Chapter 1

Complex Variables
1.1 Introduction
Some basic denitions underlying Complex Analysis.
Denition 1.1.1 Set of points - any collection of points in the complex plane is
called an aggregate or a set of points. each point is called a member or element of the
set.
Denition 1.1.2 Neighbourhood of a point - Let |z z
o
| < , where z
o
is a given
point and is a small positive number. Then the neighbourhood of z
o
consists of all
points lying inside but not on a circle of radius with center at z
o
.
Denition 1.1.3 Limit point - a point z
o
is said to be the limit point of a set of
points S in the Argand plane if every neighbourhood of z
o
contains points of set S other
than z
o
. Thus, each point on the circumference of the circle |z| = r is a limit point of
the set |z| < r and these limit points do not belong to the set. Thus, limit points of a
set are not necessarily the points of the set. Accordingly, there are two types of limit
points:
(a) Interior points - A limit point z
o
of the set S is an interior point if in the neigh-
bourhood of z
o
there exists entirely the points or the set S.
(b) Boundary points - A limit point z
o
which is not an interior point is said to be a
boundary point.
Denition 1.1.4 Bounded and unbounded sets - a set of points is said to be
bounded if there exists a positive number k such that |z| k is satised for all points
z of the set. If there does not exist such a number k, then the set is unbounded.
Denition 1.1.5 Open and Closed sets - a set containing entirely the inner points
is called an open set. E.g., the set dened by |z| < r is an open set since it contains
only the inner points. But |z| r is a closed set.
Denition 1.1.6 Compact set - a closed and bounded set is called compact.
Denition 1.1.7 Convex or Connected set - an open set is said to be connected
if every pair of its points can be joined by a nite number of straight line segments all
of whose points belong to the set. For example, the set |z| < 1 is a connected set.
Denition 1.1.8 Domain - A connected open set is called an open region or domain.
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Denition 1.1.9 Closed domain - The set obtained by adding to an open connected
set its boundary points is called a closed domain or region.
Denition 1.1.10 Circular disk - the inequality |z z
o
| < represents the interior
of a circle of radius with center z
o
. This region is called an open circular disk.
The region given by |z z
o
| is called the closed circular disk.
1.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
A complex variable is an ordered pair of real variables, that is,
z = (x, y)
= x + iy
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be two complex variables. If for each value of z in S
(set of complex numbers) there corresponds one or more values of w in a well dened
way, the w is said to be a function of z; thus
w = f(z)
Examples : w =
1
z
, w = z
2
, w = e
z
, etc.
If to each value of z, there corresponds only one value of w, then the function w(z) is
called a single valued function.
r
s
r
r
s
u
z
1
z
2
z
3
-
-
-
w
1
w
2
w
3
one-to-one mapping
If w(z) takes more than one value corresponding to a value of z, then w(z) is a multi-
valued function of z. For example,
w =

z
In this course we will concern ourselves with single valued functions.
Suppose w = u + iv is the value of f at z = x = iy where x, y, u and v are real,
u + iv = f(x + iy)
f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
Example 1.2.1 If f(z) = z
2
,
u + iv = (x + iy)
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2ixy
u(x, y) = x
2
y
2
and v(x, y) = 2xy
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Exercise 1.2.1 Let z = x + iy. Find u(x, y) and v(x, y) if f(z) = e
z
.
Solution 1.2.1
e
z
= e
x+iy
= e
x
(cos y + i sin y)
u(x, y) = e
x
cos y and v(x, y) = e
x
siny
Now try the following exercise problems.
Practice Questions
Express the following in the form u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
1. sin z 2. log z 3. cos z 4. z
3
5. e
z
6. z
2
+ 2z
1.3 Limits
Denition 1.3.1 Let w = f(z) be a function of z dened at all points in some neigh-
bourhood of z
o
. Then, the function f(z) is said to have a limit as z approaches z
o
if
for every positive real number there exists a positive real number such that
|f(z) | < , z, z
o
, z = z
o
in the domain 0 < |z z
o
| < .
The limit of f(z) as z approaches z
o
is a number and is given by
lim
zzo
f(z) =
The evaluation of limits can be done using the following theorems on limits.
Theorem 1.3.1 If lim
zzo
f(z) = and lim
zzo
(z) = m, then
(i) lim
zzo
[f(z) + (z)] = + m
(ii) lim
zzo
[f(z)(z)] = m
(iii) lim
zzo
_
f(z)
(z)
_
=

m
, m = 0.
Example 1.3.1 Find lim
z1
z
3
1
z 1
.
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Solution 1.3.1 since z = 1, we have:
z
3
1
z 1
= z
2
+ z + 1
lim
z1
z
3
1
z 1
= lim
z1
(z
2
+ z + 1)
= 3
Theorem 1.3.2 Let f(z) = u(x, y) +iv(x, y), z
o
= x
o
+iy
o
and w
o
= u
o
+iv
o
. Then,
the necessary and sucient conditions that lim
z0
f(z) = w
o
are that
(i) lim
(x,y)(xo,yo)
u(x, y) = u
o
(ii) lim
(x,y)(xo,yo)
v(x, y) = v
o
From Theorem 1.3.2 we can evaluate Example 1.3.1 as follows:
lim
z1
z
3
1
z 1
, as z 1, x 1 and y 0. Thus,
z
2
+ z + 1 = (x + iy)
2
+ (x + iy) + 1
= x
2
+ x y
2
+ i(y + 2xy) + 1
= (x
2
+ x y
2
+ 1) + i(y + 2xy)
which tends to 3 as x 1 and y 0. Hence, lim
z1
z
3
1
z 1
= 3.
1.4 Continuity
Let f(z) be dened at all points of the complex plane and let z
1
be a point of the plane.
Denition 1.4.1 The function f(z) is said to be continuous at z = z
1
if for every
positive number there exists another number such that
|f(z) f(z
1
)| < whenever |z z
1
| <
If the point z
1
is a limit point of the complex plane, then continuity of f(z) at z = z
1
means that
lim
zz
1
f(z) = f(z
1
)
A necessary and sucient condition that f(z) = u(x, y) +iv(x, y) be continuous is that
the real functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) should be continuous.
Denition 1.4.2 A function f(x, y) of two independent real variables x and y is said
to be continuous at point (x
o
, y
o
) if
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(i) f(x
o
, y
o
) is nite
(ii) lim
xxo
yyo
= f(x
o
, y
o
) in whatever way x x
o
and y y
o
.
Example 1.4.1 Given that
f(x, y) =
_

_
x
3
y
3
x
3
+ y
3
, x, y = 0
0 , x = y = 0
Discuss the continuity of f(x, y) at (0,0).
Solution 1.4.1
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
x
3
y
3
x
3
+ y
3
= lim
x0
y0
x
3
y
3
x
3
+ y
3
= lim
y0
_

y
3
y
3
_
= 1
and lim
x0
y0
x
3
y
3
x
3
+ y
3
= lim
x0
x
3
x
3
= 1
Further, when y = mx
lim
x0
y0
x
3
y
3
x
3
+ y
3
= lim
x0
x
3
m
3
x
3
x
3
+ m
3
x
3
=
1 m
3
1 + m
3
Since the limit is not unique, it follows that the function is not continuous at (0,0).
Another example!!
Example 1.4.2 Discuss the continuity of f(z) at z = 0.
f(z) =
_

_
x
3
y
3
x
2
+ y
2
+ i
x
3
+ y
3
x
2
+ y
2
, z = 0
0 , z = 0
We proceed as follows in investigating the continuity of f(z) at (0,0).
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Solution 1.4.2 From f(z) we deduce that
u(x, y) =
x
3
y
3
x
2
+ y
2
v(x, y) =
x
3
+ y
3
x
2
+ y
2
Now,
lim
x0
y0
u(x, y) = lim
y0
(y) = 0
lim
y0
x0
u(x, y) = lim
x0
(x) = 0
Similarly,
lim
(x,y)0
v(x, y) = 0 in whatever way x and y 0.
Hence u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous at (0,0). It follows that f(z) is continuous at
z = 0.
1.5 Dierentiability
As in the case of limits and continuity, the concept of dierentiation of a function of a
complex variable is dened in the same way as the real variable case.
Denition 1.5.1 The derivative of the function f(z) at z
o
is f

(z) and is given by

f

(z) = lim
zzo
f(z) f(z
o
)
z z
o
= lim
h0
f(z
o
+ h) f(z
o
)
h
, where h = z z
o
Example 1.5.1 Find the derivative of z
2
at z = z
o
.
Solution 1.5.1 We proceed as follows:
Let f(z) = z
2
f

(z
o
) = lim
h0
(z
o
+ h)
2
z
2
o
h
= lim
h0
2hz
o
+ h
2
h
= 2z
o
Example 1.5.2 Show that the derivative of f(z) = z does not exist anywhere.
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Solution 1.5.2
f(z) = z = x iy
f(z + z) = x + x i(y + y)
hence
f(z + z) f(z)
z
=
x iy
x + iy
Now, lim
x0
y0
x iy
x + iy
= lim
y0
iy
iy
= 1
and lim
y0
x0
x iy
x + iy
= lim
x0
x
x
= 1
Since the limit is not unique, f

(z) does not exist anywhere.

Theorem 1.5.1 If f(z) is dierentiable at z
o
, then f(z) is continuous at z = z
o
.
Let us show a little proof of the above theorem.
We have,
lim
z0
[f(z) f(z
o
)] = lim
z0
_
f(z) f(z
o
)
z z
o
(z z
o
)
_
= lim
z0
f(z) f(z
o
)
z z
o
lim
z0
(z z
o
)
= 0
Hence, lim
z0
f(z) = f(z
o
), which shows that f(z) is continuous at z = z
o
.
1.5.1 Rules for dierentiation
(i)
d
dz
[c
1
f(z) + c
2
(z)] = c
1
f

(z) + c
2

(z), where c
1
and c
2
are complex constants.
(ii)
d
dz
[f(z)(z)] = f

(z)(z) + f(z)

(z).
(iii)
d
dz
_
f(z)
(z)
_
=
f

(z)(z) f(z)

[(z)]
2
, (z) = 0.
(iv)
d
dz
f((z)) = f

((z))

(z)
1.6 Cauchy-Riemann equations
Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be dierentiable at z
o
= x
o
+ iy
o
. Then the rst order
partial derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y must exist at (x
o
, y
o
) and must
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satisfy the following equations.
u
x
=
v
y
u
y
=
v
x
_

_
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are only a necessary condition, they can be used
to locate points at which f

(z) does not exist.

Example 1.6.1 Show that the function dened by f(z) = |z| is not dierentiable at
the origin but is continuous everywhere.
Solution 1.6.1 Let f(z) = u + iv = |z| =
_
x
2
+ y
2
Thus, u =
_
x
2
+ y
2
, and v = 0
Now,
u
x
=
x
_
x
2
+ y
2
,
u
y
=
y
_
x
2
+ y
2
v
x
= 0 ,
v
y
= 0
When x = 0, and y = 0 we have
u
x
= 0 =
v
y
and
v
x
= 0 ,
u
y
= 0.
Similarly, when x = 0, and y = 0 we have
u
x
= 0 ,
v
y
= 0
and
u
y
=
v
x
= 0
Finally, when x = y = 0,

x
u(0, 0) = lim
h0
u(h, 0) u(0, 0)
h
=
|h|
h
= 1
which shows that the limit is not unique. Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are also
not satised at the origin, it follows that f(z) = |z| is not dierentiable at the origin
though its continuous everywhere.
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Example 1.6.2 Determine whether or not the C-R equations are satised by the func-
tion f(z0 = z
2
3z.
Solution 1.6.2 We rst express f(z) in terms of u and v. That is,
f(z) = 3x + x
2
y
2
+ i(3y + 2xy)
Thus, u(x, y) = 3x + x
2
y
2
and v(x, y) = 3xy + 2xy
Now you can verify that
u
x
=
v
y
, and
u
y
=
v
x
Practice Questions
Verify whether the Cauchy-Rieman equations are satised in each of the following.
1. f(z) = 3z
2
3z + 1 2. f(z) =
1
z
3. f(z) = |z| 4. f(z) = |z|
2
5. f(z) =
z 1
z + 1
1.7 Analytic Functions
A function f(z) is said to be analytic in the domain D if it is dierentiable at every point
in the domain D. Such a function is also called regular, holomorphic or monogenic.
If a function f(z is analytic at each point in the entire nite plane, then f(z) is an
entire function.
If f(z) is not analytic at z = z
o
but is analytic at some point in the neighbourhood of
z
o
, the z o is called a singular point or singualrity o.
(a) If two functions are analytic in a domain D, their sum and their product are both
analytic in D
(b) The quotient of two analytic functions is also analytic provided the function in
the denominator does not vanish at any point in D.
1.7.1 Harmonic Functions
Any function f which possesses continuous partial derivatives of the rst order and
second order and satises the Laplace equation is called a harmonic function.

2
f
x
2
+

2
f
y
2
= 0 Laplaces equation
If f(z) = u+iv is an analytic function, then the component functions u and v are both
harmonic functions.
Since f is analytic, the rst order partial derivatives of u and v satisfy the C-R equa-
tions.
u
x
=
v
y
and
u
y
=
v
x
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If we dierentiate both sides of the equations with respect to x we obtain

2
u
x
2
=

2
v
xy
and

2
u
xy
=

2
v
x
2
.....................(1)
Dierentiating with respect to y gives

2
u
yx
=

2
v

2
y
and

2
u
y
2
=

2
v
yx
.....................(2)
Since partial derivatives are continuous,

2
u
xy
=

2
u
yx
and

2
v
xy
=

2
v
yx
Equating (1) and (2) gives us

2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
= 0 and

2
v
x
2
+

2
v
y
2
= 0
which shows that u and v are harmonic.
If two given functions are harmonic in the domain D and their rst order partial
derivatives satisfy C-R equations at every point of D, then v is a harmonic conjugate
of u.
1.8 Complex Integration
Let C be a smooth curve in the complex z-plane having end points z
o
and z
n
. Let
z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, . . . , z
n1
be any arbitrary number of intermediate points which subdivide the
curve C into n arcs z
o
z
1
, z
1
z
2
, z
2
z
3
, . . . , z
n1
z
n
as shown in Figure 1.1.
Let
1
,
2
, . . . ,
r
, . . . ,
n
be the points chosen on the curve C such that
1
lies on arc
z
o
z
1
,
2
lies on z
1
z
2
, . . . ,
r
lies on z
r1
z
r
and so on.
Let
S
n
=
n

r=1
f(
r
)z
r
, where z
r
= z
r
z
r1
.
If the curve is divided into smaller and smaller parts so that n , |r| 0
and is the summation tends to a unique limit, that is, independent of the choice of
the intermediate points and the manner in which the subdivision is performed, the the
unique limit S
n
is called the line integral (or denite integral) of the complex function
f(z) taken along the curve C between the points z o and z
n
and is denoted by
lim
n
S
n
=
_
zn
zo
f(z) dz
Here are some basic denitions you must be familiar with in dealing with complex
integrals:
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-
6
p
p
q
p
p
q
p
q
q
z
o
z
1
z
2
z
3
. . .
p
z
r
z
n
z
n2
q
p
p

n
z
n1
z
r1
p
p
pp
qq r
q
q
p
p pq
p
pp
p
pp
p
p
p
p
Figure 1.1
Continuous arc : a set of points z = (x, y) satisfying
z = x(t) + iy(t) t
where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of the real variable t.
Multiple points : a point z
1
is a multiple point of the arc if the equation
z
1
= x(t) + iy(t)
is satised by two or more values of t in the given range.
Jordan arc : a continuous arc having no multiple points.
Jordan Curve or Simple closed curve:
Given the continuous arc z = x(t) + iy(t) t , If x(t) = () and
y() = y() and if there is no other multiple point on the continuous arc dened
by z, then this continuous arc is a Jordan curve or a simple closed curve.
The circle x = a cos t, y = a sin t (0 t 2) is a simple closed curve.
Contour : a curve composed of a chain of nite number of regular Jordan arcs.
Simply Connected and multiply Connected domains
A domain is simply connected if the interior of every closed contour in the domain
consists only the points of the domain.
In general, a domain is said to be m-fold connected if its boundaries consist of m
distinct parts without common points.
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"!
#
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
&%
'$
simply connected
doubly connected
triply connected
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
1.8.1 Contour Integration
Let f(z) be dened from z = a to z = b. The the integral of f(z) from z = a to z = b
is dened in terms of the values of f(z) at points along the contour C extended from
z = a to z = b. Such an integral is called a line integral, its value depending upon
the choice of C as well as upon f, a and b.
_
C
f(z) dz =
_
b
a
f(z)
dz
ds
ds
Example 1.8.1 Find the integral of z
2
along the contour C where C is given by z(s) =
s + is
2
, 0 s 1.
Solution 1.8.1 From the denition of contour integration we have,
_
C
z
2
dz =
_
C
f(z)
dz
ds
ds
Now, z(s) = s + is
2
and
dz
ds
= 1 + 2is

_
C
z
2
dz =
_
1
0
(s + is
2
)
2
(1 + 2is)ds
=
_
1
0
(s
2
s
4
+ 2is
3
)(1 + 2is)ds
=
_
1
0
(s
2
5s
4
)ds + i
_
1
0
(4s
3
2s
5
)ds
=
s
3
3
s
5

1
0
+ i
_
s
4

s
6
3
_

1
0
=
2
3
+ i
2
3
Exercise 1.8.1 (a) Integrate
_
C
z
2
dz where C is the contour given by
z(s) =
_
2s , 0 s 1
2 + i(s 1) , 1 s 2
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(b) Evaluate
_
C
z
2
dz where C is the straight line joining the origin O to the point
P(2, 1) on the complex plane.
1.8.2 Cauchys Integral Theorem
Theorem 1.8.1 If a function f(z) is analytic at all points inside and on a closed
contour C, then
_
C
f(z) dz = 0
We need to prove Theorem 1.8.1 inorder to appreciate its usefulness in evaluating
certain types of complex integrals. the proof is as follows.
Proof: Let R be a closed region consisting of all points inside and on a closed contour
C and let C be described in the counter clockwise sense.
From Greens theorem, if P(x, y), Q(x, y and their partial derivatives
P
y
and
Q
x
are
continuous single-valued functions over a closed region R bounded by the curve C, then
_
C
(Pdx + Qdy) =
__
R
_
Q
x

P
y
_
dxdy
Now, let f(z) = u(x, y) be analytic throughout R in the z plane. Then dz = dx +idy.
Thus,
_
R
f(z) dz =
_
C
(u + iv)(dx + idy)
=
_
C
(udx vdy) + i
_
C
(vdx + udy) (1.1)
Since f(z) is analytic, f

(z) exists in R and then u and v and their rst partial deriva-
tives are continuous in R.
Applying Greens Theorem on the right-side of equation 1.1,
_
R
f(z) dz =
__
R
_

v
x

u
y
_
dxdy + i
__
R
_
u
x

v
y
_
dxdy
Since f(z) is analytic, the C-R equations must be satised.
u
x
=
v
y
and
u
y
=
v
x

_
C
f(z) dz = 0
Example 1.8.2 Verify Cauchys theorem for the function f(z) = z where C is the
circle |z| = 2.
HIT223 - 2009 vchikwasha Harare Institute of Technology
Solution 1.8.2 We know that we can express z in polar form as z = re
i
. So, for
|z| = 2 we can write this function as z = 2e
i
. Thus, if z = 2e
i
, then dz = 2ie
i
d.
_
C
f(z) dz =
_
2
0
2e
i
2ie
i
d
= 4i
_
2
0
2e
i
d
= 4i
e
2i
2i

2
0
= 2(e
4i
1)
= 2(cos 4 + i sin 4 1)
= 0
1.8.3 Cauchy Integral Formula
Consider the integral
I =
_
C
1
z a
dz (a = constant)
f(z) =
1
z a
is not analytic at z = a. This function is not dened at this point and
thus cannot posses a derivative.
Let C involved in this denition be a simple closed curve. If the point z = a is outside
the curve, then Cauchys theorem holds and I = 0. That is,
_
C
1
z a
dz = 0
If z = a is inside C, I = 0.
Now, if C is a circle of radius R centered at z = a, we evaluate the integral by setting
z = a + Re
i
. Thus, dz = iRe
i
d.
I =
2
_
0
1
a + Re
i
a
iRe
i
d
=
2
_
0
i d
I = 2i
This is true for any simple closed path which encircles z = a.
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed contour C and z
o
is any point interior to C,
then,
f(z
o
) =
1
2i
_
C
f(z)
z z
o
dz
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Exercise 1.8.2 (i) Evaluate
_
C
z
2
z 2
dz, C being the circle |z| = 3.
(ii) Show that
_
C
z dz
9 + 9z z
2
z
3
=
1
4
i, C being the circle |z| = 2.
1.9 Derivatives of an Analytic Function
If f(z) is holomorphic in a region D bounded by a simple closed curve C, then its
derivatives of all orders exist and are analytic at each point of the domain D.
Theorem 1.9.1 If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed contour C and z
o
is a point
inside C, then
f
(n)
(z
o
) =
n!
2i
_
C
f(z)
(z z
o
)
(n+1)
dz
Example 1.9.1 Evaluate
_
C
2z
2
z 2
(z 2)
4
dz, where C is the circle |z| = 3.
Solution 1.9.1 We begin by letting f(z) = 2z
2
z 2. Comparing Theorem 1.9.1
with our integral, z
o
= 2 and n = 3. Thus we can write the integral as
f
(3)
(2) =
6
2i
_
C
f(z) dz
(z 2)
4
Thus,
f

(z) = 4z 1
f

(z) = 4
f

(z) = 0

_
C
2z
2
z 2
(z 2)
4
dz =
i
3
f
(3)
(2)
= 0
Exercise 1.9.1 Evaluate
(i)
_
C
2z
2
z 2
z
2
4z + 4
dz, C : |z| = 3 (ii)
_
C
2z
2
z 2
(z 2)
3
dz, C : |z| = 3
(iii)
_
C
dz
z
2
(z 3)
, C : |z| = 2
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1.10 Taylors series
Theorem 1.10.1 Taylors Theorem
Let f(z) be analytic inside a circle C with center at z
o
and radius r
o
. Then at each
point inside C, f(z) can be expanded in ascending powers of (z z
o
and may be written
as
f(z) = f(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
1!
f

(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
2
2!
f

(z
o
) + . . . +
(z z
o
)
n
n!
f
(n)
(z
o
) + . . .
=

n=0
(z z
o
)
n
n!
f
(n)
(z
o
)
This is Taylors series for f(z) with center at z
o
. The series converges to f(z).
In particular case when z
o
= 0, we obtain the Maclaurin series for f(z).
Example 1.10.1 Find the Taylor series expansion of
1
1 z
about the point z = 0.
Solution 1.10.1 f(z) =
1
1 z
, z
o
= 0.
f(z) = f(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
1!
f

(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
2
2!
f

(z
o
) + . . .
Now,
f(z) =
1
z 1
f(z
o
) = f(0) = 1
f

(z) =
1
(1 z)
2
f

(z
o
) = 1!
f

(z) =
2
(1 z)
3
f

(z
o
) = 2!
f

(z) =
6
(1 z)
4
f

(z
o
) = 3!
f
iv
(z) =
24
(1 z)
5
f

(z
o
) = 4!
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
(n)
(z) =
n!
(1 z)
n+1
f
(n)
(z
o
) = n!
Finally, we can write the series as
f(z) = f(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
1!
f

(z
o
) +
(z z
o
)
2
2!
f

(z
o
) + . . .
= 1 + z +
z
2
2!
2! +
z
3
3!
3! + . . .

1
1 z
= 1 + z + z
2
+ z
3
+ . . . .
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Exercise 1.10.1 Expand by Taylors series:
(i)
1
z
about the point z = 1.
(ii)
1
1 + z
2
about z = 0.
You can also verify the following important power series:
e
z
= 1 +
z
1!
+
z
2
2!
+
z
3
3!
+ . . . +
z
n
n!
+ . . . , |z| <
sinz =
z
1!

z
3
3!
+
z
5
5!
+ . . . + (1)
n+1
z
2n1
(2n 1)!
+ . . . , |z| <
cos z = 1
z
2
2!
+
z
4
4!
. . . (1)
n
z
2n
(2n)!
+ . . . , |z| <
1
1 + z
= 1 z + z
2
z
3
+ . . . + (1)nz
n
+ . . . , |z| < 1
ln(1 + z) = z
z
2
2
+
z
3
3
. . . (1)
n+1
z
n
n
+ . . . , |z| < 1
1.10.1 Laurents Series
In expanding a function f(z) by means of Taylors series at a point z
o
, f(z) must be
analytic at z
o
. Laurents series gives an expansion of f(z) at a point z
o
even if f(z) is
not analytic at z
o
.
Theorem 1.10.2 If f(z) is analytic between and on two circles C
1
and C
2
having
common radii r
1
, r
2
(r
1
> r
2
), then at each point z between them, f(z) can be expanded
by a convergent series of positive and negative powers of (z z
o
), namely,
f(z) = a
o
+a
1
(zz
o
)+a
2
(zz
o
)
2
+. . .+a
n
(zz
o
)
n
+
b
1
z z
o
+
b
2
(z z
o
)
2
+. . .+
b
n
(z z
o
)
n
+. . .
where
a
n
=
1
2i
_
c
1
f(z

)
(z

z
o
)
n+1
dz

, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
and
b
n
=
1
2i
_
c
2
f(z

)
(z

z
o
)
n+1
dz

, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
with the integrals taken in the counter clockwise sense.
Example 1.10.2 Expand f(z) =
z
(z 1)(2 z)
in Laurent series valid for
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(i) |z| < 1 (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) 0 < |z 2| < 1
Solution 1.10.2 f(z) =
z
(z 1)(2 z)
can be expressed in terms of its component
fractions as f(z) =
1
z 1
+
2
2 z
.
Now, for
(a) |z| < 1 we have
1
z 1
=
1
1 z
= (1z)
1
= (1+z+z
2
+z
3
+. . .) ............(i)
and
2
2 z
=
2
2
_
1
z
2
_ =
1
1
z
2
=
_
1
z
2
_
1
= 1+
z
2
+
z
2
4
+
z
3
8
+. . . ..........(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii) we have
f(z) = (1 + z + z
2
+ z
3
+ . . .) + (1 +
z
2
+
z
2
4
+
z
3
8
+ . . .)
=
_
z
2
+
3
4
z
2
+
7
8
z
3
+ . . .
_
(b) 0 < |z| < 1
We split the series into two parts. First when |z| > 1 we have
1
z 1
=
1
z
_
1
1
z
_ =
1
z
_
1
1
z
_
1
=
1
z
_
1 +
1
z
+
1
z
2
+ . . .
_
...........(iii)
and when |z| < 2 ,
2
2 z
=
_
1
z
2
_
1
=
_
1+
z
2
+
z
2
4
+
z
3
8
+. . .
_
..............(iv)
Thus, f(z) =
1
z
_
1 +
1
z
+
1
z
2
+ . . .
_
+
_
1 +
z
2
+
z
2
4
+
z
3
8
+ . . .
_
(c) 0 < |z 2| < 1
First let u = z 2 0 < |u| < 1
f(z) =
z
(z 1)(2 z)
=
u + 2
(u + 1)u
=
2
u
+
1
u + 1
when |u| < 1 (1 + u)
1
= 1 u + u
2
+ . . .
Thus, f(z) =
2
z 2
+ 1 (z 2) + (z 2)
2
. . .
1.11 Zeros of a Function
Let f(z) be an analytic function. If f(z) = 0, the z
0
is a zero of f(z).
Since f(z) is analytic at z
0
, there exists a neighborhood of z
0
at which f(z) can be
expanded in Taylors series
f(z) = a
0
+ a
1
(z z
0
) + a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ . . . , +a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+ . . . , |z z
0
| < r
0
.
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where a
0
= f(z
0
) and a
n
=
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
.
If z
0
is a zero of f(z), then f(z
0
) = 0 and a
0
= 0.
If a
0
= 0 and a
1
= 0, then z
0
is a simple zero.
If a
0
= a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
m1
= 0 but a
m
= 0, the z
0
is a zero of order m.
Thus, we can dene a zero of order m by the condition
f(z
0
) = f

(z
0
) = . . . = f
(m1)
(z
0
) = 0 and f
(m)
= 0.
So we can write f(z) = (z z
0
)
m
g(z) where g(z) is analytic and g(z
0
) = a
m
= 0.
Theorem 1.11.1 Let z
0
be a zero of an analytic function f(z). There is a neighbour-
hood of f
0
throughout which f(z) has no other zeros, unless f is identically zero. Thus,
if an analytic function is not identically zero, then its zeros are isolated.
Example 1.11.1 1. f(z) = (z + 1)
4
has a zero of order 4 at z = 1.
2. f(z) = cos z has simple zeros at z =

2
,
3
2
, . . ..
3. Find the zeros of f(z) =
_
z 1
z
2
+ 1
_
2
Solution 1.11.1 f(z) = 0 when (z 1)
2
= 0. Thus, z = 1 is a zero of order 2.
1.12 Singularities of a Function
If a function f(z) is analytic at every point in the neighbourhood of a point z
0
except
at z
0
itself, z
0
is called a singularity or singular point of the function.
Example 1.12.1 Locate and name all singularities of
f(z) =
z
6
+ 2z
3
+ 3
(z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1)
Solution 1.12.1 (z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1) = 0
z = 1, z = i
1.12.1 Isolated Singularity
For f(z) =
1
z
, z = 0 is an isolated singularity since f(z) is analytic everywhere except
at z = 0.
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1.12.2 Removable Singularity
The singularity point z = z
0
is called removable if
lim
zz
0
f(z) exists
f(z) =
z
2
a
2
z a
, z = a is a removable singular point.
Theorem 1.12.1 Let f(z) be analytic in the domain D except at z = z
0
. Then z
0
is
an isolated singularity of f(z) and we can draw two concentric circles with center at z
0
such that f(z) can be expanded in a Laurents series in the annular region between the
two circles. Thus,
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
. .
regular part of f(z)
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
. .
principal part in the
(1.2)
neighbourhood ofz
0
z
0
is a removable singularity if b
n
= 0, n, or if lim
zz
0
f(z) exists.
1.12.3 Essential Singularity
If b
n
in (1.2) contains an innite number of terms, then z = z
0
is an isolated essential
singularity of f(z).
Thus, there exists no nite n such that
lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)f(z) = a nite constant.
1.13 Poles of a Function
Consider again
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
. .
principal part
If the principal part terminates, at n = m (say), then f(z) becomes
f(z) = a
0
+ a
1
(z z
0
) + . . . +
b
1
z z
0
+ . . . +
b
m
(z z
0
)
m
The isolated singular point z = z
0
is called a pole of order m.
A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.
A pole of order 2 is called a double pole.
Example 1.13.1 Determine the order of the pole of the function f(z
0
) =
1
z
3
(z + 4)
.
Solution 1.13.1 f(z
0
) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and a simple pole at z = 4.
vchikwasha Harare Institute of Technology
1.14 Residues
Let z
0
be an isolated singularity of f(z). Then there exists a positive number r, such
that f(z) is analytic at each point of the region 0|z z
0
| < r, and in which it can be
represented by the Laurents series
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
where
a
n
=
1
2i
_
C
f(z

)
(z

z
0
)
n+1
dz

, n = 0, 1, . . . .
and
b
n
=
1
2i
_
C
f(z

)
(z

z
0
)
n+1
dz

, n = 1, 2, . . . .
b
1
=
1
2i
_
C
f(z

)dz

=
1
2i
_
C
f(z)dz (1.3)
where C is any closed contour around z
0
(counterclockwise) such that f(z) is analytic
on C and interior to C, except at z = z
0
.
b
1
is the coecient of
1
z z
0
and is called the residue of f(z) at the isolated singular
point z
0
.
Thus, Res
z=z
0
f(z) = b
1
From (1.3), Res
z=z
0
f(z) =
1
2i
_
C
f(z)dz, where f(z) is analytic everywhere on and
within C except at z
0
.
If f(z) has a simple pole at z = z
0
, the residue of f(z) is given by
Res
z=z
0
f(z) = lim
zz
0
(z z
0
) f(z)
Example 1.14.1 Find the residue of f(z) =
1
z(z 4)
at each of its poles.
Solution 1.14.1 f(z) has simple poles at z = 0 and z = 4.
Thus,
when z = 0
Res
z=0
f(z) = lim
z0
z
1
z(z 4)
=
1
4
and when z = 4
Res
z=4
f(z) = lim
z4
(z 4)
1
z(z 4)
=
1
4
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Suppose f(z) has a pole of order m,
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+
b
1
z z
0
+
b
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ . . . +
b
m
(z z
0
)
m
(z z
0
)
m
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
m+n
+ b
1
(z z
0
)
m1
+ . . . + b
m
(1.4)
Dierentiating (1.4) (m1) times,
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)] =

n=0
a
n
(m + n)(m + n + 1) . . . (n + z)(z z
0
)
n+1
+ b
1
(m1)!
thus, b
1
=
1
(m1)!
lim
zz
0
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)]
Res
z=z
0
f(z) =
1
(m1)!
lim
zz
0
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)]
Example 1.14.2 Calculate the residue of
z
2
e
z
(za)
3
.
Solution 1.14.2 z = a is a pole of order 3,
Res
z=a
f(z) =
1
2!
lim
za
d
2
dz
2
_
(z a)
3
z
2
e
z
(z a)
3
_
=
1
2
lim
za
d
2
dz
2
_
z
2
e
z
_
=
1
2
lim
za
(z
2
e
z
+ 4ze
z
+ 2e
z
)
=
1
2
[e
a
(a
2
+ 4a + 2)]
=
e
a
2
(a
2
+ 4a + 2)
Exercise 1.14.1 Find the residues of
1.
z
2
+ 5
z(z + 3)
2
2.
z
(z 1)(z 2)
2
at the poles.
1.14.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem
If C is a closed contour within and on which a function f(z) is analytic except for a
nite number of singular points z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
interior to C, then
_
C
f(z) dz = 2i(R
1
+ R
2
, . . . + R
n
)
where R
j
is the residue of f(z) at z = z
j
.
vchikwasha Harare Institute of Technology
Example 1.14.3 Find
_
C
z
z + 1
dz , where C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution 1.14.3 z = 1 is a simple pole,
Res
z=1
f(z) = lim
z1
_
(z + 1)
z
z + 1
_
= 1

_
C
z
z + 1
dz = 2i(1)
= 2i
Exercise 1.14.2 Evaluate
1.
_
C
sin z
z
6
dz where C is a unit circle at the origin.
2.
_
C
dz
z
3
(z 1)
, C : |z| = 2
3.
_
C
z + 1
z
2
2z
dz , C : |z| = 3
4.
_
C
e
z
(z 1)
3
dz , C : |z| = 3
5.
_
C
e
z
z
2
1
dz
(a) given that C is the circle |z 1| = 1
(b) given that C is the circle |z i| = 1
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