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 8 83 77 48 45 42 50 47 30 28 24 21 16 14 16 14 10 9 8 7 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0
Sy in3 21 18 15 12 11 9 7 6 4 3 2 1 1 6 4 3 2 2 1 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 21 20 13 13 12 14 13 9 9 8 7 6 5 6 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
Zx in3 70.2 59.8 49.0 39.8 34.7 30.4 27.2 23.2 20.4 17.0 13.6 11.4 8.9 18.9 14.9 10.8 11.7 8.3 6.2 11.6 9.6 6.3 24.9 14.3 13.2 12.2 9.2 8.2 7.7 5.4 2.8 11.0 306.0 279.0 240.0 222.0 204.0 198.0 183.0 153.0 140.0 125.0 105.0 77.1 69.3 61.2 53.1 44.8 42.0 35.4 28.4 19.3 16.5 14.5 12.1 10.6 8.5 7.4 5.7 4.0 3.5 2.4 2.0
Zy in3 32.7 27.9 22.9 18.5 16.1 14.1 10.1 8.6 5.7 4.7 2.7 2.2 1.7 8.6 6.7 4.8 3.4 2.3 1.7 5.5 4.6 2.9 2.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 5.0 36.2 33.2 23.9 22.3 20.7 24.9 23.0 16.7 15.3 14.4 12.1 10.0 9.0 10.3 8.9 6.8 6.4 6.2 5.0 3.7 3.2 3.0 2.4 2.4 1.9 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.7
4.4 5.1 5.9 7.2 8.1 9.2 7.0 8.1 6.6 8.0 6.4 7.8 9.6 6.7 8.2 11.5 5.0 7.1 9.2 5.8 6.9 5.9 7.4 6.8 7.3 9.1 6.5 7.4 7.8 6.0 5.4 6.0 3.7 3.6 4.2 4.1 4.0 3.9 3.8 4.0 3.9 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.4 4.2 4.0 4.7 4.6 5.0 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.9 4.7 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.6 4.8 4.5 4.8 4.5
11.1 12.4 15.8 17.6 20.4 22.2 22.2 25.8 27.5 29.9 28.1 29.9 40.5 15.5 19.1 21.6 19.1 21.6 29.2 14.0 15.8 10.6 60.3 62.5 63.6 68.0 58.4 59.3 65.0 53.8 47.0 11.2 26.4 34.1 28.3 33.7 42.1 21.6 26.2 27.1 34.1 21.8 33.6 23.2 31.0 13.9 20.7 23.4 28.6 13.8 26.4 14.5 23.7 12.3 21.9 9.9 19.9 7.5 17.4 8.7 14.7 5.6 11.4
Victor Saouma
314
A in2 14.7 11.8 10.0 8.8 7.3 6.1 8.8 7.3 5.9 4.5 5.9 4.4 3.9 5.5 4.0 3.4 4.3 3.6 2.9 3.8 3.1 2.4 2.6 2.0 2.1 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.2 d in 15. 15. 15. 12. 12. 12. 10. 10. 10. 10. 9. 9. 9. 8. 8. 8. 7. 7. 7. 6. 6. 6. 5. 5. 4. 4. 3. 3. 3.
bf 2tf hc tw
Draft
Designation C 15.x 50 C 15.x 40 C 15.x 34 C 12.x 30 C 12.x 25 C 12.x 21 C 10.x 30 C 10.x 25 C 10.x 20 C 10.x 15 C 9.x 20 C 9.x 15 C 9.x 13 C 8.x 19 C 8.x 14 C 8.x 12 C 7.x 15 C 7.x 12 C 7.x 10 C 6.x 13 C 6.x 11 C 6.x 8 C 5.x 9 C 5.x 7 C 4.x 7 C 4.x 5 C 3.x 6 C 3.x 5 C 3.x 4
Ix in4 404.0 349.0 315.0 162.0 144.0 129.0 103.0 91.2 78.9 67.4 60.9 51.0 47.9 44.0 36.1 32.6 27.2 24.2 21.3 17.4 15.2 13.1 8.9 7.5 4.6 3.8 2.1 1.9 1.7 Sx in3 14.1 10.9 8.4 7.5 8.4 7.1 5.8 4.4 8.6 7.6 6.7 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.1 3.5 3.0 7.2 6.3 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.8 4.2 3.2 2.7
Sx in3 53.8 46.5 42.0 27.0 24.1 21.5 20.7 18.2 15.8 13.5 13.5 11.3 10.6 11.0 9.0 8.1 7.8 6.9 6.1 5.8 5.1 4.4 3.6 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.4 1.2 1.1 Iy in4 11.60 9.36 7.43 6.74 9.05 7.84 6.53 5.10 35.50 31.90 28.20 24.20 22.10 19.90 17.70 15.40 13.00 9.75 8.68 7.52 6.91 6.27 5.60 4.90 4.18 4.25 3.34 2.85
Iy in4 11. 9.23 8.13 5.14 4.47 3.88 3.94 3.36 2.81 2.28 2.42 1.93 1.76 1.98 1.53 1.32 1.38 1.17 0.97 1.05 0.87 0.69 0.63 0.48 0.43 0.32 0.31 0.25 0.20 Sy in3 3.94 3.07 2.38 2.15 3.03 2.58 2.12 1.63 8.57 7.63 6.66 5.66 5.14 4.61 4.08 3.53 2.97 3.39 2.97 2.54 2.31 2.08 1.85 1.60 1.35 1.59 1.23 1.04
Sy in3 3.78 3.37 3.11 2.06 1.88 1.73 1.65 1.48 1.32 1.16 1.17 1.01 0.96 1.01 0.85 0.78 0.78 0.70 0.63 0.64 0.56 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.28 0.27 0.23 0.20 Zx in3 24.30 18.90 14.50 13.00 14.80 12.60 10.30 7.87 15.50 13.80 12.00 10.20 9.26 8.31 7.34 6.35 5.35 12.70 11.20 9.51 8.66 7.78 6.88 5.97 5.03 7.50 5.76 4.85
Zx in3 8.20 57.20 50.40 33.60 29.20 25.40 26.60 23. 19.30 15.80 16.80 13.50 12.50 13.80 10.90 9.55 9.68 8.40 7.12 7.26 6.15 5.13 4.36 3.51 2.81 2.26 1.72 1.50 1.30 Zy in3 7.72 5.81 4.38 3.90 5.65 4.74 3.83 2.90 15.50 13.80 12.00 10.20 9.26 8.31 7.34 6.35 5.35 6.31 5.47 4.62 4.19 3.75 3.30 2.85 2.40 2.91 2.20 1.85
Zy in3 8.17 6.87 6.23 4.33 3.84 3.49 3.78 3.19 2.71 2.35 2.47 2.05 1.95 2.17 1.73 1.58 1.64 1.43 1.26 1.36 1.15 0.99 0.92 0.76 0.70 0.57 0.54 0.47 0.40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 wgt k/f t 37.40 28.70 21.90 19.60 26.20 22.10 17.90 13.60 37.40 33.10 28.70 24.20 21.90 19.60 17.20 14.90 12.40 27.20 23.60 20.00 18.10 16.20 14.30 12.30 10.30 15.30 11.70 9.80
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ix in4 69.6 54.9 42.8 38.5 37.8 32.4 26.7 20.6 35.5 31.9 28.2 24.2 22.1 19.9 17.7 15.4 13.0 27.7 24.5 21.1 19.3 17.4 15.5 13.5 11.4 16.6 12.9 10.9
Designation L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L 8.0x4.0x1.000 8.0x4.0x0.750 8.0x4.0x0.563 8.0x4.0x0.500 7.0x4.0x0.750 7.0x4.0x0.625 7.0x4.0x0.500 7.0x4.0x0.375 6.0x6.0x1.000 6.0x6.0x0.875 6.0x6.0x0.750 6.0x6.0x0.625 6.0x6.0x0.563 6.0x6.0x0.500 6.0x6.0x0.438 6.0x6.0x0.375 6.0x6.0x0.313 6.0x4.0x0.875 6.0x4.0x0.750 6.0x4.0x0.625 6.0x4.0x0.563 6.0x4.0x0.500 6.0x4.0x0.438 6.0x4.0x0.375 6.0x4.0x0.313 6.0x3.5x0.500 6.0x3.5x0.375 6.0x3.5x0.313
A in2 11.00 8.44 6.43 5.75 7.69 6.48 5.25 3.98 11.00 9.73 8.44 7.11 6.43 5.75 5.06 4.36 3.65 7.98 6.94 5.86 5.31 4.75 4.18 3.61 3.03 4.50 3.42 2.87
Victor Saouma
315
Ix in4 17.8 15.7 13.6 11.3 10.0 8.7 7.4 13.9 12.0 10.0 8.9 7.8 6.6 5.4 11.4 9.4 8.4 7.4 6.3 5.1 7.7 6.7 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.7 3.0 5.3 4.8 4.2 3.6 2.9 5.1 4.5 Sx in3 5.2 4.5 3.9 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.0 4.3 3.7 3.0 2.6 2.3 1.9 1.6 3.5 2.9 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.5 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.9 1.7 Iy in4 17.80 15.70 13.60 11.30 10.00 8.74 7.42 5.55 4.83 4.05 3.63 3.18 2.72 2.23 3.06 2.58 2.32 2.04 1.75 1.44 7.67 6.66 5.56 4.97 4.36 3.71 3.04 3.79 3.40 2.95 2.55 2.09 2.42 2.18 Sy in3 5.17 4.53 3.86 3.16 2.79 2.42 2.04 2.22 1.90 1.56 1.39 1.21 1.02 0.83 1.39 1.15 1.02 0.89 0.75 0.61 2.81 2.40 1.97 1.75 1.52 1.29 1.05 1.52 1.35 1.16 0.99 0.81 1.12 0.99 Zx in3 9.33 8.16 6.95 5.68 5.03 4.36 3.68 7.65 6.55 5.38 4.77 4.14 3.49 2.83 6.27 5.16 4.57 3.97 3.36 2.72 5.07 4.33 3.56 3.16 2.74 2.32 1.88 3.50 3.11 2.71 2.29 1.86 3.41 3.03 Zy in3 9.33 8.16 6.95 5.68 5.03 4.36 3.68 4.10 3.47 2.83 2.49 2.16 1.82 1.47 2.61 2.11 1.86 1.60 1.35 1.09 5.07 4.33 3.56 3.16 2.74 2.32 1.88 2.73 2.42 2.11 1.78 1.44 2.03 1.79
Draft
L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L
Designation
5.0x5.0x0.875 5.0x5.0x0.750 5.0x5.0x0.625 5.0x5.0x0.500 5.0x5.0x0.438 5.0x5.0x0.375 5.0x5.0x0.313 5.0x3.5x0.750 5.0x3.5x0.625 5.0x3.5x0.500 5.0x3.5x0.438 5.0x3.5x0.375 5.0x3.5x0.313 5.0x3.5x0.250 5.0x3.0x0.625 5.0x3.0x0.500 5.0x3.0x0.438 5.0x3.0x0.375 5.0x3.0x0.313 5.0x3.0x0.250 4.0x4.0x0.750 4.0x4.0x0.625 4.0x4.0x0.500 4.0x4.0x0.438 4.0x4.0x0.375 4.0x4.0x0.313 4.0x4.0x0.250 4.0x3.5x0.500 4.0x3.5x0.438 4.0x3.5x0.375 4.0x3.5x0.313 4.0x3.5x0.250 4.0x3.0x0.500 4.0x3.0x0.438
A in2 7.98 6.94 5.86 4.75 4.18 3.61 3.03 5.81 4.92 4.00 3.53 3.05 2.56 2.06 4.61 3.75 3.31 2.86 2.40 1.94 5.44 4.61 3.75 3.31 2.86 2.40 1.94 3.50 3.09 2.67 2.25 1.81 3.25 2.87
wgt k/f t 27.20 23.60 20.00 16.20 14.30 12.30 10.30 19.80 16.80 13.60 12.00 10.40 8.70 7.00 15.70 12.80 11.30 9.80 8.20 6.60 18.50 15.70 12.80 11.30 9.80 8.20 6.60 11.90 10.60 9.10 7.70 6.20 11.10 9.80
Victor Saouma
316
Designation A in2 2.48 2.09 1.69 3.25 2.87 2.48 2.09 1.69 3.00 2.65 2.30 1.93 1.56 2.75 2.43 2.11 1.78 1.44 2.75 2.43 2.11 1.78 1.44 1.09 2.50 2.21 1.92 1.62 1.31 1.00 2.25 2.00 1.73 1.46 1.19 0.90 2.25 1.73 1.46 1.19 0.90 1.55 1.31 1.06 0.81 1.36 1.15 0.94 0.71 0.48 0.81 0.62 0.69 0.53 0.56 0.43 0.27 0.23 wgt k/f t 8.50 7.20 5.80 11.10 9.80 8.50 7.20 5.80 10.20 9.10 7.90 6.60 5.40 9.40 8.30 7.20 6.10 4.90 9.40 8.30 7.20 6.10 4.90 3.71 8.50 7.60 6.60 5.60 4.50 3.39 7.70 6.80 5.90 5.00 4.10 3.07 7.70 5.90 5.00 4.10 3.07 5.30 4.50 3.62 2.75 4.70 3.92 3.19 2.44 1.65 2.77 2.12 2.34 1.80 1.92 1.48 0.90 0.80 Ix in4 4.0 3.4 2.8 3.6 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.0 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.0 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2 0.9 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 Sx in3 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.4 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 Iy in4 1.92 1.65 1.36 3.64 3.26 2.87 2.45 2.01 2.33 2.09 1.85 1.58 1.30 1.36 1.23 1.09 0.94 0.78 2.22 1.99 1.76 1.51 1.24 0.96 1.30 1.18 1.04 0.90 0.74 0.58 0.67 0.61 0.54 0.47 0.39 0.31 1.23 0.98 0.85 0.70 0.55 0.51 0.45 0.37 0.29 0.48 0.42 0.35 0.27 0.19 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.02 Sy in3 0.87 0.73 0.60 1.49 1.32 1.15 0.98 0.79 1.10 0.98 0.85 0.72 0.59 0.76 0.68 0.59 0.50 0.41 1.07 0.95 0.83 0.71 0.58 0.44 0.74 0.66 0.58 0.49 0.40 0.31 0.47 0.42 0.37 0.32 0.26 0.20 0.72 0.57 0.48 0.39 0.30 0.36 0.31 0.25 0.20 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.19 0.13 0.23 0.14 0.13 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.03 Zx in3 2.64 2.23 1.82 2.68 2.38 2.08 1.76 1.43 2.63 2.34 2.04 1.73 1.41 2.53 2.26 1.97 1.67 1.36 1.93 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.04 0.79 1.88 1.68 1.47 1.25 1.02 0.78 1.78 1.59 1.40 1.19 0.97 0.75 1.31 1.02 0.87 0.71 0.55 0.99 0.84 0.69 0.53 0.63 0.54 0.44 0.34 0.23 0.34 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.07 0.06 Zy in3 1.56 1.31 1.06 2.68 2.38 2.08 1.76 1.43 1.98 1.76 1.53 1.30 1.05 1.40 1.24 1.07 0.91 0.74 1.93 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.04 0.79 1.35 1.20 1.05 0.89 0.72 0.55 0.89 0.79 0.68 0.58 0.47 0.36 1.31 1.02 0.87 0.71 0.55 0.66 0.56 0.46 0.35 0.63 0.54 0.44 0.34 0.23 0.34 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.07 0.06
Draft
L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L
4.0x3.0x0.375 4.0x3.0x0.313 4.0x3.0x0.250 3.5x3.5x0.500 3.5x3.5x0.438 3.5x3.5x0.375 3.5x3.5x0.313 3.5x3.5x0.250 3.5x3.0x0.500 3.5x3.0x0.438 3.5x3.0x0.375 3.5x3.0x0.313 3.5x3.0x0.250 3.5x2.5x0.500 3.5x2.5x0.438 3.5x2.5x0.375 3.5x2.5x0.313 3.5x2.5x0.250 3.0x3.0x0.500 3.0x3.0x0.438 3.0x3.0x0.375 3.0x3.0x0.313 3.0x3.0x0.250 3.0x3.0x0.188 3.0x2.5x0.500 3.0x2.5x0.438 3.0x2.5x0.375 3.0x2.5x0.313 3.0x2.5x0.250 3.0x2.5x0.188 3.0x2.0x0.500 3.0x2.0x0.438 3.0x2.0x0.375 3.0x2.0x0.313 3.0x2.0x0.250 3.0x2.0x0.188 2.5x2.5x0.500 2.5x2.5x0.375 2.5x2.5x0.313 2.5x2.5x0.250 2.5x2.5x0.188 2.5x2.0x0.375 2.5x2.0x0.313 2.5x2.0x0.250 2.5x2.0x0.188 2.0x2.0x0.375 2.0x2.0x0.313 2.0x2.0x0.250 2.0x2.0x0.188 2.0x2.0x0.125 1.8x1.8x0.250 1.8x1.8x0.188 1.5x1.5x0.250 1.5x1.5x0.188 1.3x1.3x0.250 1.3x1.3x0.188 1.1x1.1x0.125 1.0x1.0x0.125
Victor Saouma
3.7 Joists
317
Draft
3.7
Joists
43 Steel joists, Fig. 3.8 look like shallow trusses (warren type) and are designed as simply supported uniformly loaded beams assuming that they are laterally supported on the top (to prevent lateral torsional buckling). The lateral support is often proded by the concrete slab it suppors. 44 The standard open-web joist designation consists of the depth, the series designation and the chord type. Three series are available for oor/roof construction, Table 3.3
Series K LH DLH
Depth (in) 8-30 18-48 52-72
Span (ft) 8-60 25-96 89-120
Table 3.3: Joist Series Characteristics

[Design Length = Span 0.33 FT.]
Figure 3.8: prefabricated Steel Joists

45 Typical joist spacing ranges from 2 to 4 ft, and provides an ecient use of the corrugated steel deck which itself supports the concrete slab.
46
For preliminary estimates of the joist depth, a depth to span ratio of 24 can be assumed, therefore d L/2 (3.5)
where d is in inches, and L in ft.

47 Table 3.4 list the load carrying capacity of open web, K-series steel joists based on a amximum allowable stress of 30 ksi. For each span, the rst line indicates the total safe uniformly distributed load-carrying capacity in pounds per linear foot. Note that the dead load (including the one of the joist)
Victor Saouma
4" 4"
Span
4"
318
Draft
must be substracted in order to determine the safe live load. The second line indicates the live load (pounds/linear foot) which will produce an approximate delection of L/360.
Victor Saouma
3.7 Joists
319
Draft
Joint 8K1 Desig. Depth 8 (in.) W 5.1 (lbs/ft) Span (ft.) 8 550 550 9 550 550 10 550 480 11 532 377 12 444 288 13 377 225 14 324 179 15 281 145 16 246 119 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
10K1 12K1 12K3 12K5 14K1 14K3 14K4 14K6 16K2 16K3 16K4 16K5 16K6 16K7 16K9 10 5 12 5 12 5.7 12 7.1 14 5.2 14 6 14 6.7 14 7.7 16 5.5 16 6.3 16 7 16 7.5 16 8.1 16 8.6 16 10.0
550 550 550 542 550 455 479 363 412 289 358 234 313 192 277 159 246 134 221 113 199 97
550 550 550 510 500 425 434 344 380 282 336 234 299 197 268 167 241 142 218 123 199 106 181 93 166 81
550 550 550 510 550 463 543 428 476 351 420 291 374 245 335 207 302 177 273 153 249 132 227 116 208 101
550 550 550 510 550 463 550 434 550 396 550 366 507 317 454 269 409 230 370 198 337 172 308 150 282 132
550 550 511 475 448 390 395 324 352 272 315 230 284 197 257 170 234 147 214 128 196 113 180 100 166 88 154 79 143 70
550 550 550 507 550 467 495 404 441 339 395 287 356 246 322 212 293 184 268 160 245 141 226 124 209 110 193 98 180 88
550 550 550 507 550 467 550 443 530 397 475 336 428 287 388 248 353 215 322 188 295 165 272 145 251 129 233 115 216 103
550 550 550 507 550 467 550 443 550 408 550 383 525 347 475 299 432 259 395 226 362 199 334 175 308 56 285 139 265 124
550 550 512 488 456 409 408 347 368 297 333 255 303 222 277 194 254 170 234 150 216 133 200 119 186 106 173 95 161 86 151 78 142 71
550 550 550 526 508 456 455 386 410 330 371 285 337 247 308 216 283 189 260 167 240 148 223 132 207 118 193 106 180 96 168 87 158 79
550 550 550 526 550 490 547 452 493 386 447 333 406 289 371 252 340 221 313 195 289 173 268 155 249 138 232 124 216 112 203 101 190 92
550 550 550 526 550 490 550 455 550 426 503 373 458 323 418 282 384 248 353 219 326 194 302 173 281 155 261 139 244 126 228 114 214 103
550 550 550 526 550 490 550 455 550 426 548 405 498 351 455 307 418 269 384 238 355 211 329 188 306 168 285 151 266 137 249 124 233 112
550 550 550 526 550 490 550 455 550 426 550 406 550 385 507 339 465 298 428 263 395 233 366 208 340 186 317 167 296 151 277 137 259 124
550 550 550 526 550 490 550 455 550 426 550 406 550 385 550 363 550 346 514 311 474 276 439 246 408 220 380 198 355 178 332 161 311 147
Table 3.4: Joist Properties
Victor Saouma
320
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 4
Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)
4.1
1
Materials, & Geometry
The tower was built out of wrought iron, less expensive than steel,and Eiel had more expereince with this material, Fig. 4.1
Figure 4.1: Eiel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983)
42
Draft
The structure is essentially a tower, subjected to gravity and wind load. It is a relatively light structure, so dead load is small compared to the wind load.
gravity To avoid overturning M M wind had to be much higher than 1. This can be achieved either by:
3
1. Increase self weight (as in Washingtons monument) 2. Increase the width of the base 3. Design support to resist tension. 4. Post-tension the support.
4
The tower is 984 feet high, and 328 feet wide at the base. The large base was essential to provide adequate stability in the presence of wind load.
We can assume that the shape of the tower is parabolic. If we take the x axis to be along the vertical axis of symmetry and y the half width, then we know that at x = 984 the (half) width y = 0 and at x = 0 the half width is 328/2 = 164, thus the equation of the half width is given by
5
y = 164
984 x 984
av(x)2
(4.1)
We recall from calculus that for y = v(x) dy dx d ax2 dx Thus for our problem dy dx = 2(164) 984 x 984
dy dv
= =
dy dv dv dx 2ax
(4.2-a) (4.2-b)
1 984
dv dx
(4.3-a)
= Also
984 x 2, 952
(4.3-b)
dy dy = tan = tan1 dx dx where is the angle measured from the x axis to the tangent to the curve.
3
(4.4)
We now can tabulate the width and slope at various elevations
Victor Saouma
4.2 Loads
43 Width Estimated Actual 328 216 240 123 110 40 2 0
Draft
4
Location Support First platform second platform Intermediate platform Top platform Top
Height 0 186 380 644 906 984
Width/2 164 108 62 20 1 0
dy dx
.333 .270 .205 .115 .0264 0.000
18.4o 15.1o 11.6o 6.6o 1.5o 0o
The tower is supported by four inclined supports, each with a cross section of 800 in2 . An idealization of the tower is shown in Fig. 4.2.
ACTUAL CONTINUOUS CONNECTION
IDEALIZED CONTINUOUS CONNECTION
ACTUAL POINTS OF CONNECTION
Figure 4.2: Eiel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
4.2
5
Loads
The total weight of the tower is 18, 800 k. The dead load is not uniformly distributed, and is approximated as follows, Fig. 4.3:
Figure 4.3: Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
44
Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER Location Ground- second platform Second platform-intermediate platform intermediate platform - top Total Height 380 ft 264 ft 340 ft 984 ft Dead Weight 15, 500 k 2, 200 k 1, 100 k 18, 800 k
Draft
7
From the actual width of the lower two platforms we can estimate the live loads (the intermediate and top platforms would have negligible LL in comparison): 1st platform: 2nd platform: Total:
kip (50) psf(240)2 ft2 (1,000) lbs
2, 880 k 600 k 3, 480 k
(50) psf(110)2 ft2 (1,000) lbs
Hence the total vertical load is Pvert = DL + LL = 18, 800 + 3, 480 = 22, 280 k.
8
The wind pressure is known to also have a parabolic distribution (maximum at the top), the cross sectional area over which the wind is acting is also parabolic (maximum at the base). Hence we will simplify our analysis by considering an equivalent wind force obtained from a constant wind pressure (force/length) and constant cross section Fig. 4.4: The pressure is assumed to be 2.6 k/ft, thus the
Figure 4.4: Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) lateral wind force is, Fig. 4.5 Plat = (2.6) k/ft(984) ft = 2,560 k acting at 984 = 492 ft 2 (4.5)
4.3
9
Reactions
Simplifying the three dimensional structure with 4 supports into a two dimensional one with two supports, the reactions can be easily determined for this statically determinate structure, Fig.4.6. Gravity Load Pvert = 22, 280 c (4.6-a)
Victor Saouma
4.3 Reactions
45
Draft
LOADS
TOTAL LOADS
P=2560k
L/2
Q=22,280k
11111 00000 H 11111 00000 0 11111 00000 11 00 11 00 11 V0 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
REACTIONS M0
Figure 4.5: Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983)
WINDWARD SIDE
LEEWARD SIDE
VERTICAL FORCES
WIND FORCES
TOTAL
Figure 4.6: Eiel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
46
Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER 22, 280 = 11,140 k T 2
Draft
Lateral Load
grav Rvert
(4.6-b)
Lateral Moment (we essentially have a cantilivered beam subjected to a uniform load). The moment at a distance x from the support along the cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform pressure p is given by Mlat = p(L x) Lx 2 =p (L x)2 2 (4.7)
Force Moment arm Thus the lateral moment caused by the wind is parabolic. At the base (x = 0), the maximum moment is equal to Mlat = p (L x)2 (984 0)2 2 = (2.6) k/ft ft = 1,260,000 k.ft ' 2 2 (4.8)
We observe that the shape of the moment diagram is also parabolic, just like the tower itself. This is not accidental, as nearly optimum structures have a shape which closely approximate their moment diagram (such as the varying depth of continuous long span bridges). To determine the resulting internal forces caused by the lateral (wind) moment, and since we have two supports (one under tension and the other under compression) we use
wind Rvert =
1, 260, 000 k.ft M = = 3,850 k Tc d 328 ft
(4.9)
Lateral Forces to be resisted by each of the two pairs. By symmetry, the lateral force will be equally divided among the two pairs of supports and will be equal to
wind Rlat =
(2, 560) k = 1,280 k 2
'
(4.10)
4.4
10
Internal Forces
First, a biref reminder

Fy Fx F
cos sin tan
= = =
Fx (4.11-a) F Fy (4.11-b) F Fy (4.11-c) Fx
11
Internal forces are rst determined at the base.
12 Gravity load are rst considered, remember those are caused by the dead load and the live load, Fig. 4.7:
cos
V V N = N cos
(4.12-a)
Victor Saouma
4.4 Internal Forces
47
=18.4
INCLINED INTERNAL FORCE: N N V
Draft
=18.40
CONSEQUENT HORIZONTAL COMPONENT: H
KNOWN VERTICAL COMPONENT: V
H FORCE POLYGON
Figure 4.7: Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) 11, 140 k = 11,730 kip cos 18.4o H H = V tan V 11, 140 k(tan 18.4o ) = 3,700 kip
N tan H
= = =
(4.12-b) (4.12-c) (4.12-d)
The horizontal forces which must be resisted by the foundations, Fig. 4.8.
H 3700 k
3700 k
Figure 4.8: Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) Because the vertical load decreases with height, the axial force will also decrease with height.
13
14 At the second platform, the total vertical load is Q = 1, 100 + 2, 200 = 3, 300 k and at that height the angle is 11.6o thus the axial force (per pair of columns) will be
Nvert Hvert
= =
= 1, 685 k cos 11.6o 3, 300 k (tan 11.6o ) = 339 k 2
3,300 2
(4.13-a) (4.13-b)
Note that this is about seven times smaller than the axial force at the base, which for a given axial strength, would lead the designer to reduce (or taper) the cross-section. The horizontal force will be resisted by the axial forces in the second platform itself.
15 Wind Load: We now have determined at each pair of support the vertical and the horizontal forces caused by the wind load, the next step is to determine their axial components along the inclined leg,
Victor Saouma
48
Draft
3,850 k
3,850 cos 18.4
Figure 4.9: Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) Fig. 4.9: Nc
wind wind = Rvert cos Rlat sin = (3, 850) k(cos 18.4o ) (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )
= Nt
-4,050 k Leeward
wind vert wind lat
= R cos + R sin o = (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) + (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 ) = 4,050 k Winward
18.4
18.4
1,280 sin 18.4
1,280 k
(4.14-a) (4.14-b) (4.14-c) (4.14-d) (4.14-e) (4.14-f)
4.5
16
Internal Stresses
The total forces caused by both lateral and gravity forces can now be determined: Total NL Total NW = (11, 730) k (4, 050) k = -15,780 k Leeward side gravity = lateral (4.15-b) (11, 730) k +(4, 050) k = -7,630 k Winward side gravity lateral (4.15-a)
We observe that even under wind load, the windward side is still under compression. In the idealization of the towers geometry, the area of each pair of the simplied columns is 1, 600 in2 . and thus the maximum stresses will be determined from
17
comp =
T 15, 780 k NL = = -9.9 ksi A 1, 600 in2
(4.16)
18
The strength of wrought iron is 45 ksi, hence the safety factor is Safety Factor = 45 ksi ultimate stress = = 4.5 actual stress 9.9 ksi (4.17)
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 5
REVIEW of STATICS
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newtons third law of motion
5.1
1
Reactions
In the analysis of structures (hand calculations), it is often easier (but not always necessary) to start by determining the reactions. Once the reactions are determined, internal forces are determined next; nally, internal stresses and/or deformations (deections and rotations) are determined last1 . Reactions are necessary to determine foundation load. Depending on the type of structures, there can be dierent types of support conditions, Fig. 5.1.
Roller: provides a restraint in only one direction in a 2D structure, in 3D structures a roller may provide restraint in one or two directions. A roller will allow rotation. Hinge: allows rotation but no displacements. Fixed Support: will prevent rotation and displacements in all directions.
5.1.1
5
Equilibrium
Reactions are determined from the appropriate equations of static equilibrium. Summation of forces and moments, in a static system must be equal to zero2 . In a 3D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 6 independent equations of equilibrium:
1 This is the sequence of operations in the exibility method which lends itself to hand calculation. In the stiness method, we determine displacements rsts, then internal forces and reactions. This method is most suitable to computer implementation. 2 In a dynamic system F = ma where m is the mass and a is the acceleration.
52
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Figure 5.1: Types of Supports Fx Mx

8
= =
Fy My
= =
Fz Mz
= =
0 0
(5.1)
In a 2D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 3 independent equations of equilibrium: (5.2)
Fx
Fy
Mz
For reaction calculations, the externally applied load may be reduced to an equivalent force3 . Summation of the moments can be taken with respect to any arbitrary point.
10
11 Whereas forces are represented by a vector, moments are also vectorial quantities and are represented by a curved arrow or a double arrow vector.
12
Not all equations are applicable to all structures, Table 5.1
13 The three conventional equations of equilibrium in 2D: Fx , Fy and Mz can be replaced by the A B C independent moment equations Mz , Mz , Mz provided that A, B, and C are not colinear. 14
It is always preferable to check calculations by another equation of equilibrium. Before you write an equation of equilibrium, 1. Arbitrarily decide which is the +ve direction 2. Assume a direction for the unknown quantities 3. The right hand side of the equation should be zero
3 However
15
for internal forces (shear and moment) we must use the actual load distribution.
Victor Saouma
5.1 Reactions
53 Equations Fx Fy Fy Mx Mx My My Mz Mz Mz
Draft
Structure Type Beam, no axial forces 2D Truss, Frame, Beam Grid 3D Truss, Frame Beams, no axial Force 2 D Truss, Frame, Beam
Fz Fx Fy Fz Alternate Set A B Mz Mz A B Fx Mz Mz A B C Mz Mz Mz
Table 5.1: Equations of Equilibrium If your reaction is negative, then it will be in a direction opposite from the one assumed.
16 Summation of external forces is equal and opposite to the internal ones. Thus the net force/moment is equal to zero.
17
The external forces give rise to the (non-zero) shear and moment diagram.
5.1.2
Equations of Conditions
18 If a structure has an internal hinge (which may connect two or more substructures), then this will provide an additional equation (M = 0 at the hinge) which can be exploited to determine the reactions. 19 Those equations are often exploited in trusses (where each connection is a hinge) to determine reactions. 20 In an inclined roller support with Sx and Sy horizontal and vertical projection, then the reaction R would have, Fig. 5.2.
Sy Rx = Ry Sx
(5.3)
Figure 5.2: Inclined Roller Support
5.1.3
Static Determinacy
21 In statically determinate structures, reactions depend only on the geometry, boundary conditions and loads.
Victor Saouma
54
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
23
22 If the reactions can not be determined simply from the equations of static equilibrium (and equations of conditions if present), then the reactions of the structure are said to be statically indeterminate.
The degree of static indeterminacy is equal to the dierence between the number of reactions and the number of equations of equilibrium (plus the number of equations of conditions if applicable), Fig. 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

24 Failure of one support in a statically determinate system results in the collapse of the structures. Thus a statically indeterminate structure is safer than a statically determinate one. 25 For statically indeterminate structures, reactions depend also on the material properties (e.g. Youngs and/or shear modulus) and element cross sections (e.g. length, area, moment of inertia).
5.1.4
Geometric Instability
26 The stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of reactions but also by their arrangement.
27
Geometric instability will occur if: 1. All reactions are parallel and a non-parallel load is applied to the structure. 2. All reactions are concurrent, Fig. 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions
Victor Saouma
5.1 Reactions
55
Draft
5.1.5
3. The number of reactions is smaller than the number of equations of equilibrium, that is a mechanism is present in the structure.
28 Mathematically, this can be shown if the determinant of the equations of equilibrium is equal to zero (or the equations are inter-dependent).
Examples
29 Examples of reaction calculation will be shown next. Each example has been carefully selected as it brings a dierent twist from the preceding one. Some of those same problems will be revisited later for the determination of the internal forces and/or deections. Many of those problems are taken from Prof. Gerstle textbok Basic Structural Analysis.
Example 5-1: Simply Supported Beam Determine the reactions of the simply supported beam shown below.
Solution: The beam has 3 reactions, we have 3 equations of static equilibrium, hence it is statically determinate. (+ E ) Fx = 0; ) (+ T Fy = 0; c (+ ') Mz = 0; or through matrix inversion 1 0 0 1 0 12 (on your 0 1 6 Rax 36 k = 0 Ray + Rdy 60 k (4) k/ft(12) ft = 0 12Ray 6Rdy (60)(6) = 0
calculator) Rax 36 Rax 36 k Ray Ray 56 k 108 = = 360 Rdy Rdy 52 k
Alternatively we could have used another set of equations: a (+ ') Mz = 0; d (+ ') Mz = 0; Check: (60)(6) + (48)(12) (Rdy )(18) = 0 Rdy = 52 k T (Ray )(18) (60)(12) (48)(6) = 0 Ray = 56 k T ) (+ T Fy = 0; ; 56 52 60 48 = 0
Victor Saouma
56
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Example 5-2: Three Span Beam Determine the reactions of the following three spans beam
Solution: We have 4 unknowns (Rax , Ray , Rcy and Rdy ), three equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition (Mb = 0), thus the structure is statically determinate. 1. Isolating ab: M 'b = 0; (+ ') Ma = 0; Fx = 0; 2. Isolating bd: (+ ') Md = 0; (17.7)(18) (40)(15) (4)(8)(8) (30)(2) + Rcy (12) = 0 Rcy = 1,236 = 103 k T 12 M = 0; (17.7)(6) (40)(3) + (4)(8)(4) + (30)(10) R (12) = 0 (+ ') c dy Rdy = Victor Saouma
201.3 12
(9)(Ray ) (40)(5) = 0 Ray = 22.2 k T (40)(4) (S)(9) = 0 S = 17.7 k T Rax = 30 k '
= 16.7 k T
5.1 Reactions
57
Draft
3. Check
; Fy = 0; T22.2 40 40 + 103 32 30 + 16.7 = 0
Example 5-3: Three Hinged Gable Frame The three-hinged gable frames spaced at 30 ft. on center. Determine the reactions components on the frame due to: 1) Roof dead load, of 20 psf of roof area; 2) Snow load, of 30 psf of horizontal projection; 3) Wind load of 15 psf of vertical projection. Determine the critical design values for the vertical and horizontal reactions.
Solution: 1. Due to symmetry, we will consider only the dead load on one side of the frame. 2. Due to symmetry, there is no vertical force transmitted by the hinge for snow and dead load. 3. Roof dead load per frame is DL = (20) psf(30) ft 302 + 152
ft
1 lbs/k = 20.2 k c 1, 000
Victor Saouma
58
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
4. Snow load per frame is SL = (30) psf(30) ft(30) ft 1 lbs/k = 27. k c 1, 000
5. Wind load per frame (ignoring the suction) is W L = (15) psf(30) ft(35) ft 1 E lbs/k = 15.75 k 1, 000
6. There are 4 reactions, 3 equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition statically determinate. 7. The horizontal reaction H due to a vertical load V at midspan of the roof, is obtained by taking moment with respect to the hinge (+ ') MC = 0; 15(V ) 30(V ) + 35(H) = 0 H =
15V 35
= .429V
Substituting for roof dead and snow load we obtain

A VDL A HDL A VSL A HSL
= = = =
B VDL B HDL B VSL B HSL
= = = =
(.429)(20.2) (.429)(27.)
20.2 k T 8.66 kE 27. k T = 11.58 kE =
8. The reactions due to wind load are B (+ ') MA = 0; (15.75)( 20+15 ) VW L (60) = 0 2 M = 0; H B (35) (4.6)(30) = 0 (+ ') C WL A (+ E ) Fx = 0; 15.75 3.95 HW L = 0 B A ) (+ T Fy = 0; VW L VW L = 0 9. Thus supports should be designed for H = 8.66 k + 11.58 k + 3.95 k V = 20.7 k + 27.0 k + 4.60 k = =
B VW L = 4.60 k T B HW L = 3.95 k ' A HW L = 11.80 k ' A VW L = 4.60 k c
24.19 k 52.3 k
5.2
5.2.1
Trusses
Assumptions
30 Cables and trusses are 2D or 3D structures composed of an assemblage of simple one dimensional components which transfer only axial forces along their axis.
31
Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, space structures. For trusses, it is assumed that 1. Bars are pin-connected
32
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
59
Draft
34
2. Joints are frictionless hinges4 .
3. Loads are applied at the joints only.
33 A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Depending on the orientation of the diagonals, they can be under either tension or compression.
In a truss analysis or design, we seek to determine the internal force along each member, Fig. 5.5
Figure 5.5: Bridge Truss
5.2.2
Basic Relations
Sign Convention: Tension positive, compression negative. On a truss the axial forces are indicated as forces acting on the joints. Stress-Force: =
P A
Stress-Strain: = E Force-Displacement: = Equilibrium: F = 0

L L
5.2.3
Determinacy and Stability
35 Trusses are statically determinate when all the bar forces can be determined from the equations of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate. 36 A truss may be statically indeterminate with respect to the reactions or externally indeterminate and/or statically indeterminate with respect to the internal forces that is internally indeterminate.
37
a 2D truss is externally indeterminate if there are more than 3 reactions.

4 In
practice the bars are riveted, bolted, or welded directly to each other or to gusset plates, thus the bars are not free to rotate and so-called secondary bending moments are developed at the bars. Another source of secondary moments is the dead weight of the element.
Victor Saouma
510
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
38
Since each joint is pin-connected, we can apply M = 0 at each one of them. Furthermore, summation of forces applied on a joint must be equal to zero.
39 For a 2D truss we have 2 equations of equilibrium FX = 0 and FY = 0 which can be applied at each joint. For 3D trusses we would have three equations: FX = 0, FY = 0 and FZ = 0. 40 If we refer to j as the number of joints, R the number of reactions and m the number of members, then we would have a total of m + R unknowns and 2j (or 3j) equations of statics (2D or 3D at each joint). If we do not have enough equations of statics then the problem is indeterminate, if we have too many equations then the truss is unstable, Table 5.2.
2D 3D Static Indeterminacy External R>3 R>6 Internal m + R > 2j m + R > 3j Unstable m + R < 2j m + R < 3j Table 5.2: Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses
41 Fig. 5.6 shows a truss with 4 reactions, thus it is externally indeterminate. This truss has 6 joints (j = 6), 4 reactions (R = 4) and 9 members (m = 9). Thus we have a total of m + R = 9 + 4 = 13 unknowns and 2 j = 2 6 = 12 equations of equilibrium, thus the truss is statically indeterminate.
Figure 5.6: A Statically Indeterminate Truss There are two methods of analysis for statically determinate trusses 1. The Method of joints 2. The Method of sections
42
5.2.4
43
Method of Joints
The method of joints can be summarized as follows 1. Determine if the structure is statically determinate
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
511
Draft
2. Compute all reactions 3. Sketch a free body diagram showing all joint loads (including reactions) 4. For each joint, and starting with the loaded ones, apply the appropriate equations of equilibrium (Fx and Fy in 2D; Fx , Fy and Fz in 3D).
5. Because truss elements can only carry axial forces, the resultant force (F = Fx + Fy ) must be along the member, Fig. 5.7. Fx Fy F = = l lx ly (5.4)
44 Always keep track of the x and y components of a member force (Fx , Fy ), as those might be needed later on when considering the force equilibrium at another joint to which the member is connected.
Figure 5.7: X and Y Components of Truss Forces This method should be used when all member forces should be determined.
45
46
In truss analysis, there is no sign convention. A member is assumed to be under tension (or compression). If after analysis, the force is found to be negative, then this would imply that the wrong assumption was made, and that the member should have been under compression (or tension).
47 On a free body diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and not as end forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint, and for compression toward the joint, Fig. 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces
Victor Saouma
512
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Example 5-4: Truss, Method of Joints Using the method of joints, analyze the following truss
Solution: 1. R = 3, m = 13, 2j = 16, and m + R = 2j 2. We compute the reactions ' (+ ) ME = 0; (20 + 12)(3)(24) + (40 + 8)(2)(24) + (40)(24) RAy (4)(24) = 0 RAy = 58 k T (+ c Fy = 0; 20 + 12 + 40 + 8 + 40 58 REy = 0 ) REy = 62 k T
3. Consider each joint separately: Node A: Clearly AH is under compression, and AB under tension.
FAHy 58 = 0 FAH = ll (FAHy ) y ly = 32 FAH = 40 (58) = 72.5 32 E ) Fx = 0; FAHx + FAB = 0 (+ FAB = lx (FAHy ) = 24 (58) = 43.5 ly 32 ) (+ T Fy = 0; Victor Saouma
l = 322 + 242 = 40 Compression Tension
5.2 Trusses
513
Draft
Node B: (+ E ) Fx = 0; FBC ) (+ T Fy = 0; FBH Node H: = = 43.5 20 Tension Tension
(+ E ) Fx = 0; ) (+ T Fy = 0;
FAHx FHCx FHGx = 0 43.5 2424 2 (FHC ) 2424 2 (FHG ) = 0 (I) 2 +32 2 +10 FAHy + FHCy 12 FHGy 20 = 0 58 + 2432 2 (FHC ) 12 2410 2 (FHG ) 20 = 0 (II) 2 +32 2 +10
Solving for I and II we obtain FHC FHG Node E: = = 7.5 52 Tension Compression
Fy = 0; Fx = 0;
FEFy = 62 FED = FEFx
FEF = FED =
32 (62) 242 +322 24 24 32 (FEFy ) = 32 (62)
= 77.5 k = 46.5 k
The results of this analysis are summarized below
Victor Saouma
514
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
4. We could check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of forces at a node not previously used, such as D
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.1.1
48
Shear & Moment Diagrams

Theory
Design Sign Conventions
Before we derive the Shear-Moment relations, let us arbitrarily dene a sign convention.
The sign convention adopted here, is the one commonly used for design purposes5 . With reference to Fig. 5.9
49
+ve Load
+ Axial Force
+ +ve Shear +ve Moment
Figure 5.9: Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design 2D:
5 Later
on, in more advanced analysis courses we will use a dierent one.
Victor Saouma
5.3 Shear & Moment Diagrams
515
Draft
Load Positive along the beams local y axis (assuming a right hand side convention), that is positive upward. Axial: tension positive. Flexure A positive moment is one which causes tension in the lower bers, and compression in the upper ones. For frame members, a positive moment is one which causes tension along the inner side.
Shear A positive shear force is one which is up on a negative face, or down on a positive one. Alternatively, a pair of positive shear forces will cause clockwise rotation. Torsion Counterclockwise positive 3D: Use double arrow vectors (and NOT curved arrows). Forces and moments (including torsions) are x M 6y dened with respect to a right hand side coordinate system, Fig. 5.10. 6 * Tx * * -y
6 My 6 6
Mz
Draft
- z -Figure 5.10: Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements Mz

Tx
5.3.1.2
Load, Shear, Moment Relations
50 Let us (re)derive the basic relations between load, shear and moment. Considering an innitesimal length dx of a beam subjected to a positive load6 w(x), Fig. 5.11. The innitesimal section must also
Figure 5.11: Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment be in equilibrium.

51 There are no axial forces, thus we only have two equations of equilibrium to satisfy Fy = 0 and Mz = 0. 52 Since dx is innitesimally small, the small variation in load along it can be neglected, therefore we assume w(x) to be constant along dx.
53
To denote that a small change in shear and moment occurs over the length dx of the element, we add the dierential quantities dVx and dMx to Vx and Mx on the right face.
6 In
this derivation, as in all other ones we should assume all quantities to be positive.
Victor Saouma
516
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
54
Next considering the rst equation of equilibrium ) (+ T Fy = 0 Vx + wx dx (Vx + dVx ) = 0 dV = w(x) dx The slope of the shear curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the load curve at that point.
or (5.5)
55
Similarly
dx (Mx + dMx ) = 0 (+ ') Mo = 0 Mx + Vx dx wx dx 2 Neglecting the dx2 term, this simplies to dM = V (x) dx The slope of the moment curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the shear at that point.
56
(5.6)
Alternative forms of the preceding equations can be obtained by integration V V21 = = w(x)dx Vx2 Vx1 =
x2
(5.7) w(x)dx
x1
(5.8)
The change in shear between 1 and 2, V21 , is equal to the area under the load between x1 and x2 . and M M21 = = V (x)dx M2 M1 =
x2
(5.9) V (x)dx (5.10)

x1
The change in moment between 1 and 2, M21 , is equal to the area under the shear curve between x1 and x2 .
57
Note that we still need to have V1 and M1 in order to obtain V2 and M2 respectively.
58 Fig. 5.12 and 5.13 further illustrates the variation in internal shear and moment under uniform and concentrated forces/moment.
5.3.1.3
59
Moment Envelope
For design, we often must consider dierent load combinations.
60 For each load combination, we should draw the shear, moment diagrams. and then we should use the Moment envelope for design purposes.
Victor Saouma
517
Draft
Figure 5.12: Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Load
Shear
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Shear
Moment
Figure 5.13: Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Victor Saouma
518
REVIEW of STATICS Examples
Draft
5.3.1.4
Example 5-5: Simple Shear and Moment Diagram Draw the shear and moment diagram for the beam shown below
Solution: The free body diagram is drawn below
Victor Saouma
519
Draft
Reactions are determined from the equilibrium equations ) F (+ ' x = 0; (+ ') MA = 0; ) (+ T Fy = 0; RAx + 6 = 0 RAx = 6 k (11)(4) + (8)(10) + (4)(2)(14 + 2) RFy (18) = 0 RFy = 14 k RAy 11 8 (4)(2) + 14 = 0 RAy = 13 k
Shear are determined next. 1. At A the shear is equal to the reaction and is positive. 2. At B the shear drops (negative load) by 11 k to 2 k. 3. At C it drops again by 8 k to 6 k. 4. It stays constant up to D and then it decreases (constant negative slope since the load is uniform and negative) by 2 k per linear foot up to 14 k. 5. As a check, 14 k is also the reaction previously determined at F . Moment is determined last: 1. The moment at A is zero (hinge support). 2. The change in moment between A and B is equal to the area under the corresponding shear diagram, or MBA = (13)(4) = 52. 3. etc...
Example 5-6: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram Draw the shear and moment diagram of the following frame
Solution:
Victor Saouma
520
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Victor Saouma
521
Draft
(+ Shear:
Reactions are determined rst ' x = 0; ) F 4 RAx (3)(15) = 0 5
load RAx = 36 k (+ ') MA = 0; (3)(30)( 30 ) + 3 (3)(15) 30 + 9 4 (3)(15) 12 39RDy = 0 2 5 2 5 2 RFy = 52.96 k ) (+ T Fy = 0; RAy (3)(30) 3 (3)(15) + 52.96 = 0 5 RAy = 64.06 k
1. For A B, the shear is constant, equal to the horizontal reaction at A and negative according to our previously dened sign convention, VA = 36 k 2. For member B C at B, the shear must be equal to the vertical force which was transmitted along A B, and which is equal to the vertical reaction at A, VB = 64.06. 3. Since B C is subjected to a uniform negative load, the shear along B C will have a slope equal to 3 and in terms of x (measured from B to C) is equal to VBC (x) = 64.06 3x 4. The shear along C D is obtained by decomposing the vertical reaction at D into axial and shear components. Thus at D the shear is equal to 3 52.96 = 31.78 k and is negative. Based 5 on our sign convention for the load, the slope of the shear must be equal to 3 along C D. Thus the shear at point C is such that Vc 5 9(3) = 31.78 or Vc = 13.22. The equation for 3 the shear is given by (for x going from C to D) V = 13.22 3x 5. We check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of node C ) F (+ ' x = 0 ) (+ T Fy = 0 Moment: 1. Along A B, the moment is zero at A (since we have a hinge), and its slope is equal to the shear, thus at B the moment is equal to (36)(12) = 432 k.ft 2. Along B C, the moment is equal to
x x
3 5 (42.37) 4 5 (42.37)
+ 4 (13.22) = 25.42 + 10.58 = 36 5 3 (13.22) = 33.90 7.93 = 25.97 5
MBC
= =
MB +
0
VBC (x)dx = 432 +

2
(64.06 3x)dx
0
432 + 64.06x 3 x 2
which is a parabola. Substituting for x = 30, we obtain at node C: MC = 432 + 64.06(30) 2 3 30 = 139.8 k.ft 2
BC 3. If we need to determine the maximum moment along B C, we know that dMdx = 0 at the 64.06 point where VBC = 0, that is VBC (x) = 64.06 3x = 0 x = 3 = 25.0 ft. In other words, maximum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
max Thus MBC = 432 + 64.06(25.0) 3 (25.0) = 432 + 1, 601.5 937.5 = 232 k.ft 2
Victor Saouma
522
REVIEW of STATICS 4. Finally along C D, the moment varies quadratically (since we had a linear shear), the moment rst increases (positive shear), and then decreases (negative shear). The moment along C D is given by MCD = MC + 0 VCD (x)dx = 139.8 + 2 = 139.8 + 13.22x 3 x 2
x x (13.22 0
Draft
3x)dx
which is a parabola. 2 Substituting for x = 15, we obtain at node C MC = 139.8 + 13.22(15) 3 15 = 139.8 + 2 198.3 337.5 = 0
Example 5-7: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load The frame shown below is the structural support of a ume. Assuming that the frames are spaced 2 ft apart along the length of the ume, 1. Determine all internal member end actions 2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams 3. Locate and compute maximum internal bending moments 4. If this is a reinforced concrete frame, show the location of the reinforcement.
Solution: The hydrostatic pressure causes lateral forces on the vertical members which can be treated as cantilevers xed at the lower end. The pressure is linear and is given by p = h. Since each frame supports a 2 ft wide slice of the ume, the equation for w (pounds/foot) is w = (2)(62.4)(h) = 124.8h lbs/ft
At the base w = (124.8)(6) = 749 lbs/ft = .749 k/ft Note that this is both the lateral pressure on the end walls as well as the uniform load on the horizontal members. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
523
Draft
End Actions 1. Base force at B is FBx = (.749) 6 = 2.246 k 2 2. Base moment at B is MB = (2.246) 6 = 4.493 k.ft 3 3. End force at B for member B E are equal and opposite. 4. Reaction at C is RCy = (.749) 16 = 5.99 k 2 Shear forces 1. Base at B the shear force was determined earlier and was equal to 2.246 k. Based on the orientation of the x y axis, this is a negative shear. 2. The vertical shear at B is zero (neglecting the weight of A B) 3. The shear to the left of C is V = 0 + (.749)(3) = 2.246 k. 4. The shear to the right of C is V = 2.246 + 5.99 = 3.744 k Moment diagrams Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
524
REVIEW of STATICS 1. At the base: B M = 4.493 k.ft as determined above. 3. The maximum moment is equal to Mmax = 7.864 + (.749)(5)( 5 ) = 1.50 k.ft 2
Draft
2. At the support C, Mc = 4.493 + (.749)(3)( 3 ) = 7.864 k.ft 2
Design: Reinforcement should be placed along the bers which are under tension, that is on the side of the negative moment7 . The gure below schematically illustrates the location of the exural8 reinforcement.
Example 5-8: Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame

is why in most European countries, the sign convention for design moments is the opposite of the one commonly used in the U.S.A.; Reinforcement should be placed where the moment is postive. 8 Shear reinforcement is made of a series of vertical stirrups.
7 That
Victor Saouma
525
Draft
A
8 5k/ft 30k
12 B E 5 20k G
10 2k/ft 10k C
V ba
V bc Hbd V bd
M ba
VA
M bc M bd 30k 0
52.5k 15 0 D 4k/ft VD 30k 5k/ft A 17.5k 17.5k

17.5-5x=0
HD
650k 450k
200k
82.5k
CHECK
2k/ft 10k
B Vba
Hba M ba
Hbc M bc Vbc
B Vbc
(10)+(2)(10) 30k
10k
3.5 -52.5k 30.6k -20k
-22.5k
17.5-(5)(8)
M bc -200k
(10)(10)+(2)(10)(10)/2
-22.5+(-30)
Vba
(17.5)(3.5)/2 (17.5)(3.5)/2+(-22.5)(8-3.5)/2
(-52.5)(12)+(-20)
-650k
M ba
V bd 450k
(50)-(4)(15)/2
M bd Hbd
20k
450k
(50)(15)-[(4)(5)/2][(2)(15)/3)]
20k
50k
4k/ft
50k 82.5k
Victor Saouma
526
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Example 5-9: Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame
Victor Saouma
527
Draft
2k/ft A
26k 13 B
26k 13 13
13 5 12
10 C
3 4
10 20k
5
15 D 20
Ha 36 20
E Ve
Va
(60)(20)-(2)(20)(20)/2
19.2k
(20)(20)+(60-20)(20)/2
48.8k
60-(2)(20)
800k
Fx F
Fy
20k
800k 0k
20k
z y x
2k/ft
60k 60k AB
ED
1 2 3
1k
19.2k
48.8k
17.2 8k 12k
16k
F/Fy=z/x F/Fx=z/y Fx/Fy=y/x
24k
20-10-10
800k
26.6k 7.69k
11.1k
778k 0k CD
20k
24k
26k 10k
10k
0k
23.
26k
778k
28.8k
(20)(15)/13=7.7
0k
17.72k
18.46k 7.38k
20k BC
28.8k
39.1k
29.3k
19.2k
7.7 17.7+ .4k
48.9k
10
-23
+25
k k -26.6 -0.58 -26 -0.6-26 2

25.4
.1k -2 39
3.1
8 B-C
1,122-(26.6)(13) 488+(23.1)(12.5)
-16 k
.1
11 C-D
1,130-(.58)(13) k 800+(25.4)(13) 1122
777
777k
(39.1)(12.5)
1130
488k
12 C-D
800k
13
9 B-C
(20)(12)/(13)=18.46 (19.2)(5)/(13)=7.38 (19.2)(12)/(13)=17.72 (26)(12)/(13)=24 (26.6)(13)/(12)=28.8 (26.6)(5)/(12)=11.1 (28.8)(4)/(5)=23.1 (28.8)(3)/(5)=17.28 (20)(4)/(5)=16 (20)(3)/(5)=12 (39.1)(5)/(4)=48.9 (39.1)(3)/(4)=29.3
777k
48 8 k
k
14
+25.4
+20k
-23 .1k 8k 26.6k 0.5 -39 .
11
1k
1 30k
122
800k
Victor Saouma
+60k
528
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
5.3.2
Formulaes
Adapted from (of Steel COnstruction 1986)
Victor Saouma
529
Draft
1) Simple Beam; uniform Load R Vx at center Mmax Mx max x = V = w L x 2 2 = wL 8 = wx (L x) 2 4 5 = 384 wL EI wx = 24EI (L3 2Lx2 + x3 ) 2) Simple Beam; Unsym-
metric Triangular Load R1 = V1 Max R2 = V2 Vx at x = .577L Mmax Mx at x = .5193L max x ric Triangular Load R=V for x < Vx at center Mmax
L 2 L 2 L 2
= = = = = = =
W 3 2W 3 W W x2 3 L2
.1283W L Wx 2 x2 3L2 (L 3 ) .01304 W L EI W x3 4 2 2 4 180EIL2 (3x 10L x + 7L ) 3) Simple Beam; Symmet-
= = = = = =
for x < for x <
Mx x max
W 2 W 2 2 2L2 (L 4x ) WL 6 x2 W x 1 2 L2 2 3 Wx 2 480EIL2 (5L W L3 60EI
4x2 )2
Victor Saouma
530
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
4) Simple Beam; Uniform Load Partially Distributed Max when a < c Max when a > c when a < x < a + b when x < a when a < x < a + b when a + b < x at x = a + R1 w R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Vx Mx Mx Mx Mmax = = = = = = =
wb 2L (2c + b) wb 2L (2a + b) R1 w(x
a) R1 x R1 x w (x a)2 2 R2 (L x) R1 R1 a + 2w 5) Simple Beam; Concen-
trated Load at Center max at x = when x < whenx < at x =

L 2 L 2 L 2 L 2
R 1 = V1 R=V Mmax Mx x max
= wa (2L a) 2L = 2P = P4L = P2x Px = 48EI (3L2 4x2 ) P L3 = 48EI 6) Simple Beam; Concen-
trated Load at Any Point max when a < b max when a > b at x = a when x < a at x = a when x < a at x =
a(a+2b) 3
R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Mmax Mx a x
= = = = = = =
& a > b max
Pb L Pa L P ab L P bx L P a2 b2 3EIL P bx 2 2 2 6EIL (L b x ) P ab(a+2b) 3a(a+2b) 27EIL
Victor Saouma
531
Draft
7) Simple Beam; Two Equally Concentrated Symmetric Loads R=V Mmax max x x = P = Pa Pa = 24EI (3L2 4a2 ) Px = 6EI (3La 3a2 x2 ) Pa = 6EI (3Lx 3x2 a2 ) 8) Simple Beam; Two Equally
when x < a when a < x < L a
Concentrated Unsymmetric Loads max when a < b max when b < a when a < x < L b max when b < a max when a < b when x < a when a < x < L b form Load R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Vx Mmax M1 Mx x max = = = = = = = =
3 8 wL 5 8 wL R1 wx wL2 8 9 2 128 wL 2 R1 x wx 2 wx 3 48EI (L wL4 185EI
R1 = V1 R 2 = V2 Vx M1 M2 Mx Mx
= = = = = = =
P L (L a + b) P L (L b + a) P L (b a) R1 a
R2 b R1 x R1 x P (x a) 9) Cantilevered Beam, Uni-
at x = 3 L 8
3Lx+ 2x3 )
at x = .4215L
Victor Saouma
532
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
10) Propped Cantilever, Concentrated Load at Center R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Mmax Mx Mx max = = = = = =

5P 16 11P 16 3P L 16 5P x 16 P L 2
at x = L when x < L 2 when L < x 2 at x = .4472L Concentrated Load
11x 163 .009317 P L EI 11) Propped Cantilever;
at x = a at x = L at x = a 2 L2 when a < .414L at x = L 3L2+a 2 a when .414L < a at x = L Ends, Uniform Load
a 2L+a
R1 = V1 R 2 = V2 M1 M2 a max max
= = = = = = =
P b2 2L3 (a + 2L) Pa 2 2 2L3 (3L a ) R1 a P ab (a 2L2 2 3 + L) Pa b (3L + a) 12EIL32 2 3 P a (L a ) 3EI (3L2 a2 )2 P ab2 a 6EI 2L+a2
12) Beam Fixed at Both
at x = 0 and x = L at x = L 2 at x = L 2
R=V Vx Mmax M max x
= wL 2 = w L x 2 2 = wL 122 = wL 24 wL4 = 384EI wx2 = 24EI (L x)2
Victor Saouma
533
Draft
13) Beam Fixed at Both Ends; Concentrated Load R=V Mmax Mx max x = = = = =
P 2 PL 8 P 8 (4x L) P L3 192EI P x2 48EI (3L
at when at when
x= x< x= x<
L 2 L 2 L 2 L 2
4x) 14) Cantilever Beam; Tri-
angular Unsymmetric Load R=V Vx Mmax Mx x max = 8W 3 x2 = W L2 WL = 3 2 = W x2 3L W = 60EIL2 (x5 5L2 x + 4L5 ) W L3 = 15EI 15) Cantilever Beam; Uniform Load R=V Vx Mx Mmax x max = wL = wx 2 = wx 22 = wL 2 w = 24EI (x4 4L3 x + 3L4 ) wL4 = 8EI
at x = L
at x = 0
at x = L at x = 0
Victor Saouma
534
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
16) Cantilever Beam; Point Load R=V Mmax Mx max a x x = P = Pb = P (x a) P b2 = 6EI (3L b) P b3 = 3EI P b2 = 6EI (3L 3x b) 2 = P (Lx) (3b L + x) 6EI 17) Cantilever Beam; Point
at x = L when a < x at x = 0 at x = a when x < a when a < x Load at Free End
at x = L at x = 0
R=V Mmax Mx max x
= P = PL = Px 3 = PL 3EI P = 6EI (2L3 3L2 x + x3 ) 18) Cantilever Beam; Con-
centrated Force and Moment at Free End R=V Mx Mmax max x = P = P L x 2 = P2L P L3 = 12EI 2 = P (Lx) ((L + 2x) 12EI
at x = 0 and x = L at x = 0
Victor Saouma
535
Draft
19) Beam Overhanging One Support; Uniform Load Between Supports R=V Vx Mx max x x1 = = = = = =
wL 2
at x =
L 2
when L < x < L + a
L 2 x wx (L x) 2 5wL4 384EI wx 3 24EI (L 3 wL x1 x 24EI
2Lx2 + x3 ) 20) Beam Overhanging one
Support; Concentrated Force Max when a < b Max when b < a at x < aL at x =
a(a+2b) 3
R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Mx max a x x x1
= = = = = = = =
when a > b
at x = a when x < a when a < x at L < x < L + a
Pb L Pa L P bx L P ab(a+2b) 3a(a+2b) 27EIL P a2 b2 3EIL P bx 2 2 2 6EIL (L b x ) P a(Lx) 2 6EIL (2Lx x P abx1 6EIL (L + a)
a2 ) 21) Continuous Beam,
Two Equal Spans; Concentrated Force R1 = V1 R 2 = V2 + V3 R 3 = V3 V2 Mmax at x = L M1 = = = = = =

Pb 2 4L3 4L a(L + a) Pa 2 2L3 2L + b(L + a) P ab 4L3 (L + a) Pa 2 4L3 4L + b(L + a) P ab 2 4L3 4L a(L + a) P ab 4L2 (L + a)
Victor Saouma
536
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
22) Simple Beam, Uniform Load, End Moments R1 = V1 R2 = V2 Vx Mx b x + M1 M2 L M1 M2 L w L x + M1 M2 2 L at x = L + M1 M2 2 wL = wx (L x) + M1 M2 x M1 2 L = = =

wL 2 wL 2
= =
M1 +M2 M 2 L2 + M1wl 2 4 w 3M1 4M2 wx 3 2 24EI x 2L + wL wL x 12M1 8M1 L 4M2 L 3 + w x+L w w
23) Simple Beam; Concentrated Force, End Moments R1 = V1 R2 = V2 x = L M3 2 x < L Mx 2 L < x Mx 2 x < L x 2 = = = = = =
M1 M2 P 2 + L M1 M2 P 2 L M1 +M2 PL 4 2 M1 M2 P x M1 2 + L P (L x) + M1 M2 x M1 2 L Px 2 2 48EI 3L 4x 8(Lx) (M1 (2L x) + M2 (L PL
at when when when
+ x))
Victor Saouma
at 0 < x < L at L 5.4 Flexure< x < L + a
Mx Mx1
= =
wx 2 2L (L w 2 (a
a2 xL) x1 )2
537
Draft
at x =
L 2
24) Beam Overhanging one Support; Uniform Load at 0 < x < L at L < x < L + a x x1 R 1 = V1 R 2 = V2 + V3 V2 V3 Vx Vx1 M1 M2 Mx Mx1 x x1 = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
wx 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 24EIL (L 2L x + Lx 2a L + 2a x ) wx1 2 3 2 2 3 24EI (4a L L + 6a x1 4ax1 + x1 ) w 2 2 2L (L a ) w 2 2L (L + a)
at 0 < x < L at L < x < L + a 1

a2 L2
wa w 2 2 2L (L + a ) R1 wx w(a x1 )
w 2 2 8L2 (L + a) (L a) 2 wa 2 wx 2 2 2L (L a xL) w 2 2 (a x1 ) wx 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 24EIL (L 2L x + Lx 2a L + 2a x ) wx1 2 3 2 2 3 24EI (4a L L + 6a x1 4ax1 + x1 )
at x = L at 0 < x < L at L < x < L + a at 0 < x < L at L < x < L + a
5.4
5.4.1
61
Flexure
Basic Kinematic Assumption; Curvature
Fig.5.14 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius by end couples M . support conditions, Fig. 5.1. It is assumed that plane cross-sections normal to the length of
O +ve Curvature, +ve bending
d -ve Curvature, -ve Bending
M M
Neutral Axis E F Y dA E F X Z
dx
Figure 5.14: Deformation of a Beam un Pure Bending the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent.
62 Except for the neutral surface all other longitudinal bers either lengthen or shorten, thereby creating a longitudinal strain x . Considering a segment EF of length dx at a distance y from the neutral axis,
Victor Saouma
538
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
and
63
its original length is EF = dx = d d = dx (5.11) (5.12)
To evaluate this strain, we consider the deformed length E F E F = ( y)d = d yd = dx y dx (5.13)
The strain is now determined from: x = or after simplication x = y (5.15) dx y dx dx E F EF = EF dx (5.14)
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus strains are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
64 (Greek letter rho) is the radius of curvature. In some textbook, the curvature (Greek letter kappa) is also used where 1 (5.16) =
thus, x = y (5.17)
5.4.2
Stress-Strain Relations
65 So far we considered the kinematic of the beam, yet later on we will need to consider equilibrium in terms of the stresses. Hence we need to relate strain to stress.
66
For linear elastic material Hookes law states x = Ex (5.18)
where E is Youngs Modulus.

67
Combining Eq. with equation 5.17 we obtain x = Ey (5.19)
Victor Saouma
5.4 Flexure
539
Draft
5.4.3
69
Internal Equilibrium; Section Properties
68 Just as external forces acting on a structure must be in equilibrium, the internal forces must also satisfy the equilibrium equations.
The internal forces are determined by slicing the beam. The internal forces on the cut section must be in equilibrium with the external forces. 5.4.3.1 Fx = 0; Neutral Axis
70
The rst equation we consider is the summation of axial forces.
71 Since there are no external axial forces (unlike a column or a beam-column), the internal axial forces must be in equilibrium.
Fx = 0
A
x dA = 0
(5.20)
where x was given by Eq. 5.19, substituting we obtain x dA =

A A
EydA = 0
(5.21-a)
But since the curvature and the modulus of elasticity E are constants, we conclude that (5.22)
ydA = 0
A
or the rst moment of the cross section with respect to the z axis is zero. Hence we conclude that the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section. 5.4.3.2 M = 0; Moment of Inertia
72 The second equation of internal equilibrium which must be satised is the summation of moments. However contrarily to the summation of axial forces, we now have an external moment to account for, the one from the moment diagram at that particular location where the beam was sliced, hence
Mz = 0; '+ve; M = Ext.
A
x ydA Int.
(5.23)
where dA is an dierential area a distance y from the neutral axis.

73
Substituting Eq. 5.19 M x = =

A
x ydA
M = E
A
Ey
y 2 dA
(5.24)
74
We now pause and dene the section moment of inertia with respect to the z axis as
def A
I =
y 2 dA
(5.25)
Victor Saouma
540
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
75
and section modulus as S =

def
I c
(5.26)
Section properties for selected sections are shown in Table 5.3.

Y x
Y x
h y b
Y a
A x y Ix Iy
= bh b = 2 h = 2 3 = bh 12 3 = hb 12
h h y b b
A = bh b h b x = 2 h y = 2 3 3 Ix = bh b h 12 3 3 Iy = hb h b 12
c Y x
h y b
A X y Ix
= = =
h(a+b) 2 h(2a+b) 3(a+b) h3 (a2 +4ab+b2 36(a+b)
A x y X Ix y Iy
= = = = =
bh 2 b+c 3 h 3 3 bh 36 bh 2 36 (b
bc + c2 )
b
Y
r X
A = Ix = Iy =
r2 = r 4 4 =
d2 4 d4 64
A = 2rt = dt 3 Ix = Iy = r3 t = d t 8
b X b a a
A Ix Iy
= ab 3 = ab 33 = ba 4
Table 5.3: Section Properties
5.4.4
Beam Formula
76 We now have the ingredients in place to derive one of the most important equations in structures, the beam formula. This formula will be extensively used for design of structural components.
Victor Saouma
5.4 Flexure
541
Draft
77 78
We merely substitute Eq. 5.25 into 5.24, M I = =

a
E
A
y 2 dA y 2 dA
M EI
==
(5.27)
which shows that the curvature of the longitudinal axis of a beam is proportional to the bending moment M and inversely proportional to EI which we call exural rigidity. Finally, inserting Eq. 5.19 above, we obtain x = = Ey
M EI
x = M y I
(5.28)
Hence, for a positive y (above neutral axis), and a positive moment, we will have compressive stresses above the neutral axis.
79 Alternatively, the maximum ber stresses can be obtained by combining the preceding equation with Equation 5.26
x =
M S
(5.29)
Example 5-10: Design Example A 20 ft long, uniformly loaded, beam is simply supported at one end, and rigidly connected at the other. The beam is composed of a steel tube with thickness t = 0.25 in. Select the radius such that max 18 ksi, and max L/360.
1 k/ft r 20
Solution: 1. Steel has E = 29, 000 ksi, and from above Mmax = 2. The maximum moment will be Mmax = (1) k/ft(20)2 ft2 wL2 = = 50 k.ft 8 8 (5.30)
wL2 8 ,
0.25
max =
wL4 185EI ,
and I = r3 t.
3. We next seek a relation between maximum deection and radius max I = =

wL 185EI 3
4
= = =
r t
wL4 185Er 3 t 4 3 3 (1) k/ft(20)4 ft (12)3 in / ft (185)(29,000) ksi(3.14)r 3 (0.25) in 65.65 r3
(5.31)
Victor Saouma
542
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
4. Similarly for the stress S I = = =

M S I r
= = =
r t
M r 2 t (50) k.ft(12) in/ft (3.14)r 2 (0.25) in 764 r2
(5.32)
5. We now set those two values equal to their respective maximum max max (20) ft(12) in/ft L 65.65 = = 0.67 in = r= 360 360 r3 764 764 = 6.51 in = (18) ksi = 2 r = r 18 =
3
65.65 = 4.61 in (5.33-a) 0.67 (5.33-b)
5.4.5
80
Approximate Analysis
M 1 From Fig. 5.14, and Eq. 5.27 ( EI = = ), we recall that that the moment is directly proportional to the curvature .
81
Thus, 1. A positive and negative moment would correspond to positive and negative curvature respectively (adopting the sign convention shown in Fig. 5.14). 2. A zero moment correspnds to an inection point in the deected shape.
82
Hence, for
Statically determinate structure, we can determine the deected shape from the moment diagram, Fig. 5.15. Statically indeterminate structure, we can: 1. 2. 3. 4. Plot the deected shape. Identify inection points, approximate their location. Locate those inection points on the structure, which will then become statically determinate. Perform an approximate analysis.
Example 5-11: Approximate Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate beam Perform an approximate analysis of the following beam, and compare your results with the exact solution.
20k 16 12 28
Victor Saouma
28
5.4 Flexure
543
Draft
Figure 5.15: Elastic Curve from the Moment Diagram
Victor Saouma
544
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
Figure 5.16: Approximate Analysis of Beams
Victor Saouma
5.4 Flexure
545
Draft
Solution:
20k 16 12 28 28
22
28
20k Approximate Location of IP A 22 B C 6 D 28
1. We have 3 unknowns RA , RC , and RD , all in the vertical directions, and only two applicable equations of equilibrium (since we do not have any force in the x direction), thus the problem is statically indeterminare. 2. We sketch the anticipated deected shape, and guess the location of the inection point. 3. At that location, we place a hinge, and we now have an additional equation of condition at that location (M = 0). 4. If we consider AB, and take the moments with respect to point B: (+ ') MB = 0; (22)(RA ) (20)(22 16) = 0 RA = 5.45 k T (5.34-a) 5. If we now consider the entire beam: (+ ') MD = 0; (RA )(28 + 28) (20)(28 + 12) + (RC )(28) = 0 (5.45)(56) (20)(40) + (RC )(28) = 0 ) (+ T Fy = 0; RC = 17.67 k T RA 20 + Rc + RD = 0 5.45 20 + 17.67 + RD = 0 RD = 3.12 3.12 k c Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
546
REVIEW of STATICS
Draft
6. Check
(+ ') MA = 0;
(20)(16) (RC )(28) + (RD )(28 + 28) = 320 (17.67)(28) + (3.12)(56) = 320 494.76 + 174.72 = 0
(5.36-a)
7. The moments are determined next Mmax M1 = = RA a = (5.45)(16) = 87.2 RD L = (3.12)(28) = 87.36 (5.37-a) (5.37-b)
8. We now compare with the exact solution from Section 5.3.2, solution 21 where:L = 28, a = 16, b = 12, and P = 20 R 1 = RA Pb 4L2 a(L + a) 4L3 (20)(12) 4(28)2 (16)(28 + 16) = 6.64 = 4(28)3 Pa 2L2 + b(L + a) = 2L3 (20)(16) 2(28)2 + 12(28 + 16) = 15.28 = 2(28)3 P ab = 3 (L + a) 4L (20)(16)(12) = (28 + 16) = 1.92 4(28)3 = = R1 a = (6.64)(16) = 106.2 = R3 L = (1.92)(28) = 53.8
(5.38-a) (5.38-b) (5.38-c) (5.38-d) (5.38-e) (5.38-f) (5.38-g)
R 2 = RB
R 3 = RD
Mmax M1
9. If we tabulate the results we have Value RA RC RD M1 Mmax Approximate 5.45 17.67 3.12 87.36 87.2 Exact 6.64 15.28 1.92 53.8 106.2 % Error 18 -16 63 62 18
10. Whereas the correlation between the approximate and exact results is quite poor, one should not underestimate the simplicity of this method keeping in mind (an exact analysis of this structure would have been computationally much more involved). Furthermore, often one only needs a rough order of magnitude of the moments.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 6
Case Study II: GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE

6.1
1
Theory
Whereas the forces in a cable can be determined from statics alone, its conguration must be derived from its deformation. Let us consider a cable with distributed load p(x) per unit horizontal projection of the cable length (thus neglecting the weight of the cable). An innitesimal portion of that cable can be assumed to be a straight line, Fig. 6.1 and in the absence of any horizontal load we have H =constant. Summation of the vertical forces yields ) (+ c Fy = 0 V + wdx + (V + dV ) = 0 0 (6.1-a) (6.1-b) dV + wdx =
where V is the vertical component of the cable tension at x (Note that if the cable was subjected to its own weight then we would have wds instead of wdx). Because the cable must be tangent to T , we have tan = Substituting into Eq. 6.1-b yields d(H tan ) + wdx = 0
2
V H d (H tan ) = w dx
(6.2)
(6.3)
But H is constant (no horizontal load is applied), thus, this last equation can be rewritten as H d (tan ) = w dx
dv dx
(6.4) which when substituted in Eq. 6.4 yields (6.5)
Written in terms of the vertical displacement v, tan = the governing equation for cables Hv = w
3 4
For a cable subjected to a uniform load w, we can determine its shape by double integration of Eq. 6.5 Hv Hv = = wx + C1 wx2 + C1 x + C2 2 (6.6-a) (6.6-b)
62
Draft
y
L/2
h
y V x q(x) dx
x
L
ds
y(x)
T V
ds
dx V+dV
q(x) dy
Victor Saouma
Figure 6.1: Cable Structure Subjected to p(x)
T+dT
6.1 Theory
63
Draft
5
and the constants of integrations C1 and C2 can be obtained from the boundary conditions: v = 0 at x = 0 and at x = L C2 = 0 and C1 = wL . Thus 2 v= w x(L x) 2H (6.7)
This equation gives the shape v(x) in terms of the horizontal force H, Since the maximum sag h occurs at midspan (x =
L 2)
we can solve for the horizontal force (6.8)
H=
wL2 8h
we note the analogy with the maximum moment in a simply supported uniformly loaded beam M = 2 Hh = wL . Furthermore, this relation clearly shows that the horizontal force is inversely proportional 8 to the sag h, as h H . Finally, we can rewrite this equation as r wL H Eliminating H from Eq. 6.7 and 6.8 we obtain v = 4h x2 x + 2 L L (6.10)
def
h L 8r
(6.9-a) (6.9-b)
Thus the cable assumes a parabolic shape (as the moment diagram of the applied load). Whereas the horizontal force H is constant throughout the cable, the tension T is not. The maximum tension occurs at the support where the vertical component is equal to V = wL and the horizontal one 2 to H, thus
7
Tmax =
V 2 + H2 =
wL 2
+ H2 = H
1+
wL/2 H
(6.11)
Combining this with Eq. 6.8 we obtain1 . Tmax = H 1 + 16r2 H(1 + 8r2 ) (6.12)
Had we assumed a uniform load w per length of cable (rather than horizontal projection), the equation would have been one of a catenary2 . v= H w cosh w H L x 2 +h (6.13)
The cable between transmission towers is a good example of a catenary.

that (a + b)n = an + nan1 b + an2 b2 + or (1 + b)n = 1 + nb + 2! 1 b Thus for b2 << 1, 1 + b = (1 + b) 2 1 + 2 2 Derivation of this equation is beyond the scope of this course.
1 Recalling n(n1) n(n1)b2 2!
n(n1)(n2)b3 3!
+ ;
Victor Saouma
64
Draft
6.2
9
The Case Study
Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983) The George Washington bridge, is a suspension bridge spanning the Hudson river from New York City to New Jersey. It was completed in 1931 with a central span of 3,500 ft (at the time the worlds longest span). The bridge was designed by O.H. Amman, who had emigrated from Switzerland. In 1962 the deck was stiened with the addition of a lower deck.
6.2.1
10
Geometry
A longitudinal and plan elevation of the bridge is shown in For simplicity we will assume in our
??
377 ft
327 ft
610 ft
3,500 ft 4,760 ft
650 ft
ELEVATION
N.J.
HUDSON RIVER
N.Y.
PLAN
Figure 6.2: Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge analysis that the two approaching spans are equal to 650 ft.
11 There are two cables of three feet diameter on each side of the bridge. The centers of each pair are 9 ft apart, and the pairs themselves are 106 ft apart. We will assume a span width of 100 ft. 12 The cables are idealized as supported by rollers at the top of the towers, hence the horizontal components of the forces in each side of the cable must be equal (their vertical components will add up). 13 The cables support the road deck which is hungby suspenders attached at the cables. The cables are made of 26,474 steel wires, each 0.196 inch in diameter. They are continuous over the tower supports and are rmly anchored in both banks by huge blocks of concrete, the anchors.
Victor Saouma
6.2 The Case Study
65
Draft
14
I Because the cables are much longer than they are thick (large L ), they can be idealized a perfectly exible members with no shear/bending resistance but with high axial strength.
15 The towers are 578 ft tall and rest on concrete caissons in the river. Because of our assumption regarding the roller support for the cables, the towers will be subjected only to axial forces.
6.2.2
Loads
16 The dead load is composed of the weight of the deck and the cables and is estimated at 390 and 400 psf respectively for the central and side spans respectively. Assuming an average width of 100 ft, this would be equivalent to
DL = (390) psf(100) ft for the main span and 40 k/ft for the side ones.
(1, 000) lbs
= 39 k/ft
(6.14)
17 For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is often used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig. 6.3. Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
Figure 6.3: Truck Load With two decks, we estimate that there is a total of 12 lanes or LL = (12)Lanes(.64) k/ ft/Lane = 7.68 k/ft 8 k/ft We do not consider earthquake, or wind loads in this analysis.
19
18
(6.15)
Final DL and LL are, Fig. 6.4: T L = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
Victor Saouma
66
Draft
w = 40 k/ft D,S
w = 39 k/ft D
w = 40 k/ft D,S
DEAD LOADS
w = 8 k/ft L
Figure 6.4: Dead and Live Loads
Victor Saouma
6.2 The Case Study
67
Draft
6.2.3
20
Cable Forces
The thrust H (which is the horizontal component of the cable force) is determined from Eq. 6.8 H = = =
wL2 cs 8h (47) k/ft(3,500)2 (8)(327) ft
ft2
220, 000 k
From Eq. 6.12 the maximum tension is r Tmax

327 = Lh = 3,500 = 0.0934 cs = H 1 + 16r2 = (2, 200) k 1 + (16)(0.0934)2 = (2, 200) k(1.0675) = 235,000 k
6.2.4
21
Reactions
Cable reactions are shown in Fig. 6.5.

POINTS WITH REACTIONS TO CABLES
Figure 6.5: Location of Cable Reactions The vertical force in the columns due to the central span (cs) is simply the support reaction, 6.6
wTOT = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft A POINT OF NO MOMENT B REACTIONS AT TOP OF TOWER
22
L = 3,500 FT
Figure 6.6: Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load 1 1 wLcs = (47) k/ft(3, 500) ft = 82, 250 k 2 2
Vcs = Victor Saouma
(6.16)
68
Draft
Note that we can check this by determining the vector sum of H and V which should be equal to Tmax : 2 Vcs + H 2 = (82, 250)2 + (220, 000)2 = 235, 000 k
(6.17)
23 Along the side spans (ss), the total load is T L = 40 + 8 = 48 k/ft. We determine the vertical reaction by taking the summation of moments with respect to the anchor:
Lss Vss Lss 2 (650) ft = (377) k(220, 000) k + (48) k/ft(650) ft 650Vss 2 Vss
MD = 0; '+; hss H + (wss Lss )
= = =
0 0 143, 200 k
(6.18-a) (6.18-b) (6.18-c)
24
Hence the total axial force applied on the column is V = Vcs + Vss = (82, 250) k + (143, 200) k = 225,450 k (6.19)
25
The vertical reaction at the anchor is given by summation of the forces in the y direction, Fig. 6.7: ) (+ T Fy = 0; (wss Lss ) + Vss + Ranchor (48) k/ft(650) ft + (143, 200) k + Ranchor Ranchor = 0 = 0 = 112,000 k c (6.20-a) (6.20-b) (6.20-c) (6.20-d)
225,450 k 220,000 k
112,000 k
Figure 6.7: Cable Reactions in Side Span The axial force in the side cable is determined the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical reactions. ss Tanchor ss Ttower = = R2 + H2 = anchor
2 Vss + H 2 =
26
(112, 000)2 + (220, 000)2 = 247, 000 k
(6.21-a) (6.21-b)
(143, 200)2 + (220, 000)2 = 262,500 k
Victor Saouma
6.2 The Case Study
69
Draft
27
The cable stresses are determined last, Fig. 6.8: Awire Atotal Central Span ss Side Span Tower tower ss Side Span Anchor tower = = = = = (3.14)(0.196)2 D2 = = 0.03017 in2 4 4 (4)cables(26, 474)wires/cable(0.03017) in2 /wire = 3, 200 (220, 000) k H = = 68.75 ksi A (3, 200) in2 ss Ttower (262, 500) in2 = = 82 ksi A (3, 200) in2 ss Tanchor (247, 000) in2 = = 77.2 ksi A (3, 200) in2 (6.22-a)
in2 (6.22-b)
(6.22-c) (6.22-d) (6.22-e)
73.4 ksi 68.75 ksi
81.9 ksi
77.2 ksi
Figure 6.8: Cable Stresses If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least equal to V = (112,000) k(1,000) lbs/ k = 747, 000 ft3 or a cube of approximately 91 ft 3
28
150
lbs/ft
29 The deck, for all practical purposes can be treated as a continuous beam supported by elastic springs with stiness K = AL/E (where L is the length of the supporting cable). This is often idealized as a beam on elastic foundations, and the resulting shear and moment diagrams for this idealization are shown in Fig. 6.9.
Victor Saouma
610
Draft
K=AL/E
Shear
Moment
Figure 6.9: Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 7
A BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE

If I have been able to see a little farther than some others, it was because I stood on the shoulders of giants. Sir Isaac Newton
1
More than any other engineering discipline, Architecture/Mechanics/Structures is the proud outcome of a of a long and distinguished history. Our profession, second oldest, would be better appreciated if we were to develop a sense of our evolution.
7.1
2
Before the Greeks
Throughout antiquity, structural engineering existing as an art rather than a science. No record exists of any rational consideration, either as to the strength of structural members or as to the behavior of structural materials. The builders were guided by rules of thumbs and experience, which were passed from generation to generation, guarded by secrets of the guild, and seldom supplemented by new knowledge. Despite this, structures erected before Galileo are by modern standards quite phenomenal (pyramids, Via Appia, aqueducs, Colisseums, Gothic cathedrals to name a few). The rst structural engineer in history seems to have been Imhotep, one of only two commoners to be deied. He was the builder of the step pyramid of Sakkara about 3,000 B.C., and yielded great inuence over ancient Egypt.
Hamurrabis code in Babylonia (1750 BC) included among its 282 laws penalties for those architects whose houses collapsed, Fig. 7.1.
7.2
5
Greeks
The greek philosopher Pythagoras (born around 582 B.C.) founded his famous school, which was primarily a secret religious society, at Crotona in southern Italy. At his school he allowed neither textbooks nor recording of notes in lectures, on pain of death. He taught until the age of 95, and is
72
Draft
228. If a builder build a house for some one and complete it, he shall give him a fee of two shekels in money for each sar of surface. 229 If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. 230. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death. 231. If it kill a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house. 232. If it ruin goods, he shall make compensation for all that has been ruined, and inasmuch as he did not construct properly this house which he built and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his own means. 233. If a builder build a house for some one, even though he has not yet completed it; if then the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the walls solid from his own means. Figure 7.1: Hamurrabis Code reported to have coined the term mathematics which means literally the science of learning (and also the word philosopher meaning one who loves wisdom).
6
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was Dean of the Lyceum, a college just outside the city gates of Athens, and was a man of universal ability. He is credited with having written in more than 25 dierent elds of knowledge. One of the most inuential men of early civilization.
A pupil of Aristotle was Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) who founded the city of Alexandria in 323. Upon his death, one of his generals Ptolemy I became Pharaoh and established a library. The library of Alexandria was founded with the private library of Aristotle as a nucleus, and later became the largest of the ancient world, containing about 700,000 scrolls. Many of these scrolls were subsequently brought to the attention of the western world through translations by the arabs.
7 8
Alexandria was also the seat of the rst university (with a reported enrollment of 14,000 students), and its rst professor of geometry was Euclid (315-250 B.C.). The greatest of the Greeks was Archimedes (287-212) who was one of the greatest physicist of the ancient world and one of its greatest mathematician, Fig. 7.2. He is considered by many as the founder of mechanics because of his treatise On Equilibrium. He introduced the concept of center of gravity. He refused to write about practical stu such as machines, catapults, spiral pumps, and others. It was one such invention (the lens) which kept the Roman armies at bay outside Syracuse for three years. When the city fell, he was supposed to have had his life spared. But the circumstances of his subsequent death are obscure. By some accounts he was killed by an ignorant soldier who disobeyed orders, and by other he was slain because he was too busy solving a mathematical problem to appear in front of the Roman consul and conqueror of Syracuse.
Victor Saouma
7.3 Romans
73
Draft
Figure 7.2: Archimed
7.3
Romans
10 Science made much less progress under the Romans than under the Greeks. The Romans apparently were more practical, and were not as interested in abstract thinking though they were excellent ghters and builders. 11 As the roman empire expanded, the Romans built great roads (some of them still in use) such as the Via Appia, Cassia, Aurelia; Also they built great bridges (such as the third of a mile bridge over the Rhine built by Caesars), and stadium (Colliseum).
12
One of the most notable Roman construction was the Pantheon, Fig. 7.3. It is the best-preserved
Figure 7.3: Pantheon major edice of ancient Rome and one of the most signicant buildings in architectural history. In shape it is an immense cylinder concealing eight piers, topped with a dome and fronted by a rectangular colonnaded porch. The great vaulted dome is 43 m (142 ft) in diameter, and the entire structure is lighted through one aperture, called an oculus, in the center of the dome. The Pantheon was erected by the Roman emperor Hadrian between AD 118 and 128.
13 Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (70?-25 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer. He was an artillery engineer in the service of the rst Roman emperor, Augustus. His Ten Books on Architecture (Vitruvius
Victor Saouma
74
Draft
1960) is the oldest surviving work on the subject and consists of dissertations on a wide variety of subjects relating to architecture, engineering, sanitation, practical hydraulics, acoustic vases, and the like. Much of the material appears to have been taken from earlier extinct treatises by Greek architects. Vitruviuss writings have been studied ever since the Renaissance as a thesaurus of the art of classical Roman architecture, Fig. 7.4.
Figure 7.4: From Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, (Vitruvius 1960)
7.4
The Medieval Period (477-1492)
14 This period, also called the Dark Ages, was marked by a general decline of civilization throughout Europe following the decline and fall of the western Roman Empire. 15 The eastern Roman Empire on the other hand was to continue, and the center of Greek life had by then been transferred to Constantinople. This city exerted great inuence throughout Asia Minor. 16 Hagia Sophia, also Church of the Holy Wisdom, Fig. 7.5, was the most famous Byzantine structure in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Built (532-37) by Emperor Justinian I, its huge size and daring technical innovations make it one of the worlds key monuments. The size of its dome though, 112 ft, was nevertheless smaller than the one of the Pantheon in Rome. 17 During that period, the Arabs carried the torch of knowledge, gave birth to algebra, translated some of the great books of the Library of Alexandria. 18 Architecture, was the most important and original art form during the Gothic period, (Anon. xx). The principal structural characteristics of Gothic architecture arose out of medieval masons eorts to solve the problems associated with supporting heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans. The problem was that the heavy stonework of the traditional arched barrel vault and the groin vault exerted a tremendous downward and outward pressure that tended to push the walls upon which the vault rested outward,
Victor Saouma
7.5 The Renaissance
75
Draft
Figure 7.5: Hagia Sophia thus collapsing them. A buildings vertical supporting walls thus had to be made extremely thick and heavy in order to contain the barrel vaults outward thrust. Medieval masons solved this dicult problem about 1120 with a number of brilliant innovations. First and foremost they developed a ribbed vault, in which arching and intersecting stone ribs support a vaulted ceiling surface that is composed of mere thin stone panels. This greatly reduced the weight (and thus the outward thrust) of the ceiling vault, and since the vaults weight was now carried at discrete points (the ribs) rather than along a continuous wall edge, separate widely spaced vertical piers to support the ribs could replace the continuous thick walls. The round arches of the barrel vault were replaced by pointed (Gothic) arches which distributed thrust in more directions downward from the topmost point of the arch. Since the combination of ribs and piers relieved the intervening vertical wall spaces of their supportive function, these walls could be built thinner and could even be opened up with large windows or other glazing. A crucial point was that the outward thrust of the ribbed ceiling vaults was carried across the outside walls of the nave, rst to an attached outer buttress and then to a freestanding pier by means of a half arch known as a ying buttress. The ying buttress leaned against the upper exterior of the nave (thus counteracting the vaults outward thrust), crossed over the low side aisles of the nave, and terminated in the freestanding buttress pier, which ultimately absorbed the ceiling vaults thrust. These elements enabled Gothic masons to build much larger and taller buildings than their Romanesque predecessors and to give their structures more complicated ground plans. The skillful use of ying buttresses made it possible to build extremely tall, thin-walled buildings whose interior structural system of columnar piers and ribs reinforced an impression of soaring verticality.
19
Vilet-Le-Duc classical book, (le Duc 1977) provided an in depth study of Gothic architecture.
7.5
20
The Renaissance
During the Renaissance there was a major revival of interest in science and art.
Victor Saouma
76
Draft
7.5.1
23
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519
21 Leonardo da Vinci was the most outstanding personality of that period (and of human civilization for that matter). He was not only a great artist (Mona Lisa), but also a great scientist and engineer.
22 He did not write books, but much information was found in his notebooks, one the most famous (Codex Leicester) was recently purchased by Bill Gates whose company Corbis made a CD-ROM from it.
He was greatly interested in mechanics, (Timoshenko 1982), and in one of his notes he states Mechanics is the Paradise of mathematical science because here we come to the fruits of mathematics.
24 He was the rst to explore concepts of mechanics, since Archimedes, using a scientic approach. He applied the principle of virtual displacements to analyze various systems of pulleys and levers. He appears to have developped a correct idea of the thrust produced by an arch. 25 In one of his manuscripts there is a sketch of two members on which a vertical load Q is acting and the question is asked: What forces are needed at a and b to have equilibrium? (From the dotted line parallelogram, in the sketch, it can be concluded that he had the right answer). 26 Leonardo also studied the strength of structural materials experimentally. He tried to determine the tensile strength of an iron wire of dierent length (size eect). 27 He also studied the load carrying capacity of a simply supported uniformly loaded beam and concluded that the strength of the beam supported at both ends varies inversely as the length and directly as the width (is this correct? how about the depth of the beam?).
28
For a cantilevered beam he stated If a beam 2 braccia long supports 100 libre, a beam 1 braccia long will support 200
Finally, Leonardo briey studied the strength of columns and found that it varies inversely as its length, but directly as some ratio of its cross section.
29 Leonardos was the rst indeed to attempt to apply statics in nding the forces acting in members of structures, friction and the rst to perform experiments to determine the strength of structural materials.
30
Interestingly, here is Leonardos denition of force, (Penvenuto 1991) I say that force is a spiritual virtue, an invisible power, which, through accidental exterior violence, is caused by motion and placed and infused into bodies which are [thus] removed and deviated from their natural use, giving to such virtue an active life of marvelous power.
31 Unfortunatly, these important ndings, were buried in his notes, and engineers in the fteenth and sixteenth centuries continued, as in the Roman era, to x dimensions of structural elements by relying on experience and judgment.
7.5.2
32
Brunelleschi 1377-1446
Brunelleschi was a Florentine architect and one of the initiators of the Italian Renaissance. His revival of classical forms and his championing of an architecture based on mathematics, proportion, and perspective make him a key artistic gure in the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era. Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
7.5 The Renaissance
77
Draft
33 He was born in Florence in 1377 and received his early training as an artisan in silver and gold. In 1401 he entered, and lost, the famous design competition for the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery. He then turned to architecture and in 1418 received the commission to execute the dome of the unnished Gothic Cathedral of Florence, also called the Duomo. The dome, Fig. 7.6 a great innovation both
Figure 7.6: Florences Cathedral Dome artistically and technically, consists of two octagonal vaults, one inside the other. Its shape was dictated by its structural needs one of the rst examples of architectural functionalism. Brunelleschi made a design feature of the necessary eight ribs of the vault, carrying them over to the exterior of the dome, where they provide the framework for the domes decorative elements, which also include architectural reliefs, circular windows, and a beautifully proportioned cupola. This was the rst time that a dome created the same strong eect on the exterior as it did on the interior.
34 Completely dierent from the emotional, elaborate Gothic mode that still prevailed in his time, Brunelleschis style emphasized mathematical rigor in its use of straight lines, at planes, and cubic spaces. This set the tone for many of the later buildings of the Florentine Renaissance. 35 His inuence on his contemporaries and immediate followers was very strong and has been felt even in the 20th century, when modern architects came to revere him as the rst great exponent of rational architecture.
7.5.3
36
Alberti 1404-1472
Alberti was an Italian architect and writer, who was the rst important art theorist of the Renaissance and among the rst to design buildings in a pure classical style based on a study of ancient Roman architecture.
Victor Saouma
78
Draft
37 He was born in Genoa, the son of a Florentine noble. He received the best education available in the 15th century. He was procient in Greek, mathematics, and the natural sciences. As a poet, a philosopher, and one of the rst organists of his day, Alberti greatly inuenced his contemporaries. 38 Albertis architectural training began with the study of antique monuments during his rst stay in Rome. Subsequently he joined the papal court in Florence, where he became intensely involved with the cultural life of the city. Probably at this time he became familiar with the mathematical laws of linear perspective, which Brunelleschi had studied. 39 Alberti took took an active part in the literary life of Florence and championed the literary use of Italian rather than the use of Latin.
40 In the late 1440s, Alberti began to work as an architect. Although his buildings rank among the best architecture of the Renaissance, he was a theoretical rather than a practical architect. He furnished the plans of his buildings but never supervised their construction. His De Re Aedicatoria (1485) was the rst printed work on architecture of the Renaissance. He also wrote books on sculpture, the family, government, and literature.
7.5.4
Palladio 1508-1580
41 Andrea Palladio was one of the most inuential architects in European history. He was born in Padua, and trained as a stonemason, he later joined the poet Trissino who took him to Rome, where Palladio studied and measured Roman architectural ruins; he also absorbed the treatises of Vitruvius. One outcome of these studies was Palladios Antiquities of Rome (1554) (Palladio 19xx), the principal guidebook to Roman ruins for the next two centuries. 42 In and near Vicenza he designed many residences and public buildings. The best known of these are the Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Porto, and Valmarana palaces and the Villa Capri, or Villa Rotunda. Although the historical antecedents of Palladios style are the classically Roman-inuenced High Renaissance works of architects such as the Italian Donato Bramante, Palladios own use of classical motifs came through his direct, extensive study of Roman architecture. He freely recombined elements of Roman buildings as suggested by his own building sites and by contemporary needs, Fig. 7.7 At the same time he shared the Renaissance concern for harmonious proportion, and his facades have a noteworthy simplicity almost austerity and repose. 43 Palladio was the author of an important scientic treatise on architecture, I Quattro Libri dellArchitettura, (Palladio 19xx) which was widely translated and inuenced many later architects. Its precise rules and formulas were widely utilized, especially in England, and were basic to the Palladian style, adopted by Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, and other English architects, which preceded and inuenced the neoclassical architecture of the Georgian Style.
7.5.5
Stevin
44 Stevin, Fig. 7.8, was a Dutch mathematician and engineer who founded the science of hydrostatics by showing that the pressure exerted by a liquid upon a given surface depends on the height of the liquid and the area of the surface.
45
Stevin was a bookkeeper in Antwerp, then a clerk in the tax oce at Brugge. After this he moved to Leiden where he rst attended the Latin school, then he entered the University of Leiden in 1583 (at the age of 35). While quartermaster in the Dutch army, Stevin invented a way of ooding the lowlands in the path of an invading army by opening selected sluices in dikes. He was an outstanding engineer who
Victor Saouma
7.5 The Renaissance
79
Draft
Figure 7.7: Palladios Villa Rotunda
Figure 7.8: Stevin
Victor Saouma
710
Draft
7.5.6
built windmills, locks and ports. He advised the Prince Maurice of Nassau on building fortications for the war against Spain.
46 The author of 11 books, Stevin made signicant contributions to trigonometry, geography, fortication, and navigation. Inspired by Archimedes, Stevin wrote important works on mechanics. In his book De Beghinselen der Weeghconst in 1586 appears the theorem of the triangle of forces giving impetus to statics. In 1586 (3 years before Galileo) he reported that dierent weights fell a given distance in the same time.
Galileo 1564-1642
47 Galilei Galileo was born in Pisa in 1564. He received his early education in Latin, Greek and logic near Florence, Fig. 7.9. Just as his father had played an important role in the musical revolution
Figure 7.9: Galileo from medieval polyphony to harmonic modulation, Galileo came to see Aristotelian physical theology as limiting scientic inquiry.
48 In 1581 he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, but he soon turned to philosophy and mathematics, leaving the university without a degree in 1585. For a time he tutored privately and wrote on hydrostatics and natural motions, but he did not publish. 49 In 1589 he became professor of mathematics at Pisa, where he is reported to have shown his students the error of Aristotles belief that speed of fall is proportional to weight, by dropping two objects of dierent weight simultaneously from the Leaning Tower, thus modern dynamics was born. His contract was not renewed in 1592, probably because he contradicted Aristotelian professors. The same year, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua, where he remained until 1610. 50 In Padua he achieved great fame, and lecture halls capable of containing 2,000 students from all over Europe were used. In 1592 he wrote Della Scienza Meccanica in which various problems of statics were treated using the principle of virtual displacement. He subsequently became interested in astronomy and built one of the rst telescope through which he saw Jupiter and became an ardent proponent of the Copernican theory (which stated that the planets circle the sun as opposed to the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic assumptions that it was the sun which was circling Earth). This theory being condemned by the church, he received a semiocial warning to avoid theology and limit himself to physical reasoning. When he published his books dealing with the two ways of regarding the universe (which clearly favored the Copernican theory) he was called to Rome by the Inquisition, condemned and had to read his recantation (At the end of his process he murmured the famous e pur se muove).
Victor Saouma
7.5 The Renaissance
711
Draft
51 When he was almost seventy years old, his life shattered by the Inquisition, he retired to his villa near Florence and wrote his nal book, Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, (Galilei 1974), Fig. 7.10. His rst science was the study of the forces that hold objects together -the dialogue taking place
Figure 7.10: Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, Cover Page in a shipyard, triggered by observations of craftsmen building the Venetian eet. His second science concerned local motions - laws governing the trajectory of projectiles. A portion of the book dealing with the mechanical properties of structural materials and with the strength of beams. Strength of Materials as a discipline was born.
52 He observed that if we make structures geometrically similar, then with increase of the dimensions they become weaker and weaker, One cannot reason from the small to the large, because many mechanical devices succeed on a small scale that cannot exist in great size. 53 It is interesting to note that when Galileo studied the strength of a cantilevered (wooden) beam with an applied load at the end, Fig. 7.11, he failed to properly understand the exact internal stress/strain
Figure 7.11: Galileos Beam distribution. He determined that the stress is constant throughout the cross section (whereas as we know it varies linearly).
54 Galileos lifelong struggle to free scientic inquiry from restriction by philosophical and theological interference stands beyond science. Since the full publication of Galileos trial documents in the 1870s,
Victor Saouma
712
Draft
7.6
7.6.1
entire responsibility for Galileos condemnation has customarily been placed on the Roman Catholic church. This conceals the role of the philosophy professors who rst persuaded theologians to link Galileos science with heresy. An investigation into the astronomers condemnation, calling for its reversal, was opened in 1979 by Pope John Paul II. In October 1992 a papal commission acknowledged the Vaticans error.
Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century

Hooke, 1635-1703
55 Hooke was best known for his study of elasticity but also original contributions to many other elds of science. 56 Hooke was born on the Isle of Wight and educated at the University of Oxford. He served as assistant to the English physicist Robert Boyle and assisted him in the construction of the air pump. In 1662 Hooke was appointed curator of experiments of the Royal Society and served in this position until his death. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1663 and was appointed Gresham Professor of Geometry at Oxford in 1665. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, he was appointed surveyor of London, and he designed many buildings. 57 Hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time but failed to carry many of them through to completion. He formulated the theory of planetary motion as a problem in mechanics, and grasped, but did not develop mathematically, the fundamental theory on which Newton formulated the law of gravitation. 58 His most important contribution was published in 1678 in the paper De Potentia Restitutiva. It contained results of his experiments with elastic bodies, and was the rst paper in which the elastic properties of material was discused, Fig. 7.12.
Figure 7.12: Experimental Set Up Used by Hooke Take a wire string of 20, or 30, or 40 ft long, and fasten the upper part thereof to a nail, and to the other end fasten a Scale to receive the weights: Then with a pair of compasses take the distance of the bottom of the scale from the ground or oor underneath, and set down the Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century
713
Draft
said distance,then put inweights into the said scale and measure the several stretchings of the said string, and set them down. Then compare the several strtchings of the said string, and you will nd that they will always bear the same proportions one to the other that the weights do that made them.
This became Hookes Law = E.

59 Because he was concerned about patent rights to his invention, he did not publish his law when rst discovered it in 1660. Instead he published it in the form of an anagram ceiinosssttuu in 1676 and the solution was given in 1678. Ut tensio sic vis (at the time the two symbos u and v were employed interchangeably to denote either the vowel u or the consonant v), i.e. extension varies directly with force.
7.6.2
60
Newton, 1642-1727
Born on christmas day in the year of Galileos death, Newton, Fig. 7.13 was Professor of Mathematics
Figure 7.13: Isaac Newton at Cambridge university.

61 In 1684 Newtons solitude was interrupted by a visit from Edmund Halley, the British astronomer and mathematician, who discussed with Newton the problem of orbital motion. Newton had also pursued the science of mechanics as an undergraduate, and at that time he had already entertained basic notions about universal gravitation. As a result of Halleys visit, Newton returned to these studies. 62 During the following two and a half years, Newton established the modern science of dynamics by formulating his three laws of motion. Newton applied these laws to Keplers laws of orbital motion formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler and derived the law of universal gravitation. Newton is probably best known for discovering universal gravitation, which explains that all bodies in space and on earth are aected by the force called gravity. He published this theory in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica or simply Principia, in 1687, Fig. 7.14. This book marked a turning point in the history of science. 63 The Principias appearance also involved Newton in an unpleasant episode with the English philosopher and physicist Robert Hooke. In 1687 Hooke claimed that Newton had stolen from him a central
Victor Saouma
714
Draft
Figure 7.14: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Cover Page idea of the book: that bodies attract each other with a force that varies inversely as the square of their distance. However, most historians do not accept Hookes charge of plagiarism.
64 Newton also engaged in a violent dispute with Leibniz over priority in the invention of calculus. Newton used his position as president of the Royal Society to have a committee of that body investigate the question, and he secretly wrote the committees report, which charged Leibniz with deliberate plagiarism. Newton also compiled the book of evidence that the society published. The eects of the quarrel lingered nearly until his death in 1727. 65 In addition to science, Newton also showed an interest in alchemy, mysticism, and theology. Many pages of his notes and writings particularly from the later years of his career are devoted to these topics. However, historians have found little connection between these interests and Newtons scientic work.
7.6.3
Bernoulli Family 1654-1782
66 The Bernouilli family originally lived in Antwerp, but because of religious persecution, they left Holland and settled in Basel. Near the end of the seventeenth century this family produced outstanding mathematicians for more than a hundred years. Jacob and John were brothers. John was the father of Daniel, and Euler his pupil. 67 Whereas Galileo (and Mariotte) investigated the strength of beams (Strength), Jacob Bernoulli (16541705) made calculation of their deection (Stiness) and did not contribute to our knowledge of physical properties. Jacob Bernouilli is also credited in being the rst to to have assumed that a bf plane section of a beam remains plane during bending, but assumed rotation to be with respect to the lower ber (as Galileo did) and this resulted in an erroneous solution (where is the exact location of the axis of rotation?). He also showed that the curvature at any point along a beam is proportional to the curvature of the deection curve. 68 Bernoulli made the rst analytical contribution to the problem of elastic exure of a beam. In 1691 he published a logogriph Qrzumubapt dxqopddbbp ... whose secret was revealed in 1694. A letter is replaced by the next in the Latin alphabet, the second by the letter three away, and the third by the letter six away, so that aaaaa would be encoded as bdgbd. The logogriph reads Portio axis applicatem... and the decoded is that the radius of curvature at any point of an initially straight beam in inversely proportional to the value of the bending moment at that point.
69
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) rst postulated that a force can be decomposed into its equivalent Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century
715
Draft
7.6.4
(Potentiis quibuscunque possunt substitui earundem aequivalentes. Another hypothesis dened the sum of two conspiring forces applied to the same point. According to Bernoulli, this necessary truth follows from the metaphysical principle that the whole equalts the sum of its parts, (Penvenuto 1991).
Euler 1707-1783
70 Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and early on caught the attention of John Bernoulli whose teaching was attracting young mathematicians from all over Europe, Fig. 7.15. He obtained his Master
Figure 7.15: Leonhard Euler at age 16, and before the age of 20 won a competition from the French Academy of Sciences. At age 20 he moved to the Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg along with the two sons of John Bernoulli (Nicholas and Daniel). He was appointed professor of physics in 1730 and professor of mathematics in 1733. In 1741 he became professor of mathematics at the Berlin Academy of Sciences at the urging of the Prussian king Frederick the Great. Euler returned to St. Petersburg in 1766, remaining there until his death.
71 Although hampered from his late 20s by partial loss of vision and in later life by almost total blindness, Euler produced a number of important mathematical works and hundreds of mathematical and scientic memoirs. In his Introduction to the Analysis of Innities, Euler gave the rst full analytical treatment of algebra, the theory of equations, trigonometry, and analytical geometry. In this work he treated the series expansion of functions and formulated the rule that only convergent innite series can properly be evaluated. He also discussed three-dimensional surfaces and proved that the conic sections are represented by the general equation of the second degree in two dimensions. Other works dealt with calculus, including the calculus of variations, number theory, imaginary numbers, and determinate and indeterminate algebra. Euler, although principally a mathematician, made contributions to astronomy, mechanics, optics, and acoustics. 72 In Russia he wrote a famous book in mechanics in which instead of applying the geometrical methods used by Newton, he introduced analytical methods. 73 As a mathematician, Euler was interested principally in the geometrical forms of elastic curves. He approached problems from the point of view of variational calculus and in the introduction of his book Methodus inveniendi lineas curva ... he stated
Since the fabric of the universe is most perfect, and is the work of a most wise Creator, nothing whatsover takes place in the universe in which some relation o maximum an minimum does Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
716
A BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE not appear. Therefore there is absolutely no doubt that every eect in the universe can be explained as satisfactorily from nal causes, by the aid of the method of maxima and minima, as it can from the eective causes themselves...
Draft
7.7
75
74 Euler obtained a near exact expression for the deection of a cantilever subjected to a point load, and for the buckling load of a column.
The pre-Modern Period; Coulomb and Navier
Coulomb (1736-1806) was a French military engineer, Fig. 7.16, as was the rst to publish the correct
Figure 7.16: Coulomb analysis of the ber stresses in exed beam with rectangular cross section (Sur une Application des Rgles de maximis et minimis a quelques probl`mes de statique relatifs a larchitecture in 1773). He used e ` e ` Hookes law, placed the neutral axis in its exact position, developed the equilibrium of forces on the cross section with external forces, and then correcly determined the stresses. He also worked on friction (Coulomb friction) and on earth pressure.
76 Coulomb did also research on magnetism, friction, and electricity. In 1777 he invented the torsion balance for measuring the force of magnetic and electrical attraction. With this invention, Coulomb was able to formulate the principle, now known as Coulombs law, governing the interaction between electric charges. In 1779 Coulomb published the treatise Theorie des machines simples (Theory of Simple Machines), an analysis of friction in machinery. After the war Coulomb came out of retirement and assisted the new government in devising a metric system of weights and measures. The unit of quantity used to measure electrical charges, the coulomb, was named for him. 77 Navier (1785-1836) Navier was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and became a professor there in 1831. Whereas the famous memoir of Coulomb (1773) contained the correct solution to numerous important problems in mechanics of materials, it took engineers more than forty years to understand them correctly and to use them in practical application 78 In 1826 he published his Leons (lecture notes) which is considered the rst great textbook in mec chanics for engineering. In it he developed the rst general theory of elastic solids as well as the rst systematic treatment of the theory of structures. 79 It should be noted that no clear division existed between the theory of elasticity and the theory of structures until about the middle of the nineteenth century (Coulomb and Navier would today be considered professional structural engineers).
Victor Saouma
7.8 The Modern Period (1857-Present)
717
Draft
7.8
7.8.1
80 Three other structural engineers who pioneered the development of the theory of elasticity from that point on were Lam, Clapeyron and de Saint-Venant. Lame published the rst book on elasticity e in 1852, and credited Clapeyron for the theorem of equality between external and internal work. de Saint-Venant was perhaps the greatest elasticians who according to Southwell ... combined with high mathematical ability an essentially practical outlook which gave direction to all his work. In 1855-6 he published his classical work on torsion, exure, and shear stresses.
The Modern Period (1857-Present)

Structures/Mechanics
81 From 1857 the evolution of a comprehensive theory of structures proceeded at astonishing rate now that the basic and requisite principles had been determined. 82 Great contributors in that period include: Maxwell (rst analysis of indeterminate structures), Culmann (graphics statics), Mohr (Mohrs circle, indeterminate analysis), Castigliano (1st and 2nd theorems), Cross (moment distribution), Southwell (relaxation method).
7.8.2
Eiel Tower
83 The Eiel Tower was designed and built by the French civil engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiel for the Paris Worlds Fair of 1889. The tower, without its modern broadcasting antennae, is 300 m (984 ft) high. The lower section consists of four immense arched legs set on masonry piers. The legs curve inward until they unite in a single tapered tower. Platforms, each with an observation deck, are at three levels; on the rst is also a restaurant. 84 The tower, constructed of about 6300 metric tons (about 7000 tons) of iron, has stairs and elevators. A meteorological station, a radio communications station, and a television transmission antenna, as well as a suite of rooms that were used by Eiel, are located near the top of the tower.
7.8.3
Sullivan 1856-1924
85 Sullivan wan an American architect, whose brilliant early designs for steel-frame skyscraper construction led to the emergence of the skyscraper as the distinctive American building type. Through his own work, especially his commercial structures, and as the founder of what is now known as the Chicago school of architects, he exerted an enormous inuence on 20th-century American architecture. His most famous pupil was the architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who acknowledged Sullivan as his master. 86 After studying architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he spent a year in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and in the oce of a French architect. Settling in Chicago in 1875, he was employed as a draftsman, then in 1881 formed a partnership with Dankmar Adler. Together they produced more than 100 buildings. 87 Adler secured the clients and handled the engineering and acoustical problems, while Sullivan concerned himself with the architectural designs. One of their earliest and most distinguished joint enterprises was the ten-story Auditorium Building (1886-89) in Chicago. This famous showplace incorporated a hotel, an oce building, and a theater renowned for its superb acoustics. The Wainwright Building, also ten stories high, with a metal frame, was completed in 1891 in Saint Louis, Missouri. In 1895 the Sullivan-Adler partnership was dissolved, leading to a decline in Sullivans practice. The Carson Pirie Scott (originally Schlesinger and Meyer) Department Store, Chicago, regarded by many as Sullivans masterpiece, was completed in 1904.
Victor Saouma
718
Draft
7.8.4
88 His famous axiom, Form follows function became the touchstone for many in his profession. Sullivan, however, did not apply it literally. He meant that an architect should consider the purpose of the building as a starting point, not as a rigidly limiting stricture. 89 He also had tremendous respect for the natural world which played an enormous role in forging his theories about architecture (he spent all of his rst summers on his grandparents farm in Massachusetts where he developed this love and respect for nature) expressed in his Autobiography of an Idea), 1924).
Roebling, 1806-1869
90 John Augustus Roebling was an American civil engineer, who was one of the pioneers in the construction of suspension bridges. He was born in Germany, educated at the Royal Polytechnic School of Berlin and immigrated to the States in 1831. 91 In his rst job he was employed by the Pennsylvania Railroad Corp. to survey its route across the Allegheny Mountains between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh. He then demonstrated the practicability of steel cables in bridge construction and in 1841 established at Saxonburg the rst factory to manufacture steel-wire rope in the U.S. 92 Roebling utilized steel cables in the construction of numerous suspension bridges and is generally considered one of the pioneers in the eld of suspension-bridge construction. He built railroad suspension bridges over the Ohio and Niagara rivers and completed plans for the Brooklyn Bridge shortly before his death. Roebling was the author of Long and Short Span Railway Bridges (1869).
7.8.5
Maillart
From (Billington 1973)

93 Robert Maillart was born on February 6, 1872, in Bern, Switzerland, where his father, a Belgian citizen, was a banker. He studied civil engineering at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich and graduated in 1894. Ironically, one of his lowest grades was in bridge design, even though he is regarded today as one of the half dozen greatest bridge designers of the twentieth century. 94 For eight years following his graduation, he worked with dierent civil engineering organizations. In 1902, he founded his own rm for design and construction; thereafter, his business grew rapidly and expanded as far as Russia and Spain. In the summer of 1914, he took his wife and three children to Russia. Since the World War prevented their return to Switzerland, Maillart stayed and worked in Russia until 1919, when his business was liquidated by the Revolution. Forced to ee, he returned to Switzerland penniless and lonely, his wife having died in Russia. 95 Because of these misfortunes Maillart felt unable to take up the construction business again and henceforth concentrated on design alone. He opened an oce in Geneva in 1919 and branches in Bern and Zurich in 1924. 96 During the twenties he began to develop and modify his ideas of bridge design; and from 1930, when the Salginatobel and Landquart Bridges were completed, until his death in 1940, he produced over thirty bridge designs of extraordinary originality. Unfortunately, no Swiss municipality would accept his designs for prominent urban locations. 97 In 1936, he was elected an honorary member of the Royal institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.) although he had never ocially acted as architect on any project. The 1941 rst edition of Space, Time and Architecture by art historian Siegfried Giedion introduced Maillart to a wide public in the U.S.A. Finally, Max Bills 1949 book, Robert Maillart, with its photographs and commentary on nearly all Maillarts bridges powerfully presented him as an artist of rst rank.
Victor Saouma
719
Draft
7.8.6
100
Nervi, 1891-1979
98 Pier Luigi Nervi was an Italian architect and engineer, whose technical innovations, particularly in the use of reinforced concrete, made possible aesthetically pleasing solutions to dicult structural problems. 99 He attended the Civil Engineering School in Bologna and established his own rm in 1920. His rst major commission (a stadium in Florence, 1932) features cantilevered beams and a daringly exposed concrete structure. For airplane hangars he used reinforced concrete to cover enormous spans with a light but strong latticework.
Nervi considered himself primarily an engineer and technician, not an architect, and he strove primarily for strength through form. He maintained that the strong aesthetic appeal of his buildings was simply a by-product of their structural correctness. His introduction of a versatile new type of reinforced concrete layers of ne steel mesh sprayed with cement mortar made possible one of his masterpieces, the Turin Exposition Hall (1949), in which the approximately 76-m (250-ft) corrugated lattice roof (only about 5 cm thick) creates an immense interior space as dramatic as a cathedral.
101
The best known and most inuential is probably his Palazetto dello Sport (Small Sport Palace, 1960, Rome), Fig. 7.17. Encircled by Y-shaped supports and topped by a shallow scalloped concrete dome,
Figure 7.17: Nervis Palazetto Dello Sport this building has become a paradigm of the 20th-century sports arena.
7.8.7
Khan
Fazlur Khan was born in 1929 in Dacca India, (Anon. xx). After obtaining a B.A. in engineering from the University of Dacca in 1950, Khan worked as assistant engineer for the India Highway Department Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
720
Draft
and taught at the University of Dacca. Qualifying for a scholarship in 1952, he enrolled at the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, where he received masters degrees in both applied mechanics and structural engineering and a Ph.D. in structural engineering. He returned briey to Pakistan and won an important position as executive engineer of the Karachi Development Authority. Frustrated by administrative demands that kept him from design work, however, he returned to the United States and joined the prestigious architectural rm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in Chicago in 1955, eventually becoming a partner (1966). Among his many designs for skyscrapers are Chicagos John Hancock Center (1970) and the Sears Tower (1973), which are among the worlds tallest buildings, and One Shell Plaza in Houston, Texas. The Sears Tower was his rst skyscraper to employ his bundled tube structural system, which consists of a group of narrow steel cylinders that are clustered together to form a thicker column. The system was innovative because it minimized the amount of steel needed for high towers, eliminated the need for internal wind bracing (since the perimeter columns carried the wind loadings), and permitted freer organization of the interior space. His later projects included the strikingly dierent Haj Terminal of the King Abdul Aziz International Airport, Jiddah, Saudi Arabia (1976-81), and King Abdul Aziz University, also in Jiddah (1977-78).
7.8.8
102
et al.
To name just a few of the most inuential Architects/Engineers: Menn, Isler, Candella, Torroja, Johnson, Pei, Calatrava, ...
Victor Saouma
721
Draft
NEW ARCHITECTURE
by
Felix Candela
Professor - University of Illinois Unauthorized reprint from (Billington 1973)
The title of my lecture is New Architecture; but I cannot avoid the feeling that I have not too much to do with this subject. I dont think I can speak of my work as of any new architecture or even as architecture at all, and perhaps the same could be said of Maillarts work. But, of course, it all depends on what you consider architecture and there is not anymore a general consent about the meaning of this word, But, anyway, upon discussing this with David Billington, he told me it could be interesting to know what had been the inuence of Maillart on my development, and all of a sudden I realized that he may have been one of the strongest inuences at the critical moment in my career in which I was trying to become a builder of shells. But let me speak rst about my background, because it may be important to know what impels people to do things and the circumstances and diculties that they had to deal with in order to achieve their purposes. I was trained as an architect with, you may say, quite a backward kind of curriculum, in Madrid during the thirties. We had only one course in strength of materials, but it was a very good course, dealing mainly with theory of elasticity and following the classical and rigoristic French tradition. As you can imagine, most students considered the matter completely useless for their professional practice and, as it required some knowledge of mathematics, it was very dicult for most of them to pass the examination. This gave me opportunity to do some private tutoring to my classmates, which was a very instructive manner to make some money to pay for my studies. As a result, I became more familiar with the theoretical bases of the current methods of calculation of indeterminate structures. I discovered later that this modest background made me more knowledgeable on the matter than most practicing engineers whose training and interest tend to be directed towards mastering the accepted methods of analysis rather than questioning the basic hypotheses. Anyway, since I never had a high opinion of myself as an artist, I was more interested in the technical part of the curriculum and began to read extensively about structures. Among my lectures I found several French and German papers dealing with shells which were beginning to be in vogue at that time in Europe. Examples of such structures built in Germany and France could be found in magazines and Torroja was building the famous roof of the Fronton Recoletos in Madrid, with an unusual shape and a record span. Shells appeared to be an intriguing challenge for me, and I dreamed about the possibility of building some in the future. But my lack of experience and my youthful faith in the impressive wisdom displayed in learned magazines led me to believe that the key to shell design was in complete mathematical calculation, and I tried, rather unsucessfully, to understand and follow them and to make some sense of their results. I was not the only one misled and discouraged by the mathematical barrier so cunningly deployed by German engineers, a clever move which secured them practically an exclusive on the construction of barrel vaults for more than twenty years, hindering the normal employment of such structures during the same time. However, such was my enthusiasm with this mathematical approach that I managed to get a fellowship to go to Germany, hoping to learn something more from the German professors. But the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War saved me from such an ordeal. I could not leave the country and ended in Mexico after three years of military service, with no more baggage than my bare hands and no further addition to my academic background. After several years of general practice in Mexico, as draftsman, designer and contractor, I recalled my old fancy with shells and began to collect again papers on the subject. Whatever I learned from then on was to be the hard way, working alone, with no direct help from any university or engineering oce. But I am indebted to many people who did help me through their Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
722
Draft
writings and Maillart was one of the foremost. I discovered him in Giedions Space, Time and Architecture; and then I got Max Bills book with its invaluable collection of Maillarts essays. I devoured his articles about Reinforced Concrete Design and Calculation (he was very careful to dierentiate the meaning of such words and to avoid the more than semantic confusion prevalent nowadays in English-speaking countries)., The Engineer and the Authorities which expresses his position in front of the establishment and Mass and Quality in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Very short papers, indeed, but well provided with opinions, something I could rarely nd in other engineering articles. I learned later that to express personal opinions is considered bad taste among technical writers. Any discussion should be restricted to insignicant details, but never touch fundamental dogmas, in a fashion curiously similar to what could be expected of the councils of the Church or the meetings of any Politbureau. But my attitude with respect to calculations of reinforced concrete structures was becoming unorthodox, being tired perhaps of performing long and tedious routines whose results were not always meaningful. Therefore, I found Maillarts thoughts delightfully sympathetic and encouraging. If a rebel was able to produce such beautiful and sound structures there could not be anything wrong with becoming also a rebel, which was besides, my only way to break the mystery surrounding shell analysis. Thus, I started to follow the bibliographic tread and met, through their writings, with Freudenthal, Johansen, Van der Broek, Kist, Saliger, Kacinczy and so many others who showed me there was more than a single and infallible manner to approach structural analysis. The discovery of rupture methods, with their emphasis on simple statics and their bearing on the actual properties of construction materials and their behavior in the plastic range, allowed me to trust in simplied procedures to understand and analyze the distribution of stresses in shell structures. It also helped me to get out of my naive belief in the indisputable truth of the printed word and to start reading with a new critical outlook. No longer did I need to believe whatever was in print, no matter how high-sounding the name of the author. I could make my own judgements about what methods of stress analysis were better suited for my practice. Since I was working practically alone, I could not aord nor had time for complex calculations and did welcome Maillarts advice that simpler calculations are more reliable than complex ones, especially for somebody who builds his own structures. This was exactly my case and, since most structures I was building were of modest scale, I could control what was happening, check the results and conrm the accuracy of my judgement or correct my mistakes. In a way, I was working with full scale models. I understand that this was also true of Maillart who in many cases was the actual builder of his designs. Following the general trend to mess up issues, there has been a lot of speculation about the engineer as an artist and in some instances, like in the case of Nervi, about the engineer as an architect (as if the title of architect could confer, per se, artistic ability to its holder); but few people realize that the only way to be an artist in this dicult specialty of building is to be your own contractor. in countries like this, where the building industry has been thoroughly and irreversibly fragmented and the responsibility diluted among so many trades, it may be shocking to think of a contractor as an artist; but it is indeed the only way to have in your hands the whole set of tools or instruments to perform the forgotten art of building, to produce works of art which, by the way, was the common expression to designate a bridge in the old French engineering vocabulary. Implicit in the above statement is the fact that you have to be, besides your own structural designer and calculator and perhaps your own architect, also your own contractor, a very dicult proposition in some countries where such mergings of todays disparate professions may even be considered unlawful. This means, of course, that the price for being the master of your trade is to accept the whole responsibility for the good performance of the structure, and not too many people today would readily endorse such an awesome commitment. I am not advocating a return to the past; history is an irreversible process. I am simply stating that the Maillart phenomenom could not happen under todays situation of the industry. I like to think, however, that Maillart did not judge himself an artist. As Picasso said of himself he was not looking for beauty; he found it. His main concerns must have been eciency and economy of means, since to be able to build one of his bridges he had to win a bidding competition and prove that Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
723
Draft
he could do it cheaper than anybody else. But an ecient and economical structure has not necessarily to be ugly. Beauty has no price tag and there is never one single solution to an engineering problem. Therefore, it is always possible to modify the whole or the parts until the ugliness disappears. This aversion to ugliness is quite the opposite of the task of the professional artist who has to produce beauty as an obligation or of todays star-architect who has to be original at any cost in each new project. Maillarts works did not need to be beautiful. This word did not even exist in the practical world of the serious citizens who had to judge his competitive bids. He achieved a beauty without need or purpose; just for the pure joy of it. The kind of joy that you can feel also in the works of Haydn or Vivaldi. They were simply enjoying what they were doing, and so was obviously Maillart. He did also possess that rare quality, source of artistic creation and of all invention, of being able to challenge the conventional wisdom and come up with the obvious solution, one, nevertheless, which nobody could think of before. I can imagine the ts of rage and jealousy of some of his contemporary colleagues at the sight of one of his bridges (Landquart or Schwandbach), in which the curved route is supported in a straight arched slab. The problem with this unusual combination - which, of course, looks perfectly logical after the fact - is that it was very dicult, if not impossible, to analyze with the methods available at that time. But Maillart would not take any unnecessary risk and rst he tried the soundness of his approximated calculations in a small example (the Halbkern Bridge) with a span of only fteen meters. This was his testing model which gave him rm ground from which to extrapolate at the next opportunity. I would like to insist at this moment c-n something that everybody knows but which is easily forgotten; that all calculations, no matter how sophisticated and complex, can not be more than rough approximations of the natural phenomenon they try to represent by means of a mathematical model. The complexity, or even elegance, of such a model bears no relation at all with the degree of approximation. There is not such a thing as an exact method of structural analysis and, notwithstanding the popular belief in the letter of the codes, the accuracy of any calculation is still a question of personal judgement. This fortunate circumstance allows engineering to reach sometimes the highest category of art, to the despair of dull and inexible technicians. If I nd something lacking in this commendable conference in memory of one of the greatest engineers of all times it is that the side of Maillarts personality as a rebel, with his tireless and successful struggle against the establishment of his times, has not been suciently stressed.
Victor Saouma
724
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 8
Case Study III: MAGAZINI GENERALI

8.1
1
Geometry
This sotrage house, built by Maillart in Chiasso in 1924, provides a good example of the mariage between aesthetic and engineering. The most strking feature of the Magazini Generali is not the structure itself, but rather the shape of its internal supporting frames, Fig. 8.1. The frame can be idealized as a simply supported beam hung from two cantilever column supports. Whereas the beam itself is a simple structural idealization, the overhang is designed in such a way as to minimize the net moment to be transmitted to the supports (foundations), Fig. 8.2.
8.2
4
Loads
The load applied on the frame is from the weights of the roof slab, and the frame itself. Given the space between adjacent frames is 14.7 ft, and that the roof load is 98 psf, and that the total frame weight is 13.6 kips, the total uniform load becomes, Fig. 8.3: qroof qf rame qtotal = = = (98) psf(14.7) ft = 1.4 k/ft (13.6) k = 0.2 k/ft (63.6) ft 1.4 + 0.2 = 1.6 k/ft (8.1-a) (8.1-b) (8.1-c)
82
Draft
HINGE IDEALIZATION OF THIN SECTIONS
ACTUAL FRAME
ABSTRACTION OF MID SECTION AS A SIMPLE BEAM
9.2 ft
63.6 ft
Figure 8.1: Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
B P MP =P*d 2 d2 d1 B MR=MB -M P
Figure 8.2: Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983)
MB =B*d1
Victor Saouma
8.3 Reactions
83
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
Draft
8.3
5
Figure 8.3: Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983)
Reactions
Reactions for the beam are determined rst taking advantage of symmetry, Fig. 8.4: W R = = (1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft = 102 k 102 W = = 51 k 2 2 (8.2-a) (8.2-b)
We note that these reactions are provided by the internal shear forces.
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
63.6 ft
51 k
51 k
Figure 8.4: Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.4
6
Forces
The internal forces are pimarily the shear and moments. Those can be easily determined for a simply supported uniformly loaded beam. The shear varies linearly from 51 kip to -51 kip with zero at the center, and the moment diagram is parabolic with the maximum moment at the center, Fig. 8.5, equal to: (1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft2 qL2 = = 808 k.ft Mmax = (8.3) 8 8 The externally induced moment at midspan must be resisted by an equal and opposite internal moment. This can be achieved through a combination of compressive force on the upper bers, and tensile ones on the lower. Thus the net axial force is zero, however there is a net internal couple, Fig. 8.6.
Victor Saouma
84
Draft
51 K
SHEAR FORCE
25 K 0 25 K 51 K L L/2 x
MOMENT
Mmax
L 0 L/4 L/2 3L/4
Figure 8.5: Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983)
q TOTAL
A d VA
C M T
Figure 8.6: Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
8.4 Forces
85 Cd C = Mext d
Draft
M
Mext T =C
= =
(8.4-a) (8.4-b)
(808) k.ft = 88 k (9.2) ft
8 Because the frame shape (and thus d(x)) is approximately parabolic, and the moment is also parabolic, then the axial forces are constants along the entire frame, Fig. 8.7.
d FRAME
MOMENT DIAGRAM
CABLE : CURVE OF DIAGRAM
FRAME : SHAPE OF DIAGRAM
Figure 8.7: Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) The axial force at the end of the beam is not balanced, and the 88 kip compression must be transmitted to the lower chord, Fig. 8.8. Fig. 8.9 This is analogous to the forces transmiited to the support by a
88 k 88 k 88 k 88 k
Tension
Compression Horizontal Component Tied Arch Cable Force Axial Force Vertical Reaction
Figure 8.8: Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark 1983) tied arch.
10 It should be mentioned that when a rigorous computer analysis was performed, it was determined that the supports are contributing a compression force of about 8 kips which needs to be superimposed over the central values, Fig. 8.9.
Victor Saouma
86
Draft
FRAME ACTS AS A UNIT, UNLIKE THE ABSTRACTION
-88 k - 8 k = -96 k 16 k 88 k - 8 k = 80 k
16 k
Figure 8.9: Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.5
11
Internal Stresses
The net compressive stress, for a top chord with a cross sectional area of 75 in2 is equal to = (88) k P = = 1.17 ksi A (75) in2 (8.5)
this is much lower than the allowable compressive stress of concrete which is about 1,350 ksi. It should be noted that if the frame was cast along with the roof (monolithic construction), than this stress would be even lower.
12 Since concrete has practically no tensile strength, the tensile force in the lower chord must be resisted by steel. The lower chord has 4 bars with 0.69 in2 and 6 other bars with 0.58 in2 , thus we have a total of (8.6) As = 4(0.69) + 6(0.58) = 6.24 in2
Thus the steel stresses will be =
(88) k P = = 14.1 ksi A (6.24) in2
(8.7)
which is lower than the allowable steel stress.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 9
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and GUIDELINES

9.1
1
Safety Provisions
Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is expected under normal use. This is to account for Variability in Resistance: The actual strengths (resistance) of structural elements will dier from those assumed by the designer due to: 1. Variability in the strength of the material (greater variability in concrete strength than in steel strength). 2. Dierences between the actual dimensions and those specied (mostly in placement of steel rebars in R/C). 3. Eect of simplifying assumptions made in the derivation of certain formulas.
Variability in Loadings: All loadings are variable. There is a greater variation in the live loads than in the dead loads. Some types of loadings are very dicult to quantify (wind, earthquakes). Consequences of Failure: The consequence of a structural component failure must be carefully assessed. The collapse of a beam is likely to cause a localized failure. Alternatively the failure of a column is likely to trigger the failure of the whole structure. Alternatively, the failure of certain components can be preceded by warnings (such as excessive deformation), whereas other are sudden and catastrophic. Finally, if no redistribution of load is possible (as would be the case in a statically determinate structure), a higher safety factor must be adopted.
2 The purpose of safety provisions is to limit the probability of failure and yet permit economical structures.
The following items must be considered in determining safety provisions: 1. Seriousness of a failure, either to humans or goods. 2. Reliability of workmanship and inspection. 3. Expectation of overload and to what magnitude.
92
Draft
4
4. Importance of the member in the structure. 5. Chance of warning prior to failure.
Two major design philosophies have emerged 1. Working Stress Method 2. Ultimate Strength Method
9.2
5
Working Stress Method
This is the simplest of the two methods, and the one which has been historically used by structural engineers. Structural elements are designed for their service loads, and are dimensioned such that the stresses do not exceed some predesignated allowable strength, Fig. 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Load Life of a Structure In R/C this method was the one adopted by the ACI (American Concrete institute) code up to 1971, Working Stress Design Method (WSD).
The AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) code refers to it as the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and was used until 1986. Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method
93
Draft
9 10
In this method: 1. All loads are assumed to have the same average variability. 2. The entire variation of the loads and the strengths is placed on the strength side of the equation. < all = yld F.S. (9.1)
where F.S. is the factor of safety. Major limitations of this method 1. An elastic analysis can not easily account for creep and shrinkage of concrete. 2. For concrete structures, stresses are not linearly proportional to strain beyond 0.45fc . 3. Safety factors are not rigorously determined from a probabilistic approach, but are the result of experience and judgment.
11
Allowable strengths are given in Table 9.1. Steel, AISC/ASD Tension, Gross Area Ft = 0.6Fy Tension, Eective Net Area Ft = 0.5Fu Bending Fb = 0.66Fy Shear Fv = 0.40Fy Concrete, ACI/WSD Tension 0 Compression 0.45fc
Eective net area will be dened in section ??. Table 9.1: Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete
9.3
9.3.1
12
Ultimate Strength Method

Probabilistic Preliminaries
In this approach, it is assumed that the load Q and the resistance R are random variables. Typical frequency distributions of such random variables are shown in Fig. 9.2. The safety margin is dened as Y = R Q. Failure would occur if Y < 0 Q and R can be combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 9.3. X = ln R Q (9.2)
13
14
15
Failure would occur for negative values of X

16 The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the curve in Fig. 9.3.
Victor Saouma
94
Draft
Figure 9.2: Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R
Figure 9.3: Denition of Reliability Index
Victor Saouma
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method
95 and a
Draft
17 18 19 20
R If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln Q standard deviation .
We dene the safety index (or reliability index) as =
1 For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091 4 or 1.1 10 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
Target values for are shown in Table 9.2. Type of Load/Member AISC DL + LL; Members DL + LL; Connections DL + LL + WL; Members DL + LL +EL; Members ACI Ductile Failure Sudden Failures 3.0 4.5 3.5 1.75 3-3.5 3.5-4
Table 9.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures

21 Because the strengths and the loads vary independently, it is desirable to have one factor to account for variability in resistance, and another one for the variability in loads.
These factors are referred to as resistance factor and Load Factor respectively. The resistance factor is dened as Rm exp(0.55VR ) (9.3) = Rn where RM RN and VR are the mean resistance, the nominal resistance (to be dened later), and the coecient of variation of the resistance.
22
9.3.2
23
Discussion
ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the Ultimate Strength Method). AISC refers to it as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).
24
25 Terms such as failure load should be avoided; it is preferable to refer to a structures Limit State load.
26
The general form is (LRFD-A4.1)1 Rn i Qi (9.4)
where is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural element, Table 9.3.
1 Throughout
the notes we will refer by this symbol the relevant design specication in the AISC code.
Victor Saouma
96
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and GUIDELINES Type of Member ACI Axial Tension Flexure Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement Axial Compression, other Shear and Torsion Bearing on concrete AISC Tension, yielding Tension, fracture Compression Beams Fasteners, Tension Fasteners, Shear 0.9 0.9 0.75 0.70 0.85 0.70 0.9 0.75 0.85 0.9 0.75 0.65
Draft
Table 9.3: Strength Reduction Factors, Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength). Rn is the design strength. i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1. i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load: i is the type of load
27
The various factored load combinations which must be considered are
AISC 1. 1.4D 2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S) 3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S) 4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W 5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E 6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E) ACI 1. 1.4D+1.7L 2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W) 3. 0.9D+1.3W 4. 1.05D+1.275W 5. 0.9D+1.7H 6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H 7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L) Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
9.4 Example
97
Draft
29
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil. We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
28 Thus, in this method, we must perform numerous analysis, one for each load, of a given structure. For trusses, this is best achieved if we use the matrix method, invert the statics matrix [B], and multiply [B]1 by each one of the load cases, (Refer to Section ??). For the WSD method, we need not perform more than one analysis in general.
Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The most important ones being 1. Deections 2. Crack width (for R/C) 3. Stability
9.4
Example
Example 9-1: LRFD vs ASD To illustrate the dierences between the two design approaches, let us consider the design of an axial member, subjected to a dead load of 100 k and live load of 80 k. Use A36 steel. ASD: We consider the total load P = 100 + 80 = 180 k. From Table 9.1, the allowable stress is 0.6yld = 0.6 36 = 21.6 ksi. Thus the required cross sectional area is A= 180 = 8.33 in2 21.6
USD we consider the largest of the two load combinations i Qi : 1.4D = 1.4(100) 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(100) + 1.6(80) = 140 k = 248 k '
From Table 9.3 = 0.9, and Rn = (0.9)Ayld . Hence, applying Eq. 9.4 the cross sectional area should be 248 i Qi = 7.65 in2 = A= yld (0.9)(36) Note that whereas in this particular case the USD design required a smaller area, this may not be the case for dierent ratios of dead to live loads.
9.5
Design Guidelines
30 To assist in the preliminary design/dimensioning of structures, Table 9.4 provides average, maximum and typical spans for various types of structures.
Victor Saouma
98
Draft
Average
Max
Typical Span Ft.
TIMBER Plywood 36 40 3-5 Planks 28 32 2-6 Joists 22 26 10-25 Beams 16 20 15-30 Girders 12 16 20-35 Gable bents 26 30 30-50 Trusses 4 8 30-100 I Beams 18 24 15-60 Joists 18 25 15-60 Plate and I girders 14 20 40-100 Trusses 12 18 40-80 Gable bents 30 40 50-120 Arches span to rise 8 16 80-200 Arches span to thickness 40 50 Simple suspension (span to rise) 10 15 150-300 Cable stayed 6 10 150-300 REINFORCED CONCRETE Solid slabs 28 32 10-25 Slabs with drops and capitals 30 36 20-35 Two-way slab on beams 30 36 20-35 Wae slabs 20 24 30-40 Joists 22 26 25-45 Beams 16 20 15-40 Girders 12 16 20-60 Gable bents 24 30 40-80 Arches span to rise 8 12 60-150 Arches span to thickness 30 40 Cylindrical thin shell roof (Min. thickness may govern) Longitudinal span to Structural depth 12 15 50-70 Transverse span to thickness 50 60 12-30 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE Solid slabs 40 44 20-35 Slabs with drops 44 48 35-45 Two-way slab on beams 44 48 35-45 Wae slabs 28 32 35-70 Cored slabs 36 40 30-60 Joists 32 36 40-60 Beams 24 28 30-80 Girders 20 24 40-120 Cylindrical thin shell roof (Min. thickness may govern) Longitudinal span to structural depth 15 20 60-120 Transverse span to thickness 60 70 15-35
Table 9.4: Approximate Structural Span-Depth Ratios for Horizontal Subsystems and Components (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 10
BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

1
This chapter deals with the behavior and design of laterally supported steel beams according to the LRFD provisions.
A laterally stable beam is one which is braced laterally in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the web. Thus overall buckling of the compression ange as a column cannot occur prior to its full participation to develop the moment strength of the section. If a beam is not laterally supported, Fig. 10.1, we will have a failure mode governed by lateral torsional
A) COMPOSITE BEAM
B) OTHER FRAMING
C) CROSS BRACING
Figure 10.1: Lateral Bracing for Steel Beams buckling.
4
By the end of this lecture you should be able to select the most ecient section (light weight with adequate strength) for a given bending moment and also be able to determine the exural strength of a given beam.
102
Draft
10.1
5
Nominal Strength
The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design is stated as b Mn M u (10.1)
where: b Mn Mu
6
strength reduction factor; for exure 0.90 nominal moment strength factored service load moment.
The equations given in this chapter are valid for exural members with the following kinds of cross section and loading: 1. Doubly symmetric (such as W sections) and loaded in plane of symmetry 2. Singly symmetric (channels and angles) loaded in plane of symmetry or through the shear center parallel to the web1 .
10.2
Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams
7 A beam is classied as laterally supported depending on Lb which is the distance between lateral supports (or unbraced length) and Lp .
Lb Lp ry
< Lp = = 300 ry Fy , ksi Iy A
(10.2) (10.3) (10.4)
where ry is the radius of gyration with respect to the (minor) y axis (as opposed to the major x axis).
8
The strength of exural members is limited by:
Plastic Hinge: at a particular cross section, Fig. 10.2. local buckling: of a cross-sectional element (e.g. the web or the ange), Fig. 10.3. Lateral-Torsional buckling: of the entire member, Fig. 10.4.
9
Accordingly, the LRFD manual classies steel sections as
Compact sections: No local buckling can occur. Strength is based on the plastic moment. Partially compact sections: Where local buckling may occur Slender sections: where lateral torsional buckling may occur. We will cover only the rst two cases.
10
Shear should be checked, however with exception of short beams (and no self-respecting architect will ever conceive such a thing:-), exure generally controls.
1 More
about shear centers in Mechanics of Materials II.
Victor Saouma
10.2 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams
103
Draft
w
2 M=(wL )/8
wu
11 00 11 00 11 00
Mp y
2 M p=(wL )/8
Figure 10.2: Failure of Steel beam; Plastic Hinges
bf
tw
hf hc
COMPACT
FLANGE BUCKLING
WEB BUCKLING
Figure 10.3: Failure of Steel beam; Local Buckling
Victor Saouma
104

LATERAL DEFLECTION AND TORSION OF THE COMPRESSION FLANGE
Draft
COMPRESSION FLANGE
B
LATERAL DEFLECTION AND TORSION OF THE COMPRESSION FLANGE
A B A
Figure 10.4: Failure of Steel beam; Lateral Torsional Buckling
10.3
11
Compact Sections
For compact sections, the mode of failure is the formation of a plastic hinge that is the section is fully plastied. Hence we shall rst examine the bending behavior of beams under limit load. Then we will relate this plastic moment to the design of compact sections.
10.3.1
Bending Capacity of Beams
12 The stress distribution on a typical wide-ange shape subjected to increasing bending moment is shown in Fig.10.5. In the service range (that is before we multiplied the load by the appropriate factors in the LRFD method) the section is elastic. This elastic condition prevails as long as the stress at the extreme ber has not reached the yield stress Fy . Once the strain reaches its yield value y , increasing strain induces no increase in stress beyond Fy .
Figure 10.5: Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
10.3 Compact Sections
105
Draft
Figure 10.6: Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels
13 When the yield stress is reached at the extreme ber, the nominal moment strength Mn , is referred to as the yield moment My and is computed as
Mn = M y = S x Fy (assuming that bending is occurring with respect to the x x axis).
(10.5)
14 When across the entire section, the strain is equal or larger than the yield strain ( y = Fy /Es ) then the section is fully plastied, and the nominal moment strength Mn is therefore referred to as the plastic moment Mp and is determined from
Mp = F y
A
ydA = Fy Z
(10.6)
where Z = is the Plastic Section Modulus.

15 The plastic section modulus Z should not be confused with the elastic section modulus S dened, Eq. 5.25 as
def
ydA
(10.7)
S I
=
def
I d/2 y 2 dA
A
(10.8-a) (10.8-b)
16
The section modulus Sx of a W section can be roughly approximated by the following formula Sx wd/10 or Ix Sx d wd2 /20 2 (10.9)
and the plastic modulus can be approximated by Zx wd/9 (10.10)
Victor Saouma
106
Draft
10.3.2
17
Design of Compact Sections
A section is compact if the following conditions are met: 1. Flanges are continuously connected to the web 2. Width to thickness ratios, known as the slenderness ratios, of the ange and the web must not exceed the limiting ratios p dened as follows: Flange Web Note that
bf 2tf bf 2tf hc tw
p p
65 p =
640 p =
Fy Fy
(10.11)
and
hc tw
are tabulated in Sect. 3.6.
18
The nominal strength Mn for laterally stable compact sections according to LRFD is (10.12)
Mn = M p where: Mp Z Fy
19
plastic moment strength = ZFy plastic section modulus specied minimum yield strength
Note that section properties, including Z values are tabulated in Section 3.6.
10.4
Partially Compact Section
20 If the width to thickness ratios of the compression elements exceed the p values mentioned in Eq. 10.11 but do not exceed the following r , the section is partially compact and we can have local buckling.
Flange: p < Web: p < where: Fy bf tf hc tw Fr

21
bf 2tf hc tw
r r
65 p =
p =
Fy 640 Fy
r = 141
970 r = Fy
Fy Fr
(10.13)
specied minimum yield stress in kksi width of the ange thickness of the ange unsupported height of the web which is twice the distance from the neutral axis to the inside face of the compression ange less the llet or corner radius. thickness of the web. residual stress = 10.0 ksi for rolled sections and 16.5 ksi for welded sections.
The nominal strength of partially compact sections according to LRFD is, Fig. 10.7 Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )( p ) Mp r p (10.14)
Victor Saouma
10.5 Slender Section
107
Draft
Draft
Mn
6
Mp
Compact
Partially Compact
Slender
Mr
Flanges Web
2tf
bf
p65 F pF
p
pF141 F ,
y
r
hc tw
640
y
pF
970
y
Figure 10.7: Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections where: Mr Residual Moment equal to (Fy Fr )S bf /2tf for I-shaped member anges and hc /tw for beam webs.
22
All other quantities are as dened earlier. Note that we use the associated with the one being violated (or the lower of the two if both are).
10.5
Slender Section
23 If the width to thickness ratio exceeds r values of ange and web, the element is referred to as slender compression element. Since the slender sections involve a dierent treatment, it will not be dealt here.
10.6
Examples
Example 10-1: Z for Rectangular Section Determine the plastic section modulus for a rectangular section, width b and depth d.
Victor Saouma
108
Draft
Solution: 1. The internal plastic moment is equal to M = Fy b d d d2 = Fy b 2 2 4 (10.15)
Force 2. The yield stress, Fy , plastic moment Mp and plastic section modulus Z are related by: Z= 3. Substituting, we get: Z= Mp Fy bd2 = = Fy 4Fy
bd2 4 bd2 6 .
Mp Z
(10.16)
(10.17)
Note that this is to be contrasted with the elastic section modulus S =
Example 10-2: Beam Design Select the lightest W or M section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 0.2 kip/ft superimposed (i.e., in addition to the beam weight) and 0.8 kip/ft live load. The simply supported span is 20 ft. The compression ange of the beam is fully supported against lateral movement. Select the sections for the following steels: A36; A572 Grade 50; and A572 Grade 65. Solution: Case 1: A36 Steel 1. Determine the factored load. wD wL wu = = = = 0.2 k/ft 0.8 k/ft 1.2wD + 1.6wL 1.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.52 k/ft Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
10.6 Examples
109
Draft
2. Compute the factored load moment Mu . For a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, Mu = wu L2 /8 = (1.52)(20)2 /8 = 76 k.ft Assuming compact section, since a vast majority of rolled sections satisfy p for both the ange and the web. The design strength b Mn is b Mn = b Mp = b Zx Fy The design requirement is b Mn = Mu or, combing those two equations we have: b Zx Fy = Mu 3. Required Zx is Zx = Mu 76(12) = 28.1 in3 = b Fy 0.90(36)
wd 9 (22)(12) 9
From the notes on Structural Materials, we select a W12X22 section which has a Zx = 29.3 in3 Note that Zx is approximated by = = 29.3. 4. Check compact section limits p for the anges from the table =
bf 2tf
p and for the web: =

hc tw
= =
4.7 65 =
Fy
65 36
= 10.8 >
= =
41.8 640 =
Fy
640 36
= 107
5. Check the Strength by correcting the factored moment Mu to include the self weight. Self weight of the beam W12X22 is 22 lb./ft. or 0.022 kip/ft wD wu Mu Mn b Mn = = = = = 0.2 + 0.022 = 0.222 k/ft 1.2(0.222) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.55 k/ft (1.55)(20)2 /8 = 77.3 k.ft Mp = Zx Fy = 0.90(87.9) = 79.1 k.ft > Mu
(29.3) in (36) (12) in/ft
3
ksi
= 87.9 k.ft
Therefore use W12X22 section. 6. We nally check for the maximum distance between supports. ry Lp = = = Iy 5 = = 0.88 in A 6.5 300 ry Fy 300 0.88 = 43 ft 36 (10.18-a) (10.18-b) (10.18-c)
Victor Saouma
1010
Draft
Case 2: A572 Grade 65 Steel: 1. same as in case 1 2. same as in case 1 3. Required Zx = approximated
Mu b Fy by wd 9
= =
76(12) 0.90(65) = 15.6 (14)(12) = 18.7. 9
in3 Select W12X14: Zx = 17.4 in3 Note that Zx is
4. Check compact section limits p : = p = = p =

hc tw = 54.3 640 640 = 65 Fy bf 2tf = 8.82 65 65 = 65 Fy
= 79.4
= 8.1 < Not Good
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the ange. Since p < < r , as above, the section is classied as non-compact. 5. Check the strength: Since the section is non-compact, the strength is obtained by interpolation between Mp and Mr . For the anges: r Mn Mp Mr Mn b Mn = = = = = = 141
Fy 10
141 6510
= 19.0
p Mp (Mp Mr )( r p ) Mp 3
(17.4) in (65) ksi = 94.2 k.ft (12) in/ft 3 in Sx (Fy Fr ) = (14.9) (12)(6510) ksi = 68.3 k.ft. in/ft 8.88.1 94.2 (94.2 68.3) 19.08.1 = 92.5 k.ft
Zx Fy =
0.90(92.5) = 83.25 k.ft > Mu
Therefore provide W12X14 section.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 11
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

11.1 Introduction
1 Recalling that concrete has a tensile strength (ft ) about one tenth its compressive strength (fc ), concrete by itself is a very poor material for exural members.
To provide tensile resistance to concrete beams, a reinforcement must be added. Steel is almost universally used as reinforcement (longitudinal or as bers), but in poorer countries other indigenous materials have been used (such as bamboos). The following lectures will focus exclusively on the exural design and analysis of reinforced concrete rectangular sections. Other concerns, such as shear, torsion, cracking, and deections are left for subsequent ones. Design of reinforced concrete structures is governed in most cases by the Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, of the American Concrete Institute (ACI-318). Some of the most relevant provisions of this code are enclosed in this set of notes.
We will focus on determining the amount of exural (that is longitudinal) reinforcement required at a given section. For that section, the moment which should be considered for design is the one obtained from the moment envelope at that particular point.
11.1.1
6
Notation
In R/C design, it is customary to use the following notation
112
Draft
As b c d fc fr fs ft fy h
Area of steel Width Distance from top of compressive bers to neutral axis Distance from the top of the compressive bers to the centroid of the reinforcement Concrete compressive strength Concrete modulus of rupture Steel stress Concrete tensile strength Steel yield stress (equivalent to Fy in AISC) Height Steel ratio, As bd
11.1.2
7
Modes of Failure
A reinforced concrete beam is a composite structure where concrete provides the compression and steel the tension. Failure is initiated by, Fig. 11.5:
Steel Yielding
Concrete Crushing
Figure 11.1: Failure Modes for R/C Beams 1. Yielding of the steel when the steel stress reaches the yield stress (fs = fy ). This occurs if we do not have enough reinforcement that is the section is under-reinforced. This will result in excessive rotation and deformation prior to failure. 2. Crushing of the concrete, when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value (c = u = 0.003), ACI 318: 10.2.3. This occurs if there is too much reinforcement that is the section is overreinforced. This is a sudden mode of failure.
9
Ideally in an optimal (i.e. most ecient use of materials) design, a section should be dimensioned such that crushing of concrete should occur simultaneously with steel yielding. This would then be a balanced design.
10 However since concrete crushing is a sudden mode of failure with no prior warning, whereas steel yielding is often accompanied by excessive deformation (thus providing ample warning of an imminent failure), design codes require the section to be moderately under-reinforced.
11.1.3
11
Analysis vs Design
In R/C we always consider one of the following problems: Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
11.1 Introduction
113
Draft
12
Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be applied. Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and h) as well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the beam (b and h) are xed by the architect. We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.
11.1.4
Basic Relations and Assumptions
13 In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations will be used, Fig. ??:
Compatibility
Equilibrium
C d
T=C M_ext=Cd
Figure 11.2: Internal Equilibrium in a R/C Beam 1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the reinforcement = Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the one obtained from the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension in steel and compression of the concrete). 2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain in compression irrespective of fc .
14
= .003
Basic assumptions used:
Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note that those two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under normal temperature. Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
11.1.5
ACI Code
15 The ACI code is based on limit strength, or Mn Mu thus a similar design philosophy is used as the one adopted by the LRFD method of the AISC code, ACI-318: 8.1.1; 9.3.1; 9.3.2
16
The required strength is based on (ACI-318: 9.2) Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
114
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS U = 1.4D + 1.7L = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (11.1) (11.2)
Draft
11.2
11.2.1
Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

Equivalent Stress Block
17 In determining the limit state moment of a cross section, we consider Fig. 11.3. Whereas the strain distribution is linear (ACI-318 10.2.2), the stress distribution is non-linear because the stress-strain curve of concrete is itself non-linear beyond 0.5fc . 18 Thus we have two alternatives to investigate the moment carrying capacity of the section, ACI-318: 10.2.6
1. Use the non-linear stress distribution. 2. Use a simpler equivalent stress distribution.
19 The ACI code follows the second approach. Thus we seek an equivalent stress distribution such that:
1. The resultant force is equal 2. The location of the resultant is the same. We note that this is similar to the approach followed in determining reactions in a beam subjected to a distributed load when the load is replaced by a single force placed at the centroid.
Figure 11.3: Cracked Section, Limit State
Victor Saouma
11.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
115
Draft
20
It was shown that the depth of the equivalent stress block is a function of fc : 1 = .85 1 = .85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000 if fc 4, 000 if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000 (11.3)
Figure 11.4: Whitney Stress Block
11.2.2
Balanced Steel Ratio
21 Next we seek to determine the balanced steel ratio b such that failure occurs by simultaneous yielding of the steel fs = fy and crushing of the concrete c = 0.003, ACI-318: 10.3.2 We will separately consider the two failure possibilities:
Tension Failure: we stipulate that the steel stress is equal to fy : As fy = =

As bd
.85fc ab = .85fc b1 c
c=
fy d 0.85fc 1
(11.4)
Compression Failure: where the concrete strain is equal to the ultimate strain; From the strain diagram .003 c = 0.003 c = fs d (11.5) c .003 = .003+s + .003 d
Es
22
Balanced Design is obtained by equating Eq. 11.4 to Eq. 11.5 and by replacing by b and fs by fy : fy d = fs.003 d f 0.85fc 1 .003 Es +.003 b y d d = fy fs = fy .85fc 1 Es + .003 = b
When we replace Es by 29, 000 ksi we obtain b = .851 fc 87, 000 fy 87, 000 + fy (11.6)
This b corresponds to the only combination of b, d and As which will result in simultaneous yielding of the steel and crushing of the concrete, that is an optimal design.
Victor Saouma
116
Draft
23 Because we need to have ample warning against failure, hence we prefer to have an under-reinforced section. Thus, the ACI code stipulates:
< .75b
(11.7)
24 In practice, depending on the relative cost of steel/concrete and of labour it is common to select lower values of . If < 0.5b (thus we will have a deeper section) then we need not check for deection. 25 A minimum amount of reinforcement must always be used to prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks:
min
200 fy
(11.8)
26
The ACI code adopts the limit state design method (11.9)
MD = Mn > Mu
= b = 0.9
11.2.3
Analysis
As bd f 87 87+fy
Given As , b, d, fc , and fy determine the design moment: 1. act =
c 2. b = (.85)1 fy
3. If act < b (that is failure is triggered by yielding of the steel, fs = fy ) a MD

s = .85f yb From Equilibrium c = As fy d a 2
A f
MD = As fy d 0.59
Mn
As fy fc b
Combining this last equation with =
As bd
yields fy fc
MD = fy bd2 1 .59
(11.10)
4. If act > b is not allowed by the code as this would be an over-reinforced section which would fail with no prior warning. However, if such a section exists, and we need to determine its moment carrying capacity, then we have two unknowns: (a) Steel strain s (which was equal to y in the previous case) (b) Location of the neutral axis c. We have two equations to solve this problem Equilibrium: of forces c= As fs .85fc b1 (11.11)
Victor Saouma
117
Draft
Strain compatibility: since we know that at failure the maximum compressive strain c is equal to 0.003. Thus from similar triangles we have .003 c = d .003 + s (11.12)
Those two equations can be solved by either one of two methods: (a) Substitute into one single equation (b) By iteration Once c and fs = Es are determined then MD = As fs d 1 c 2 (11.13)
11.2.4
Design
27 We distinguish between two cases. The rst one has dimensions as well as steel area unknown, the second has the dimensions known (usually specied by the architect or by other constraints), and we seek As .
b, d and As unknowns and MD known: 1. We start by assuming , at most = .75b , and if deection is of a concern (or steel too expensive), then we can select = 0.5b with b determined from Eq. 11.6 = 0.75 .851 2. From Eq. 11.10 MD = fy 1 .59
R
fc 87, 000 fy 87, 000 + fy fy fc
bd2
or R = fy 1 .59 fy fc (11.14)
which does not depend on unknown quantities1 . Then solve for bd2 : bd2 = MD R (11.15)
3. solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their ratio). 4. As = bd
1 Note
analogy with Eq. 10.6 Mp = Fy Z for stell beams.
Victor Saouma
118
Draft
1. 2. 3. 4.
b, d and Md known, As unknown: In this case there is no assurance that we can have a design with b . If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced section. We will again have an iterative approach Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs . Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d ) 5 Assume initially that fs = fy Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0) As = MD fs d
a 2
(11.16)
5. Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0) a= As fs .85fc b (11.17)
6. Check assumption of fs from the strain diagram .003 dc s = f s = Es .003 < fy dc c c

a where c = 1 . 7. Iterate until convergence is reached.
(11.18)
Example 11-1: Ultimate Strength Capacity Determine the ultimate Strength of a beam with the following properties: b = 10 in, d = 23 in, As = 2.35 in2 , fc = 4, 000 psi and fy = 60 ksi. Solution: act b a Mn MD = = = = =
2.35 (10)(23) = .0102 fc 87 4 87 .851 fy 87+fy = (.85)(.85) 60 87+60 = As fy (2.35)(60) .85fc b = (.85)(4)(10) = 4.147 in (2.35)(60)(23 4.147 ) = 2, 950 k.in 2 As bd
.02885 > act
Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
Note that from the strain diagram c= Alternative solution Mn = = MD act fy bd2 1 .59act fy
c
4.414 a = = 4.87 in 0.85 0.85

f
As fy d 1 .59act fy
c
= (2.35)(60)(23) 1 (.59) 60 (.01021) = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft 4 = Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
Victor Saouma
119
Draft
Example 11-2: Beam Design I Design a 15 ft beam to support a dead load of 1.27 k/ft, a live load of 2.44 k/ft using a 3,000 psi concrete and 40 ksi steel. Neglect beam weight Solution: wu MD b = 1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft
(5.92)
= (12) in/ft = 2, 000 k.in 8 fc 87 = .851 fy 87+fy 3 87 = (.85)(.85) 40 87+40 = 0.040 = .75b = .75(0.04) = 0.030 = fy 1 .59 fy c = (0.03)(40) 1. (0.59)(0.03) 40 = 0.917 ksi 3 2 2,000 = Md = (0.9)(0.917) k.in in = 2, 423 in3 R k
f
k/ft(15)2 ft2
R bd2
Assume b = 10 in, this will give d = 2,423 = 15.57 in. We thus adopt b = 10 in and d = 16 in . 10 Finally, As = bd = (0.030)(10)(16) = 4.80 in2 we select 3 bars No. 11
Example 11-3: Beam Design II Select the reinforcement for a cross section with b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in to support a design moment Md = 1, 600 k.in using fc = 3 ksi; and fy = 40 ksi Solution: 1. Assume a =
d 5
20 5
= 4 in and fs = fy
2. Equilibrium of moments: As = 1, 600 k.in MD == = 2.47 in2 fy (d a ) (.9)(40) ksi(20 4 ) in 2 2
3. Check equilibrium of forces: a= (2.47) in2 (40) ksi As fy = = 3.38 in .85fc b (.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in
4. We originally assumed a = 4, at the end of this rst iteration a = 3.38, let us iterate again with a = 3.30
Victor Saouma
1110
Draft
5. Equilibrium of moments: As = 1, 600 k.in MD == = 2.42 in2 fy (d a ) (.9)(40) ksi(20 3.3 ) in 2 2
6. Check equilibrium of forces: a= 7. we have converged on a. 8. Actual is act = 9. b is equal to b = .851 3 fc 87 87 = .037 = (.85)(.85) fy 87 + fy 40 87 + 40
2.42 (11.5)(20)
(2.42) in2 (40) ksi As fy = = 3.3 in .85fc b (.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in
= .011
10. max = .75 = (0.75)(0.037) = .0278 > 0.011 thus fs = fy and we use As = 2.42 in2
11.3
28
Continuous Beams
Whereas coverage of continuous reinforced concrete beams is beyond the scope of this course, Fig. ?? illustrates a typical reinforcement in such a beam.
11.4
ACI Code
Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions. 8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength reduction factors specied in Chapter 9. 8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum eects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied according to Section 8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used. 1.5 8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc 33 fc ( psi) for values of Wc between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as 57, 000 fc . 8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000 psi. 9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations as are stipulated in this code. 9.2 - Required Strength 9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to U = 1.4D + 1.7L 9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design, the following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest required strength U U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Draft
Victor Saouma
Cracks Cracks Reinforcement
11.4 ACI Code
(a) Deflected shape

Points of deflection
(b) Moment diagram under typical loading
Stirrups
Straight top bar
Top bars
Straight bottom bar Interior column
Stirrups
Bottom bars
Section through beam Exterior span Interior span Interior span
(c) Straight bar reinforcement
No.3 stirrup support if necessary
Stirrups
Straight bar
Figure 11.5: Reinforcement in Continuous R/C Beams

Top bars Stirrups Straight bottom bar Bent bar at noncontinuous end Interior column Bent bars Exterior span Interior span Interior span
Bent bar
Bottom bars
Section through beam
(d) Straight and bent bar reinforcement
1111
1112
Draft
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more severe condition, and U = 0.9D + 1.3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1). 9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied by a strength reduction factor . 9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows: 9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90 9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of reinforcement fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons. 10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, except, for deep exural members with overall depth to clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear distribution of strain shall be considered. See Section 10.7. 10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression ber shall be assumed equal to 0.003. 10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specied yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement used shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy , stress in reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy . 10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in exural calculations of reinforced concrete, except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4. 10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. 10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satised by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution dened by the following: 10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the ber of maximum compressive strain. 10.2.7.2 - Distance c from ber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. 10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc up to and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65. 10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement reaches the strain corresponding to its specied yield strength fy just as concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. 10.3.3 - For exural members, and for members subject to combined exure and compressive axial load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc Ag ) or (Pb ), the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would produce balanced strain conditions for the section under exure without axial load. For members with compression reinforcement, the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor. 10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement may be used to increase the strength of exural members. 10.5.1 - At any section of a exural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, where positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be less than that given by min = 200 fy
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 12
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
12.1
1
Introduction
Beams with longer spans are architecturally more appealing than those with short ones. However, for a reinforced concrete beam to span long distances, it would have to have to be relatively deep (and at some point the self weight may become too large relative to the live load), or higher grade steel and concrete must be used.
2 However, if we were to use a steel with fy much higher than 60 ksi in reinforced concrete (R/C), then to take full advantage of this higher yield stress while maintaining full bond between concrete and steel, will result in unacceptably wide crack widths. Large crack widths will in turn result in corrosion of the rebars and poor protection against re.
One way to control the concrete cracking and reduce the tensile stresses in a beam is to prestress the beam by applying an initial state of stress which is opposite to the one which will be induced by the load. For a simply supported beam, we would then seek to apply an initial tensile stress at the top and compressive stress at the bottom. In prestressed concrete (P/C) this can be achieved through prestressing of a tendon placed below the elastic neutral axis. Main advantages of P/C: Economy, deection & crack control, durability, fatigue strength, longer spans. There two type of Prestressed Concrete beams:
Pretensioning: Steel is rst stressed, concrete is then poured around the stressed bars. When enough concrete strength has been reached the steel restraints are released, Fig. 12.1. Postensioning: Concrete is rst poured, then when enough strength has been reached a steel cable is passed thru a hollow core inside and stressed, Fig. 12.2.
12.1.1
Materials
7 P/C beams usually have higher compressive strength than R/C. Prestressed beams can have fc as high as 8,000 psi.
The importance of high yield stress for the steel is illustrated by the following simple example. If we consider the following:
122
Draft
Vertical bulkhead Harping hold-up point Harping hold-down point Anchorage Jacks Prestressing bed slab Precast Concrete element Jacks Tendon anchorage Continuous tendon Casting bed
Jacks
Support force
Hold-down force
Casting bed
Tendon
Figure 12.1: Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
Anchorage
Intermediate diaphragms
Anchorage Jack
Beam
Jack
Tendon in conduct
Anchorage Slab Jack
Wrapped tendon
Figure 12.2: Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
Victor Saouma
12.1 Introduction
123
Draft
1. An unstressed steel cable of length ls 2. A concrete beam of length lc 3. Prestress the beam with the cable, resulting in a stressed length of concrete and steel equal to l s = lc .
4. Due to shrinkage and creep, there will be a change in length lc = (sh + cr )lc (12.1)
we want to make sure that this amout of deformation is substantially smaller than the stretch of the steel (for prestressing to be eective). 5. Assuming ordinary steel: fs = 30 ksi, Es = 29, 000 ksi, s = 6. The total steel elongation is s ls = 1.03 103 ls 7. The creep and shrinkage strains are about cr + sh .9 103
30 29,000
= 1.03 103 in/ in
8. The residual stres which is left in the steel after creep and shrinkage took place is thus (1.03 .90) 103 (29 103 ) = 4 ksi Thus the total loss is
304 30
(12.2)
= 87% which is unacceptably too high.
9. Alternatively if initial stress was 150 ksi after losses we would be left with 124 ksi or a 17% loss. 10. Note that the actual loss is (.90 103 )(29 103 ) = 26 ksiin each case
9
Having shown that losses would be too high for low strength steel, we will use
Strands usually composed of 7 wires. Grade 250 or 270 ksi, Fig. 12.3.
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 111111 111111 000000 11111000000 00000000000 111111 11111111111 00000000000 11111 111111 00000 000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111 111111 00000 000000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000
Figure 12.3: 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon Tendon have diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1 3/8 of an inch. Grade 145 or 160 ksi. Wires come in bundles of 8 to 52. Note that yield stress is not well dened for steel used in prestressed concrete, usually we take 1% strain as eective yield.
10 Steel relaxation is the reduction in stress at constant strain (as opposed to creep which is reduction of strain at constant stress) occrs. Relaxation occurs indenitely and produces signicant prestress loss. If we denote by fp the nal stress after t hours, fpi the initial stress, and fpy the yield stress, then
log t fp =1 fpi 10 Victor Saouma
fpi .55 fpy
(12.3)
124
Draft
12.1.2
11
Prestressing Forces
Prestress force varies with time, so we must recognize 3 stages: 1. Pj Jacking force. But then due to (a) friction and anchorage slip in post-tension (b) elastic shortening in pretension is reduced to: 2. Pi Initial prestress force; But then due to time dependent losses caused by (a) relaxation of steel (b) shrinkage of concrete (c) creep of concrete is reduced to: 3. Pe Eective force
12.1.3
12
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made; 1. Materials are both in the elastic range 2. section is uncracked 3. sign convention: +ve tension, ve compression 4. Subscript 1 refers to the top and 2 to the bottom 5. I, S1 =
I c1 ,
S2 =
I c2
6. e + ve if downward from concrete neutral axis
12.1.4
Tendon Conguration
13 Through proper arrangement of the tendon (eccentricity at both support and midspan) various internal exural stress distribution can be obtained, Fig. 12.4.
12.1.5
Equivalent Load
14 An equivalent load for prestressing can be usually determined from the tendon conguration and the prestressing force, Fig. 12.5.
12.1.6
15
Load Deformation
The load-deformation curve for a prestressed concrete beam is illustrated in Fig. 12.6.
Victor Saouma
12.2 Flexural Stresses
125
W
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
f y
Draft
P P
Q P
h/2
fc 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 fc
fc 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 fc =f t
2f c 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
2Q
2f c 0 11 1111111 00 0000000 11 1111111 00 0000000 11 1111111 00 +0000000 = 11 1111111 00 0000000 11 1111111 00 0000000 2f c 2f =2f t c 0 2f c 11 1111111 00 0000000 11 1111111 00 0000000 1111111 11 0000000 = 00 + 11 1111111 00 0000000 11 1111111 00 0000000 2f c 2f t =2f c fc Midspan 11 00 11 00 = 0 11 00 + 11 00 11 00 Ends fc 0 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 2f c 2f c 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 0 2f c 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 0 fc 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 fc fc 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 fc fc 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 fc
2h/3
2Q P
h/3
P
h/2
Q P
h/2 h/3
f c 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 ft =f c
fc 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 fc
Midspan + 0 Ends =
Figure 12.4: Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
12.2
16
Flexural Stresses
We now identify the following 4 stages:

I Ac
Initial Stage when the beam is being prestressed (recalling that r2 = only f1 f2 = = Pi ec1 Pi Pi ec1 = 1 2 + Ac I Ac r Pi ec2 Pi Pi ec2 = 1+ 2 Ac I Ac r
1. the prestressing force, Pi
(12.4) (12.5)
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam cambers due to prestressing) f1 f2 = = ec1 M0 Pi 1 2 Ac r S1 ec2 M0 Pi 1+ 2 + Ac r S2 (12.6) (12.7)
Service Load when the prestressing force was reduced from Pi to Pe beacause of the losses, and the actual service (not factored) load is apllied 3. Pe and M0
Victor Saouma
126
Member
(a) P P P cos 2 P sin P sin P sin P cos
Draft
Equivalent load on concrete from tendon Moment from prestressing
(b) P P P cos
P sin
P sin P cos
(c) Pe P e P P Pe P
(d) P e
P sin
P sin
P cos
P cos
(e) P P P P cos
P sin
P sin P cos 2 P sin None
(f) P P None
(g) P P
Figure 12.5: Determination of Equivalent Loads

Load
Ultimate Steel yielding Service load limit including tolerable overload First cracking load Decompression Balanced Full dead load
cgs (f=0)
Ru
ptu
re
Overload
Tn
Service load range
fcr
or higher
o D
Deformation (deflection of camber)

pi= Initial prestress camber pe= Effective prestress camber O= Self-weight deflection D= Dead load deflection L= Live load deflection
pe pi
Figure 12.6: Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
127 ec1 M0 Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 ec2 M0 Pe 1+ 2 + Ac r S2
Draft
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL f1 f2 = =
f1 f2
= =
(12.8) (12.9)
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1+ 2 + Ac r S2
(12.10) (12.11)
The internal stress distribution at each one of those four stages is illustrated by Fig. 12.7.
Pi Ac Pi e c 1 Ic Pi (1Ac e c1 ) r2
c1 e c2
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 00 11
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000
111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000
Stage 1
Pi Ac
Pi e c 2 Ic
Pi (1+ Ac
e c2 ) r2
Pi (1Ac
111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000
e c1 ) r2
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
Mo S1
Pi (1Ac
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000
Mo e c1 )r2 S1
Stage 2
Pi (1+ Ac
e c2 ) r2
Mo S2
Pi (1+ Ac
Mo e c2 )+ r2 S2
Pe (1Ac
Mo e c1 )r2 S1
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000
1 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
Md + Ml S
Pe (1Ac
11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000
e c1 Mt )r2 S1
Stage 4
Pe (1+ Ac
e c2 Mo )+ r2 S2
Md + Ml S2
Pe (1+ Ac
e c2 Mt )+ r2 S2
Figure 12.7: Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978)
17 Those (service) exural stresses must be below those specied by the ACI code (where the subscripts c, t, i and s refer to compression, tension, initial and service respectively):
Victor Saouma
128
Draft
18
fci permitted concrete compression stress at initial stage .60fci fti permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage < 3 fci fcs permitted concrete compressive stress at service stage .45fc fts permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage 6 fc or 12 fc Note that fts can reach 12 fc only if appropriate deection analysis is done, because section would be cracked. Based on the above, we identify two types of prestressing:
Full prestressing (pioneered by Freysinet), no tensile stresses, no crack, but there are some problems with excessive camber when unloaded. Partial prestressing (pioneered by Leonhardt, Abeles, Thurliman), cracks are allowed to occur (just as in R/C), and they are easier to control in P/C than in R/C.
19 The ACi code imposes the following limits on the steel stresses in terms of fpu which is the ultimate strength of the cable: Pj < .80fpu As and Pi < .70fpu As . No limits are specied for Pe .
Example 12-1: Prestressed Concrete I Beam Adapted from (Nilson 1978) The following I Beam has fc = 4, 000 psi, L = 40 ft, DL+LL =0.55 k/ft, concrete density = 150 lb/ft3 and multiple 7 wire strands with constant eccentricity e = 5.19 in. Pi = 169 k, and the total losses due to creep, shinkage, relaxation are 15%.
12" 4" 5" 2" 6" 24" 7" 6" 2" 5" 4"
7" 4"
The section properties for this beam are Ic = 12, 000 in4 , Ac = 176 in2 , S1 = S2 = 1, 000 in3 , I r = A = 68.2 in2 . Determine exural stresses at midspan and at support at initial and nal conditions. Solution:
2
1. Prestressing force, Pi only f1 Pi 1 Ac 169, 000 = 176 Pi 1+ = Ac 169, 000 = 176 = ec1 r2 1 ec2 r2 1+ (5.19)(12) 68.21 = 1, 837 psi (5.19)(12) 68.2 = 83 psi (12.12-a) (12.12-b) (12.12-c) (12.12-d)
f2
Victor Saouma
129
Draft
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam cambers due to prestressing) w0 M0 = = (176) in2 (.150) k/ ft3 = .183 k/ft (144) in2 / ft2 (.183)(40)2 = 36.6 k.ft 8 (12.13-a) (12.13-b)
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:

w0 f1,2 =
M0 = S1,2
(36.6)(12, 000) = 1, 000
439 psi
(12.14)
f1
ec1 M0 Pi 1 2 Ac r S1
(12.15-a) (12.15-b) (12.15-c) (12.15-d) (12.15-e) (12.15-f)
fti f2
= 83 439 = 522 psi = 3 fc = +190 ec2 M0 Pi 1+ 2 + = Ac r S2 = 1, 837 + 439 = 1, 398 psi = .6fc = 2, 400
fci
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 15% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 0.15)169 = 144 k f1 = = = f2 = ec1 M0 Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 (5.19)(12) 144, 000 1 176 68.2 71 439 = 510 psi (12.16-a) 439 (12.16-b) (12.16-c) (12.16-d) + 439 (12.16-e) (12.16-f)
ec2 M0 Pe 1+ 2 + Ac r S2 (5.19)(12) 144, 000 1+ = 176 68.2 = 1, 561 + 439 = 1, 122 psi
note that 71 and 1, 561 are respectively equal to (0.85)(83) and (0.85)(1, 837) respectively. 4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL MDL + MLL = and corresponding stresses f1,2 = Thus, f1 Victor Saouma = ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 (12.19-a) (110)(12, 000) = 1, 000 1, 320 psi (12.18) (0.55)(40)2 = 110 k.ft 8 (12.17)
1210
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE = fcs f2 = = = fts 510 1, 320 = 1, 830 psi .45fc = 2, 700 ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1+ 2 + Ac r S2 (12.19-b) (12.19-c) (12.19-d) (12.19-e) (12.19-f)
Draft
1, 122 + 1, 320 = +198 psi = 6 fc = +380
5. The stress distribution at each one of the four stages is shown below.
-1830 -83 -510 -522
4
+198
3
-1122
2
-1398
1
-1837
12.3
Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge

20 The historical Walnut Lane Bridge (rst major prestressed concrete bridge in the USA) is made of three spans, two side ones with lengths of 74 ft and a middle one of length 160 feet. Thirteen prestressed cocnrete beams are placed side by side to make up a total width of 44 fet of roadway and two 9.25 feet of sidewalk. In between the beams, and cast with them, are transverse stieners which connect the beams laterally, Fig. 12.8
12.3.1
21
Cross-Section Properties
The beam cross section is shown in Fig. 12.9 and is simplied Ac I = = = c1 = c2 2(8.9)(52) + (7)(61.2) = 1, 354 in2 2 (52)(8.9)3 + (52)(8.9) 12 79 8.9 2 2
2
(12.20-a) + (7)(61.2)3 12 (12.20-b) (12.20-c) (12.20-d)
= 1, 277 103 in4 79 h = = 39.5 in = 2 2
Victor Saouma
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
1211
Draft
80 ft CENTER LINE
ELEVATION OF BEAM HALF
9.25
44
ROAD
9.25
SIDEWALK
BEAM CROSS SECTIONS
TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS
CROSS - SECTION OF BRIDGE
52" 10" 3" 7" 3-3" 6 1/2" 3 1/2" 7" 30"

CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGM 10"
7"
6-7"
SLOTS FOR CABLES
Figure 12.8: Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View
Victor Saouma
1212
Draft
8.9" 22.5" 61.2"
52"
7"
22.5" 6-7" = 79"
8.9"
SIMPLIFIED CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM

Figure 12.9: Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section 1, 277 103 I = = 32, 329 in3 c 39.5 1, 277 103 I = = 943. in2 A 1, 354
S 1 = S2 r2
= =
(12.20-e) (12.20-f)
12.3.2
Prestressing
22 Each beam is prestressed by two middle parabolic cables, and two outer horizontal ones along the anges. All four have approximately the same eccentricity at midspan of 2.65 ft. or 31.8 inch. 23 Each prestressing cable is made up 64 wires each with a diameter of 0.27 inches. Thus the total area of prestressing steel is given by:
Awire Acable Atotal
= = =
0.276 in 2 ) = 0.0598 in2 2 64(0.0598) in2 = 3.83 in2 4(3.83) in2 = 15.32 in2 (d/2)2 = 3.14(
(12.21-a) (12.21-b) (12.21-c)
24 Whereas the ultimate tensile strength of the steel used is 247 ksi, the cables have been stressed only to 131 ksi, thus the initial prestressing force Pi is equal to
Pi = (131) ksi(15.32) in2 = 2, 000 k

25
(12.22)
The losses are reported ot be 13%, thus the eective force is Pe = (1 0.13)(2, 000) k = 1, 740 k (12.23)
Victor Saouma
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
1213
Draft
12.3.3
26 27 28
Loads
The self weight of the beam is q0 = 1.72 k/ft.
The concrete (density=.15 k/ ft3 ) road has a thickness of 0.45 feet. Thus for a 44 foot width, the total load over one single beam is qr,tot = 1 (44) ft(0.45) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.23 k/ft 13 (12.24)
Similarly for the sidewalks which are 9.25 feet wide and 0.6 feet thick: qs,tot = 1 (2)(9.25) ft(0.60) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.13 k/ft 13 (12.25)
We note that the weight can be evenly spread over the 13 beams beacause of the lateral diaphragms.
29
The total dead load is qDL = 0.23 + 0.13 = 0.36 k/ft (12.26)
30 The live load is created by the trac, and is estimated to be 94 psf, thus over a width of 62.5 feet this gives a uniform live load of
wLL =
1 (0.094) k/f t2 (62.5) ft = 0.45 k/ft 13
(12.27)
31
Finally, the combined dead and live load per beam is wDL+LL = 0.36 + 0.45 = 0.81 k/ft (12.28)
12.3.4
Flexural Stresses
ec1 Pi 1 2 Ac r 6 (2 10 ) (31.8)(39.5) = 1 1, 354 943. ec2 Pi 1+ 2 = Ac r (2 106 ) (31.8)(39.5) = 1+ 1, 354 943. =
1. Prestressing force, Pi only f1 (12.29-a) = 490. psi (12.29-b) (12.29-c) = 3, 445. psi (12.29-d)
f2
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam cambers due to prestressing) (1.72)(160)2 = 5, 504 k.ft (12.30) M0 = 8 The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0 f1,2 =
M0 = S1,2
(5, 50.4)(12, 000) = 943.
2, 043 psi
(12.31)
Victor Saouma
1214
Draft
f1
= =
ec1 M0 Pi 1 2 Ac r S1
(12.32-a) (12.32-b) (12.32-c) (12.32-d) (12.32-e) (12.32-f)
fti f2
490 2, 043 = 1, 553 psi = 3 fc = +190 ec2 M0 Pi 1+ 2 + = Ac r S2
fci
= 3, 445 + 2, 043 = 1, 402. psi = .6fc = 2, 400
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 13% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 0.13)(2 106 ) = 1.74 106 lbs f1 ec1 M0 Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 (31.8)(39.5) 1.74 106 1 = 1, 354 943. ec2 M0 Pe 1+ 2 + = Ac r S2 (31.8)(39.5) 1.74 106 1+ = 1, 354 943. = (12.33-a) 2, 043. = 1, 616 psi (12.33-b) (12.33-c) + 2, 043. = 954. psi (12.33-d)
f2
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL MDL + MLL = and corresponding stresses f1,2 = Thus, f1 = = fcs f2 ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1 2 Ac r S1 (12.36-a) (12.36-b) (12.36-c) (12.36-d) (12.36-e) (12.36-f) (2, 592)(12, 000) = 32, 329 962. psi (12.35) (0.81)(160)2 = 2, 592 k.ft 8 (12.34)
1, 616 962. = 2, 578. psi = .45fc = 2, 700 ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL Pe 1+ 2 + = Ac r S2 954 + 962. = +8. psi = 6 fc = +380
= fts
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 13
Three-Hinges ARCHES
13.1
13.1.1
1
Theory
Uniform Horizontal Load
In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 13.1. Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended cable or thin shells. Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks), and labour was not an issue.
The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 13.2 where the vertical load is per unit horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical reaction is simply V = wL , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking 2 moment about the crown, wL L L =0 (13.1) M = Hh 2 2 4
4
Solving for H H= wL2 8h (13.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller than C T in a beam.
5
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically result in no moment on the arch section. Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through statics.
132
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
M = w L /8
L w=W/L
C RISE = h -C BEAM +T W/2 M-ARM small C C-T large BEAM T T
IDEALISTIC ARCH SHAPE GIVEN BY MOMENT DIAGRAM
-C +T W/2 SAG = h
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION SHAPE GIVEN BY MOMENT DIAGRAM
NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 13.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
wL/2
H h H L R V = wL/2 V R R = V 2+ H
2
h H
2 H = wL /8h
L/2
V = wL/2 MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0 M BASE

2 = wL /8 - H h = 0 2
Figure 13.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
13.1 Theory
133
Draft
7 8 9
An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal compressive stresses. An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss in carrying loads over long spans. If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 13.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
APPARENT LINE OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING EXCEPT AT THE BASE APPARENT LINE OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING INCLUDING BASE
h H H=wl 2/8h< wl /8h

2
M h V V
h M base
M crown L
M base
H<H H<H V
Figure 13.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

10 Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems, and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes. 11 In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant. Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load. 12 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R = V 2 + H 2 ), whereas at the crown we simply have H, the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
APPARENT LINE OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING EXCEPT AT THE BASE
APPARENT LINE OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING INCLUDING BASE
h H H=wl 2/8h< wl /8h

2
M h V V
h M base
M crown L
M base
H<H H<H V
Figure 13.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
134
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
Example 13-1: Design of a Three Hinged Arch
adapted from (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) A long arch 100 ft high and spanning 510 ft is to be designed for a garage and hotel building, using air rights over roads and highways.
100
Garage and hotel Building
510
It is necessary to determine preliminary dimensions for the size of the arch section. The arches are spaced 60 ft on centers and carry four-story loading totaling 27 k/ft along each arch. Solution: 1. To the initial DL and LL of 27 k/ft we add the arch own weight estimated to be 25% of the load, thus the total load is (13.3) w = (1 + .25)27 = 33.7 33 k/ft 2. We next determine the various forces: (33)(510)2 wL2 = = 10, 700 k H = 8h 8(100) (33)(510) wL = = 8, 400 k V = 2 2 R = H 2 + V 2 = (10, 700)2 + (8, 400)2 = 13, 600 k
(13.4-a) (13.4-b) (13.4-c)
3. If we use concrete-lled steel pipe for arch section, and selecting a pipe diameter of 6 ft with a thickness of 1/2 inch, then the steel cross sectional area is As = 2rt = Dt = (3.14)(6) ft(12) in/ ft(0.5) in = 113 in2 4. The concrete area is Ac = (6)2 2 D2 = (3.14) ft (144) in2 /f tsq = 4, 070 in2 4 4 (13.6) (13.5)
5. Assuming that the steel has an allowable stress of 20 ksi and the concrete 2.5 ksi (noting that the strength of conned concrete can be as high as three times the one of fc ), then the load carrySteel Ac (113)(20)ksi = 2,260 k ing capacity of each component is Concrete As (4, 070)(2.5)ksi = 10,180 k Total 12,440 kip which is o.k. for the crown section (H=10,700 k) but not quite for the abutments at R=13,600 k. 6. This process of trial and error can be repeated until a satisfactory preliminary design is achieved. Furthermore, a new estimate for the arch self weight should be undertaken.
Victor Saouma
13.2 Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)
135
Draft
13.2
13.2.1
Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)
Geometry
13 The Salginatobel bridge, perhaps the most famous and inuential structure of Maillart is located in high up in the Swiss Alps close to Shuders. 14 It is a three hinged pedestrian bridge which crosses a deep valley with a most beautiful shape which blends perfectly with its surrounding, Fig. 13.5
20 ft 20 ft 20 ft 87.5 ft 87.5 ft 20 ft 20 ft 20 ft
42.6 ft
295 ft
Figure 13.5: Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)

15 The load supporting structure is the arch itself, whereas the bridge deck and the piers are transfering the vertical load into the arch.
16
The arch cross section is not constant, and can be idealized as in Fig. 13.6 The basic shape of the supporting structure is a three hinged arch as shown in Fig. 13.7
17
18 The arch is parabolic (which as we saw an the optimal shape which minimizes exure), and the cross section at the quarter point has an area of
At = 2[(0.62)(12.46) + (0.59)(12.17)] = 29.8 ft2 = 4, 291 in2

19
(13.7)
Each ange has an area of AF = (0.62)(12.46) = 7.73 ft2 = 1, 113 in2 (13.8)
and the eective depth of the section is d = 12.79 ft, Fig. 13.8.
20
At the crown/hinge the section is rectangular with Acr = (1.05)(11.48) = 12.05 ft2 = 1, 735 in2 (13.9)
Victor Saouma
136
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
ACTUAL ARCH WITH CENTROID (DOTTED LINE)
42.6 ft
IDEALIZATION (ONE DEMENSIONAL)

295 ft
Figure 13.6: Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
CONCRETE CORK PADS
HINGE
ACTUAL SPRINGING HINGE CORK PAD CONCRETE HARD WOOD ACTUAL CROWN HINGE
IDEALIZATION
HINGE
IDEALIZATION
Figure 13.7: Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
137
Draft
ACTUAL ARCH SECTIONS
295 ft
12.46 ft 0.62 ft
0.59 ft
0.62 ft
Figure 13.8: Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
12.17 ft d=12.79 ft 13.41 ft
42.6 ft
138
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
13.2.2
Loads
21 The dead load WD is assumed to be linearly distributed (even though it is greater where the arch is deeper, and the vertical members longer) and is equal to 1,680 kips, Fig. 13.9.
wD =
(1, 680) k WD = = 5.7 k/ft L (295) ft
(13.10)
w = 5.7 k/ft D WD = 1680 k
L = 295 ft
Figure 13.9: Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
22 For the sake of simplicity we will neglect the snow load (which is actually negligible compared to the dead load). 23 The live load is caused by trac, and we consider the case in which two trucks, each weighing 55 kips, are placed at the quarter-point, Fig. 13.10. This placement of the load actually corresponds to one of the most critical loading arrangement. The total vertical load is shown in Fig. 13.11
13.2.3
24
Reactions
Reactions are easily determined from equilibrium, Fig. 13.15 VD = 1, 680 2 110 VL = 2 (+ ') Mc HD (55)(147.5) (55)(73.75) HL (42.6) HL RD = (840)2 + (1, 455)2 = = = = = = = = = 840 k 55 k 0 0 1, 455 k 0 95 k 1, 680 k 110 k (13.11-a) (13.11-b) (13.11-c) (13.11-d) (13.11-e) (13.11-f) (13.11-g) (13.11-h) (13.11-i)
(840)(147.5) (840)(73.75) HD (42.6)
RL =
(55)2 + (95)2
Victor Saouma
139
295 ft
Figure 13.10: Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
PLAN
ROADWAY
P = 55 k
ARCH ABUTMENT
P = 55 k
42.5 ft
Draft
1310
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
Q D = 1680 k P = 55 k P = 55 k A VA,D = 840 k DEAD LOAD B VB,D = 840 k A VA,L = 55 k LIVE LOAD 295 ft B VB,L = 55 k
Figure 13.11: Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
C
d=42.6 ft
H A
l/4=73.75 ft
V
l/2=147.5 ft
Figure 13.12: Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
42.6 ft
1311
Draft
13.2.4
25
Internal Forces
The shear diagrams for the dead, live and combined load is shown in Fig. 13.13.
840 k 420 k
+
SHEAR FORCE
3L/4 L/4 L/2 420 k 295 ft 840 k 295 ft x 0
SHEAR FORCE
55 k
L/2
L -55 k
295 ft
+ 895 k + 475 k + 420 k
SHEAR FORCE
0 - 420 k - 475 k
- 895 k 295 ft
Figure 13.13: Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983) At the quarter point the axial force can be expressed as: N = H cos + V sin where (13.12)
26
2d (13.13) L and = 16.1o at this location. The horizontal force for the dead and live loads was determined previously as 1, 455 and 95 kips respectively, and the vertical forces are obtained from the shear diagram, thus tan =
qr ND qr NL
= =
(1, 455) cos 16.1o + (420) sin 16.1o = 1, 514 k (95) cos 16.1 + (55) sin 16.1 = 106 k
o o
(13.14-a) (13.14-b)
and at the crown where there is no vertical force (and = 0)

cr ND cr NL
= =
(1, 455) cos 0o + (420) sin 0o = 1, 455 k (95) cos 0 + (55) sin 0 = 95 k
o o
(13.15-a) (13.15-b)
27
The uniform dead load will not produce a moment on the parabolic arch. The (point) live load will create a moment which can be decomposed into two parts, 1. Vertical load will cause a trapezoidal moment diagram, and the max moment is
V ML =
28
11o 295 PL = = 4, 050 k.ft 2 4 2 4
(13.16)
H 2. The second is caused by the horizontal reaction, and the resulting moment is ML = Hd(x), since d varies parabolically, and H is constant, that second moment is parabolic with a peak value equal to V (13.17) ML = Hdmax = (95)(32.6) = 4, 050 k.ft
Victor Saouma
1312
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
at the quarter point

V ML = Hd1/4 = (95)
3(32.6) = 3, 040 k.ft 4
(13.18)
29 The overall bending moment diagram from the live loads is determined by simply adding those two components, Fig. 13.14.
L/4
L/4
+
BENDING MOMENT
-4,050 k-ft -3,040 k-ft
BENDING MOMENT
L/4
L/2 295 ft
x 3L/4 L
+ PL/4 = 4,050 k-ft
BENDING
4,050 ft.k-3,040 ft.k = 1,010 ft.k
MOMENT
295 ft
Figure 13.14: Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983)
30 We observe that the actual shape of the arch follows this bending moment diagram for one of the most critical live load case.
31
The maximum moment at midspan is

max ML = 4, 050 3, 040 = 1, 010 k.ft
(13.19)
which would produce internal forces in the upper and lower anges equal to: Fint =
max (1, 010) k.ft ML = = 79 k d (12.8) ft
(13.20)
13.2.5
32
Internal Stresses
The axial stresses at the springlines were determined to be 1, 680 and 110 kips for the dead and live loads respectively. At the support the area of concrete is Ac = 2, 240 in2 , thus the axial stresses are
D sp L sp
33
= = =
(1, 680) k 1, 000 = 750 psi (2, 240) in2 (110) k 1, 000 = 49 psi (2, 240) in2 750 49 = 799 psi
(13.21-a) (13.21-b) (13.21-c)
s spT otal Victor Saouma
13.3 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches
1313
Draft
34 At the crown, we repeat the same calculations, where the axial force is equal to the horizontal component of the reactions
D cr L cr
= = =
(1, 455) k 1, 000 = 839 psi (1, 735) in2 (95) k 1, 000 = 55 psi (1, 735) in2 839 55 = 894 psi
(13.22-a) (13.22-b) (13.22-c)
s crT otal
35 The stresses at the quarter point are determined next. Note that we must include the eect of both axial and exural stresses
top qr
(1, 514) k (106) k (79) k 2 1, 000 + 2 1, 000 (4, 291) in (4, 291) in (1, 113) in2
DeadLoad AxialStresses LiveLoad Flexural
(13.23-a)
=
bot qr
353 25 71 449 psi (1, 514) k (106) k (79) k 2 1, 000 + 2 1, 000 (4, 291) in (4, 291) in (1, 113) in2
DeadLoad AxialStresses LiveLoad Flexural
(13.23-b) (13.23-c)
353 25 + 71 307 psi
(13.23-d)
13.3
Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches
From (Billington 1979) INCOMPLETE

36 The issue of unsymmetrical live load on a stiened or unstiened arch was also addressed by Maillart. As discussed in (Billington 1979) and illustrated by Fig. 13.15
Victor Saouma
1314
Three-Hinges ARCHES
Draft
wL
wL
wL
/10 wL
wL a wL Unstiffened Arch
wL a 2
wL a 2
Stiffened Arch
Figure 13.15: Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979)
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 14
BUILDING STRUCTURES
14.1
14.1.1
1
Introduction
Beam Column Connections
The connection between the beam and the column can be, Fig. 14.1:
M=K( b - c ) s s b = c Semi-Flexible
Flexible
Rigid
Figure 14.1: Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints Flexible that is a hinge which can transfer forces only. In this case we really have cantiliver action only. In a exible connection the column and beam end moments are both equal to zero, Mcol = Mbeam = 0. The end rotation are not equal, col = beam . Rigid: The connection is such that beam = col and moment can be transmitted through the connection. In a rigid connection, the end moments and rotations are equal (unless there is an externally applied moment at the node), Mcol = Mbeam = 0, col = beam . Semi-Rigid: The end moments are equal and not equal to zero, but the rotation are dierent. beam = col , Mcol = Mbeam = 0. Furthermore, the dierence in rotation is resisted by the spring Mspring = Kspring (col beam ).
14.1.2
2
Behavior of Simple Frames
For vertical load across the beam rigid connection will reduce the maximum moment in the beam (at the expense of a negative moment at the ends which will in turn be transferred to the columns).
142
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
3
The advantages of a rigid connection are greater when the frame is subjected to a lateral load. Under those conditions, the connection will stien the structure and reduce the amount of lateral deection, Fig. 14.2.
H H
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI PI PI
Figure 14.2: Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) Fig. 14.3 illustrates the deformation, shear, moment and axial forces in frames with dierent boundary conditions under both vertical and horizontal loads.
14.1.3
5
Eccentricity of Applied Loads
A concentric axial force P and moment M , applied on a support sytem (foundation, columns, prestressing) can be replaced by a static equivalent one in which the moment M is eliminated and the force P applied with an eccentricity e= M P (14.1)
The induced stresses can be decomposed into uniform (P/L) (assuming a unit width) and linearly varying one ( = M/S) and the end stresses are min max = = P L P + L (14.2-a) (14.2-b)
We note that the linearly varying stress distribution must satisfy two equilibrium requirements: F = 0, thus the neutral axis (where the stress is equal to zero) passes through the centroid of the section, and M = 0, i.e. Mint = Mext .
7
If we seek the eccentricity ecr for which max equals zero, then =
P L
Victor Saouma
14.1 Introduction
143
Draft
h
Frame Type
L w
Deformation
w/2
Shear
W=wL, M=wL/8, M=Ph
Moment
M
Axial
-w/2 w/2 w/2
a b
POST AND BEAM STRUCTURE M P p
w/2 -w/2
M w/2 w/2
c d
SIMPLE BENT FRAME p -M/L M
w/2 -w/2
M w/2 w/2
e f
p THREE-HINGE PORTAL -M/L M
-M/L
w/2
-w/2
M M/h
-M/L
g h
-M/h -M/L
M/h M/2 M/2
w/2
w/2
p/2
THREE-HINGE PORTAL 0.4M 0.64M 0.4M
w/2
-w/2
-M/L
0.4M/h w/2 w/2
i j
-0.36M/h
0.36M/h
-M/L
M/2
M/2 p/2
TWO-HINGE FRAME
w/2
-w/2
0.45M 0.55M
0.45M 0.68M/h w/2 w/2
-0.68M/h
k l
RIGID FRAME
0.68M/h
-0.5M/L
M/4
M/4 p/2
-M/L
M/4
M/4
Figure 14.3: Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
-M/2L
p/2
p/2
M/2L
M/L
p/2
p/2
M/L
p/2
p/2
M/L
M/L
144
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
8
The net tensile force due to the eccentric load is T = 1 L 2 2 (14.3)
If we want this net tensile force to be equal and opposite to the compressive force, then T = =
L 4 P A
P L
applied at 2 L from the centroid 3 2
(14.4)
Thus the net internal moment is Mint = 2T P 2L PL 2L =2 = 32 432 6 (14.5)
To satisfy the equilibrium equation, this internal moment must be equal and opposite to the external moment Mext = P ecr hence PL = P ecr (14.6) 6
Mint Mext
or ecr = L 6 (14.7)
in other words to avoid tensile stresses on either side, the resultant force P must be placed within the midle third kernel, Fig. 14.4
L/2 L/2 L/3 L/3 e L/3 L/3 L/6 P L/3 L/3 L/3
L/2
L/2
L/3
P L/3 e
L/6 L/3 L/3 L/6 P L/3 L/3 L/3
P/A + M/S = = = + +
Figure 14.4: Axial and Flexural Stresses This equation is fundamental in preventing tensile forces in 1. Prestressed concrete beams: If the prestressing cable is within the kernel (i.e middle third), then there will not be any tensile stresses caused by prestressing alone. 2. Foundations: If the eccentricity is within the middle kernel, then we have compressive stresses only under the foundation and no undesirable uplift. 3. Buildings: If the eccentricity of the vertical load is within the middle third, all columns will be loaded under compression only. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
10
14.2 Buildings Structures
145
Draft
14.2
11
Buildings Structures
There are three primary types of building systems:
Wall Subsytem: in which very rigid walls made up of solid masonry, paneled or braced timber, or steel trusses constitute a rigid subsystem. This is only adequate for small rise buildings. Vertical Shafts: made up of four solid or trussed walls forming a tubular space structure. The tubular structure may be interior (housing elevators, staircases) and/or exterior. Most ecient for very high rise buildings. Rigid Frame: which consists of linear vertical components (columns) rigidly connected to sti horizontal ones (beams and girders). This is not a very ecient structural form to resist lateral (wind/earthquake) loads.
14.2.1
Wall Subsystems
12 Whereas exterior wall provide enclosure and interior ones separation, both of them can also have a structural role in trnsfering vertical and horizontal loads.
13
Walls are constructed out of masonry, timber concrete or steel.
14 If the wall is braced by oors, then it can provide an excellent resitance to horizontal load in the plane of the wall (but not orthogonal to it). 15 When shear-walls subsytems are used, it is best if the center of orthogonal shear resistance is close to the centroid of lateral loads as applied. If this is not the case, then there will be torsional design problems.
14.2.1.1
Example: Concrete Shear Wall
From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

16 We consider a reinforced concrete wall 20 ft wide, 1 ft thick, and 120 ft high with a vertical load of 400 k acting on it at the base. As a result of wind, we assume a uniform horizontal force of 0.8 kip/ft of vertical height acting on the wall. It is required to compute the exural stresses and the shearing stresses in the wall to resist the wind load, Fig. 14.5.
1. Maximum shear force and bending moment at the base Vmax Mmax 2. The resulting eccentricity is eActual = 3. The critical eccentricity is ecr = (20) ft L = = 3.3 ft < eActual N.G. 6 6 (14.10) (5, 760) k.ft M = = 14.4 ft P (400) k (14.9) = = wL = (0.8) k.ft(120) ft = 96 k (0.8) k.ft(120)2 ft2 wL2 = = 5, 760 k.ft 2 2 (14.8-a) (14.8-b)
thus there will be tension at the base. Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
146
BUILDING STRUCTURES
120
W 400 k
HORIZONTAL +f +F VERTICAL + FDL +140 + 740 PSI + 600 - FM 2/(3d)
Figure 14.5: Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) 4. The moment of inertia of the wall is I= (1) ft(20) ft3 bh3 = = 667 ft4 12 12 (14.11)
5. The maximum exural stresses will be max = (5, 760) k.ft(10) ft Mc = = (86.5) ksf = (600) psi I (667) ft4 (14.12)
6. The average shearing stress is = (96) k V = = 4.8 ksf = 33.3 psi A (1)(20) ft2 (14.13)
A concrete with nominal shear reinforcement can carry at least 100 psi in shear, those computed shear streses are permissible. 7. At the base of the wall, the axial stresses will be = (400) k = (20) ksf = 140 psi (1)(20) ft2 (14.14-a)
8. The maximum stresses will thus be: 1 2 Victor Saouma = = 140 + 600 = 460 psi 140 600 = 740 psi (Tension) (Compression) (14.15-a) (14.15-b)
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
M
Draft
1 20
w=0.8 k/ft
H=96 k; M =5760 k
V -f
11111 00000 11111 00000

7.7 IN TENSION
60
147
Draft
9. The compressive stress of 740 psi can easily be sustained by concrete, as to the tensile stress of 460 psi, it would have to be resisted by some steel reinforcement.
10. Given that those stresses are service stresses and not factored ones, we adopt the WSD approach, and use an allowable stress of 20 ksi, which in turn will be increased by 4/3 for seismic and wind load, 4 (14.16) all = (20) = 26.7 ksi 3
11. The stress distribution is linear, compression at one end, and tension at the other. The length of the tension area is given by (similar triangles) 20 460 x = x= (20) = 7.7 ft 460 460 + 740 460 + 740 12. The total tensile force inside this triangular stress block is T = 1 (460) ksi(7.7 12) in (12) in = 250 k 2
width
(14.17)
(14.18)
13. The total amount of steel reinforcement needed is As = (250) k = 9.4 in2 (26.7) ksi (14.19)
This amount of reinforcement should be provided at both ends of the wall since the wind or eartquake can act in any direction. In addition, the foundations should be designed to resist tensile uplift forces (possibly using piles). 14.2.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall

17 We consider the same problem previously analysed, but use a trussed shear wall instead of a concrete one, Fig. 14.6.
1. Using the maximum moment of 5, 760 kip-ft (Eq. 14.8-b), we can compute the compression and tension in the columns for a lever arm of 20 ft. F = (5, 760) k.ft = 288 k (20) ft (14.20)
2. If we now add the eect of the 400 kip vertical load, the forces would be C T = = (400) k 288 = 488 k 2 (400) k + 288 = 88 k 2 (14.21-a) (14.21-b)
3. The force in the diagonal which must resist a base shear of 96 kip is (similar triangles) F = 96 (20)2 + (24)2 F = 20 (20)2 + (24)2 (96) = 154 k 20 (14.22)
4. The design could be modied to have no tensile forces in the columns by increasing the width of the base (currently at 20 ft). Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
148
BUILDING STRUCTURES
20
Draft
120
W 400 k
H=96 k
24
1.2
~1.6
V +FM -F
M
Figure 14.6: Trussed Shear Wall
14.2.2
Shaft Systems
18 Vertical shear-resisting shafts in buildings act as a tubular section and generally have a rectangular cross section. If there is only one shaft, it is generally located in the center and houses the elevators. If there are many shafts, then they should be symmetrically arranged. 19 If the shaft is relatively short and wide, with an aspect ratio under 1 or 2, then the dominant strcutral action is that of a sti shear resisting tube. If the aspect ratio is between 3 and 5, then the shear forces may not be the controlling criterion, and exure dominates.
14.2.2.1
Example: Tube Subsystem

20 With reference to Fig. 14.7, the reinforced concrete shaft is 20 ft square, 120 ft high, and with 1 ft thick walls. It is subjected to a lateral force of 0.8 k/ft.
1. Comparing this structure with the one analysed in Sect. 14.2.1.1 the total vertical load acting on the base is now increased to (14.23) V = 4(400) = 1, 600 k 2. As previously, the maximum moment and shear are 5, 760 k.ft and 96 k respectively. 3. The moment of inertia for a tubular section is I= (20)(20)3 (18)(18)3 bd3 = = 4, 600 ft4 12 12 12 (14.24)
Victor Saouma
60
149
Draft
w = 0.8 k/ft H = 96 k 60
~ 20
20
20
~ 20
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
120
N.A.
Figure 14.7: Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) 4. The maximum exural stresses: f l = 5. The average shear stress is = (96) k V = = 2.4 ksf = 17 psi A 2(20)(1) ft2 (14.26) (5, 760) k.ft(20/2) ft MC = = 12.5 ksf = 87 psi I (4, 600) ft4 (14.25)
6. The vertical load of 1,600 k produces an axial stress of ax = 7. The total stresses are thus 1 2 = ax + f l = = 140 + 87 = 53 psi 140 87 = 227 psi (14.28-a) (14.28-b) (14.28-c) (1, 600) k P = = 20 ksf = 140 psi A (4(20)(1) ft2 (14.27)
thus we do not have any tensile stresses, and those stresses are much better than those obtained from a single shear wall.
14.2.3
Rigid Frames
21 Rigid frames can carry both vertical and horizontal loads, however their analysis is more complex than for tubes.
Victor Saouma
1410
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
24
22 The rigorous and exact analysis of a rigid frame can only be accomplished through a computer analysis. However, for preliminary design it is often sucient to perform approximate analyses. 23 There are two approximate methods for the analysis of rigid frames subjected to lateral loads: 1) Portal and 2) Cantilever method.
The portal frame method is based on the following major assumptions, Fig. 14.8:
L P L/2 h h/2 V =P/(2L) 1 V2 =P/(2L) P P h/2 H 1=P/2 H 2=P/2
PI
Figure 14.8: A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) 1. Each bay of a bent acts as a separate portal frame consisting of two adjacent columns and the connecting girder. 2. The point of inection (zero moment) for all columns is at midheight 3. The point of inection for all girders is at midspan. 4. For a multibay frame, the shears on the interior columns are equal and the shear in each exterior column is half the shear of an interior column. This method will be discussed in more details in the following section.
14.3
25
Approximate Analysis of Buildings
Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justied by 1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of an ultimate failure design. 2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces. 3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
26
Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones. We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve). Assume girders to be numbered from left to right. In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
27
28
29
Victor Saouma
14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings
1411
Draft
14.3.1
31
Vertical Loads
30 The girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders.
Basic assumptions 1. Girders at each oor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load. 2. Inection points are assumed to be at (a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder. (b) Mid-height of the columns 3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small. 4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns above and below the oor.
32 Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls equal to 0.8 the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the inection point is at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending on the nature of the connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for the approximate location of the hinge).
33
End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 14.9
w M
lft
Mrgt Vrgt
Vlft 0.1L 0.8L L 0.1L
Figure 14.9: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
M+ =
1 1 wL2 = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2 s 8 8
(14.29)
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 14.9 w w M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2 2 2 Victor Saouma (14.30)
1412
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Vrgti-1
Pabove
Vlfti
Figure 14.10: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
Pbelow
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 14.10 V lft = wL 2 V rgt = wL 2 (14.31)
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the column above it. Fig. 14.10
rgt P dwn = P up + Vi1 Vilft
(14.32)
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 14.11
h/2
h/2
Mi-1lft
Vi-1rgt
Mcol
above
Mi-1rgt
Milft
Vilft
Mirgt
Virgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1
Mcolbelow
Li h/2
Figure 14.11: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments
h/2
rgt bot M top = Mabove Mi1 + Milft
M bot = top
(14.33)
Victor Saouma
1413
Draft
14.3.2
34
Column Shear Points of inection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns on the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 14.11 M top
h 2
V =
(14.34)
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears above and below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.
Horizontal Loads
We must dierentiate between low and high rise buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the deected shape is characterized by shear deformations. High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the deected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation. 14.3.2.1 Portal Method
35 Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the approximate analysis of this type of structure is based on
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces. 2. Location of inection points.

36
The portal method is based on the following assumptions 1. Inection points are located at (a) Mid-height of all columns above the second oor. (b) Mid-height of oor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged. (c) At the center of each girder. 2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any oor level will be distributed among these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as much horizontal shear as each interior columns of the frame.
37
Forces are obtained from
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the columns at each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 14.12 V ext = F lateral 2No.
of bays
V int = 2V ext
(14.35)
Victor Saouma
1414
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Figure 14.12: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
H/2 H H H/2
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half the height of the corresponding column, Fig. 14.12 M top = V h 2 M bot = M top (14.36)
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 14.13
h/2
h/2
Mi-1lft
Mcolabove Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt
Milft
Vilft
Mirgt
Virgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1/2
Li-1/2
Mcolbelow
Li/2 h/2
Li/2
Figure 14.13: ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment h/2
rgt above below Milft = Mcol Mcol + Mi1
Mirgt = Milft
(14.37)
Girder Shears Since there is an inection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear is obtained by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 14.13 V lft = 2M L V rgt = V lft (14.38)
Victor Saouma
1415
Draft
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the column above, Fig. ??
Pabove
Vrgti-1
Vlfti
Figure 14.14: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
Pbelow
P = P above + P rgt + P lft
(14.39)
Example 14-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
0.25K/ft
15K
K
12 9
0.50K/ft
13
14 11
14 16
30
10 2 3
20
30
24
Figure 14.15: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building
Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
1416
BUILDING STRUCTURES 1. Top Girder Moments

lft M12 cnt M12 rgt M12 lft M13 cnt M13 rgt M13 lft M14 cnt M14 rgt M14
Draft
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
0.045w12 L2 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2 12 0.08w12 L2 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2 12 lft M12 0.045w13 L2 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2 13 0.08w13 L2 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2 13 lft M13 0.045w14 L2 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2 14 0.08w14 L2 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2 14 lft M14 0.045w9 L2 = (0.045)(0.5)(20)2 9 0.08w9 L2 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2 9 lft M9 0.045w10 L2 = (0.045)(0.5)(30)2 10 0.08w10 L2 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2 10 lft M11 0.045w12 L2 = (0.045)(0.5)(24)2 12 0.08w12 L2 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2 12 lft M12
lft +M12 top M5 rgt lft M12 + M13 = (4.5) + (10.1) top M6 rgt lft M13 + M14 = (10.1) + (6.5) top M7 rgt M14 = (6.5) top M8
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4.5 k.ft 8.0 k.ft 4.5 k.ft 10.1 k.ft 18.0 k.ft 10.1 k.ft 6.5 k.ft 11.5 k.ft 6.5 k.ft 9.0 k.ft 16.0 k.ft 9.0 k.ft 20.3 k.ft 36.0 k.ft 20.3 k.ft 13.0 k.ft 23.0 k.ft 13.0 k.ft
k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

lft M9 cnt M9 rgt M9 lft M10 cnt M10 rgt M10 lft M11 cnt M11 rgt M11
3. Top Column Moments

top M5 bot M5 top M6 bot M6 top M7 bot M7 top M8 bot M8
= = = = = = = =
4.5 4.5 5.6 5.6 3.6 3.6 6.5 6.5
4. Bottom Column Moments

= = = = = = = =
bot lft +M5 + M9 = 4.5 9.0 top M1 rgt bot lft +M6 M9 + M10 = 5.6 (9.0) + (20.3) top M2 rgt bot lft +M7 M10 + M11 = 3.6 (20.3) + (13.0) top M3 rgt bot +M8 M11 = 6.5 (13.0) top M4
= = = = = = = =
4.5 4.5 5.6 5.6 3.6 3.6 6.5 6.5
5. Top Girder Shear

lft V12 rgt V12 lft V13 rgt V13 lft V14 rgt V14
= = = = = =
w12 L12 2 lft V12 w13 L13 2 lft V13 w14 L14 2 lft V14
= = =
(0.25)(20) 2 (0.25)(30) 2 (0.25)(24) 2
= = = = = =
2.5 k 2.5 k 3.75 k 3.75 k 3.0 k 3.0 k
Victor Saouma
1417
Draft
0.25K/ft
12 9
0.50K/ft
13
14
14 16
10 2 3
11 4
20
+8.0k -4.5
k
30
+18.0k
24
+11.5k
k
-4.5k
+16.0
k
-10.1k -10.1k -6.5

+32.0k
-6.5k -13.0k
+23.0k
-9.0k
-9.0
k k k -13.0 -20.2k -20.2
-4.5k +5.6k -4.5k +5.6k
-5.6k
+3.6k
+6.5k -3.6k -6.5k +6.5k -3.6k -6.5k
+4.5k +4.5k
-5.6k
+3.6k
Figure 14.16: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
1418
BUILDING STRUCTURES 6. Bottom Girder Shear V9lft V9rgt lft V10 rgt V10 lft V11 rgt V11 = = = = = =
w9 L9 = (0.5)(20) 2 2 V9lft w10 L10 = (0.5)(30) 2 2 lft V10 w11 L11 = (0.5)(24) 2 2 lft V11
Draft
= = = = = =
5.00 5.00 7.50 7.50 6.00 6.00
k k k k k k
7. Column Shears V5 V6 V7 V8 V1 V2 V3 V4
+2.5K
= = = = = = = =
top M5 H5 2 top M6 H6 2 top M7 H7 2 top M8 H8 2 top M1 H1 2 top M2 H2 2 top M3 H3 2 top M4 H4 2
= = = = = = = =
4.5
14 2 14 2
= = = = = = = =
0.64 k 0.80 k 0.52 k 0.93 k 0.56 k 0.70 k 0.46 k 0.81 k
5.6 3.6
14 2
6.5
14 2
4.5
16 2 16 2
5.6 3.6
16 2
6.5
16 2
+3.75K -2.5K
+3.0K -3.75K +6.0

K
+5.0
+7.5
-3.0K
-5.0K
-7.5K
-6.0K
-0.64K
-0.80K
+0.51K
+0.93K
-0.56K
-0.70K
+0.45K
+0.81K
Figure 14.17: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
1419
Draft
8. Top Column Axial Forces P5 P6 P7 P8 = = = =

lft V12 rgt lft V12 + V13 = (2.50) + 3.75 rgt lft V13 + V14 = (3.75) + 3.00 rgt V14
= 2.50 k = 6.25 k = 6.75 k = 3.00 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces P1 P2 P3 P4 = = = = P5 + V9lft = 2.50 + 5.0 rgt P6 V10 + V9lft = 6.25 (5.00) + 7.50 rgt lft P7 V11 + V10 = 6.75 (7.50) + 6.0 rgt P8 V11 = 3.00 (6.00) = 7.5 k = 18.75 k = 20.25 k = 9.00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method 1. Column Shears V5 V6 V7 V8 V1 V2 V3 V4 2. Top Column Moments

= = = = = = = =
15 (2)(3)
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) 2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) V5

15+30 (2)(3)
2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5) 2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5) V1
= = = = = = = =
2.5 k 5k 5k 2.5 k 7.5 k 15 k 15 k 7.5 k
= = = = = = = =
V1 H5 = (2.5)(14) 2 2 top M5 V6 H6 = (5)(14) 2 2 top M6 up V7 H7 = (5)(14) 2 2 top M7 up V8 H8 = (2.5)(14) 2 2 top M8
= = = = = = = =
17.5 17.5 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0 17.5 17.5
3. Bottom Column Moments

= = = = = = = =
dwn V1 H1 2 top M1 dwn V2 H2 2 top M2 dwn V3 H3 2 top M3 dwn V4 H4 2 top M4
= = = =
(7.5)(16) 2 (15)(16) 2 (15)(16) 2 (7.5)(16) 2
= = = = = = = =
60 k.ft 60 k.ft 120 k.ft 120 k.ft 120 k.ft 120 k.ft 60 k.ft 60 k.ft
Victor Saouma
1420
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E L1 20 0.25 0.5
Height 14 16
Span Load Load
L2 L3 30 24 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.5 MOMENTS Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Cnt Rgt Lft Cnr Rgt Lft Cnt Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 8.0 -4.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -10.1 18.0 -10.1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -6.5 11.5 -6.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -4.5 AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -4.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -5.6 3.6 6.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 4.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA5.6 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA-3.6 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA -6.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -9.0 16.0 -9.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -20.3 36.0 -20.3AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -13.0 23.0 -13.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA -4.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -5.6 3.6 6.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 4.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 5.6 -3.6 -6.5 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA SHEAR Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 2.50AAAAAAAAAAAA -2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 3.75 AAAAAAAAAAAA -3.75AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 3.00 AAAAAAAAAAAA -3.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -0.64 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -0.80 0.52 0.93 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 5.00AAAAAAAAAAAA -5.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 7.50 AAAAAAAAAAAA -7.50AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 6.00 AAAAAAAAAAAA -6.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -0.56 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -0.70 0.46 0.81 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AXIAL FORCE Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA 6.25 6.75 3.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 AAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 7.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 18.75 20.25 9.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Figure 14.18: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
APROXVER.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
Draft
Victor Saouma
B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Span Load Load MOMENTS Bay 1 Col L1 20 0.25 0.5 L2 30 0.25 0.5 L3 24 0.25 0.5 =-0.045*D5*D3^2 =0.08*D5*D3*D3 =+D13 =-0.045*I5*I3^2 =0.08*I5*I3*I3 =+I13 =+D13+C12 =-C14 =-F13+I13+G12 =-G14 =-K13+N13+L12 =-L14 SHEAR Bay 1 Col =+D3*D5/2 =-D22 =+I3*I5/2 =-I22 =+N3*N5/2 =2*C14/A5 =2*G14/A5 =2*L14/A5 AXIAL FORCE Bay 1 Col Bay 2 Beam 0 Column Beam 0 Column Bay 3 Beam 0 =+D20 =-F20+I20 =-K20+N20 0 0 0 =+C28+D22 =+G28-F22+I22 =+L28-K22+N22
A 1 2 3 Height 4 14 5 16 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Bay 2 Bay 3 Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Cnt Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft Cnr Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Cnt Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-0.045*D4*D3^2 =0.08*D4*D3*D3 =+D10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-0.045*I4*I3^2 =0.08*I4*I3*I3 =+I10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-0.045*N4*N3^2 =0.08*N4*N3*N3 =N10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-K10+N10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-P10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-F10+I10 =+D10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-C11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-L11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-Q11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-G11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-0.045*N5*N3^2 =0.08*N5*N3*N3 =+N13
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
13 14 15
=-P13+Q12 =-Q14
16 17 18 19 20 21
Bay 2 Bay 3 Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+D3*D4/2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-D20 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+I3*I4/2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-I20 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N3*N4/2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-N20 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =2*C11/A4 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =2*G11/A4 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =2*L11/A4 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=2*Q11/A4 =-N22
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
22 23
=2*Q14/A5
24 25 26 27 28
Col
=-P20
Figure 14.19: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet
29 30
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
=+Q28-P22
1421
1422
BUILDING STRUCTURES 4. Top Girder Moments

lft M12 rgt M12 lft M13 rgt M13 lft M14 rgt M14
Draft
= = = = = =
top M5 lft M12 rgt top M12 + M6 = 17.5 + 35 lft M13 rgt top M13 + M7 = 17.5 + 35 lft M14
= = = = = =
17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5
k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft
5. Bottom Girder Moments

lft M9 rgt M9 lft M10 rgt M10 lft M11 rgt M11
= = = = = =
top bot M1 M5 = 60 (17.5) lft M9 rgt top bot M9 + M2 M6 = 77.5 + 120 (35) lft M10 rgt top bot M10 + M3 M7 = 77.5 + 120 (35) lft M11
= = = = = =
77.5 77.5 77.5 77.5 77.5 77.5
k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft k.ft
6. Top Girder Shear

lft V12 rgt V12 lft V13 rgt V13 lft V14 rgt V14
= = = = = =
12 L12 = (2)(17.5) 20 lft +V12 13 L13 = (2)(17.5) 30 lft +V13 14 L14 = (2)(17.5) 24 lft +V14
2M lft
= = = = = =
1.75 k 1.75 k 1.17 k 1.17 k 1.46 k 1.46 k 7.75 k 7.75 k 5.17 k 5.17 k 6.46 k 6.46 k = (1.75) k = 0.58 k = 0.29 k
2M lft
2M lft
7. Bottom Girder Shear V9lft V9rgt

lft V10 rgt V10 lft V11 rgt V11
= = = = = =
12 L9 = (2)(77.5) 20 lft +V9 10 L10 = (2)(77.5) 30 lft +V10 11 L11 = (2)(77.5) 24 lft +V11
2M lft
= = = = = =
2M lft
2M lft
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression) P5 P6 P7 P8 = = = =

lft V12 rgt lft +V12 V13 = 1.75 (1.17) rgt lft +V13 V14 = 1.17 (1.46) rgt V14 = 1.46 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression) P1 P2 P3 P4 = = = = P5 + V9lft = 1.75 (7.75) rgt P6 + V10 + V9lft = 0.58 7.75 (5.17) rgt lft P7 + V11 + V10 = 0.29 5.17 (6.46) rgt P8 + V11 = 1.46 6.46 = 9.5 k = 3.16 k = 1.58 k = 7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load, we now seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 14.2.
Victor Saouma
1423
Draft
15K 30K
12 9
13 10
14
14
11 3 4
16
20
30
24
+17.5K
+35K
+35K
+17.5K
+60K
-17.5K +120K
-35K +120K
-35K +60K
-17.5K
-60K
-120K +17.5K -17.5

K
-120K +17.5K -17.5K +77.5

K
-60K
+17.5K +77.5
K
-17.5K
+77.5
-77.5K
-77.5K
-77.5K
Figure 14.20: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads
Victor Saouma
1424
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Portal Method PORTAL.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
F 3
I L1 20
PORTAL METHOD
# of Bays L2 L3 30 24 MOMENTS Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 17.5 -17.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 17.5 -17.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 17.5 -17.5AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 17.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 35.0 35.0 17.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -17.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -35.0 -35.0 -17.5 AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 77.5 -77.5AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 60.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 120.0 120.0 60.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -60.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -120.0 -120.0 -60.0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA SHEAR Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -1.75 -1.75 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA -1.17AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA -1.46AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -1.17 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -1.46 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 5.00 5.00 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 5.00 5.00 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -7.75 -7.75 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA 7.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 15.00 15.00 7.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 7.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 15.00 15.00 7.50 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AXIAL FORCE Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 1.75 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -0.58 0.29 -1.46 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA 9.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -3.17 1.58 -7.92 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
# of Storeys 2 Force Shear H Lat. Tot Ext Int H1 14 15 15 2.5 5
H2
16 30 45 7.5 15
Figure 14.21: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
1425
Draft
Portal Method
PORTAL.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A 2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA3 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA # of Bays L2 A A A A AL1 A A AA A L3 A AAAA A AAAA AAAA A A A AAAA A A A AA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A AA A A A A 3 30 A A A A A A20 A A AA A A A 24 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A MOMENTS A A A A AA A A A A A A 4 A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A2 A A A AA A A A A A 5 # of Storeys Bay 1 Bay 2 AA Bay 3 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAA A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 6 Force A Shear Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A Tot AInt A Rgt A A Rgt A Rgt 7 H Lat. A Ext Lft Lft Lft A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA 8 =-I8 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+J8+K9 =-M8 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-Q8 AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H9 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N8+O9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA A =+C9 A=2*E9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+F9*B9/2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+H9 9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+D9/(2*$F$2) AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9*B9/2 H1 14 A15 A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAA AAAA 10 =-H9 A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H10 A A AAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAA A A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H12-H10 =-I11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 11 =+K12-K10+J11 =-M11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O12-O10+N11 =-Q11 AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAA AAAA AAAA 12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA30 H2 16 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+D12/(2*$F$2) A=2*E12 A =SUM($C$9:C12) AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E12*B12/2 A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F12*B12/2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H12 A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 13 =-H12 A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K13 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H13 A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAA AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A SHEAR A A A A A A A A A A 14 A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A 15 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABay 1 Bay 2 AA Bay 3 A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 16 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 17 Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A 18 =+I18 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*M8/M$3 =+M18AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+Q18AAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*I8/I$3 AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*Q8/Q$3 AAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 19 =+E9 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+F9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A 20 =+H19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O19AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S19 AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*I11/I$3 =+I21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*Q11/Q$3 21 =-2*M11/M$3 =+M21AAAA =+Q21AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA 22 =+E12 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+F12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E12 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 23 =+H22 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K22 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O22 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S22 A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A A A AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A 24 A A A A A A A AXIAL FORCE A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A 25 Bay 1 Bay 2 AA Bay 3 A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A 26 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA 27 0 A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA 28 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-I18 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+J18-M18AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N18-Q18 AAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+R18 AAAAAA A A A A A AAAA A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA 29 0 0 0 A A A A A A AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K28+J21-M21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O28+N21-Q21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S28+R21 30 =+H28-I21 A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
1 PORTAL METHOD
Figure 14.22: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Victor Saouma
1426
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Mem. Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear Moment Axial Shear
Vert. 4.50 7.50 0.56 5.60 18.75 0.70 3.60 20.25 0.45 6.50 9.00 0.81 4.50 2.50 0.64 5.60 6.25 0.80 3.60 6.75 0.51 6.50 3.00 0.93
Hor. 60.00 9.50 7.50 120.00 15.83 15.00 120.00 14.25 15.00 60.00 7.92 7.50 17.50 1.75 2.50 35.00 2.92 5.00 35.00 2.63 5.00 17.50 1.46 2.50
Design Values 64.50 17.00 8.06 125.60 34.58 15.70 123.60 34.50 15.45 66.50 16.92 8.31 22.00 4.25 3.14 40.60 9.17 5.80 38.60 9.38 5.51 24.00 4.46 3.43
Table 14.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
14.4 Lateral Deections
1427 Mem. -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear -ve Moment +ve Moment Shear Vert. 9.00 16.00 5.00 20.20 36.00 7.50 13.0 23.00 6.00 4.50 8.00 2.50 10.10 18.00 3.75 6.50 11.50 3.00 Hor. 77.50 0.00 7.75 77.50 0.00 5.17 77.50 0.00 6.46 17.50 0.00 1.75 17.50 0.00 1.17 17.50 0.00 1.46 Design Values 86.50 16.00 12.75 97.70 36.00 12.67 90.50 23.00 12.46 22.00 8.00 4.25 27.60 18.00 4.92 24.00 11.50 4.46
Draft
10
11
12
13
14
Table 14.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
14.4
Lateral Deections
38 Even at schematic or preliminary stages of design, it is important to estimate the lateral deections of tall buildings for the following reasons
1. Lateral deections are often limited by code requirements, for example < h/500 where h is the height of the story or of the building. This is important because occupants should not experience uncomfortable horizontal movements. 2. A building that deects severly under lateral forces may have damage problems associated with vibration (as with vertical defelctions of beams). 3. Through the evaluation of deection, one may also get some idea of the relative horizontal load carried by the various vertical subsystems in a building (i.e. how much is carried by the shaft compared to the frames). Since all systems are connected, they must move together and through their stiness (deformation per unit load) we can determine the contribution of each subsystem.
14.4.1
Short Wall
39 In short structures (as with short beams), shear deections, Fig. 14.23 dominates. For a concentrated load
where for concrete and steel G 2 E. 5
1.2V h GA
(14.40)
Victor Saouma
1428
BUILDING STRUCTURES
WALL ELEVATION
Figure 14.23: Shear Deformation in a Short Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
14.4.2
40
Tall Wall
Alternatively, in a tall building exural deformations, Fig. 14.24 are predominant. dominates.
WALL (OR TUBE) ELEVATION

Figure 14.24: Flexural Deformation in a Tall Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
and the moment of inertia I =
bh3 12
for rectangular sections.
14.4.3
Walls and Lintel
41 When two slender walls are connected by (heavy) lintels, the entire subsystem can be made to act as one cantilever supported by the foundations and deections will be small. However if we have light lintels, their deformation is larger than those of the walls, Fig. 14.25.
Victor Saouma
111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000 111111111 000000000
Draft
11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000
wh4 8EI
(14.41)
1429
L
a
2 WALLS CONNECTED BY LINTELS
Figure 14.25: Deection in a Building Structure Composed of Two Slender Walls and Lintels, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) In this case deections can be estimated from: Mmax T =C = = wh2 2 M a T # of Lintels V L2 12EI (14.42-a) (14.42-b) (14.42-c) (14.42-d) (14.42-e) and h (14.43)
42
wall = lintel
14.4.4
Frames
43 Deection of a rigid frame is essentially caused by shear between stories which produces vertical shears in the girders. From the portal method we can estimate those deformations, Fig. 14.26.
44
The deformation for the rst story at the exterior joint can be approximated from col gdr totE = = = VcolE h3 12EIcolE Vgdr L2 h 2VcolE Lh2 = 12EIgdr 12EIgdr VcolE h2 2L h colE + gdr = + 12E IcolE Ig dr (14.44-a) (14.44-b) (14.44-c)
Victor Saouma
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Draft
LINTELS
LINTEL BENDING
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WALL AND LINTEL DEFORMATION
V /Lintel
1430
BUILDING STRUCTURES
h STORIES
Draft
OVERALL FRAME ELEVATION Vcol h/2 L/2 h/2 Vcol Vgdr
DUE TO GI DUE TO CO
DEFORMATION OF ONE BE
V col V gdr L/2 h/2 L/2 h/2 V INTERIOR JOINT Vgdr (L)=Vcol (h) Vgd
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM EXTERIOR JOINT V (L/2)=Vcol (h) gdr
Figure 14.26: Portal Method to Estimate Lateral Deformation in Frames, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
45
For the interior joint: col gdr totI = = = VcolI h3 12EIcolI Vgdr L2 h 2VcolI Lh2 = 12EIgdr 12EIgdr VcolI h2 L h colI + gdr = + 12E IcolI Ig dr (14.45-a) (14.45-b) (14.45-c)
and the total displacement will be tot = n tot 2 (14.46)
where n is the number of stories, and tot is for either the interior or exterior joints.
46 The two major sources of lateral deection are the bending of column in resisting horizontal shear and girders in resisting vertical shear, Fig. 14.27.
47
A vertical unsymmetric load will cause lateral deection in frames, Fig. 14.28.
14.4.5
Trussed Frame
48 The cantilever deection due to column shortening and lengthening (produced by overturning moment) is usually of secondary importance until the building is some 40 stories or higher,Fig. ??.
49
The total deection at C is given by = PPL AE (14.47)
Victor Saouma
1431
Draft
S + M
ELONGATION
SHEAR EFFECT (RACKING)
SHORTENING
MOMENT EFFECT (OVERALL BENDING)
OVERALL EFFECT (RACKING + BENDING)
Figure 14.27: Shear and Flexural Deection of a Rigid Frame Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
SIDE SWAY
Figure 14.28: Side-Sway Deection from Unsymmetrical Vertical Load, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
c H1 H2 H3 H4 P1
H a
a
T C
Figure 14.29: Axial Elongation and Shortening of a Truss Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
1432
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
where: P is the force in any member due to loading on the whole system, L is the length of the member, A and E the corresponding cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity, P the force in the same member due to a unit (1) force applied in the direction of the deection sought, and at the point in question.
50 Alternatively, we can neglect the web deformation and consider only the axial deformations in the colums:
t + c
t + c h (14.48) a Th (14.49) 2 AE
14.4.6
51
Example of Transverse Deection
Typical plan, elevation and oor section of a building are shown in Fig. 14.30. The lateral resiting
13@12=156
TOTAL M 58500 K-FT 12 TYP.
20
20
60 TRANSVERSE ELEVATION OF BUILDING 20" TYP. 40 A 20 A
TRANSVERSE ELEVATION OF CORE
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
20"
20" COLUMN SECTION
60
20
11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000

FLOOR PLAN 2.5 12" GIRDER SECTION
156
MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 14.30: Transverse Deection, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) elements are the center concrete shaft (20ft40ft in section and made up of four 12-in walls) and the reinforced-prestressed concrete frames (made up of 12in30in T beams, Igdr = 3.64 ft4 , and 20 inch square reinforced concrete columns).
52
We consider a wind load of 4.8 k/ft in the transverse direction and make the following assumptions: 1. Colums are of uniform sectional properties and height for all stories. 2. Shaft walls are of uniform thickness for all stories. We neglect wall openings. 3. The wind load is uniform over the height of the building.
53
The solution proceeds as follows: Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
Victor Saouma
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
CORE SHAFT
W=4.8 K/FT CORE
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
LOAD
5"
1433
Draft
1. Determine the exural deformation of the top of the shaft (we may neglect shear deformations since the shaft is slender): I wh4 8EI b1 d3 b2 d3 1 2 = 12 (41)(21)3 (39)(19)3 = = 9, 400 ft4 12 = 3 106 psi = 432, 000 ksf (4.8) k.ft(156)4 ft4 = 0.087 ft = 8(432, 000) ksf(9, 400) ft4 0.087 1 = = 156 1, 800 = (14.50-a) (14.50-b) (14.50-c) (14.50-d) (14.50-e) (14.50-f)
E h
The ratio is much less than 1/500 as permitted in most building codes, and s within the usual h index for concrete buildings, which ranges between 1/1,000 and 1/2,500. If the wall thickness is reduced, and if door openings are considered, the deection will be correspondingly smaller. The deection due to moment increases rapidly at the top, the value of 1/1,800 indicates only the average drift index for the entire building, whereas the story drift index may be higher, especially for the top oor. 2. We next consider the deection of the top of the frame. Assuming that each frame takes 1/9 of the total wind load and shear, and neglecting column shortening, then: Icol Igdr
ground VcolI
= = = = = =
2L h VcolE h2 + 12E IcolE Ig dr (20/12)(20/12)3 bh3 = = 0.64 ft4 12 12 3.64 ft4 (4.8) k.ft(156) ft = 41.7 k/col (2)(9) 2(60) ft (41.7) k(12)2 (12) ft + 12(432, 000) ksf (0.64) ft4 (3.46) ft4 0.00116(18.8 + 34.7) = 0.062 ft
(14.51-a) (14.51-b) (14.51-c) (14.51-d) (14.51-e) (14.51-f)
3. Since the story drift varies with the shear in the story, which decreases linearly to the top, the average drift will be 0.062/2 = 0.31 ft per story and the deection at top of the building is approximately (14.52) = (13)(0.031) = 0.40 ft which indicates a drift ratio of Drift Ratio for Building Drift Ratio for Ground Floor = = (0.4) ft 1 = 400 (156) ft (0.062) ft 1 = 194 (12) ft (14.53-a) (14.53-b)
Victor Saouma
1434
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
4. Comparing the frame deection of 0.40 ft with the shaft deection of 0.087 ft, it is seen that the frame is about ve times more exible than the shaft. Furthermore, the frame would not be sti enough to carry all the lateral load by itlself. Proportioning the lateral load to the relative stinesses, the frame would carry about 1/6 of the load, and the remaining 5/6 will be carried by the shaft. Increasing the column size will stien the frame, but in order to be really eective, the girder stiness will also need to be increased, since thegirders contribute about 2/3 of the deection. Then the frames can be made o carry a larger proportion of the load. Note that the deected shapes of the shaft and the frames are quite dierent, so that the above simple comparison of top deections is not an accurate assessment. Finally, we have not studied the eect of the shaft stiened by the exterior columns, which are rigidly connected to the shaft walls and will avt with the shaft as a unit, Fig. 14.31. This would
60 20 20 20
Figure 14.31: Frame Rigidly Connected to Shaft, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) be quite eective as the horizontal oor diaphragms will hold and force them to deect together. 5. In summary, this appears to be quite an ecient layout, further analysis would rene and optimize it.
14.4.7
Eect of Bracing Trusses
54 Through strategically located havy trusses at the top and possibly at the middle of a building we can brace the exterior columns against the core shaft. This will result in a frame-like action in the shaft,
Victor Saouma
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
CORE + +
COLUMNS PARTICIPATE
156
1435
Draft
equalize temperature shortening of vertical components, and reduce lateral deections, Fig. 14.32.
TUBE HAT FULL CANTILEVER DEFLECTION WIND HAT - TRUSS TRUSS
T TENSION COMPRESSION
CORE
WITH BRACING EFFECT
BRACING REDUCE OVERALL DEFLEC OF BUILDING
HEIGHT
MID - HEIGHT BRACE
WITH CANTILEVER CORE BENDING
TIEDOWN
TOTAL RESISTANCE ARM IS INCREASED BY COL. ACTION RESISTANCE ARM OF CORE SHAFT ONLY
DEFLECTION
Figure 14.32: Eect of Exterior Column Bracing in Buildings, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
1436
BUILDING STRUCTURES
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Bibliography
318, A. C.: n.d., Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318-83), American Concrete Institute. Anon.: xx, Envyclopaedia Brittanica, University of Chicago. Billington, D.: 1973, in D. Billington, R. Mark and J. Abel (eds), The Maillart Papers; Second National Conference on Civil Engineering: History, Heritage and the Humanities, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University. Billington, D.: 1979, Robert Maillarts Bridges; The art of Engineering, Princeton University Press. Billington, D.: 1985, The Tower and the Bridge, xx. Billington, D. and Mark, R.: 1983, Structural studies, Technical report, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University. Galilei, G.: 1974, Two New Sciences, Including Centers of Gravity and Forces of Percussion, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisc. S. Drake translation. le Duc, V.: 1977, Entretiens sur LArchitecture, Pierre Mardaga, Bruxelles, Belgique. Lin, T. and Stotesbury, S.: 1981, Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John Wiley. Nilson, A.: 1978, Design of Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley and Sons. of Steel COnstruction, A. I.: 1986, Manual of Steel Construction; Load and Resistance Factor Design, American Institute of Steel Construction. Palladio, A.: 19xx, The Four Books of Architecture, Dover Publications. Penvenuto, E.: 1991, An Introduction to the History of Structural Mechanics, Springer-Verlag. Schueller, W.: 1996, The design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall. Timoshenko, S.: 1982, History of Strength of Materials, Dover Publications. UBC: 1995, Uniform building code, Technical report, International COnference of Building Ocials. Vitruvius: 1960, The Ten Books on Architecture, Dover.

Architecture Structure Concepts For Architects

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architecture Structure Concepts For Architects

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Draft

AREN4525 STUCTURAL CONCEPTS AND SYSTEMS FOR ARCHITECTS

VICTOR E. SAOUMA SPRING 1997

-Pier Luigi Nervi

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310 1311 1312 1314

. 1429 . 1430 . 1431 . 1431 . 1431 . 1432 . 1434 . 1435

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Science and Technology

Structures and their Surroundings

Architecture & Engineering

Architecture must be the product of a creative collaboration of architects and engineers.

Architectural Design Process

Architectural design is hierarchical:

Architectural design must respect various constraints:

1.7 Structural Analysis

Buildings may have dierent functions:

Given a set of forces, dimension the structural element.

In summary, analysis is always required.

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Structures can be classied as follows:

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

1.10 Structure Types

Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

1.10 Structure Types

is applicable only for shallow

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Congurations

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

1.10 Structure Types

OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM

SUSPENDED CABLE SUPPORTED BEAM

CABLE-SUPPORTED STRUTED ARCH OR CABLE BEAM/TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED MULTI-STRUT BEAM OR TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME

CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME

1.10 Structure Types

Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Engineering Courses

Approach Emphasis Analysis Structures Design

Architects Global Structure Approximate, rules of thumbs preliminary Most Approximate

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM

w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN

ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD TYPICAL SYSTEM OF JOISTS

Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

2.2 Vertical Loads

lb/ft2 1 1 2-10 12 1 4 1-5 6 3 9-14 3 2 17 40 14 2 10 5 40 120 30 55 80 21 38 55

Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials