Temperature Measurement

DBIT Pvt.
circulation
Notes by Prof.S.P.Sabnis
1
Temperature measurement
To most people, temperature is an intuitive concept which tells whether a
body is hot or cold. In second law of thermodynamics temperature is
related to heat, as it is observed in nature that heat flows only from high
temperature to low temperature.
In kinetic theory of gases and statistical thermodynamics it is shown that
temperature is related to average kinetic energy of the molecules of an
ideal gas. A further extensions of statistical thermodynamics show the
relationship between temperature and energy level in liquids and solids.
Temperature is a fundamental quantity, similar to mass, length and time.
However unlike other quantities direct comparison with standards is not
possible in case of temperature,
The law that is used in temperature measurement is known as the Zeroth
law of thermodynamics. This states, if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then they are all in thermal equilibrium with
each other. In other words the three bodies have the same temperature.
It is therefore required to have a third body (a Thermometer) which can be
confirmed to have a thermal equilibrium with other two bodies then the two
bodies can be said to have same temperature.
Since direct comparison of temperature with a standard is not possible it is
difficult to establish a scale of temperature as a standard for comparison
with the same. A theoretical scale was proposed by Lord Kelvin on the
basis of second law of thermodynamics and concept of an ideal reversible
Carnot cycle. The reversible heat engine working on Carnot cycle takes
an amount of heat Q
2
from a reservoir of infinite capacity at temperature
T
2
and supplies an amount of heat Q
1
to another reservoir at temperature
T
1
according to relation
Q
2
= T
2
Q
1
T
1

Kelvins thermodynamic scale is absolute in the sense that it is
independent of any material properties. But it is not realisable because of
its dependence on an ideal cycle. Fortunately, it can be shown that
temperature scales based on constant volume or constant pressure gas
thermometer using an ideal gas is identical to the thermodynamic scale.
DBIT Pvt. circulation
2
International Temperature Scale 1990 (ITS-90)
It should be noted that Ideal gas is a theoretical concept and in practice the
Ideal gas thermometers have shortcomings. According to ideal gas therory
1. Gas molecules are point masses, occupying no space
2. Collisions between them are elastic
3. No intermolecular force acts between them.
Unfortunately no real gas satisfies the above description. For all practical
purposes, temperature measurement by gas thermometers is cumbersome.
Therefore an International practical temperature scale (IPTS) is defined at
which thermal transducers can be calibrated. (in 1927 for the first time)
3
The latest standard ITS-90 defines a number of fixed reference
temperature points as shown in the table. Between these fixed points,
elaborate interpolation equation are specified by ITS-90for use with
various interpolation standards.
From 0.65 K to 5.0 K standard is based on measurement of vapour
pressure of helium and use of equation relating vapour pressure with
temperature
3.0 K to 24.5561 K (Triple point of neon) a constant volume helium gas
thermometer is used.
Over a broad range of 13.8033 K (triple point of hydrogen) to the normal
freezing point of silver (1234.95 K) the standard is defined by means of a
platinum resistance as a function of temperature. Elaborate process of
calibration at several fixed point temperatures for platinum resistance
thermometer to cover various sub ranges is provided by the standard.
Finally above the melting point of silver, temperatures are determined by
measurement of the thermal radiation emitted by a black body cavity in
vacuum and the plank radiation law.

The radiant energy is typically measured by optical pyrometry. The
unknown temperature is then calibrated by comparing the emission of a
source at the unknown temperature to that from a source at the reference
temperature.
4
Temperature scales
Two temperature scales which are in common use are Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales. These are based on freezing point and boiling point of
water at standard atmospheric pressure. The Celsius scale has 100 units
between these points and Fahrenheit scale has 180 points. They are
related by equation

The absolute temperature scales based on the thermodynamic ideal
Carnot cycle has been correlated with Celsius and Fahrenheit scales as
follows

The zero points on both the absolute scales represent the same physical
state and the ratio of two values is the same regardless of which absolute
scale is used i.e.

Freezing point and boiling point of water at a pressure of std one
atmosphere (101.3 kN/m
2
) are taken as 0
o
and 100
o
on Celsius scale and
32
o
and 212
o
on the Fahrenheit scale.
The relation ship between Rankine and Kelvin scale is as follows.
5
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by
observing the effect that temperature variation causes on the
measuring device. The temperature measurement methods are
broadly classified as
1. Non electrical methods
2. Electrical methods
3. Radiation methods

Non electrical methods are based on one of the following principles
1. Change in Physical state - Temp. at which a pure substance change
their physical state are used for calibration of temperature scales but
these devices give one particular value of unique temperature and
hence are not suitable for measurement of temperatures over a range.
2. Change in Chemical properties For using the substances which
change chemical properties, we have to look for a reversible process
in order to have a repeatable/reproducible scale with respect to
change in temp. However such processes are very few in number
3. Change in physical properties Most non electrical methods are
based on change in physical properties e.g. thermal expansion. Since
these devices have no electrical connections they can be used in
explosion risk areas such as petrol storage tanks.
e.g. Bimetallic thermometers, Liquid in glass thermometers, Pressure
thermometer mercury in steel, constant volume inert gas
thermometer, vapour pressure thermometer.
Electrical Methods are mainly of two types.
1. Thermo resistive variable resistance transducers e.g. mettalic
resistance, semiconductor (thermistor)
2. Thermo electric type emf generating type. E.g. thermocouples, solid
state temp. sensors, Quartz thermometer
Radiation methods (Pyrometry)
1. Total radiation pyrometer
2. Selective radiation pyrometer
6
Bimetallic Thermometer
This type of thermometer employs the principle of solid expansion and
consist of a bimetal strip usually in the form of a cantilever beam. This
comprises strips of two metals, having different coefficients of thermal
expansion, welded or riveted together so that relative motion between
them is prevented. An increase in temperature causes the deflection of
the free end of strip.

When a bimetal strip is formed by firmly bonding two metal strips A & B
having different thermal coefficient of expansion o
a
& o
b
. If this bimetal
strip is a straight line at temperature T
1
, then at elevated temperature T
2

the strip will form a uniform circular arc of radius of curvature r such that

Where t is the thickness of the strip

Different forms of bimetal such as
cantilever, U-Tube, spiral etc. are
used

7
The deflection with temperature is nearly linear, depending mainly on coeff. of
linear expansion. Invar is generally used as the low expansion metal. This is an
iron / nickel (36%) alloy. Its coefficient of expansion is around 1/20
th
of ordinary
metals (nearly zero). Brass is used as high expansion metal for measurement
of low temperatures, whereas nickel alloys are used when high temperatures
are to be measured.

A plain bimetallic strip has less sensitivity, however the sensitivity can be
improved by using a longer strip in a helical form as shown above. One end of
helix is anchored to the casing and the other end which is free is connected to
the pointer which sweeps over a circular dial graduated in degrees of
temperature. A long stem can be provided between pointer and the free end of
bimetal element so that, the element enclosed in protective sheath, can be
submerged in the hot area and dial and pointer can be located at safe distance.
Bimetallic thermometers are usually employed in the range of -30 to 550
o
C,
with inaccuracies of the order of +0.5 to +1% of FSD in highly accurate
thermometers. In addition to temperature indication, they are also used in
application for combined sensing and control purpose. Control action is usually
on-off type (thermostats), where the strip has sufficient force to actuate a control
switch in electric ovens, irons and refrigerators. These can also be used as
compensating element for ambient temperature is pressure thermometers,
aneroid barometers and watches.
The bimetallic strip has advantage of being self-generating type instrument
with low cost, practically no maintenance expenses and stable operation over
extended period of time. Main disadvantage is its inability to measure rapidly
changing temperatures due to relatively high thermal inertia.
8
Liquid in glass Thermometers
The liquid in glass thermometer is one of the most common temperature
measuring devices. Both liquid and glass expand on heating and their
differential expansion is used to indicate the temperature. The lower limit for
mercury is -37.8
o
C while -130
o
C for pentane. The higher temperature range is
340
o
C (boiling point of mercury is 357
o
C) This may be extended to 560
o
C by
filling the space above mercury with CO
2
or N
2
at high pressure to increase
the boiling point and the range.

The precision of these thermometers depend on the care used in
calibration. The calibration should also be checked regularly to take into
account aging effects. Accuracy of these thermometers does not exceed
0.1
o
C. However when increased accuracy is required Beckmann range
thermometer can be used. It has big bulb attached to a very fine capillary. The
range of this thermometer is limited to 5-6
o
C with an accuracy of 0.005
o
C

Liquid in glass thermometers have qualities like low cost, simplicity in use
portability and convenient visual indication without use of any external
power. However their use is limited to laboratory applications.

It is not preferred in industrial applications because of its fragility and its
adaptability to remote indication. Also it introduces a time lag in dynamic
measurements due to thermal inertia of the bulb.
9
Filled System Thermometers (Filled Thermometers)
Filled system thermometer works on pressure or volume change of a fluid,
gas or changes in vapour pressure of a liquid. It consists of four parts
1. Bulb
2. Capillary Tube
3. Pressure or volume sensitive element
4. Indicating Device.

The capillary tube connects the bulb containing a fluid that is sensitive to
temperature changes to the element that is sensitive to pressure or volume
changes. The pressure sensitive or volume sensitive element may be a
Bourdon tube, a helix of bourbon tube, a diaphragm or bellows.

The gas filled systems are sometimes called gas thermometers or pressure .
thermometers.

10
Operating principle
The volume expansion of a liquid is given by the equation

Where V
T
and V
o
are the volumes of the liquid at temperatures T and 0
o
C
respectively. and is the coefficient of volume expansion.
The bulb which contains the liquid also expands or contracts with the
variation of temperature. Those these expansion / contraction are much
smaller than those of the liquids, they introduce some degree on non linearity
in the relation.

For the gas filled system, Boyles law is guiding principle. Hence

In this case the absolute (Kelvin) temperature will show linear relationship
with the pressure. The non linearity introduced by volume change of bulb
with temperature is negligible.
Classification of filled system thermometers is made by SAMA
(Scientific Apparatus Makers Association, USA. Into four classes as per
the table below.

11
Class I (Liquid filled thermometers Other than mercury)
The liquids generally used in these thermometers are alcohol, pentane and
toluene. The minimum temperature that can be measured by such system
depends on the freezing point of the organic liquid used. This lies usually
between -200
o
C and -75
o
C depending on the liquid used.
The maximum temperature depends, not only on the boiling points of
liquids but also on the linearity of their volume expansion at higher temperatures.
For organic liquids usually 300
o
C is the upper limit.
Class V (Mercury or Mercury-Thallium eutectic amalgam filled)
The mercury in steel thermometer has a near linear characteristic. Sufficient
power is available to operate a recording pen if required. The range of operation
is from -38
o
C to 650
o
C
Class II Vapour Filled Thermometer (vapour pressure thermometer)
The system in the vapour pressure thermometer is partly filled with liquid and
partly with vapour of the same liquid, so that there is a liquid vapour interface in
the bulb. The liquid vapour system does not have any error as long as a free
liquid surface exists in the sensing bulb, since such system follows Daltons law
of partial pressure which states that if both liquid and vapour are present, there
is only one saturation pressure corresponding to the given temperature. The
general usefulness of this thermometer is restricted due to limited number of
liquids providing suitable saturation vapour pressure ranges. Commonly used
liquids are ethane, ethyl alcohol, ethyl chloride, methyl chloride, chlorobenzene.
toluene, pentane etc. Scale range is of the order of 100
o
C and accuracy up to
+1%. The pressure is roughly logarithmic function of temperature
log P = a b/T
Thus the scale is non linear.

Class III Gas Filled Thermometer (Constant volume thermometer)
This uses an inert gas (usually N
2
), the principle of working is pressure of the
gas increases as temperature is increased while operating at constant volume.
In reality the volumes of bulb, capillary and Bourdon tube increase with pressure
and temperature increase.
Operating range -130
o
C to 540
o
C mostly linear and accuracy of the order of +1%
at lower range and +2% above 300
o
C

12
In full compensation both Bourdon tube and Capillary are covered. The full
compensation is necessary if the capillary length is greater than 3 m.
Despite compensation, to obtain sufficiently accurate data from such
arrangements, the volume of the temperature sensing bulb has to be
sufficiently larger than the Bourdon tube.
Another potential cause of error is the change in pressure head which is
introduced by change in relative levels of the bulb and display. If the bulb is
raised by height h there is an increase in pressure equal to gh. This error is
constant for specific setup and may be removed by means of zero adjustment.
Errors in measurement with filled systems :
The filled system thermometers are vulnerable to errors arising out of the
differential expansion of fluid contained in the bulb and also in the capillary
tube
and the Bourdon tube, which are subjected to ambient temperatures. These
errors are minimised through case compensation and full compensation
methods.

In case compensation only
the error arising out of the
differential expansion of the
Fluid in the Bourdon tube is
Compensated for.
13
14
Temperature measurement using change
in electrical properties
Electrical methods in general are preferred for the measurement of
temperature as they furnish a signal which can be easily detected, amplified
or used for control purposes
The two main electrical methods are
Thermo resistive i.e. variable resistance transducer
Thermo electric i.e. emf generating transducers
Electric Resistance Thermometers
In resistance thermometers, the change
in resistance of various materials, which
varies in reproducible manner with
temperature, forms the basis of this
technique. The material in actual use
Fall in two classes namely, conductors
(metals) and semiconductors.

In general, the resistance of the highly
conducting materials (metals) increases
With increase in temperature. Whereas
The resistance of semiconductor materials
generally (not always) decreases with
increase in temperature. These are called
negative temperature characteristic (NTC)
Thermistors.

The fig shows typical variation of specific resistance of the metals (e.g.
Platinum) and the NTC Thermistor.
15
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) Metallic resistance
thermometers are commonly known as RTD. The relation between electrical
resistance of a metal RT and the correspondingtemperature T is generally
given as
R
T
= R
o
(1 + C
1
T + C
2
T
2
+ .. + C
n
T
n
)
Where the Cs are constants and R
o
is the resistance at temperature T =0
o
C

Although the above relationship is non linear it can be seen from the fig that
the curve is nearly linear for Copper and Platinum over a long range.

The copper being easily susceptible to chemical reactions in process industry
platinum is preferred for the RTDs. The platinum resistance thermometers are
also referred as PRT, hence the terms RTD and PRT are used interchangeably.
Platinum is very widely used sensor and its operating range is from 4 K to
1064
o
C. Because it provides extremely reproducible output, it is used in
establishing International Practical Temperature Scale from 13.8K to 961.93
o
C.
RTDs are very suitable for both laboratory and industrial applications because of
high degree of accuracy as well as long term stability, wide operating range and
linear characteristics. Limitations are low sensitivity, higher cost compared to
other sensors and errors due to contact resistance, shock & accelerations.
16
Construction :- Metallic resistance Thermometers (RTDs) are constructed
in many forms , but the temperature sensitive element is usually in the form
of a coil or fine wire supported in stress free manner. A typical construction is
shown below.

The wire of metal is wound on a grooved ceramic former and is
covered with protective cement. The ends of the coils are welded to stiff
copper leads that are taken out, to be connected in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit. Most of the times there is a protective metal sheath above the
cemented portion to provide rigidity and mechanical strength.
Alternatively RTD sensors may be fabricated by depositing thin films of
platinum, nickel or copper on a ceramic substrate. These thin film sensors
have the advantage of extremely low mass and consequently more rapid
thermal response.
Platinum, in spite of its low sensitivity and high cost compared to
nickel and copper, is the most widely used material for RTDs because of
following
1. The temperature resistance characteristics of pure platinum are well
defined and stable over a wide range of temperatures
2. It has high resistance to chemical attack and contamination.
3. It has very good accuracy and reproducibility. +0.01
o
C upto 500
o
C and
+0.1
o
C up to 1200
o
C.
The variation of resistance of sensing element is normally measured using
some form of electrical bridge circuit which may employ either deflection mode
or null mode of operations. Lead length and their resistance are sometimes
critical hence should be kept to minimum. In addition some modifications may
be required for lead compensation. It is also essential that thermoelectric emfs
do not affect the system and hence techniques like ac excitation or manually
varying dc polarity are used.
17
Cable Compensation arrangements for RTD:- One of the primary sources
of error in the electrical resistance thermometer is the effect of the resistance
of the leads which connect the element to the bridge circuit. Some of the
arrangements that may be used to correct for this effect are shown in the fig.
above. The Siemens three lead arrangement is the simplest type. At balance
condition the central lead carries no current and the effect of resistance of the
other two leads is cancelled out. The Callenders four lead arrangement solves
the problem by inserting two additional lead wires in the adjustable leg of the
bridge so that the effect of the lead wires on the resistance thermometer is
cancelled out.

Practical Problems with RTDs: are due to lead error and relatively bulky size
which is sometimes the reason for poor transient response and conduction error.
RTD also has a relatively fragile construction. As current has to be fed to the
RTD for bridge measurement, there is the possibility of self heating (=i
2
R) which
may alter the temperature of the element. This is especially prominent in air
temperature measurement where self heating effect is more prominent.
18
Semiconductor Resistance Sensors (Thermistors)
Thermistor (shortform of thermal resistor) is a thermally sensitive variable
resistor made of ceramic like semi conducting material. They are available in a
greater variety of shapes and sizes having cold resistance ranging from a few
ohms to mega ohms. The size range can range from extremely small bead, a
thin disc, thin chip of wafer to a large sized rod as shown in fig. Most thermistors
unlike metals respond negatively to temperature and their coefficient of
resistance is of the order of 10 times higher than of platinum and copper.

If AR is the change in resistance corresponding to a temperature change of
AT, approximately they are related as
AR=o
T
AT
Where o
T
is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Thermisters can be
divided into two categories depending on whether o
T
is positive or negative.
Those with positive temperature coeff. are called PTC and those with negative
temperature coeff. are called NTC thermistors. Thermistors are tiny or small in
size and have a small temperature range with a high response and sensitivity,
hence they are quite different from RTDs.

Thermistors are fabricated from the semiconducting materials which
include the oxides of copper, manganese, nickel, cobalt, lithium and titanium.
These are blended in a suitable proportion and compressed into desired shape
from powders and recrystalised them to form a dense ceramic body with
required characteristics.
19
Positive temperature coefficient thermistors (PTC) : The commercial PTCs
are of two major categories. The first category is of thermally sensitive silicon
resistors (also known as silisters). They exhibit fairly uniform positive temp.
coeff. (about +0.77%/
o
C) over most of their operating range but may exhibit
negative coeff. at temperatures above 150
o
C. These devices are used for
temperature compensation of silicon semiconducting devices in the range of
66
o
C to +150
o
C
The other category of PTC are made up of doped polycrystalline ceramic
Materials. These devices have a resistance-temperature characteristics that
exhibits a very small negative temp coeff until the device reaches a critical
temperature Tc, referred as Curie temperature. Below Curie point, it shows a
low resistance and a small negative temp coeff.. At curie point the resistance
increases sharply.

Other group of PTC
thermistors are made
with polymers and
carbon.grains. They are
called polyswitch, They
also exhibit similar sharp
rise in resistance with
Increase in temperature.

Thus the PTC type thermistors are mostly used for switching in temperature
controllers rather than proportional temperature measurement.

Negative temperature coefficient thermistors (NTC) : Owing to their larger
resistance change with temperature, NTC devices are usually more suitable
for precision temperature measurement, even though the relevant
characteristic curve is non linear.
20
Construction: Oxides of Manganese, nickel or cobalt are milled & mixed in
proper proportion with binders, pressed into desired shapes and then sintered
to form thermistors in the form of rods, discs, flakes or beads.

Lastly, the wire leads are attached, and the combination is coated with
glass or epoxy. This coating provides mechanical strength and electrical
Insulation thereby reducing signal noise. The thermistor element and the
connecting wires along with the glass insulation are put inside a metal sheath
to form a thermistor probe as shown below.

By varying the mixture of oxides, it is possible to produce thermistors having
range of resistances from 30O to 20MO (at 25
o
C). Speed of response is faster
in case of small thermistors. Beads are made as small as 0.3mm to 2mm.

21
Thermistor resistances are usually specified at room temperature (i..e. 25
o
C).
The resistances of commercially available thermistors are usually 2252 ohms,
5000 ohms and 10000ohms. The standard temperature ranges are -55
o
C to
150
o
C. Longer range -100
o
C to 400
o
C are also available.

No special leads are required to connect thermistors because the device
operates at very high resistance compared to leads. Another aspect which has
to be considered is that the source of error is the temperature rise caused by self
heating.
Thermistors have following advantages for temperature measurement,
1. A large temperature coeff. Which makes thermistor extremely sensitive
device, thus measuring accuracy up to +0.01
o
C is achievable.
2. Ability to withstand electrical and mechanical stresses
3. Fairly good operating range -100
o
C to 300
o
C
4. Low cost and easy adaptability to the available resistance bridge circuit.
5. High sensitivity and availability in extremely small size (size of pin head)
enable fast speed of thermal response.
6. They are very useful for dynamic measurements.
Disadvantages
1. Highly non linear resistance-temperature characteristics and
2. Problems of self heating which necessitate the use of much lower
current compared to metallic sensors.
22
Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
The most common method of measuring and controlling temperature uses
thermocouple. A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors that are
made of dissimilar metals and have at least one electrical connection. This
electrical connection is referred to as a junction.
A thermocouple junction can be created by welding, soldering, or by any
other method that provides good electrical contact between the two
conductors, such as twisting the wires around one another.
The output of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage, and there is a definite
relationship between the voltage and the temperatures of the junctions that
constitute the circuit.
Thermoelectricity

Consider the basic thermocouple circuit shown above. The junction 1 is at
temperature T
1
and the junction 2 is at temperature T
2
. If T
1
and T
2
are not
equal, a finite open circuit potential, (emf
1
), will be measured. The
magnitude of potential difference will depend on the difference in the
temperatures and the particular metals that form the thermocouple
junctions.
Thus the open circuit emf in the circuit is the basis for temperature
measurement. In the above circuit emf will measure the difference between
T
1
and T
2
.
Thermoelectric phenomena is a result of simultaneous flow of heat and
electricity in an electrical conductor. In an electrical conductor subject to
temperature gradient, there will be both flow of thermal energy and electricity.
Both these phenomena are closely linked with free electrons in metal. The
behavior of the free electrons in an electrical circuit composed of dissimilar
metals results in useful relationship between temperature & emf. There are
three basic phenomena that can occur in the thermocouple circuit.
23
There are three basic phenomena that can occur in thermocouple circuit
(1) The Seebeck effect
(2) The Peltier effect
(3) The Thomson effect.

The Seebeck Effect : refers to the generation of an emf in an open
thermocouple circuit caused by a difference in temperature between junctions in
the circuit. The Seebeck emf can be measured when there is no current flow in
the circuit. Micro-voltmeter of very high input impedance may be included in the
circuit to measure the resulting emf. There is a fixed reproducible relationship
between the emf and the junction temperatures T
1
and T
2.
This relation ship is
expressed by the Seebeck coefficient, o
AB
defined as

For any pair of materials, the relative Seebeck emf can be measured and
tabulated as a function of temperature.
The Peltier Effect: If a current flows through
a thermocouple, heat is absorbed at one
junction and liberated at other. Unlike Joule
heating (i
2
R) which liberates heat irrespective
of the direction of current flow, the reversal of
current direction in thermocouple circuit will
result into reversal of heat absorption and rejection ends in the circuit.

}
=
2
1
T
T
AB
dT o c
( )
1 2
T T
AB
= o c
24
The Peltier effect is due to the thermodynamically reversible conservation
of energy as current flows across the junction, in contrast to the
irreversible dissipation of energy associated with i
2
R losses.
The Peltier heat is the quantity of heat in addition to the quantity i
2
R that
must be removed from the junction to maintain the junction at a constant
temperature. This amount of energy is proportional to the current flowing
through the junction. The proportionality constant is the Peltier coefficient
t
AB
and the heat transfer required to maintain a constant temperature is
Q
t
= t
AB
.i
caused by Peltier effect alone. This principle is used in thermoelectric
refrigerator which works without any moving parts.

The Thomson Effect : In addition to the
Seebeck effect & Peltier effect, there is a
third phenomenon that occurs in
thermoelectric circuits. Consider a
Conductor as shown in the figure which
Is subjected to a longitudinal temperature
Gradient and also a potential difference,
Such that there is a flow of current and
Heat in the conductor. To maintain a
Constant temperature in the conductor it is
found that quantity of energy different
than i
2
R must be removed from the conductor.
This energy is expressed in terms of the Thomson Coefficient o as follows

Q
o
= o i (T
1
-T
2.
)

It may be experimentally observed that if current
is allowed to flow through a conductor maintained
in a temperature Gradient (ref. fig.), left half side
becomes cooler than the right half. This is called the
positive Thomson effect. For Cadmium, antimony,
silver and zinc exactly reverse happened which is
called the negative Thomson effect.

For a thermocouple circuit, all three effects may
be present and may contributte to the overall emf
of the circuit.
25
Thermo-emf measurement
The magnitude of the thermo emf depends on the materials and the
temperature difference between the junctions.
The process converts heat energy to electrical energy and the
conversion is reversible.
Measurement of thermo emf is linked to temperature measurement
unless the current flow within thermocouple is inhibited. Because if the
currrent is allowed to flow, it will change the temperature of the junction
(by Peltier effect)

Thermocouple laws
The behavior of thermocouples can be summarised into two laws.
(1) Law of intermediate temperatures
(2) Law of intermediate metals

Law of intermediate temperatures : If a thermocouple is made of two metals
A & B, then
(1) If the junctions of the thermocouple are maintained at temperatures T
1

and T
2.
, then it will produce the same emf whatever be the value of the
temperatures at other parts of the thermocouple.
(2) If E
12
is the emf generated for junctions at T
1
and T
2.
, E
23
is that for
Junctions at T
2
and T
3.
then the emf E
13
for junctions at T
1
and T
3
is
E
12
+ E
23

The law allows a thermocouple calibrated for one reference temperature to be
used with another reference temperature.
26
Law of intermediate Metals : If a thermocouple junctions are maintained at
T
1
and T
2.
, then this law has the following implications.
1) If we have a thermocouple AB made up of metals (1) & (2) and another
thermocouple also made up of metals (1) & (2) but another metal (3) is
incorporated somewhere in between, then the net emf will be same in
both the cases

2) If E
AC
is the emf generated by the thermocouple AC and E
BC
is that by
the thermocouple BC then the emf E
AB
generated by the thermocouple
AB will be E
AC
+ E
BC
(= E
AB
)

In the following circuit the measured emf will be same as the open circuit emf,
which corresponds to temperatures T1 & T2 as long as the temperatures of
junctions AC & BC are same such as in the case of terminal box of the
thermocouple from where copper wires are taken to voltmeter.

Thus copper wires or the copper terminals in the terminal box are like the
material C shown above but that will not alter the emf generated by
thermocouple AB. Hence copper extension wires can be used to transmit
thermocouple emf as long as all terminals and wires are at same temperature.

27
The basic thermocouple circuit
shown above can be used
to measure the difference
between the two temperatures
T
1
and T
2
. For practical
Temperature measurements,
One of these junctions becomes
a reference junction and is
maintained at some known constant temperature reference point (such as ice
bath shown). The other junction then becomes the measuring junction.
It may be noted that extension wires are needed when the measuring
instrument is to be placed at a considerable distance from the reference
junction. Maximum accuracy is obtained when the leads are of the same
material as the thermocouple element as shown in fig.
However this approach is not economical while using the expensive
Thermocouple materials. Further a small inaccuracy is still possible if the binding
post of the instrument is made of say copper and the two binding posts are at
different temperature. Therefore it is preferable to employ the system shown in
fig below to keep the copper iron and copper constantan junctions in the
thermos flask at 0
o
C and provide binding posts of copper this ensures
maximum accuracy in the thermocouple operation. The law of intermediate
materials ensures that neither the potentiometer nor the lead wires will change
emf in the circuit., as long as the connecting junctions are at same temperature.
28
To be able to measure temperature with this circuit it is necessary to know
the relationship between the output emf and the temperature of the measuring
Junction, for the specific reference temperature.
One method of determining the relationship is to calibrate the thermocouple.
However for reasonable level of uncertainty for temperature measurement,
standard materials and procedures allow thermocouples to be accurate devices,
without the necessity of calibration.

As illustrated earlier, a very common reference junction temperature is
provided by ice point, 0
o
C, which is created by filling a vacuum flask, or Dewar
flask. With finely crushed ice and adding a small quantity of water.

Electronic reference junctions provide a convenient means of the
measurement of measurement of temperature without the necessity to construct
an ice bath. Numerous manufacturers produce commercial temperature
measuring device with built in reference junction compensation. Electronics
generally rely on a thermistor to determine the local ambient temperature.

Thermocouple materials : The choice of materials for thermocouples is
governed by following factors
(1) ability to withstand the temperature at which they are used
(2) Immunity from contamination / oxidation etc. which ensures maintenance of
the precise thermo electric properties with continuous use and
(3) Linearity characteristics
It may be noted that the relectionship between thermo electric emf and the
difference between hot and cold junction temperatures is approximately of the
parabolic form
E = aT = bT
2

29
Thermocouples are broadly classified as
1. Base metal thermocouples &
2. Rear metal thermocouples.

Base metal thermocouples use combination of pure metals and alloys of iron,
copper and nickel and are used for temperature up to 1450 K. These are most
commonly used in practice as they are more sensitive cheaper and have nearly
linear characteristics.
Their main limitation is the lower operating range because of their low melting
point and vulnerability to oxidation.

Rare metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metals and alloys of
platinum for temperatures up to 1600
o
C and Tungsten, Rhodium and
Molybdenum for temperatures up tp 3000
o
C

Thermopile : For special purposes where high sensitivity is needed,
thermocouple may be attached in series. The out put is then the numerical
sum of the voltages expected from each single thermocouple. This
combination is known as thermopile.

When connected in parallel, a group of thermocouples will give a reading
that is numerical average of the individual once provided the resistance of
each individual thermocouple is the same.
30
Typical thermocouples with their temperature ranges and other salient
operating characteristics are given in the table below.

NIST provides specifications for materials and construction of standard
thermocouple circuits for measurements. Many material combinations exist
for thermocouple, these are identified by thermocouple type and denoted
by letters E , J,K,S,T. For each standard thermocouple charts of
temperature and emf are available with reference junction at 0
o
C.

31
Type Material Combination Application
Positive (+) Negative (-)
E Chromel Constantan Highest
sensitivity
(<1000
o
C)
J Iron Constantan Non oxidising
environment
(<760
o
C)
K Chromel Alumel High
temperature
(<1372
o
C)
S Platinum +10%
Rhodium
Platinum Long term
stability ,High
temperature
(<1768
o
C)

T Copper Constantan Reducing or
vacuum
environments
(<400
o
C)
32
The measurement of temperature through the detection of thermal
radiation presents some unique advantages. All the temperature measuring
devices viz. filled system thermometers, thermister or thermocouples require the
measuring sensor to be brought in physical contact with the body whose
temperature is to be measured. This means that the sensor must be capable of
withstanding this temperature. In the case of very hot bodies, the thermometer
may melt at high temperature.
Secondly for bodies that are moving, a non contacting device for
measuring temperature is more convenient. Thirdly if estimation of temperature
over the surface of an object is required then a non contact type device can
readily scan the surface.

For temperatures above 650
o
C, the heat radiations emitted from the
body are of sufficient intensity to be used for measuring temperature. The sensor
of thermal radiation need not be in contact with the surface to be measured,
which makes this method attractive for a wide variety of applications.

Instruments that employ radiation principles fall into three general classes
(a) Total radiation pyrometer
(b) Selective (Partial) radiation pyrometer
(c) Infrared (IR) pyrometer

The first one is sensitive to all radiation that enters the instrument while second
one is sensitive to only a particular wavelength. IR pyrometer employ only the
infrared portion of the spectrum for measurement.

Radiative Temperature Measurements
33
Radiation Fundamentals
Radiation refers to electromagnetic waves from the surface of an object.
The radiation has characteristic of both waves and particles i.e. the radiation
is composed of photons. Photons usually travel in straight line from point of
emission to another surface where they may get absorbed, reflected or
transmitted. Radiation exists over a large range of wavelengths that
includes x-rays, Ultra violet radiation, visible light and thermal radiation.
The thermal radiation emitted from an object is related to its temperature. It
has wavelengths ranging from 10
-7
to 10
-3
m
Radiation emitted by an object is proportional to 4
th
power of temperature.
E
b
=oT
4

Where E
b
is the flux of energy radiating from an ideal surface or the black body
emissive power. For any non black finite surface, the radiant energy received by
body B from body A is given by
E
A/B
= Cco [T
A
4
- T
B
4
] {W/m
2
}

Where c is shape factor of B relative to A
c is emissivity of the body B &
o Is the Stefan Botzmann constant = 56.7x10
-12
[kW/m
2
.K]

The emissive power is a direct measure of the total radiation emitted by an
object. However it is emitted over a range of wavelengths. At any temperature
the distribution of energy emitted as a function of wavelength is unique. Total
emissive power at given wavelength is given by Planks law.
E
b
= . 2t h
p
c
2

5
[ exp(h
p
c/k
B
T) -1]
Where is wavelength,
c is speed of light,
h
p
is planks constant = 6.6256x10
-34
Js
K
B
is Boltzmanns constant =1.3805x10
-23
j/K
34
35
36
Total Radiation Pyrometer
The total radiation pyrometer receives a controlled sample of total radiation
of a hot body (say a furnace) and focuses it on a temperature sensitive
transducer. The term total radiation includes both visible (light) and invisible
(infrared) radiations.
Wavelength of light in the visible range is 0.3 to 0.72 m, whereas infrared
radiations are associated with relatively large wavelengths of 0.72 to 1000
m. They require special optical material for focusing. As ordinary glass
absorbs infrared radiation it is unsuitable.

Above fig shows a schematic diagram of Ferys total radiation pyrometer. It
consists of blackened tube T open at one end to receive the radiations from the
object, temperature of which is to be measured. The other end of tube has a
sighting aperture in which an adjustable eyepiece is usually fitted. The thermal
radiation impinge on the concave mirror. Its position can be adjusted suitably by
a rack and pinion arrangement to get proper focusing of the thermal radiation on
the detector disc S. The detector disc is made up off blackened platinum sheet
and is connected to a thermocouple / thermopile junctions or to a resistance
thermometer bridge circuit.
The energy received by pyrometer is given by Stefan Boltzmann law as
follows

Where E
A/B
is energy received by the pyrometer in W/m
2

C is shape factor of B relative to A
c is emissivity of the body B &
o Is the Stefan Botzmann constant = 56.7x10
-12
[kW/m
2
.K].
T
A

& T
B

are steady state absolute temperature of the source and detector disc

E
A/B
=C c o ( T
A
4
-T
B
4
)
37
These pyrometers are usually calibrated against known temperatures in
the range of 700 to 2000
o
C, where thermocouples and resistance thermometers
cannot be employed.

Errors in measurement arise from two sources in actual use
1. Any filtering material such as smoke, dust, gases, etc which were
not present during calibration will reduce the energy received and
cause error.
2. Error may be caused due to surface having changed emissivity after
calibration due to oxidation etc.
To reduce such uncertainties, pyrometers are calibrated from time to time in
actual use.

In view of the errors due to filtering and emissivity, the total radiation pyrometer
is not very accurate temperature indicator. However it can be used to good
advantage in fixed locations where emissivity and optical paths are well known
and constant. A typical use is a large furnace in metal industries.

The advantage is that the signal is electrical and therefore can be used for
control applications.

The principle of this instrument is based on Planks law which states that
the energy level in the radiations from hot body are distributed in different
wavelengths. As the temperature increases the emissive power shifts to shorter
wavelengths. The Planks distribution equation is simplified as.

Selective (Partial) Radiation Pyrometer
38
The classical form of this optical pyrometer is the disappearing filament
optical pyrometer. It is most accurate of all radiation pyrometers. However
its use is limited to temperatures greater than 700
o
C since it requires
visual brightness match by human operator. This instrument is used by
International Practical Temperature Scale above 1064
o
C.

From Planks equation it is evident that for a given wavelength, the radiant
intensity (Brightness) varies with temperature. In the disappearing filament
instrument shown in the fig. an image of target is superimposed on the
heated filament.

The tungsten lamp, which is very stable, is previously calibrated so that
the current through the filament is known, The brightness temperature of
the filament is also known. A red filter that allows only narrow band of
wavelengths around 0.65m is placed between the observer eye and the
tungsten lamp and the target image.
The observer controls the lamp current until the filament disappears in the
superimposed target image.

39
The temperature calibration is made in terms of the lamp heating current.
Because of the manual null balancing principle, the optical pyrometer is not
useful for continuous reading or automatic control applications. However it is
more accurate and less subject to large errors compared to Total radiation
pyrometer
Typical accuracy for range 850
o
C-1200
o
C is +5%
and for range 1100
o
C-1950
o
C is +10%

Temperature Measurement

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