Report on Comprehensive Work By Nagendra Shete Swapnil Bharati

Table of Contents 1. Static & Dynamic Characteristics of RTD........................................................................................... 3 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Static & Dynamic characteristics of Thermocouple.......................................................................... 8 Configuration of Smart transmitter ................................................................................................. 11 Analog Signal Conditioning of RTD .................................................................................................. 17 Digital signal conditioning of RTD ................................................................................................... 19 Intrinsic Safety Circuit Design for RTD............................................................................................22 Capacitive level sensor......................................................................................................................26 Sensory System Design ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Aim

1. Static & Dynamic Characteristics of RTD

To evaluate Static & Dynamic Characteristics of RTD.

Apparatus: 1. Pt-100 RTD 2. Water bath 3. Heating coil 4. Thermometer 5. Multimeter Theory: Temperature calculations: RTDs are manufactured from metals whose resistance increases with temperature. Within a limited temperature range, its resistance increases linearly with temperature: Rt = R0[1+ (t-t0)] Where: Rt = resistance at temperature 't' R0 = resistance at a reference temperature ( Generally 0 degree C) = temperature coefficient of resistance (C 1) For platinum, = 0.00385 //C The relationship between resistance and temperature of RTD can be approximated by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation which is given by, Rt / R0 = 1+ [ t ((t/100)-1)(t/100) ((t/100)-1)(t/100)3] (2) Where, t = temperature (C) Rt = Resistance at temperature, tC R0 = Resistance at 0C = Constant ( 0.00385//C ) & are Linearization coefficients, where = 0 for t > 0C (1)

Different Characteristics Sensitivity The sensitivity of the sensor is defined as the slope of the output characteristic curve or, more generally, the minimum input of physical parameter that will create a detectable output change. In some sensors, the sensitivity is defined as the input parameter change required producing a standardized output change. In others, it is defined as an output voltage change for a given change in input parameter. Sensitivity Error: The sensitivity error is a departure from the ideal slope of the characteristic curve. Accuracy The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the actual value (which must be measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the indicated value at the output of the sensor. Again, the accuracy can be expressed either as a percentage of full scale or in absolute terms. Linearity The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which the actual measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve. Figure 3 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line (Note in most cases, the static curve is used to determine linearity, and this may deviate somewhat from a dynamic linearity) Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:

where, Nonlinearity (%) is the percentage of nonlinearity Din(max) is the maximum input deviation INf.s. is the maximum, full-scale input The static nonlinearity defined by Equation is often subject to environmental factors, including Temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. It is important to know under what conditions the specification is valid and departures from those conditions may not yield linear changes of linearity. Response Time Sensors do not change output state immediately when an input parameter change occurs. Rather, it will change to the new state over a period of time, called the response time (T r in Figure 1). The response time can be defined as the time required for a sensor output to change from its previous state to a final settled value within a tolerance band of the correct new value. This concept is somewhat different from the notion of the time constant (T) of the system. This term can be defined in a manner similar to that for a capacitor charging through a resistance and is usually less than the response time. The curves in Figure 1 show two types of response time. In Figure 1a the curve represents the response time following an abrupt positive going step-function change of the input parameter. The form shown in Figure 1b is a decay time in response to a negative going step-function change of the input parameter.

Figure 1. (a) Rise-time definition; (b) fall-time definition. Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and Circuits Prentice Hall. Procedure: 1. Static Characteristics 1. Select pt100 as experimental RTD. 2. Put the RTD in hot bath (water). 3. Measure the temperature continuously of the hot water bath. 4. Measure the corresponding resistance of RTD. 5. Plot the graph for the Temperature Vs Resistance. 6. Calculate the parameters from the graph. Procedure 2: Dynamic characteristics 1. 2. 3. 4. Give the set change in the temperature change. At the same note down the resistance change reading w.r.t. time. Plot the graph. Calculate the parameters from the graph.

Observation: 1) For Static Characteristic Temperature (0 C) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 85 90 95 Resistance Practical 108 109.6 111.3 112.6 114.3 116 117.8 122 126.4 130.5 132.2 134.6 136.7 Resistance Calculated 107.7 109.625 111.55 113.475 115.4 117.325 119.25 123.1 126.95 130.8 132.725 134.65 136.575 Error in Resistance -0.3 0.025 0.25 0.875 1.1 1.325 1.45 1.1 0.55 0.3 0.525 0.05 -0.125

Conclusion: Static characteristics calculated from the graph 1: 1. Sensitivity = slope of the characteristic graph = 0.382667 Ohm / deg. C 2. Accuracy = maximum difference that will exist between the actual value = 1.45 in resistance Dynamic characteristics calculated from the graph 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dead time = less than 1 sec Time constant = 9 sec Response time = Dead time + Time Constant = 10 Sec Settling Time = 23 sec Tolerance band = -0.01

Aim:

2. Static & Dynamic characteristics of Thermocouple

To evaluate Static & Dynamic Characteristics of Thermocouple.

Theory : Thermocouple formulae:T = a0 +a1 x + a2x2 + a3x3 . . . +anxn where T = Temperature x = Thermocouple EMF in Volts a = Polynomial coefficients unique to each thermocouple n = Maximum order of the polynomial To convert temperature to voltage, you can again use a rational function approximation of the form,

Where TCJ is the cold junction temperature, VCJ is the computed cold junction voltage, and the T0, V0, pi and qi are coefficients. For K Type T/C Coefficients To = 2.5000000E+01 Vo =1.0003453E+00 p1= 2. 4.0514854E-02 p2 =-3.8789638E-05 p3 =-2.8608478E-06 p4 =-9.5367041E-10 q1= -1.3948675E-03 q2 =-6.7976627E-05 Procedure: 1. Static Characteristics 1. Select pt100 as experimental Thermocouple. 2. Put the Thermocouple in hot bath (water). 3. Measure the temperature continuously of the hot water bath. 4. Measure the corresponding output voltage of Thermocouple. 5. Plot the graph for the Temperature Vs voltage. 6. Calculate the parameters from the graph.

Procedure 2: Dynamic characteristics 1. 2. 3. 4. Give the set change in the temperature change. At the same note down the resistance change reading w.r.t. time. Plot the graph. Calculate the parameters from the graph.

Observation:- Static Characteristics Temperature (deg.C) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 Practical Voltage (milivolt) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.35 0.5 0.6 1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.2 Theoretical Voltage (milivolt) -0.081 0.121 0.324 0.528 0.733 0.938 1.144 1.351 1.557 1.765 1.972 2.18 2.803 Error in output -0.131 0.021 0.174 0.328 0.383 0.438 0.544 0.351 0.157 0.065 0.072 0.08 0.603

Dynamic characteristics

Conclusion :Static characteristics calculated from the graph 1: 1. Sensitivity = slope of the characteristic graph = 0.030714 milivolts / deg. C 2. Accuracy = maximum difference that will exist between the actual value = 0.572

Dynamic characteristics calculated from the graph 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Dead time = less than 1 sec Time constant = 22 sec Response time = Dead time + Time Constant =22.5 Sec Settling Time = 1.08 min Tolerance band = -0.086

Aim : Objective: Apparatus:

To configure a smart transmitter

3. Configuration of Smart transmitter

To study basics of configurable parameters of transmitter. 1. Power supply (24V DC) 2. 250 ohm Resistor 3. Digital multimeter 4. Configuration 5. Transmitter

Theory: The smart field Communicator (SFC) is a hand-held interface device that allows digital "instructions" to be delivered to the smart transmitters. Testing, configuring, and supply or acquiring data are all accomplished through the communicator. The communicator has a display that lets the technician see the input or output information. The communicator can be connected directly to the smart transmitter, or in parallel anywhere on the loop. Setting up the Pressure Transmitter consists of: Keying-in the I.D. and loading the Database. Adjusting the Damping time. Selecting the units in which to display values. Selecting the type of configuration for the transmitter Keying-in the Lower Range value and Upper Range value (Span) using the keyboard. Procedure: Step 1. Wiring connection

Keyingin the ID and uploading the database The database for a transmitter is read or uploaded when you press the SHIFT I D keys. Step Press SFC Display will Read Result 1. The database is loaded into the SFC at this DE READ point for transmitters. The top line identifies the type of pressure transmitter and the Output form. (for example:LIN DP = Linear output, Differential NON-VOL Pressure) Notice the line under the first character of Then the ID on the bottom line. This is the cursor and indicates where you can keyin an ID. Alpha/numeric entries of up to 8 characters are permitted. If the transmitter was not given an ID, the line will be blank with a cursor. 2. An * indicates that the prompt is looking for an alpha character. The letters are located in the upper right corner of the keys. A indicates the prompt is looking for a or umber. until you The numbers are on the yellow keys. see Press NUM/ALPHA key to change from Alpha to Numeric mode or vice versa. One of the symbols appears on the display and in place of the first character of the old ID. The rest of the old ID disappears. Keyin your ID using the NUM/ALPHA key and the letters and numbers on the keys.

3. The ID is loaded into the transmitter. then

Adjusting the damping time Damping time sets the unit of time for the damping constant. This constant establishes the upper limit frequency response and the response time characteristics of the transmitter. This is used to reduce the electrical noise effect on the output signal. Using the SFC, you can adjust the damping by selecting a value on the SFC and send that value to the transmitter. The minimum value is 0.0 seconds (no damping). The maximum value is 32.0 seconds. Figure is a graphic view of the key presses required to adjust the damping time value .

NOTE 1: Available Damping Settings are: 0.0, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 16.0, 32.0 seconds

Selecting the units in which to display values Although the most common units for measuring pressure are inches of water or pounds per quare inch, you may want it shown in another unit. The SFC can display the values for LRV, URV, SPAN, URL, and INPUT in one of thirteen pre-programmed units. These are: PSI Pounds per square inch KPa Kilopascals MPa Megapascals mBAR Millibar BAR Bar G/cm2 Grams per square centimeter Kg/cm2 Kilograms per square centimeter inHg at 32F Inches of mercury at 32F mmH2O at 4C Millimeters of water at 4C mH2O at 4C Meters of water at 4C inH2O at 39F Inches of water at 39.2F * inH2O at 68F Inches of water at 68F mmHg at 0C Millimeters of mercury at 0C Step Press SFC Display will Read Result Display shows the currently selected PV number (for example: UNITS 1) and the currently selected unit. The example display shows PSI. Press this key until you see the required unit in the lower display. The available selections are shown above.

or

The SFC will now display the values for LRV, URV, SPAN, URL, and INPUT in the unit selected. Keying-in the lower and upper range values You can re-range a transmitter by changing the transmitters Lower Range Value (LRV) and Upper Range Value (URV). You can re-range the transmitter to whatever values you need. Use the procedures listed in the figures that follow. NOTE: 2 ALWAYS KEY-IN THE LOWER RANGE VALUE FIRST. Keying-in the lower range value (LRV) Change the LRV - Lower Range Value of a transmitter as follows:

Locate the LRV key on the keyboard and press. Below is a graphic view of the key presses required to change the Lower Range Value (LRV).

Keying-in the upper range value (URV) Change the URV - Upper Range Value of a transmitter as follows:

Observations:

Pressure Kg/cm2 0.0 0.05 0.12 0.46 0.49 0.75 0.89 .9

Current (mA) 4.00 4.12 5.94 11.4 12.52 17.72 19.48 20

SFC reading (%) 0.00 0.78 12.66 51 53.45 83.3 97 100

Aim:

To design the analog signal conditioning of RTD

4. Analog Signal Conditioning of RTD

Apparatus:

RTD Pt100,DC Supply, Resistors, Digital Multimeter, Breadboard.

Theory: For measurement of Temperature, numbers of sensors are available. One of the most linear, stable, and reproducible temperature sensors is the RTD, Resistance Temperature Detector. In RTD, the output resistance changes with temperature. RTD is a positive temperature coefficient device. In this experiment, Pt100 is used for temperature measurement.

Analog signal conditioning of RTD is done using a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge output voltage is an indirect indication of the RTD resistance. The bridge requires four connection wires, an external source, and three resistors that have a zero temperature coefficient. The output voltage read by the DVM is directly proportional to RTD resistance. Mathematically, VG=(RX/R3+RX -R2/R1+R2)*VS where, VG is the bridge output voltage and VS is the supply voltage to bridge.

Basic measuring circuit:

Procedure: 1. Arrange the circuit as per diagram with DC Supply= 5V. 2. Note the output voltage reading of bridge using DVM. Output voltage is related to RTD resistance. 3. Change the RTD resistance by varying temperature. 4. Measure Bridge output voltage at different values of RTD resistance. Plot it.

Observations Table and Plot:Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Resistance change () 104 110 113 115 116 118 Bridge Output Voltage (V) 0.21 0.22 0.243 0.262 0.274 0.29

Result: We have obtained detectable output in millivolt from Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Conclusion: From plot of the changing RTD rsistance and bridge output we can conclude that bridge get unbalance which results in change in value of bridge output voltage. The change in voltage is in detectable amount.

Aim Apparatus

: :

5. Digital signal conditioning of RTD

To design digital signal conditioning of RTD. 0808 ADC chip, Power supply, Function generator, Breadboard Operational amplifier, Resistors, LED, Connecting wires

Theory

A differential amplifier is an operational amplifier with differential input and high gain. Gain = Rf/Rin

Fig.1 Differential amplifier The amplifier is used to get an observable value as input to the ADC.This value is converted to digital value by 0808 ADC. An Analog-to-Digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device that converts a continuous quantity to a discrete time digital representation. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or

current. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered ADCs. The digital output may use different coding schemes. Typically the digital output will be a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities. An encoder, for example, might output a Gray code. The pin diagram connections of 0808 ADC are shown below.

Fig.2 0808 ADC pin diagram Resolution The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values available, or "levels", is a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 28 = 256. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. unsigned integer) or from Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete voltage intervals:

Resolution = Vref (+) V ref (-) / 2N N: - No. of bits

Procedure:-

1. Connect the analog input from the RTD circuit to the amplifier. 2. Connect the output of the amplifier as input and all other pins of 0808 ADC to their respective points. 3. Connect the LEDs at the output points. 4. Observe the output as glowing LEDs (1=ON,0=OFF)

Observation Table:Sr. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Voltage (V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 BINARY OUTPUT at LEDs 0000 0000 0011 0010 0110 0101 1001 1000 1100 1011 1111 1111

Result: - We got output in form of glowing LED;s in range of (0-5 volt) on basis of our analog output of Wheatstone bridge with RTD,which we have amplified using differential amplifier. Formula for ADC output convention is {(X/5)*256-1} where X is voltage from 0-5 volt.

Conclusion: - We have converted analog output of Wheatstone bridge into amplified digital output in form of glowing LEDs.

Aim:

To design an intrinsic Safety Circuit for an sensor.

6. Intrinsic Safety Circuit Design for RTD

Objective: RTD

To understand working of an Intrinsic Safety Circuit. Implement the safety circuit for

Apparatus Required: The field device (RTD) Resistors Zener diodes Fuse

Theory Intrinsic safety prevents low-voltage circuits (RTD, Thermocouple etc) in hazardous areas from releasing sufficient energy to ignite volatile gases. All intrinsically safe circuits have three components: the field device, referred to as the intrinsically safe apparatus; the energy-limiting device, also known as a barrier or intrinsically safe associated apparatus; and the field wiring. When a sensor is connected to an approved intrinsically safe associated apparatus (barrier), the circuit is considered intrinsically safe. Under normal conditions, the barrier is passive and allows the intrinsically safe apparatus or the field device to function properly. Under fault conditions, it protects the field circuit by preventing excess voltage and current from reaching the hazardous area. The basic circuit diagram for an intrinsically safe barrier is shown. The resistor limits the current to a specific value known as the short circuit current, Isc. The zener diode limits the voltage to a value referred to as open circuit voltage, Voc. The fuse will blow when the diode conducts. This interrupts the circuit, which prevents the diode from burning and allowing excess voltage to reach the hazardous area. There always are at least two zener diodes in parallel in each intrinsically safe barrier. If one diode should fail, the other will operate providing complete protection.

Basic Circuit of Intrinsic safe circuit:

Procedure Examine the Barrier Parameters Before we analyze thermocouple and RTD circuits, we should examine the functional parameters necessary to select the proper barrier. These parameters are: polarity of circuit; rated voltage of barrier; and resistance of barrier. Polarity-The circuits polarity must be known in order to choose the correct type of barrier. DC barriers are rated either as positive or negative. AC barriers can be connected to circuits with either a positive or negative supply. SIGNAL & RETURN barriers are used for transmitter and switching applications. All of these barriers are available in single- or double-channel versions. However, because double-channel barriers save space and money by being connected to two legs of a loop, they are becoming the standard. Rated voltage. Like any electrical device, safety barriers have a rated nominal voltage, Vn, referred to as working voltage. The barriers Vn should be greater than or equal to the supply to the barrier, much like the rated voltage of a lamp must be equal to or greater than the supply to it. If the voltage supply to the barrier is much greater than its Vn, the barrier will sense a fault. The protective zener diodes will conduct, causing leakage currents and inaccurate signals on the loop. Most barriers have a rated working voltage that guarantees a minimal leakage current from 1 to 10 micro amps if it is not exceeded. If the supply voltage to the barrier becomes too high, the zener diode will conduct. The resulting high current through the fuse will cause the fuse to blow. Excess supply voltage is the main reason why grounded barriers fail. Internal resistance. Every safety barrier has an internal resistance, Ri that limits the current under fault conditions. Ri also creates a voltage drop across the barrier. This drop can be calculated by applying Ohms law, V=IR. Not accounting for the voltage drop produces the most problems in the proper functioning of intrinsically safe systems. RTD System Design Pointers RTDs come in 2-, 3-, and 4-wire versions. The 3-wire RTD is used in more than 80% of all applications. The 2-wire version is not as accurate and is used mostly in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning industry for set-point temperature measurements. The 4-wire RTD provides the most accurate signal,

but is more expensive and requires one more extension wire to the process area. Understanding RTD accuracy is essential in selecting the correct barrier. Many RTD measurements are in the form of a Wheatstone bridge, whose output voltage is a function of the RTD resistance. The bridge requires four connection wires, an external source, and three resistors that have a balanced temperature coefficient. The RTD normally is separated from the bridge by a pair of extension wires. With a 2-wire RTD, the impedance of the barrier in series with the RTD will cause an imbalance on the bridge and will affect the accuracy of the temperature reading. This effect can be minimized by using a third wire to measure the voltage (refer to Figure 3 for this discussion). If wires A and B are perfectly matched and if the resistance in both channels of the barrier is the same, the impedance effects will cancel because each is in an opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a sense lead to the voltmeter. The constant current amperage sent to the RTD typically is in the micro amp (10-6) level. The maximum resistance of the most commonly used RTD, Pt100 is 390 ohms at 1560C. The voltage drop across the RTD will be in mV, so the Vn of the RTD loop is similar to the thermocouple. To be safe, select a barrier with a Vn greater than 1 V, similar to the Vn of the thermocouple barrier. Internal resistance. The constant current source will have a rated maximum load or burden (resistance load it can drive). Assume that this maximum load is 500 ohms and the maximum resistance of the RTD at the highest temperature is 390 ohms. Knowing this information, the Ri of the barrier can be calculated: control room barrier + RTD Resistance resistance resistance 500 ohms < Ri ohms + 390 ohms Ri < 110 ohms Assume that conditions are as follows: Supply = 24V 250 ohms loop resistance 12 V for transmitter Vmax = 30 V, Imax = 150 mA Calculate the maximum allowable resistance of the barrier under worst-case conditions when the transmitter is sending a 20 mA signal. The supply is 24 Vdc; the transmitter requires a minimum of 12 V; and the 250 ohm conversion resistor requires 5 V at 20 mA. Simple subtraction leaves a maximum allowable voltage drop of 7 V. Using Ohms Law, this converts to an internal resistance of 350 ohms. Allow for a cable resistance of about 10 ohms. Thus, the circuit functions properly with a barrier having an internal resistance of 340 ohms. Testing Circuit:-

Result: Voltage 24 V 25 V 28 V 30 V Current (DMM reading ) 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA 20 mA

Conclusion: As the supply voltage increases but the current through DMM is constant. This indicates the RTD will carry only desired current in unsafe conditions, which will avoid the explosion in case of Hazardous area installation of RTD.

Aim: Characterisation of the capacitive level sensor. Objective: constant of Apparatus:

7. Capacitive level sensor

Effect of various factors that affect the output of a capacitor, e.g. temperature, dielectric insulator used, distance between the plates, are of the plates used, etc. 1. Metallic tank 2. Cylindrical capacitive sensor 3. Digital multimeter

Where, =Permittivity (farad/meter ) L = Length (meter) b =Outer conductor diameter (meter) a = Inner conductor diameter (meter) Observations: Level (cm) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 75 80 85 Capacitance (pF) 17 30 42 43 45 49 51 55 57 59 61 63 65 68 70 72

Conclusion: Sensitivity = slope of the characteristic graph = 0.6875 pF/cm