Precast Quality Guide

Fundamentals of Quality Precast
Text also available in Spanish, courtesy of
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CONTENTS
Copyright 2000 Revised 2002, 2004, 2005 National Precast Concrete Association All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical, including, photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems withour the prior written permission of the copyright owners. Contributors Carl Buchman, P.E. Dean Frank, P.E. Mel C. Marshall, P.ENG Brian Miller Alex Morales
INTRODUCTION
REFERENCE MATERIAL
Desirable Properties Desirable Properties of Hardened Concrete Essentials for Producing Quality Concrete Summary i-1 i-2 i-3 i-5
Section 1 CONCRETE MATERIALS

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Aggregates Lightweight Aggregates Aggregate Testing Cement Types of Cements Blended Cement Admixtures Water Materials Certicates Frequency Report Samples of Material Certicates Summary Handouts 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-5 1-6 1-8 1-9 1-12 1-13 1-15 1-27
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Section 2 REINFORCEMENT
REFERENCE MATERIAL
Introduction Non-Reinforced Concrete Behavior Reinforced Concrete Behavior Effectiveness of Placement Reinforcement Types Reinforcing Bars U.S. Customary and Metric Bars Rebar Reinforcing Wire Bar Mars and Welded Wire Reinforcement Plan Welded Wire Reinforcement Deformed Welded Wire Reinforcement Zinc or Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement Concrete Cover for Reinforcement Structural Integrity Minimum Reinforcement Bend Diameters Carbon Equivalence ASTM A615 Reinforcement ASTM A706 Reinforcement Steel Area and Bar Sizes Summary 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-9
Section 3 MISC. MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Lifting Devices and Apparatus Embedded Steel Shapes, Plates, and Hardware Accessories Fiber Reinforcement Summary 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-5
Section 4 CONCRETE MIXES

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Concrete Mixes Compressive Strength Wet Cast Concrete Dry Cast Concrete Air In Concrete Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) Summary 4-1 4-1 4-2 4-2 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-5
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Section 5 BATCHING AND MIXING

REFERENCE MATERIAL
NPCA Requirements Considerations for Sizing Batch Plants Selecting Mixer Common Types of Mixers Considerations for Aggregate Storage Proper Aggregate Storage Filling Aggregate Bins Discharge of Raw Materials into Mixer Discharge of Concrete from Mixer Concrete Discharge from Mixer Handling Concrete Pouring Concrete Conveyor Belts Samples of Batch Plant Schematics Summary 5-1 5-1 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-8 5-17
Section 7 PRODUCTION PRACTICES

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Consolidation Why Vibrate? Amplitude & Frequency of Vibration Factors to Consider When Selecting a Consolidation Method Vibration Frequency Interal Vibration Procedure Overlapping Field of Actions Form (External) Vibration Form Vibrator Sizing Form Vibration Procedure Table Vibration Unidirectional Vibration Effects of Under-Vibration Effects of Over-Vibration Curing Why is Curing Essential? Essentails of Proper Curing Concrete Strength vs. Moisture Condition Concrete Setting Times 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-5 Low Temperature vs. Strength Maintaining Moisture by Wetting Spraying/Misting Accelerated Curing Wet-Cast Product Curing Dry-Cast Product Curing Special Conditions Considerations for Accelerated Curing Typical Accelerated Curing Cycle Target Temperatures 7-1 7-1 7-2
7-2 7-2 7-2 7-3 7-3 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 7-7 7-7 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-9
Section 6 PRE-POUR OPERATIONS

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Seasoning Pre-pour Inspection and Checklist Form Preparation Pre-pour Checklist Cleaning Form Release Agents Blockouts Blockout Securing Methods Summary
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Mels Method for Detecting Flueing Summary
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Section 8 POST-POUR OPERATIONS

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Stripping Product Checking Repair Storage Loading Out Shipping Summary 8-1 8-2 8-2 8-3 8-3 8-5 8-7
Section 9 QUALITY CONTROL AND OPERATIONS

REFERENCE MATERIAL
The Big Picture NPCA Plant Certication Program Safety Specs, Standards and References Drawings Concrete Testing Aggregate Testing Record Keeping Summary 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-7 10-9 10-10
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Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Desirable Properties
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. To achieve good concrete we, of course, must use good materials and good practices. Further, fresh concrete needs to have the following desirable properties: Consistency Loosely dened, consistency is the relative mobility of the concrete mixture. It is measured in terms of slump the higher the slump the more mobile the mixture and it affects the ease with which the concrete will ow during placement. It is related to, but not synonymous with workability. In properly proportioned concrete, the unit water content required to produce a given slump will depend on several factors. Water requirement increases as aggregates become more angular and rough textured (but this disadvantage may be offset by improvements in other characteristics such as bond to cement paste). Required mixing water decreases as the maximum size of well-graded aggregate is increased. It also decreases with the entrainment of air. Mixing water requirements usually are reduced signicantly by certain chemical water-reducing admixtures.
Workability or Placeability Workability is considered to be that property of concrete that determines its capacity to be placed and consolidated properly and to be nished without harmful segregation. It embodies such concepts as moldability, cohesiveness, and compactability. Workability is affected by: the grading, particle shape, and proportions of aggregate; the amount and qualities of cement and other cementitious materials; the presence of entrained air and chemical admixture; and the consistency of the mixture. Uniformity We must be condent that all portions of a batch or load of concrete contains the same proportions of the same ingredients, will behave the same way, and will give essentially similar results after curing. Uniformity results from procuring raw materials that do not vary in either proportion or makeup. Additionally, proper uniformity can be achieved by performing mixing and transport according to proper procedures, and consistently using good placing, vibration, nishing and curing technique. Finishability This is an important part of workability, since it strongly relates to the look and quality of the exposed surfaces of the hardened concrete. A mix that
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requires over-troweling or the addition of surface water to bring up an acceptable nish, or develops excessive bleed water, does not have good nishability (since each of these will effect the exposed layer of concrete). Bleeding rate Bleeding is the migration of water to the top surface of freshly placed concrete caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the mass. Excessive bleeding increases the watercement ratio near the top surface, and a weak top layer with poor durability may result (particularly if nishing operations take place while bleed water is present). Therefore, a minimum amount of bleed water is desirable, barely sufcient to enhance nish troweling or screeding. Controlled setting time The binding quality of portland cement paste is due to the chemical reaction between the cement and water (called hydration). The rate of reaction is important because the rate determines the time of setting and hardening. The initial reaction must be slow enough to allow time for the concrete to be transported, placed, and nished, but not so slow that setting and strength gain do not begin within a reasonable time after being nished. Temperature Ideal placing temperature is between 50 and 60 degrees F. Cooler temperatures simply slow down the time of initial set and the rate of strength gain, while hotter temperatures do the opposite. Excessively hot temperatures, whether caused by over-mixing, hot ingredients, hot forms or ambient temperatures, can create difculties in fresh concrete. These include increased water demand, accelerated slump loss, faster setting rate, more plastic cracking, and reduction in entrained air.
Desirable Properties of Hardened Concrete

Durability Ideally wed like concrete to last thousands of years (and some has). To achieve long-term durability it must be resistant to: exterior chemical attack, as well as that which could occur internally, like alkali-silica reaction; carbonation; ultra-violet ray deterioration; and freezethaw deterioration. Water-tightness Whereas it may be acceptable to have water pass easily through a sidewalk, it isnt acceptable to have underground structures leaking contained uids or allowing water inltration. Good concrete is watertight, even without applied membranes. (However, membranes have their use and their place.) Strength Compressive strength is the general measure of concrete quality, although tensile, exural, shear, and torsional strengths are also important strengths. Compressive strength is also the easiest to evaluate, and is therefore the normal specication measure; we count on concrete to be strong in compression. Abrasion resistance Floors, pavements, and hydraulic structures are subject to abrasion, and therefore require a high abrasion resistance. Test results indicate abrasion resistance is closely related to the compressive strength of concrete. Also, in these cases, an abrasion resistant aggregate is also required. Appearance Appearance is important to the buyer. Bug holes, bleeding, surface rusting, form joints, dimensional discrepancies, nish or color variations, and pour lines are unacceptable.
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Dimensional stability Concrete is not silly putty, and it is counted on to be dimensionally stable. Nevertheless, concrete does change in volume due to temperature change, moisture change (drying or the reverse), load application (both immediate deformation and a time dependent change, called creep), and even some chemical reactions. Fortunately, with proper manufacture, reinforcing, design and application, good concrete stays relatively stable dimensionally. Economy Concrete is probably the most widely used building material in the world, generally available locally, and at a very competitive price. We must always keep it that way, without sacricing any of its other important properties.
properly and swiftly delivered, all the steps that follow will not produce quality concrete. Piece and form setup Here is where it gets down and dirty for the employees on the shop oor (who usually dont have anything to do with the original concrete batch). From here on, just remember the old question: If we have time to do it right the second time around, why didnt we take the time to do it right the rst time? Placing and consolidation Concrete responds well to patient handling and good technique. When we start getting lazy, sloppy, rushed like dumping loads from too high up or trying to move concrete with vibrators rather than hand tools, skipping a corner with the vibrator or over vibrating to be safe and driving out too much air results surely suffer. Proper technique must be taught and then expected. Finishing Over-nishing can be as harmful as not properly nishing at all. And who hasnt failed to see that little note on the drawing calling for a different or special nish on some part of that typical piece until after it was made? Curing Rather than an after thought, or just the last step, curing is the desert following a perfect meal. Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete during a denite time period immediately following placing and nishing so the desired properties may develop. The need for adequate curing of concrete cannot be overemphasized. Curing has a strong inuence on durability, strength, watertightness, abrasion resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and thawing and deicer salts.
Essentials for Producing Quality Concrete

Suitable materials The quality of the concrete depends primarily upon the quality of the paste (cement and water); and since aggregates make up 60% to 70% of the total volume of concrete, their characteristics are also vitally important. All the ingredients of a mix must be selected to achieve the design objectives, for compatibility with each other, and for a consistent level of quality. Design Without it, nothing will work very well. This is true of the mix design, the product and shape design, the reinforcing design, and the application design. Poor workmanship can ruin a good design, but good workmanship wont improve bad design. Proportioning, mixing, transporting of batch As was said about design, each step in the process must be done correctly, over and over again. If the proper mix design isnt accurately proportioned, thoroughly mixed, and
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Notes
SUMMARY
Essentials for Producing Quality Concrete
l Suitable materials l Design l Proportioning, mixing, transporting of batch l Piece and form setup l Placing and consolidation l Finishing l Curing l Quality Control procedures
Desirable Properties of Fresh Concrete

l Consistency l Workability l Uniformity l Finishability l Bleeding rate l Controlled setting l Temperature l Economically
Desirable Properties of Hardened Concrete

l Durability l Water-tightness l Strength l Abrasion resistance l Appearance l Dimensional stability.
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CONCRETE MATERIALS
Aggregates
Manufacture Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-sized gravel. Aggregates are usually graded and washed at the pit or plant. Some variation in the type, quality, cleanliness, grading, moisture content, and other properties is to be expected, as we are dealing with a material made by nature. Classication We have two tables to look at and discuss. The rst is Rock and Mineral Constituents in Aggregates; it is important to note not all naturally occurring aggregates are good constituents for concrete. The second table, Characteristics and Tests of Aggregates, pulls together all the important aspects we need in good aggregates, and the reasons for them, as well as giving you the ASTM Test Designation which is used to evaluate them. Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Table 5-1, Page 80 and Table 5-2, Page 81 Grading & ASTM Specication C33 grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve analysis. Look at these two screens for an example of the C 33 limits for ne aggregate and for one typically used grading (size number) of coarse aggregate. Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition g. 5-6, Page 82 Fine Aggregate Grading Limits, Table 5-3, Page 83. There are several reasons for specifying grading limits and maximum aggregate size. The grading and maximum size of aggregate affect relative aggregate proportions as well as cement and water requirements, workability, pumpability, economy, porosity, shrinkage, and durability of concrete. Variations in grading can seriously affect the uniformity of concrete from batch to batch. Very ne sands are often uneconomical; very coarse sands and coarse aggregate can produce harsh, unworkable mixes. In general, aggregates that give a smooth grading curve and do not have a large denciency or excess of any size will produce the most satisfactory results. Coarse and ne Since the cement is the most expensive ingredient in a mix, and in many ways the most troublesome, we want to proportion the mix to require the
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least amount of cement paste necessary to coat all the aggregate particles and oat them in suspension, while giving us the required strength, workability, durability, etc. Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Fig. 5-7, Page 82. Moisture condition Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Fig. 5-12, Page 88. This picture illustrates the moisture condition of aggregates; they are designated: lOven dry fully absorbent lAir dry dry at the particle surface but containing some interior moisture, thus still somewhat absorbent lSaturated surface dry (SSD) neither absorbing water from nor contributing water to the concrete mixture lDamp or wet containing an excess of moisture on the surface, called free water The amount of water used for the concrete mixture must be adjusted for the moisture conditions of the aggregates in order to meet the designated water requirement. If the water content of the concrete mixture is not kept constant, the compressive strength, workability, and other properties will vary from batch to batch. Deleterious substances This refers to any material in the aggregate that is detrimental to the concrete; these would include clay lumps and friable particles (examples include sandstone and shale), chert (due to cracking associated with frost susceptibility or the formation of surface pop outs), material less than the No. 200 sieve (75-mm), coal and lignite, and such debris as plant roots or twigs.
Size determination & limitation The aggregate sizes are usually chosen by the mix designer from experience, or sometimes as required by specication. Use of the largest size aggregate generally leads to the most economical mix, but smaller size aggregates are preferred over larger size aggregates for high strength mixes. Specications limit the maximum size of the coarse aggregate to 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, 1/3 the depth of slabs, or the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles or bars, or prestressing tendons or ducts. Gap-Graded aggregates Gap-graded mixes are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed-aggregate concrete by omitting certain particle sizes. They are also used in normal structural concrete because of possible improvements in density, permeability, shrinkage, creep, strength, consolidation, and to permit use of local aggregate gradations. There are many other adjustments the mix designer must make when using gag-graded mixes to render them useable.
Lightweight Aggregates
Lightweight aggregates are used primarily to reduce weight, and that can be to reduce weight of a structure because of load bearing foundation problems, or because of shipping or handling problems for example, to keep a piece weight legal on a truck, or so it can be lifted by available cranes. You should know that lightweight aggregates have many other uses as well, such as insulating concrete units, cellular or foam concretes, and no-nes concretes. Since the use of lightweight aggregates is generally minimal compared to normal weight aggregates, this section will be somewhat abbreviated.
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Manufacture Structural grade lightweight aggregates are produced in manufacturing plants from raw materials including suitable shales, clays, slates, y ashes, or blast furnace slags. There are also naturally occurring lightweight aggregates, which are mined from volcanic deposits, such as pumice and scoria types. Pyroprocessing methods include: lRotary kiln process a long, slowly rotating, nearly horizontal cylinder lined with refractory materials similar to cement kilns lSintering process a bed of raw materials including fuel is carried by a traveling grate under ignition hoods lRapid agitation of molten slag with controlled amounts of air or water Gradations Lightweight aggregates come in various gradations, much like normal weight aggregates. But because they are at least twice as expensive as normal weights, a mix will sometimes be composed of only lightweight large aggregate plus normal weight sand. The determining factor is what weight per cubic foot is required, which is directly related to what compressive strength is desired. In other words, structural mixes of all lightweight normally run between 90 to 115 pounds per cubic foot (pcf). Combinations can run anywhere between this and normal weight concretes. ASTM C130 Lightweight aggregates have their own ASTM designation, recommending material weights, compressive strength, and gradations. For example, the maximum unit weight for ne aggregate is 70 pcf, for coarse aggregate 55 pcf, and for combined ne and coarse aggregate 65 pcf. There are no minimums given. Compared to normal weight aggregates, which range from 75 to 110 ppf.
Moisture condition Due to their cellular structure, lightweight aggregates absorb more water than their normal-weight counterparts (2.5 to 12 times as much). The important difference in measurements of stockpile moisture contents is that with lightweight aggregates the moisture is largely absorbed into the interior of the particles whereas in normal weight aggregates it is primarily surface adsorption. Recognition of this is important: keep the lightweight stockpile appropriately wetted to prevent the material from sucking water out of the batch, resulting in a dry and unworkable mix. Other differences Lightweight concretes, which have many advantages, also have many differences besides weight. For example, tensile strength, shrinkage and creep factors, and modulus of elasticity are different. But if you do all the right things, just like in normal weight concrete, it is just as durable and serviceable.
Aggregate Testing
Gradation This is one you are required to do in-plant, regardless of what information the supplier gives you. Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Table 5-5, Page 84. The most desirable ne-aggregate grading depends on the type of work, the richness of mix, and the maximum size of coarse aggregate. In leaner mixes, or when small-size coarse aggregates are used, a grading that approaches the maximum recommended percentage passing each sieve is desirable for workability. The grading for a given maximum size coarse aggregate can be varied over a moderate range without appreciable effect on cement and water requirements. The test here is ASTM C136.
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In general, if the ratio of water-cement is kept constant and the ratio of ne to coarse aggregate is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without measurable effect on strength. The greatest economy will sometimes be achieved by adjusting the concrete mixture to suit the gradation of the local aggregates. The more uniform the grading, the greater the economy. Soundness Soundness embodies many properties which are listed in Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Table 5-2, Page 81. Most aggregate suppliers will have performed the ASTM tests listed, and have the results available for you. An aggregate should have a satisfactory score in the ASTM tests. If you have any doubts or specic requirements, it will pay to have your own tests run at labs that specialize in these procedures. Cleanliness All aggregates should be washed at the manufacturing site, but clean is a relative term. For instance, if wash water is immediately recycled without having time for the ne silt to settle out, it is very likely that a ne lm of dust or dirt will be left on the aggregate. If the washing process doesnt adequately remove twigs and decomposed vegetation, the washed material is still contaminated. The easiest test for cleanliness is visual inspection and feel of a handful of material. A simple lab test is to take a clear mason jar and ll it 20% full of aggregate and the rest clean water. Shake up the jar thoroughly, and let it stand on a shelf to settle out. Do this test regularly, using a new clean jar (at least once per week), and compare the layer of silt that forms on top of the aggregate. You can readily see any increase in dirt coming in on the aggregate. (A series of four jars is enough to keep recycling to give you a clear
picture of any trends or variations.) The standard ASTM Test for this is C117. Moisture content Since the water to cementitious materials (w/c ratio) is an extremely important indicator of concrete quality, care must be taken to know the moisture content of the aggregates used, and to adjust the batch weights and water weight accordingly. This is probably the biggest variable in putting together each consecutive batch, as the moisture usually varies from the top of an aggregate bin or stockpile to the bottom. If it has recently rained, or is raining, there can be big swings in moisture content of the material. Here is another description of the aggregate moisture conditions: It is very important to measure the sand moisture content each day, and possibly more than once if noticeable variations are occurring, so that proper adjustments in the sand weight and water can be made. In all new automated plants today, this can be integrated into the system, or set up to automatically compensate. But a physical measure is still important to verify the automated readings, or to set the manual adjustment factors. Sulfate reactivity Sulfate attack to concrete normally occurs to the cement paste portions, not to the aggregate. However, there is another standard test, ASTM C88, Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate; it covers the testing of aggregates to estimate their soundness when subjected to weathering action in concrete applications. This test furnishes information helpful in judging the soundness of aggregates when adequate information is not available from service records of the material exposed to actual weathering conditions.
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Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) Symptoms of ASR are typied by the expansion of concrete, usually accompanied by cracking. Undesirable aggregates are potentially present in every state in the Union; ASR will only occur in concretes with high moisture contents. It is bad for concrete, and every producer needs to avoid aggregates which are reactive, particularly if the cement is high in alkali. These tests, primarily ASTM C 227, 289, and 295 are laboratory tests. You need your aggregate supplier to have them professionally performed, and you need to have someone in your company read them carefully to be sure you do not have aggregates high in certain forms of undesirable mineral constituents, such as certain forms of silica or carbonates. Generally, states maintain lists of acceptable suppliers with aggregates suitable for low or high alkalinity cement.
great rotary kilns. These kilns may be in excess of 700 ft in length and 18 ft in diameter. The partially fused material which emerges from the kiln is called clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a very ne powder. During grinding a small amount of calcium sulfate (gypsum), about 3 to 6 percent, is added to control the setting properties. When rst made and used in the early nineteenth century in England, it was termed portland cement because its product resembled a building stone from the Isle of Portland off the British coast. Basic cement components Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Table 2-6, Page 42. Notice that the chemical makeup of Type I and Type III cements, the kinds used almost exclusively in precast plants, are nearly identical. It is the neness to which they are ground which makes the difference, the ner grind of the Type III making it the higher early strength cement that it is. l C3S (Tricalcium silicate) hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength. In general, the early strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased percentages of C3S. l C2S (Dicalcium silicate) hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increase at ages beyond one week. l C3A (Tricalcium aluminate) liberates a large amount of heat during the rst few days of hydration and hardening. It also contributes slightly to early strength development. Gypsum, which is added to cement during nal grinding, slows down the hydration rate of C3A. Without gypsum, a cement with C3A present would
Cement
Portland cements are hydraulic cements composed primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates. Hydraulic cements set and harden by reacting chemically with water. During this reaction, called hydration, cement combines with water to form a stonelike mass. When the paste (cement and water) is added to aggregates, it acts as an adhesive and binds the aggregates together to form concrete. Portland Cement Manufacture The essential materials from which portland cement is made are hydraulic calcium silicates along with some calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrites. These materials must contain appropriate proportions of calcium oxide, silica, alumina, and iron oxide components. The raw materials, which are nely ground and intimately mixed are heated to the beginning of fusion (about 2700 F), in
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set rapidly. Cements with low percentages of C3A are especially resistant to soils and water containing sulfates. l C4AF (Tetracalcium aluminoferrite) reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby assisting in the manufacture of cement. It hydrates rather rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Most color effects are due to C4AF and its hydrates.
Types of cements
l Type I This is the general purpose cement suitable for all uses where the special properties of other types are not required. It is used in concrete that is not subject to aggressive exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by hydration. Its uses, besides in precast products, are pavements, oors, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railways structures, tanks and reservoirs, pipe, and masonry units. l Type II Used where precaution against moderate sulfate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulfate concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not unusually severe. Type II cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I. The requirement of moderate heat of hydration can be specied at the option of the purchaser. If heat of hydration maximums are specied, this cement can be used in structures of considerable mass, such as large piers, and heavy abutments and retaining walls. Its use will reduce temperature rise, which is especially important when concrete is placed in warm weather. l Type III Provides high strengths at an early period, usually a week or less. It is chemically and physically similar to Type I cement, except that its particles
have been ground ner. It is used when forms need to be removed as soon as possible, or when the structure must be put into service quickly. In cold weather its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing period. Although richer mixes of Type I cement can be used to gain high early strength, Type III may provide it more satisfactorily and more economically. In prestress plants mixes are routinely designed with Type III cement to give strengths of 4000 to 6000 psi in 10 to 14 hours. l Type IV Used where the rate and amount of heat generated from hydration must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than other cement types. Type IV cement is intended for use in massive concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the temperature rise resulting from heat generated during hardening must be keep down. l Type V Used only in concrete exposed to severe sulfate action principally where soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content. It gains strength more slowly than Type I cement. The high sulfate resistance of Type V is attributed to a low C3A, tricalcium aluminate. Sulfate resistance also increases with air entrainment and increasing cement contents (low water-cementitious material ratios). Type V cement, like other portland cements, is not resistant to acids and other highly corrosive substances. ASTM C 150 This is the specication under which portland cement is made. We wont go into its detail; as long as your supplier states that it is in compliance with C150, it is safe to assume that it is. Mill Certicates The cement supplier should give you a mill certicate for every load, or at least indicate that it is from the identical batch as the last load. This is his/ her certication that the cement complies
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with ASTM C 150. It also gives more specic data on the chemical ingredients, neness, etc. (See samples starting on page 1-18.) Color consistency There is very little a user can do regarding color consistency of cement. A simple test for color is to take a pinch of cement regularly, say weekly, and press it between two clear glass plates. Keep the assembly undisturbed on a shelf in your QC lab. If the colors vary unacceptably, there is a problem. It is good business to talk to the supplier as soon as you feel there is a problem, and if it isnt corrected satisfactorily, then change suppliers. Care We dont give cement much thought since it comes in without our handling it, and it goes into the mixer without handling it. But it requires exceptional care, primarily in the storage bin. Not only must it be kept dry, it must be uffed to overcome any bulking effect which would impact smooth and constant ow from the storage bin into the weigh batcher, and then into the mixer. Flufng is usually done by the introduction of compressed air. If there isnt a moisture separator on the air line, moisture will be blown into the bin along with the air. The effect of this moisture hydrating some cement is not terribly important, except for the lumps it causes, and some of the bulking within the bin. Another cause of moisture problems in bins is cracks in joints, or penetrations of bolts or auxiliary equipment which arent tight. Correlating deliveries to products As a matter of interest, the Prestressed Concrete Institute has new requirements for its plants that records be kept so that it can determine which cement delivery went into which products produced. If problems develop later on, investigation of quality and reasons for the problems can be conducted. Whereas NPCA doesnt
require this as part of its Certication program, it is worthwhile to think through your system to help you in this matter should the occasion arise.
Blended Cement
What it is Originally, concern with energy conservation prompted the use of by-product materials in portland cement concrete. Blended hydraulic cements are produced by intimately and uniformly blending two or more types of ne materials. The primary blending materials are portland cement, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, y ash and other pozzolans, hydrated lime, and preblended cement combinations of these materials. Now that time has proven the benets of these additional materials, their production is not solely the result of a need to save energy. Why use one Most concrete plants dont have enough available silo storage space to devote to y ash or a pozzolanic material to enable them to introduce cement alternatives themselves. Blended cements present options for getting the advantages of the combined materials without having to add silos and conveying mechanisms, particularly if the need is for a short period of time. In addition, there are unique requirements which can only be satised by a blended hydraulic cement. Material choices Blended cements must conform to the requirements of ASTM C 595, which recognizes ve classes: l Portland blast-furnace slag cement, Type IS Granulated blast-furnace slag of selected quality is either interground with portland cement clinker, separately ground and blended with portland cement, or produced with a combination of intergrinding and blending.
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l Portland-pozzolan cement, Type IP and P Made by intergrinding portland cement clinker with a suitable pozzolan, by blending portland cement or Portland blast-furnace slag cement and a pozzolan, or by a combination of intergrinding and blending. The pozzolan content of these cements is between 15% and 40% by weight. l Pozzolan-modied portland cement, Type I(PM) Manufactured by combining portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement and a ne pozzolan, in the same ways as outlined above. l Slag cement, Type S This is used with portland cement in making concrete or with lime in making mortar, but is not used alone in structural concrete. Manufacturing is similar to what has already been outlined. The minimum slag content is 70% by weight of the slag cement. l Slag-modied portland cement, Type I(SM) This type is manufactured similar to above; slag is less than 25% of the nished cement. There are also masonry cements, expansive cements, special cements, such as oil-well cements, waterproofed portland cements, plastic cements, regulated-set cements, and even more. Some types of cement may not be available in certain areas. Advantages/disadvantages The advantages of using blended cements are those gained from the introduction of the other materials into the portland cement. Slags, y-ash, and pozzolans are generally less expensive than portland cement. Manufacturing space and computer programs may not be able to handle separate additional materials. Most
blended cement admixtures will develop strength at a slower rate compared to the mix without them, and possibly a lower 28 day strength. These effects can become even more noticeable if temperatures are low.
Admixtures
The major reasons for using admixtures: 1. To reduce the cost of concrete construction 2. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means 3. To ensure the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in adverse weather conditions 4. To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations. Even though an admixture may produce concrete with the desired properties, the same results can often be obtained just as economically by changing the mix proportions or by selecting other concrete ingredients. Whenever possible, a comparison should be made between the cost of changing the basic concrete mixture and the additional cost of using an admixture.
QUICK NOTE
Chemical Admixtures
l Air-entraining admixtures Entrain means to suspend in a medium or carrier. Microscopic means so small as to be invisible except through a microscope. Thus, air-entraining admixtures are used to purposely manufacture and add very microscopic air bubbles in concrete. Lets also make clear that there are two types of air in concrete: entrained and entrapped. We make the entrained air bubbles by mixing in the admixture; these are the benecial bubbles. The larger,
1-8
Concrete Materials
visibly noticeable, entrapped air bubbles are not desirable; they are formed by the mixing action, or placing procedures. Entrained air greatly improves concretes resistance to surface scaling caused by chemical deicers; it dramatically improves the durability of concrete exposed to moisture during cycles of freezing and thawing. The workability of fresh concrete is also improved signicantly, and segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated. l Water-reducing admixtures These are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a certain slump, reduce water-cement ratio, or increase slump. Typical water reducers reduce the water content by approximately 5% to 10%. High range water reducers (superplasticizers) reduce water content by 12% to 30%. An increase in strength is generally obtained with water-reducing admixtures as the water-cement ratio is reduced. Despite reduction in water content, water reducing admixtures can cause signicant increases in drying shrinkage. Water reducers can decrease, increase, or have no effect on bleeding, depending on the chemical composition. l Superplasticizers are added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump owing concrete. Flowing concrete is highly uid, but workable concrete, that can be placed with little or no vibration or compaction and can still be free of excessive bleeding or segregation. Flowing concrete is used (1) in thin section placements, (2) in areas of closely spaced and congested reinforcing steel, (3) in tremie pipe (underwater) placements, (4) in pumped concrete to reduce pump pressure, thereby increasing lift and distance capacity. The addition of a superplasticizer to a 3-in. slump concrete
can easily produce a slump of 9-in. Flowing concrete is dened in ASTM C 1017 as having a slump greater than 7 1/2 in. yet maintaining cohesive properties. (Excessively high slumps, 10 in. or more, may cause concrete to segregate.) Superplasticizers can also be used to make low water-cement ratio, high-strength concrete with workability in the ranges generally specied for consolidation by internal vibration. The reduced water content, usually in the range of 12% to 30%, and the resultant reduced watercement ratio can produce concrete with (1) ultimate compressive strengths in excess of 10,000 psi, (2) increase early strength gain, and (3) reduce chloride ion penetration as well as other benecial properties. High-range water reducers are generally more effective, but more expensive, than regular water-reducing admixtures in producing workable concrete. The effect of most superplasticizers in increasing workability or making owing concrete is short-lived, 20 to 60 minutes, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability (slump loss). l Retarding admixtures High temperatures of fresh concrete (85 to 90 F) are often the cause of an increased rate of hardening that makes placing and nishing difcult. Retarders are sometimes used to (1) offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete, (2) delay the initial set of concrete when difcult or unusual conditions of placement occur, or (3) delay the set for special nishing processes such as an exposed aggregate surface. Most retarders also act as water reducers, and may entrain some air in concrete. Some reduction in early strength (1 to 3 days) accompanies the use of retarders.
1-9
SECTION ONE
l Corrosion inhibitors Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The high PH environment (usually greater than 12.5) causes a passive and noncorroding protective oxide lm to form on steel. However, carbonation or the presence of chloride ions from deicers or seawater can destroy or penetrate the lm. Once this happens, the electro-chemical process of corrosion begins. Rusting is an expansive process rust expands up to four times its original volume which induces internal stress and eventually cracking and spalling around reinforcing steel. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures chemically arrest the corrosion reaction. Calcium nitrite, the most commonly used liquid corrosion inhibitor, blocks the corrosion reaction of the chloride ions by chemically reinforcing and stabilizing the passive lm. The nitrite ion causes the ferric oxides to become insoluble. In effect, the chloride ions are prevented from penetrating the passive lm and making contact with the steel. A certain amount of calcium nitrite can stop corrosion up to a certain threshold level of chloride ion. More is better; however, calcium nitrite is also an accelerator, so too much is not good. l Lubricants & densiers Primarily used in the block industry, but also common in the dry-cast concrete products industry, these additives enhance the movement of fresh concrete through or past steel forms, and give the formed surface a smoother nish. In so doing, the wear on the steel form is reduced, as is the friction between the form and the concrete, thus reducing the drag or force required in the manufacturing process. Since zero slump mixes tend to bulk, making them difcult to compact to the same cross sectional density as wet mixes, there are admixtures which help achieve a
denser product. With many suppliers, the same admixture aids in both lubricating and densifying. l Metakaolin This is an example of the new admixtures that keep being developed. It is a pozzolanic material that reacts with free lime (calcium hydroxide, CaOH2 ) produced during the hydration process of portland cement. The pozzolanic reaction forms additional and benecial cementitious products. These are claimed to be: u Increased strength compressive, exural, and tensile u Increased chemical resistence u Reduced permeability and increased durability u Reduced drying shrinkage u Prevention of alkali silica reactions (ASR) u Control of eforescence ASTM Specications Reference Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA, 14th edition Table 6-1, Page 106.
Mineral Admixtures
Finely divided mineral admixtures are powdered or pulverized materials added to concrete before or during mixing to improve or change some of the plastic or hardened properties of portland cement concrete. Based on their chemical or physical properties, they are classied as (1) cementitious materials, (2) pozzolans, (3) pozzolans and cementitious materials, and (4) nominally inert materials. l Pozzolans /Fly ash /Silica fume A pozzolan is a siliceous or aluminosilicious material that in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in nely divided form and in the presence of
1-10
Concrete Materials
water, chemically react with the calcium hydroxide released by the hydration of portland cement to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. To varying degrees, they are used to: improve workability, plasticity, sulfate resistance; reduce alkali reactivity, permeability (increase density), heat of hydration; partially replace cement. Fly ash is a nely divided residue (powder resembling cement) that results from the combustion of pulverized coal in electric power generating plants. Fly ash is commonly used to replace some of the portland cement in a batch for economy. It can increase strength and workability, and reduce sulfate attack and alkali aggregate reaction. It reduces water demand in the same manner as liquid chemical water reducers. Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, is a result of the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in an electric arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. It reduces the permeability of a concrete mixture (often used to lower coulomb values below 1000), and produces a very dense concrete with excellent late age strength. Since it is a very ne material, it has high water demand, which can cause early set. It requires careful and thorough moist curing to prevent shrinkage cracks. It generally darkens the color of the nished concrete. l Granulated blast furnace slag Ground granulated blast furnace slag is a cementitious material with hydraulic cementing properties (they set and harden in the presence of water). Air cooled slag does not have the same hydraulic properties of water-cooled slag. Slag generally improves workability, may help nishability or pumpability, improves compressive strength, reduces
permeability, reduces alkali-aggregate reactivity, increases resistance to sulfate attack. But then, the same can generally be said of y ash and silica fume. l Coloring agents These are generally made of nely ground minerals, some are natural and some are synthetic materials. They are used primarily in architectural or exposed concrete applications. They have no cementitious properties, and therefore may reduce compressive strength; as a nely ground, inert material, they probably will reduce air content. They should be experimented with in trial mixes and samples to determine the nal color achieved, and its ability to last in sunlight and weathering. Variations in color of a nished product are more the result of variations in the water content than they are in variations in the pigment.
Water
Potable Almost any natural water that is drinkable (potable) and has no pronounced taste or odor can be used as mixing water for making concrete. However, some waters that are not t for drinking may still be suitable for concrete. Water can be tested and trial mixes performed to evaluate the effects of the water in question. In general, if mortar cubes made with such water have 7 day strengths equal to at least 90% of companion cubes made with drinkable or distilled water, it can be used. Excessive impurities in mixing water may effect setting time and concrete strength, cause eforescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcement, volume instability, and reduced durability. Recycled In many European concrete plants, everything is recycled; there is essentially no waste leaving the property. We may be forced closer and closer to
1-11
SECTION ONE
that situation in time. Wash water can be used as mix water. It is generally ponded rst to allow suspended nes to settle, but even a small percentage of the nes can be regularly introduced in the mix water without undue detriment. With the help of chemists, other waste water supplies (such as from industrial plants or sewage treatment plants) could conceivably be used as mix water. For acceptability criteria, see ASTM C94.
1-12
Concrete Materials
Material Certication Frequency Report
1-13
SECTION ONE
Samples of Materials Certications
1-14
Concrete Materials
Aggregate Reports
1-15
SECTION ONE
Aggregate Reports
1-16
Concrete Materials
Cement Mill Certicate
1-17
SECTION ONE
Cement Mill Certicate
1-18
Concrete Materials
Reinforcement Supplier Reports
1-19
SECTION ONE
Admixture Certication
1-20
Concrete Materials
1-21
SECTION ONE
1-22
Concrete Materials
Cementitious Materials Certication
1-23
SECTION ONE
Reinforcement Supplier Report
1-24
Concrete Materials
SUMMARY
General
l The quality of raw materials is proved by certicates of conformance l Certicates of importance to precasters are: s Cement and mineral admixture mill certicates, s Aggregate supplier and test reports, s Mix water potability test certication (annually) unless using municipal water supply, s Chemical admixture certications (annually). l Test Report- states that material has been tested and lists results of the tests performed. l Material Certication-certies that material meets appropriate ASTM (or other) standards.
Notes
Aggregates
l The quality of aggregates is important because they make up between 60 75% of the concrete volume l Properties of aggregates needed to produce quality concrete Conform to ASTM C33 Non-reactive (properties do not affect hardened concrete) s Clean s Free of deleterious substances s Durable s Hard s Properly sized and graded l It is very important to know the moisture content of the aggregates to produce quality mix designs s s
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SECTION ONE
Notes
l Lightweight aggregates s Reduce weight and s Have different properties than normal aggregates
Aggregate Testing
Important Tests
l Aggregate sampling l Aggregate gradation l Moisture content in aggregates l Organic impurities
Reasons for these tests:

Aggregate Sampling
l Required to achieve representative results
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

l To determine aggregate gradations (or sizes) which affect mix designs and overall concrete quality
Organic Impurities in Sand

l Determine any foreign substances in sand that may harm your concrete
Moisture Content in Aggregates

l Determine the amount of water in aggregates that will add to your mix water l Determine mix water compensation
1-26
Concrete Materials
Cement
l Portland cement is hydraulic meaning it reacts chemically with water to form the hardened paste of concrete l Five types we use are s Type I General all purpose s Type II Provides protection against moderate sulfate attack s Type III Provides high early strengths s Type IV Sets slower than other types s Type V- Provides protection against severe sulfate attack
Notes
Admixtures
l Enhance properties of plastic and hardened concrete s Reduce cost s Increase durability s Reduce set time s Increase workability l Five common types of admixtures and their purposes 1. Air Entrainment s Protection against freeze/thaw cycles s Increased durability 2. Water reducing admixtures s Reduce mixing water content s Reduce water-to-cement ratio s Increase concrete durability s Increase strength
1-27
SECTION ONE
Notes
3. Superplaticizers s Are high range water reducers s Transform low slump to high slump-concrete without adding H2O s Same properties as water reducers 4. Retarding Admixtures s Slow hydration in hot weather s Delay initial concrete set 5. Corrosion Inhibitors s Protect embedded steel from corrosion
Water
l Must be potable l If you can drink it, you can use it for concrete l Non-municipal water needs to be tested annually
1-28
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Comparison of U.S. Customary and Metric Rebars

U.S. Customary Bar
Bar Size Area in2 Area mm2
Metric Bar
Bar Size Area in2 Area mm2
Metric Bar Is
#3 #4 #4 #5 #6 #7 #7 #8 #9 #10 #10 #11 #14 #18
.11 .20 .20 .31 .44 .60 60 .79 1.00 1.27 1.27 1.56 2.25 4.00
71 129 129 200 284 387 387 510 645 819 819 1006 1452 2581
10M 10M 15M 15M 20M 20M 25M 25M 30M 30M 35M 35M 45M 55M
.16 .16 .31 .31 .47 .47 .78 .78 1.09 1.09 1.55 1.55 2.33 3.88
100 100 200 200 300 300 500 500 700 700 1000 1000 1500 2500
45% larger 20% larger 55% larger Same 6.8% larger 22% larger 30% larger 1.3% smaller 9% larger 14% smaller 22% larger 0.6% smaller 3.5% larger 3.0% smaller
2-1
SECTION TWO
I.
Introduction
Concrete is very strong in compression, but very weak in tension. Consequently, when we speak of concrete strength, we refer to the concrete compressive strength. When testing a concrete cylinder, a load is applied that compresses the cylinder. The testing machine indicates the value of the applied load, usually in pounds. Standard concrete strength, however, does not directly refer to the amount of force the concrete can carry, but the amount of stress it can carry expressed in units known as PSI (pounds per square inch). This means the applied force (in pounds) is divided by the area (in square inches) of the concrete cylinder. The maximum load applied at the time when the test cylinder fails is used to compute the compressive strength of the concrete. If we pull the concrete cylinder at both ends, we apply a tensile force. Instead of compressing it, all the material within the concrete is pulled apart. In this situation, the concrete only has about 10 percent of the strength it has under compression. For example, 4,000 PSI concrete can withstand 4,000 pounds per square inch in compression, but only 400 pounds per square inch in tension. It is important to note that concrete cylinders do not contain reinforcement, which would likely increase the load-carrying capacity of the concrete.
bottom bers of the beam and progress up through its cross-section and nally cause the beam to fail. Since concrete cannot generally withstand much tension, reinforcement is used (because steel is very strong in tension) to increase the load-carrying capacity the beam. The logical place to put steel is in the bottom areas of the beam, where the tension forces are. As an example, consider grade 60 reinforcement, which has a tensile strength of 60,000 PSI. This reinforcement is capable of supporting tension of at least 60,000 pounds per square inch compared to the 400 pounds per square inch the concrete can withstand. Therefore, you can see how reinforcement increases the structural load-carrying potential of concrete considerably.
III. Reinforced Concrete Behavior

Believe it or not, reinforced concrete is designed to crack. The amount, location and size of reinforcement ultimately determines the size of these cracks they are usually designed to be so small that they do not create a problem. But why does reinforced concrete crack? Recall our example of concrete with a 4,000 PSI design compressive strength has the ability to carry only about 400 PSI in tension. The truth about most precast concrete products is that they experience tension more often than you might think. It does not take much of a load to exceed 400 PSI, and the concrete begins to crack very soon after a load is applied. Of course, reinforced concrete is designed to transfer the tensile forces in the concrete to the steel reinforcement, but it is impractical to place the reinforcement along the outside edge of the concrete,
II.
Non-reinforced Concrete Behavior
When a vertical load is applied to the top of a concrete beam, the beam bends slightly downward to absorb the force. The concrete along the top edge of the beam (often referred to as the top bers) experiences compression, while the concrete along the bottom of the beam experiences tension. In the absence of reinforcement, cracks will form in the
2-2
Reinforcement
where the tensile forces are the greatest. This is because the steel will be exposed to the elements and eventually corrode. Hence, the reinforcement is placed within the concrete, usually an inch or two away from the surface. This leaves the amount of concrete between the surface and the reinforcement to absorb tensile forces by itself. This small portion of the concrete will begin to crack before the reinforcement begins to absorb the tensile stress.
VI. Reinforcing Bars

The most common specications governing concrete reinforcing bars are: w ASTM A615/A615M Standard Specication for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement w ASTM A996/A996M Standard Specication for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement w ASTM A706/A706M Standard Specication for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Other bars may be used if permitted by design. Mill certicates should be obtained for each shipment regardless of the type of bar since steels manufactured in Europe and elsewhere may not meet North American specications.
IV. Effectiveness of Placement

Mistakenly placing the reinforcing steel just one inch from its intended design location can lower the strength of the product by as much as 25%. Often times, when reinforcing steel is not placed in the correct location, it is because the appropriate spacer or bar chair is not used. Take the time to purchase and use the correct spacers to ensure that the reinforcing steel is placed in the exact design location.
VII. U.S. Customary and Metric Rebars

In English Units, the numbers on the bar refer to the number of eighths of an inch in the diameter of the bar. For instance: w No. 3 Bar is 3/8 diameter w No. 7 bar is 7/8 diameter In SI Units (metric) the numbers refer to the number of millimeters in the diameter of the bar. For instance, w No. 10 bar is 10mm diameter w No. 22 bar is 22mm in diameter By comparison, a: w No. 3 bar (English) is a No. 10 bar (SI) w No. 7 bar (English) is a No. 22 bar (SI)
V.
Reinforcement Types
There are many different types of reinforcement, including: w Reinforcing bars w Reinforcing wire w Bar mats and welded wire fabric w Zinc or epoxy-coated reinforcement w Pre-stressing and post-tensioning strand It is important to have the most recent copies of the specications for the type of reinforcement being used. If you dont have a specication, then it is advisable to purchase it.
2-3
SECTION TWO
VIII. Rebar
The reinforcing bars purchased can be identied by their physical appearance. The different rib patterns that are used on rebars are used to signify the strength, or grade. Rebars are available in many different grades (i.e. Grade 40, Grade 60).
XII. Deformed Welded Wire Reinforcement

Deformed WWR must conform to ASTM A467 Specication for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement. The maximum spacing for welded intersections is 12 inches. Deformed wires have small ribs or other deformations along the surface to enhance the bond with the concrete along the entire length of the wire.
IX. Reinforcing Wire

Reinforcing wires must conform to ASTM A82 Standard Specication for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement or ASTM A496 Standard Specication for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement. Other wire may be used if permitted by design. Mill certicates should be obtained for each shipment.
XIII. Zinc or Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement

Galvanized reinforcement must conform to ASTM A767 Standard Specication for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars must conform to ASTM A775 Standard Specication for EpoxyCoated Reinforcing Steel Bars or ASTM A934 Standard Specication for EpoxyCoated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars. WWR must conform to ASTM A884 Standard Specication for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement. There is no ASTM standard for zinc-coated reinforcement.
X.
Bar Mats and Welded Wire Reinforcement
These reinforcing types must conform to ASTM A184 Standard Specication for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A185 Standard Specication for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for Concrete or ASTM A497 Standard Specication for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed, for Concrete. Mill certicates should be obtained for each shipment.
XIV.Concrete Cover for Reinforcement

Proper concrete cover (generally referred to as the number of inches the reinforcement should be buried into the concrete) is necessary to provide protection against reinforcing steel corrosion. There are many varying coverage depths that can be used, depending on the environment and the size of the reinforcing bars. The amount of concrete cover should be specied in project specications or drawings.
XI. Plain Welded Wire Reinforcement

Again, plain welded wire reinforcement (WWF) must conform to ASTM A185 Specication for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain for Concrete Reinforcement. These wires can be identied by their smooth surface. With plain welded wire reinforcement, the only place that where bond is developed is at each welded intersections.
2-4
Reinforcement
XV. Structural Integrity

Structural integrity of a product depends on: w Size of the reinforcing steel w Spacing of the reinforcing steel w Positioning of the reinforcing steel
XVII. Carbon Equivalence

There is a technical term called carbon equivalent (CE) that should be checked for rebar if it is going to be welded. In addition, there are certain limits to chemical components in the steel that should be checked. One is the actual carbon content of the steel. If reinforcing steel mill certicates are not obtained on a regular basis, then it is not likely that these values will be known by plant personnel. Carbon content should be limited to less than 0.30% if the steel will be welded. Also, the carbon equivalent, which is often listed on the mill certicate or can be easily calculated at the plant, should be checked. The American Welding Society (AWS) has set requirements for welding reinforcement in their Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel. In addition, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) refers to these same requirements in their codes. In general, for bars #6 and smaller, which is most common in precast concrete plants, the carbon equivalent should be less that 0.55%, otherwise additional steps such as preheating the steel prior to welding must be done. For bars #7 and bigger, the limit is 0.45%. The overall rule of thumb is the lower the carbon equivalent, the better the weldability.
XVI. Minimum Reinforcement Bend Diameters

All rebar bends are described in terms of inside diameter of the bend, which is the same size as the pin used to bend the reinforcement. Certain factors affect the minimum required bend diameters, such as the feasibility of bending without breaking and avoiding concrete crushing inside the bend. Specic formulas for bending welded wire reinforcement include: w 4db (4 x the diameter of the wire) minimum for deformed wire larger than D6 w 2db minimum for all other wires If you bend reinforcing wire, welded wire reinforcement or reinforcing bars around too small a pin, it can cause problems. Many times, plants have one set of pins that is used for everything which is contrary to specications, as listed in the following table.
XVIII. ASTM A615 Reinforcement

So how do you calculate carbon equivalencies? When using standard ASTM A615 rebar, the carbon equivalent should denitely be checked if you are welding. It is a very simple calculation, but again, it cant be done unless mill certicates are obtained for the steel being checked. The calculation is performed by adding
Minimum Bar Bend Diameters Minimum Bar Size Diameter No. 3- No. 8 6db No. 9, No. 10, No. 11 8db No. 14 and No. 18 10db
2-5
SECTION TWO
the carbon content with the manganese content divided by six, that is:
XIX. ASTM A706 Reinforcement

When using ASTM A706 rebar, which is considered a weldable grade rebar, there is another formula. The formula is a little more complicated it is necessary to also know how much copper, nickel, chromium are in the reinforcing steel. Again, these values should be shown on the mill certicate. The calculation is performed with the following formula:
If the results are .45% or less for bars #7 and larger, or .55% for bars #6 and smaller, then preheating is not necessary.
2-6
Reinforcement
Steel Area Using Different Combinations of Bar Sizes and Spacing

Spacing
#4 1.20 0.80 0.60 0.48 0.40 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13
#5 1.86 1.24 0.93 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.47 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.21
#6 2.64 1.76 1.32 1.06 0.88 0.75 0.66 0.59 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2.40 1.80 1.44 1.20 1.03 0.90 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.40
3.16 2.37 1.90 1.58 1.35 1.19 1.05 0.95 0.86 0.79 0.73 0.68 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53
4.00 3.00 2.40 2.00 1.71 1.50 1.33 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.67 3.81 3.05 2.54 2.18 1.91 1.69 1.52 1.39 1.27 1.17 1.09 1.02 0.95 0.90 0.85 4.68 3.74 3.12 2.67 2.34 2.08 1.87 1.70 1.56 1.44 1.34 1.25 1.17 1.10 1.04
2-7
SECTION TWO
Notes
SUMMARY
Purpose
l Needed to supply concrete with strength to resist tensile and shear forces l Tensile stresses sometimes greatest during handling and transporting
Conformance as a material
l Mill certicates prove reinforcements conformance to specications
Fabrication
l Reinforcing bar bending must conform to ACI and CRSI l Welding Maintain product integrity Two weldability limits Max. carbon content (0.30%) Carbon Equivalent (CE) values ACI 318 And AWS D1.4, CE values are: For #6 and smaller - 0.55% For #7 and larger - 0.45% The lower the CE, the better the weldability For larger CE values, the rebar must be preheated
2-8
Reinforcement
Positioning
l Adequate concrete cover is necessary to protect steel against corrosion l Concrete cover must conform to ACI limits l Not touching formwork l Supported by adequate spacers l Positioning of reinforcement should be checked and authorized by QCI personnel prior to casting
Notes
Condition prior to casting

l Properly tied and spliced l Do not get form release agent on the reinforcement
2-9
Miscellaneous Materials and Components
Miscellaneous Materials and Compenents

Lifting Devices and Apparatus
Veried design OSHA requires that all lifting devices and apparatus be designed for its intended use, and in most cases, be tested. Some of these requirements are very specic, and others are rather vague. Purchased, standard items of lifting hardware, such as slings, hooks, shackles, etc. come with published capacity ratings and manufacturers backing of having tested the items, including the load factor (factor of safety) used. It is recommended that all special lifting devices and apparatus, such as lifting beams, strong backs, turning trundles, etc. be designed by an engineer. Furthermore, a le should be kept containing all designs, and information such as date of manufacture, manufacturers name (if not self made), and a unique identication number which ties it to the correct piece of equipment. Factor of safety Safety factor, or Factor of Safety is a number used in designing manufactured items that compensates for stresses that exceed the items intended, or designed stress limit. The factor of safety therefore provides a safety cushion against unknown variables. Concrete is not always consistent and when it is handled there is always the chance that something could go wrong, meaning the structure may encounter stresses that exceed its design strength. Factors of Safety in the precast industry range from 3 to 6 and there often is judgment required concerning what number, or factor, to use. OSHA requires specic numbers in cases like testing personnel safety lanyards. But OSHA is vague on design factors for lifting devices. Items designed for limited use in unique, repetitive applications, where experienced users work in desirable conditions like in an enclosed precast plant using an overhead crane a minimum factor of safety of four is recommended. For variable use items, exposed to unknown conditions of user, handling, and weather a factor of safety of 6 is recommended. For more information see Precasters Notebook, January 1997, Ch 4. Rated capacity displayed Items normally purchased as standard or stock items come with their rated capacity permanently marked on the item, or in cases of standard manufactured slings and chokers, with a rating tag attached. It is important that all these identiers remain on the item. For items such as lifting beams, you need to mark them with some identifying number (which ties them
3-1
SECTION THREE
to the items design), plus have the rated capacity clearly and legibly displayed on the equipment. This is another OSHA requirement. Hooks, slings, shackles Properly sized and rated equipment displaying these numbers are critical for lifting loads safely. Purchase documents, which include the manufacturer and load ratings, should be kept on le for the life of the item. It is very important to not overlook the effects of wear, age, and sometimes weather or misuse, on small miscellaneous equipment. Therefore, every plant should have annual training programs, as well as annual inspections. Training programs should include care of equipment, proper equipment use, and daily equipment inspection before use. The purpose here is to remove equipment from use if unduly worn or damaged. Annual inspections should be performed on all lifting equipment by an outside company. The reason for having an independent inspection is that users get comfortable with what they are doing, and after a while, they just dont see the changes that have evolved with use (or abuse). You need a fresh set of eyes now and then.
paper trail is required, as well as clearly marked identication on the item. Special exposure requirements If project specications dont require special requirements for exposure conditions, good plant practice should. Stainless steel is an obvious choice for exposed steel hardware, but it is also expensive, and not always practical for normal exposure to weather, nor obtainable in the item needed. Many items can be purchased with a nickel coating at very little extra cost. This is a good idea, as it not only protects the item from weathering in the product, it also keeps the item rust free while in storage in your plant. Galvanizing is the next choice, but it also has drawbacks: you cant galvanize some items, like interior threads, and some areas of the country dont have galvanizers economically accessible. An alternative is to apply paint (or spray) with signicant zinc contents, called zinc rich coatings. Epoxy painting is effective, but not as good as purchasing items with factory applied epoxy coating. At a minimum, every steel item cast into your product which will be exposed should be coated with a metal primer. Proper design Every item cast into a piece should be identied on the casting drawing, and uniquely tied to a specic design or plant standard. For example, WP-1 might be a plants standard 4 x 4 1/4 weld plate with one 1/2 diameter 4 inch long headed stud anchor. But if that designation has been used previously on a particular job as the identier for a special, different, custom weld plate, there is a chance for error ever after. As a further example, simply calling for a 4 inch insert allows the use of any insert in the plant which receives a 4 inch bolt. Good design will specify exactly which insert is to be used, which will have considered
Embedded Steel Shapes, Plates, and Hardware

ASTM A36 steel This is the standard grade of steel plates and shapes used for structural applications, like beams and columns, plus all the connecting plates and hardware in precast concrete. It is readily available, easily welded, and has good strength and design characteristics. If a design, as noted on piece fabrication drawings, calls for special steel, the inspector should have an easy time establishing that the correct steel is being used. This is not generally visible, so a
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its capacity in tension or shear loading, its proximity to an edge, the length of the bolt to be received, the exposure condition, etc. Thorough inspection QCI personnel should consider the following: s Is it in the right place? s Is it the right item? s Is it properly made (per plans, if it is a custom item)? s Is it secured to the forms adequately? These are the items often overlooked, and while some can be improvised and put in after a product is made, most can not. Thorough inspection can save a piece from being rejected. Purchased items It is recommended that purchase orders clearly contain specications for the item in addition to quantity and delivery requirements. These should include types of material, capacities, nishes, shapes, sizes, and special identifying criteria (such as assembly number or job identier), and any references to ASTM or industry standards required (such as for welding protocol). If the item isnt purchased correctly, you cant be sure it is correct for the application. Acceptance, identication Upon delivery, it is recommended that embedded steel shapes, plates, and hardware be clearly marked or kept individually isolated in clearly marked containers. The receiving slips containing product identication and specication, manufacturer, supplier, date received, and purchase order number should be kept on le (usually by the QC department or the production ofce) in such a manner as to be easily tied into the product on hand. This will help avoid incorrect use by distinguishing between different grades of otherwise similar items.
Accessories
Spacers, ties, chairs, etc This section is added to remind you that even the little things are important. There are chairs of every size, spacers of every type, and so on. See that the correct one is used for the job, not an improvised jury-rigged combination. These seemingly insignicant items can cause serious fault or damage if incorrectly sized or carelessly used. Question anything that appears incorrect. Exposure Exposure is one of the keys here. Chairs touching exposed surfaces need plastic feet or stainless or nickel composition to avoid future rust spots appearing. Even tie wire can cause problems if not carefully bent so loose ends point into the product and away from outside surfaces. Acceptance, verication, purchase orders This is a repeat of what was said above under embedded steel shapes, plates, and hardware. It is here to remind you that it is also important for these items, which are sometimes considered as not signicant.
Fiber Reinforcement
Fiber-reinforced concrete is conventional concrete to which discontinuous discrete bers are added during mixing. In a broad sense, bers used for reinforcing concrete are small versions of conventional steel reinforcement, and they provide a similar service. For bers to be useful and effective, they must enhance the physical attributes of concrete, and be durable. If bers are not added to the mix in the proper batching sequence or if the volume percentage of bers is too high, bers may clump together or ball up during mixing. Fiber contents up to 4% or 5% by volume of concrete or mortar can be used; however, 1% to 2% is the practical upper limit for eld placement of most bers.
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SECTION THREE
Why use Among the desirable characteristics that bers can impart to concrete are exural strength, resistance to fatigue and impact, and increased fracture resistance. Many small precast concrete items are too thin or awkwardly shaped to easily reinforce with steel bars or mesh, and are ideal for this method of reinforcing. Types used Steel, glass, polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, and carbon. Steel has been used crimped and straight; glass and carbon are usually used in ber format as in roving, or chopped lengths, or as a deformed bar of some type. Precautions Steel bers are subject to the same type of corrosion as reinforcing steel, and thus the durability of concrete made with steel bers and used in environments chemically aggressive to the steel may be poor. Thus, exposure to chlorides, presence of cracks, etc. will lead to problems and possible failures. If glass bers are not properly treated during their manufacture, they can be sensitive to alkalis in portland cement paste, causing deterioration or embrittlement. Different bers offer different advantages so their selection for use must be done carefully. For example, polymer ber such as nylon and polypropylene, improve impact strength of concrete, but not tensile or exural strengths, because they have a low modulus of elasticity. In general, bers do not replace steel reinforcing in any structural application. Much experimentation and development work is being done with carbon bers; this is an area to watch, as the properties carbon reinforcement potentially can bring to concrete is amazing.
Cost versus benet Compared to steel reinforcing, bers are an expensive way to reinforce concrete, considering the material cost, pound for pound, and the extra handling involved to get it into the mix. However, they can enhance the properties of a product, or reduce the likelihood of cracks, or their severity, reduce handling damage, and sometimes go into a product which would otherwise be unreinforced. The comparison needs to be evaluated for each product.
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SUMMARY Notes
Lifting Devices and Apparatus
l l l l Need veried design Rated capacity must be clearly labeled Inspect equipment at least yearly Ofcial equipment inspection at least yearly l Users should do daily visual inspections
Embedded Steel Shapes, Plates, and Hardware

l Thorough inspection to check s Correct item s Placement s Properly secured s Non-corrosive material
Accessories
l Important to use correct type l Non-corrosive materials l Use proper quantity
Fibers
l Used to increase durability l Increased resistance to cracking l Do not replace structural reinforcement with bers
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CONCRETE MIXES
Concrete Mixes
I. Concrete Mixes
Although this section does not cover specic mix designs, it discusses the important concepts any mix designer needs to know. For instance, many people in the concrete industry are not familiar with the importance of the water/cementitious (w/cm) ratio. This ratio compares the amount of water in a mix to the amount of cementitious material, including any pozzolan such as cement, y-ash, slag and silica. For ease of discussion, we will refer to this ratio as the water/cement ratio (w/c), although in reality it includes all cementitious and pozzolanic materials, since they are all included when doing mix design calculations. Water/cement (w/c) ratio is simply the weight of the water (in pounds) divided by the combined weight of the cementitious materials (also in pounds). The goal in producing high-quality concrete is to decrease the amount of water in a mix in order to lower the w/c ratio as much as possible. Lowering the w/c ratio improves watertightness, strength and durability of the hardened concrete. It is important to know the actual w/c ratio for the concrete you are using, and you cant do that unless know how much water is added to a mix this is true for
dry-cast and also for wet-cast. This is an important concept since superplastercizers can make an ordinarily stiff mix as workable as if it were produced with a lot of water. Many people mistakenly assume that a concrete mix with a low w/c is a wet-cast mix if a superplasticizer has been added, but the owability/worakability of a mix tells you very little about its water content. The terms wet-cast or dry-cast refer to the natural slump of the concrete that is, the slump in the absence of any water reducing admixtures. Therefore, a mix with a w/c of 0.40 or less is generally considered a dry-cast mix even if it contains superplasticizing admixtures that make it ow. NPCA does not recommend w/c ratios higher than 0.48. If the concrete is going to be exposed to freeze/thaw, it should not be higher than 0.45; and if it is exposed to harsh environments, it should not be any more than 0.40.
II.
Air Content
Many people new to the industry ask why we put air in concrete only to later vibrate air out. The answer is because these are two different types of air. The air that is
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SECTION FOUR
in concrete naturally from the mixing and placement processes and that is introduced with aggregates is called entrapped air. These pockets of air vary in size and can cause problems with the concrete. The air we try to put into concrete is called entrained entrained. Entrained air consists of tiny, microscopic bubbles that are evenly spaced throughout the mix. They act as small pressure-release valves so when groundwater expands while it freezes there is a small space in the nished product for the water to expand into. So instead of freezing and cracking the concrete, the ice moves into the microscopic air pocket. Consequently, air entrainment is very important for freeze/ thaw conditions. Air entrainment also helps with the workability of the fresh concrete because the small air bubbles act like little ball bearings. They also help to disperse and get rid of the entrapped air - again because of the ball-bearing effect. They make the concrete more owable, so it can move around more easily. They help increase compaction and move the entrapped air out of the fresh mix.
also allows the concrete to gain close to the maximum amount of strength possible for that particular mix. These standard curing conditions are necessary for comparing various mix designs with the design strength specied. In general, when an engineer or specier asks for 4,000 psi concrete, that is the strength s/he wants when the product is loaded. They have done a calculation based on 4,000 psi concrete and if you ship them something in 3 days that is perhaps only 2,000 psi, then the product will not meet their specications. Your cylinder strengths help give a general idea of the strength of the product.
IV. Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC)

Self-consolidating concrete was introduced in 1987 in Japan. The real advantage of SCC is that it is very liquid, thanks to 3rd and 4th generation superplasticizers. Since a slump test on self-consolidating concrete results in a ow like water, you instead perform a spread test. The concrete ows out of the standard slump cone and makes a great big puddle, anywhere from 22 to 32 inches in diameter. In addition to the superplasticizer, SCC usually contains a viscosity-modifying admixture (VMA) some companies have them mixed together as one ingredient, others separate the superplasticizer from the VMA. The VMA acts like an invisible net that stretches around the aggregates and keeps the aggregates suspended in the mixture as it ows. The properties of concrete made with SCC are essentially the same, but you usually get higher strengths since you typically use slightly more cement than with traditional concrete. It costs more money per pound, but you can potentially save a substantial amount in labor costs
III. Concrete Compressive Strength

When performing a standard compressive strength test, the compressive strength cylinders are cured in lime-saturated water up until the time of testing (usually for 28 days). While that is not how the actual product is cured, it is an important and constant design parameter. When you work on a mix design, you are constantly trying to adjust the mix for better performance. The only way to determine the effect of the changes you make to the mix design is to keep everything else constant, including the cylinder curing conditions. Curing cylinders in this manner
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CONCRETE MIXES
since you dont have to vibrate, or if you do, only very little. With SCC, there are no bug-holes, so it has a beautiful nish and a smooth surface. However, it is not approved everywhere and you must ensure that municipalities or other speciers in your area will accept it before you decide to make the switch. When using SCC, you must constantly work with your admixture supplier, because SCC can be very sensitive to small changes in mix constituents, such as moisture content. If your cement changes, then you might have to adjust your design and you want your SCC supplier to help.
VI. Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

When concrete hydrates, there is a component formed in this chemical process called ettringite, which is a natural part of the curing process. However, if you cure at too high a temperature, then you stop the natural formation of ettringite while the product is curing. Later, if the product is exposed to water the ettringite can start to form again, continuing the process that was halting during the initial cure. Thats why it is called a delayed ettringite formation. As it forms, it expands and it cracks the already hardened concrete. DEF is sometimes difcult to diagnose, since ettringite will always form if there is a crack and the product is exposed to moisture. In these cases, ettringite doesnt cause the crack, it simply forms in it because water got into the crack. This is commonly referred to as secondary ettringite formation. Secondary ettringite formation does not cause cracks, but DEF does. Many times, if DEF is suspected, it can easily be ruled out if the telltale threecracks radiating from a single point are present as this is characteristic of ASR, not DEF.
V.
Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)
Three things must happen in order to have an ASR problem. First of all, you must have aggregates containing silica material. Secondly, you must have cement with a relatively high alkali content. Lastly, you need moisture. The alkali in the cement reacts with the silica in the aggregate. In the presence of moisture, it forms a gel that hardens and expands and causes cracking in the hardened concrete. One of the telltale signs of ASR is that there are usually three cracks radiating out from a central point. Because there must be moisture present in order for there to be an ASR problem, the water/cement ratio is important. The lower the ratio, the more durable the concrete will likely be because it is less porous and therefore more watertight. If it is watertight, moisture cant get into the product to harm it.
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Notes
SUMMARY
Water/Cementitious Ratio
l Is the weight of water divided by the weight of cementious material l Critically affects concretes quality l Low water/cementitious ratios are critical for
sIncreased concrete strength sWater tightness sIncreased durability

l A low w/c is considered to be 0.45 or less (for freeze-thaw) l Do not add water after the design slump has been reached
Entrapped Air
l Undesirable l Air trapped during mixing and placement process l Large, non-uniform voids l Removed through proper mixing & vibration
Entrained Air
l Desirable l An air entraining admixture produces a uniform network of small spherical voids/bubbles l Voids provide relief reservoirs and prevent freeze/thaw damage l Required for all products exposed to freeze/thaw conditions
Mix Proportions
l Conform to ACI 211
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Batching and Mixing
BATCHING AND MIXING

I. NPCA Requirements III. Selecting A Mixer
With many mixers, the actual output is only two-thirds of its designation, or name. That is, usually a mixer called a one-yard mixer, discharges a maximum of 2/3 of a yard of concrete. However, some mixer companies designate, or name their mixers for the actual amount discharged, not the volume batched into the mixer. Often the full capacity of bulk materials is batched into a mixer (1 yard in this example), but when the concrete becomes well-graded and compact, it winds up taking less volume (2/3 of a yard). Therefore, when selecting a mixer make sure you understand how the manufacturer designates, or names their mixer. Most precasters likely will nd this section useful, even if they are using ready-mixed concrete. Since it is possible that at some point in the future they may decide to make their own concrete. If your plant already has a concrete batch plant, this section may provide ideas that can help you improve operations. If you have an old plant and you are considering updating it, the following may give you something to think about.
II.
Considerations for Sizing Batch Plants
If you are in the market for a new mixer, you do not necessarily need a larger one, as some may think. Some new mixers have a very short discharge-to-discharge cycle time. They are generally much faster than older mixers of the same size. Perhaps a bigger mixer is not necessary because a new one of the same size could produce concrete faster. Two things should be considered when determining the appropriate mixer size: 1. how much concrete is being produced each day and, 2. how much is needed at the peak hour. Of course, the answers to these questions will depend on the products being manufactured.
IV. Common Types of Mixers

Paddle mixers work ne for a wet-cast mix, but not for dry-cast. When using a superplasticizer to increase the slump, the concrete still must be mixed before the superplasticizer is added, which is like mixing a dry-cast mix. Paddle mixers do not usually work well with dry mixes, but they get the job done for wet mixes.
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The spiral blade or ribbon mixer Essentially, this mixer uses a horizontal shaft with a blade that spirals around. These can be used for both wet-cast and dry-cast. These mixers generally require a longer mix time than the countercurrent mixers (see below). One type of pan mixer is referred to as a turbine mixer. A turbine mixer consists of a pan with all of the gearing located in the middle. The advantage of the stationary pan mixer is that up to four discharge gates can be used or one in each quadrant. Another advantage of stationary pan mixers is that moisture control sensors can be placed in the bottom of the mixer. They help control the water/cement ratio, which is critical to producing highquality concrete. Countercurrent mixers all look about the same regardless of the manufacturer. It consists of a stationary pan and it is completely open with no gearing located in the middle. Therefore, complete mixing can be performed - there are no dead spots. A twin-shaft mixer uses paddles. The concrete mixes very quickly. These mixers work very well for wet-cast, but not necessarily for dry-cast. One disadvantage of a twin-shaft mixer is that you must clean it out after every mix.
in the building, you need more building space. If you are storing aggregate below ground, you must excavate a very large hole.
VI. Proper Aggregate Storage

It is very important to avoid contamination. It is possible that your supplier is responsible for aggregate contamination. However, you dont want to contaminate it yourself either. Many times this happens merely because your aggregate is stored directly on the ground. When aggregate is scooped with a front end loader, soil can be potentially introduced into the mix. A simple test is to periodically pick up a handful of aggregates and rub them in your hands. If your hands are clean, the aggregates are probably all right, but if your hands are dirty, contact your aggregate supplier - your aggregates could be contaminated. Further testing is necessary to determine if the aggregates are clean. Aggregate should be handled as little as possible and stored in a manner that reduces the likelihood of segregation. Aggregates should not be stored in large conical piles since there is potential for the course aggregate to roll out and separate from the smaller particles. The ideal is to place it in small piles. It is better to store aggregate in little piles and then there will be less tendency to segregate.
V.
Considerations for Aggregate Storage
It is important to consider receiving hoppers and aggregate storage when planning a concrete plant design. Determine the number, size and kind of aggregates that will be used. Also, determine if above or below ground storage is needed many plants are using below ground storage, or even storing aggregate in the building. This may be a trade-off - if you are storing aggregate
VII. Filling Aggregate Bins

When discharging aggregates into the bins, similar to discharging concrete into forms, it should be done into the center of the pile. Discharging aggregate against the side of the bin or a bafe will tend to segregate the aggregate.
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Batching and Mixing
VIII. Discharge of Raw Materials into Mixer

When discharging aggregates and other mix constituents into the mixer, ensure that the mixer is turning so that it is not starting up under a full load. If you want to start the mixer with a full load, ask the manufacturer if the mixer can handle it. The feeding sequence is also important, especially if you are making self-consolidating concrete.
XII. Pouring Concrete

When pouring concrete, place the concrete in the form near its nal location. Do not use internal vibrators to move concrete laterally in the forms. Vibrators were not designed to move concrete, rather they were designed to consolidate it. Also, remember to keep the free-fall to a minimum.
XIII. Conveyor Belts

There are several things to keep in mind when using conveyor belts. Vulcanized splices are probably the best, but not what most plants are using. Vulcanized splices are more expensive, but they typically last longer. Also, ensure that all conveyor components are properly sized. You should always follow the conveyor belt manufacturers suggestions for maintenance. But if you to buy a used system, you may not know who the manufacture is. In order to properly maintain your system it may be worthwhile to try to nd out who manufactured it. It is important to never adjust the belt while it is operating a good safety program will include this as a requirement. Also, concrete should not be allowed to build up on the idlers. It is best to take the time to clean these conveyors since they really are a lifeline in most plants. Finally, keep the belt clean, but dont spray water in the idlers.
IX. Discharge of Concrete from Mixer

This process is similar to aggregate discharge, but it is more critical because now we have the nished product. Discharge concrete into the center of the hopper or the belt, not against the side this will cause the concrete mix to segregate.
X.
Concrete Discharge from Mixer
It is best to limit the drop from the mixer to less than 6 feet. The lower the drop, the better control you have over avoiding segregation. When using a traveling bucket, it should be designed so that it swings over the top of the hoppers.
XI. Handling Concrete

It is important in any handling system to avoid segregation. The end result of using concrete that has segregated is a product that both doesnt look good and is very weak.
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Selecting a Mixer
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Batching and Mixing
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Mixer Output
Designation Batch Weight (lbs.) Yd3/Mix 1/2 Yard 1,350 0.333 1 Yard 2,700 0.667 2 Yard 5,400 1.333 3 Yard 8,100 2.000 4 Yard 10,800 2.667
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Batching and Mixing
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Samples of Batch Plant Schematics
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Batching and Mixing
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Batching and Mixing
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SECTION FIVE
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Batching and Mixing
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SECTION FIVE
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Batching and Mixing
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Batching and Mixing
SUMMARY
Sequence Into Mixer
l Blades must rotate during discharge into mixer l Important to ensure homogenous mix l Admixtures fed as per manufacturer recommendations l NPCA QC Manual requires documenting sequence of discharge and mixing
Notes
Proper Aggregate Storage Necessary To

l Minimize segregation l Keep gradations within specied limits
Aggregate Storage Rules

l Do not store in conical piles l Store in horizontal layers l Prevent contamination l Store on slabs or planking l Have storage bins separated by walls l One size aggregate per storage bin
Handling Concrete
l Avoid s s s Segregation Loss of mortar Loss of slump
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SECTION FIVE
Notes
Proper Handling Methods To Avoid Above, Especially Segregation

l Discharged vertically l Drop at distances < 6-10 l Do not jar or shake during transportation l Avoid s s Open chutes > 20 Long
Conveyor Belt Design Considerations

l Properly size all components l Able to restart fully loaded l Dependability under full loads l 24 head room for down pipe
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Pre-pour Operations
Pre-pour Operations
In this section we will discuss form preparation, form release agents, blockout positioning and positioning of embedded items.
I.
Seasoning
When you buy new forms, they often come with some protection. If you are making your own, maybe the raw steel had some protection. This protective coating must be removed to prevent staining your product. Then the forms must be seasoned. Seasoning entails coating the steel with high concentration fatty acid release agents, which are VOC compliant, and allowing it sit for 24 hours (if you are using a petroleum based release agent, you will need to use it for seasoning). During this time, the release agent lls the pores in the steel and forms a metallic soap barrier. Then clean off the soapy barrier, leaving behind a protective lm that will preserve the form surface. The form is now ready for use. If you ever grind down to the raw metal while cleaning, then you should reseason the exposed metal or the concrete will stick to the form.
It is a good practice to routinely conduct pre-pour inspections, since they help catch potentially costly mistakes. They help an auditor or a buyer ensure that you are doing everything correctly, everyday. The NPCA Quality Control Manual contains a good sample checklist, but each precaster is encouraged to customize one of his/her own if necessary. It may sound like a bit of a nuisance, but it is good practice and if you are going for NPCA Plant Certication, documentation of pre-pour inspections is required.
III. Form Preparation

Forms should be properly designed. If you are designing a product that will require high vibratory forces, like a dry cast product, then the form design would obviously be quite different from a wet cast product that will be vibrated with an internal vibrator. Prior to casting, make sure the forms are properly cleaned. Inspection of forms is a part of the prepour checklist. Store and properly maintain forms and keep them clean. Forms will last a long time if they are built well and
II.
Pre-Pour Inspection and Checklist
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SECTION SIX
properly maintained. They should be checked on a regular basis. If they are not inspected, chances are you are not going to make a good product for very long. If the form joints start leaking, the nal product surface quality can be very poor.
large quantity so the concrete wont stick. Unfortunately, by using a large amount, bugholes often result. Chemically reactive form release agents were introduced about 15 years ago and consist of fatty acids. Therefore, they are environmentally safe, although they often have a bad odor. They react with the calcium in concrete to create a soapy lm on the concrete surface. Gallon for gallon, these are more expensive than barrier release agents, but since you do not need as much of the chemically reactive-type, in the long run, they are usually less expensive. When you switch from a barrier-type release agent to a chemically reactive agent, you must allow some time before it begins to work well, since the old petroleum base agents still ll the pores of the forms. Typically, there will be some concrete adhesion to the formwork for about the rst two weeks. In the end, the benets are often worth the problems encountered during this transition period.
IV. Cleaning
Take the time to clean the forms after every use. If you dont keep them clean, your work ow will be interrupted, since there is a lot of work involved to get them back in working order. In addition, clean forms last longer - and less labor is needed to routinely maintain them than xing poorly maintained forms. When cleaning forms, however, make sure that you dont go overboard and scrape through the raw metal. If you do, then you will need to reseason them. Scrapers and putty knifes are good tools to use, in addition to air compressors, when necessary. Copper and wool brushes are less abrasive than steel ones. And never bang the forms with hammers. It can damage the form and make the product look bad.
VI. Blockouts
The NPCA Quality Control Manual requires that blockouts be held with non-corrosive supports, not with reinforcing steel.
V.
Form Release Agents
Form release agents prevent concrete from sticking to the form surface while it hardens and protect the formwork from wear, as with seasoning. Form release agents work very well but precasters must remain environmentally conscious when using them. There are two basic categories of form release agents: barrier and reactive. Barrier (non-reactive) release agents are typically petroleum based. These are typically diesels and heating oils. The barrier agents work because they create a barrier, so the concrete will not react with and stick to the form surface. They perform adequately, but you must use a
VII. Blockout Securing Methods

One option is to bolt the blockout to the formwork, but this permanently and sometimes detrimentally alters your forms. Another option is to use magnets to hold the blockout in place. Magnets are available for almost any product and are relatively effective. Suction cups are another option, but you must ensure your forms are very clean. Finally, you can tie them to the reinforcement cage, but you must use non-corrosive supports such as a galvanized wire.
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Pre-pour Operations
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Notes
SUMMARY
Forms
l Form-essentials for product quality l Properly designed l Properly cleaned l Properly inspected l Properly stored and maintained
Form Inspection Prior to Each Use:

l Dimensional check l Joints l Vibrator mounts l Lifting lugs and trunions l Latching devices l Bolt and weld integrity
Purpose of Release Agents

l Prevent concrete from adhering to forms when hardening l Provide protection l Keep forms working porperly
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Pre-pour Operations
Categories Of Release Agents

l Barrier (Non-Reactive) l Chemically active l Combination of above
Notes
Proper Release Agent Application

l Very thin lm for both wet and dry cast (.003-.005) l Too thick can cause problems
Securing Blockouts Crucial for

l Withstanding placement stresses l Achieving the design location of the hole l Achieving adequate concrete cover
Prepour Blockout Guidelines

l Need ush contact between forms and blockouts l Forms clean and in good shape l Blockout must be clean and in good shape l Properly apply release agents l Blockouts sized as specied l Blockout surface exposed to concrete will be smooth and solid l Blockout width = Structure wall width
6-5
Production Practices
Production
I. Consolidation
Consolidation is an integral part of the production process. When conventional concrete is deposited into forms, it does not generally mix together well and instead traps pockets of air within the forms. In order to evenly distribute the constituents of the mix and ensure a solid mass, this entrapped air must be removed. It is important to compact all the concrete ingredients together (also known as consolidation) and drive out the entrapped air. The presence of entrapped air weakens a concrete structure and increases porosity leading to possible durability problems caused by water inltration. Vibration creates pressure waves that rearrange the aggregates particles and consolidates them together. At the same time vibration drives the air out.
indicate some entrapped air. These measurements include the entrapped air left over after vibration plus the entrained air, which is the result of a purposefully added admixture. Vibration helps obtain a nal product that is watertight, strong and durable and expels most of the entrapped air. Another reason to vibrate is to ensure the concrete lls all space around the reinforcing steel, completely surrounding it so that the two bond properly. An improper or inadequate bond between concrete and reinforcing steel may contribute to cracks in the concrete and reduced structural capacity. As we learned in Chapter 2, bond is important to transfer tensile stresses from the concrete, which is weak in tension, to the steel, which is strong in tension. If there is a weak bond, tensile stresses cannot adequately transfer to the steel and the concrete must absorb the tensile stress and can crack. Further, when bond calculations are made during the structural design process, they are based on the reinforcing steel being completely surrounded by concrete.
a.
Why Vibrate?
It is possible to have as much as 20% entrapped air in freshly poured concrete. Entrapped air is generally considered detrimental to the concrete quality and should be vibrated out. The goal is to completely remove all entrapped air, but we can rarely get it all out. This is why air content test measurements always
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So to be effective and true to the intended design, the concrete must be completely bonded with the reinforcing steel all the way around the circumference of the steel. This is especially true for dry-cast operations that handle very stiff mixes because vibration liquees the concrete. But, when vibration ceases, the mix again returns to its very stiff condition. It is important to vibrate the mix enough to get concrete completely under and around the steel.
is usually the kind of product being manufactured. It also depends on the mix design. Obviously, if you are dry-casting, then you need a different vibration system than if you are making wet-cast products.
d.
Vibration Frequency
b.
Amplitude & Frequency of Vibration
The Relative Vibrator Output Energy graph illustrates the relationship between vibration frequency and the amount of energy actually transferred to the concrete. An increase from 6,000 to 7,500 vibrations per minute (VPM) doubles the energy output. An increase 7,500 to 9,500 VPMs, doubles it again.
Vibratory forces in the concrete are affected by a combination of two things: amplitude and frequency. Amplitude affects how far away from the vibrator the vibratory force can be felt. Frequency is the number of times the vibratory force occurs in a given time period. Some have found it easy to think of amplitude as how far the vibratory force is thrown and frequency as the number of times you throw it. Amplitude determines radius of action. Frequency governs the degree of liquefaction As an example, when making a thin, small product such as a precast patio slab while using a vibrator setting that was low frequency and high amplitude, the vibrator would blow the concrete right out of the form. High amplitude, low frequency settings work best with larger products, such as a 12 x 12 box culvert.
e.
Internal Vibration Procedure
Internal (stinger) vibrators are not designed to move concrete, they are designed to consolidate it. When used to move concrete, internal vibrators cause concrete segregation - the opposite of what is intended for consolidation. The objective when mixing and vibrating is to compact all of the well-graded aggregate together, not segregate them. The proper way to vibrate is to drop the internal vibrator head vertically (never at an angle) at about 1 second per foot and then pull it out slower, at about 3 seconds per foot. By bringing it out slowly, you are bringing the air bubbles out with it. Insert the vibrator in each spot only once, pull it out slower than inserted and overlap the radius of action each time. When pouring in layers, it is important to overlap the depth of penetration six inches into the previous layer in order to avoid a cold joint within the product. Again, do not move the concrete laterally with a vibrator. Vibrate until the majority of the air is out, as evidenced when you no longer observe bubbles rising to the surface or when very few breaking at the surface. Often
c.
Factors to Consider When Selecting a Consolidation Method
There are many factors to consider when determining which kinds of vibration to use, however the main deciding factor
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at about this time, the concrete levels off and exhibits a shiny surface appearance, even with dry-cast. When areas of honeycombing or bug holes are noted on the product surface, generally it means that not all the air has gotten out.
g.
Form (External) Vibration
f.
Overlapping Field of Actions
Every vibrator, whether it is internal or external, has a eld of action or a dened area of concrete surrounding the vibrator that is affected by its vibratory forces. The eld of action of a vibrator is determined and dened by its amplitude. This is information that you should get from your vibrator supplier. If you are buying a used vibrator, gure out what the name plate says so that you can check with the manufacturer. The eld of action is usually approximately 7 to 10 times the diameter of the stick. Again, the objective of moving the vibrator and reinserting it, is to have the eld of action at the second insertion point should slightly overlap the eld of action of the previous one. This ensures consolidation throughout the entire product. The importance of proper consolidation cannot be overemphasized. Unfortunately, many times plants assign this task to the newest person on the plant oor and do not train him/her on proper consolidation procedures. Ideally, this person should know how to do the job. If it is an entrylevel position at your plant, take the time to show the employee how to do it properly. Avoid allowing vibrators to vibrate against the reinforcing bar or the form. Although this is not always easy to do with conventional concrete and products containing areas of congested reinforcement.
Form vibrators are placed on the core or the jacket of the form. They are available in electric, pneumatic or hydraulic models and are either rotary or linear style. Form vibrators are usually faster than using an internal vibrator, especially when manufacturing larger products. Form vibrators are also more expensive and the forms must be a stronger and better designed in order to withstand the vibration forces. When using form vibrators, ensure that they are not placed directly on the form skin because the form can be damaged. Form vibrators should be mounted on a bracket that spans across the struts. As with internal vibrators, form vibrators have a eld of action, so whether you design your own forms or buy them from a supplier, work with the vibrator supplier in order to determine the correct size for your particular application. Follow the vibrator manufacturers recommendations. It is important to note that the weight of the form is important in addition to the weight of the product when determining the vibratory force needed. Ensure that the vibrator supplier is given all of the necessary information. Although it is ideal to use forms that the vibrators can be left on, but many plants do not have that capability or luxury. Many plants just have a hook on the sides of the form and are forced to move the vibrator to each hook. It is best not to wait until the formwork is lled up and then move the vibrator from one side to the other, this makes it difcult to get all of the air out. For best results the vibrator should be mounted directly on the form.
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SECTION SEVEN
h.
Form Vibrator Sizing
It is best to work with your vibrator supplier they will likely determine what you will need. However, the most important information to give him is the form weight and the product weight. Remember that when using lower slump concrete, the necessary vibratory force is greater. Therefore, when consolidating a dry-cast product, much more force is necessary than with wet-cast.
wont feel anything. There is no horizontal vibration all vibration forces are vertical. Unidirectional vibrators can be effective, but they are very expensive.
l.
Effects of UnderVibration
i.
Form Vibration Procedure
Turn form vibrators on as soon as wet-cast concrete gets approximately six inches above the vibrator height. When using dry-cast concrete, turn the vibrators on when concrete is approximately one foot above the vibrator height.
When vibration is not done long enough, not all of the entrapped air gets out. Vibration should be done long enough to expel all entrapped air. Vibration should also be done long enough to move the concrete completely around all of the reinforcing steel so it bonds well. Under-vibration is the primary cause of honeycombing. Honeycombing occurs when coarse aggregates collect together and the ne material do not ll all of the voids between the coarse aggregates.
j.
Table Vibration
m. Effects of OverVibration
Over-vibration causes segregation of the coarse aggregate. Sand streaks can occur because the coarse aggregates segregate out and leave only slurry in a particular spot.
Table vibrating systems are also either rotary or linear style. It is suggested to have two rotary vibrators. When only one vibrator is used, it vibrates in a single direction and tends to walk the concrete off the table, segregating the mix. Further, if you vibrate too long with one rotary vibrator, segregation gets worse. Also, when using two vibrators that are both rotating in the same direction, the problem is doubled. Use two rotary vibrators, but rotate them in opposite directions. Then the lateral forces cancel each other out and you have effective table vibrations.
n.
Important Note
k.
Unidirectional Vibration
It is best not to mix and match vibrators and forms. Many people buy a form from one supplier and a vibrator from another supplier. This is not effective because all of the dry-cast systems, and some of the wet-cast systems are designed as a complete system. In other words, the forms are specically designed to work with their vibratory systems, and vice versa.
These vibrators always work in pairs. There is never just one. Two weights swing and cancel each other out horizontally, but still impart a linear force. If you touch the side of these tables, you
II.
Curing
Curing refers to the natural phenomenon that happens within concrete. When water is added to a concrete mix, a chemical
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reaction takes place. (It is not necessary to know exactly what that reaction is for the purposes of this discussion, but you can nd a more in-depth discussion of this reaction in many concrete textbooks). The reaction forms a calcium silicate hydrate gel that glues everything together. In essence, a mix is placed, vibrated to make sure it is well compacted and consolidated, and then the glue forms and holds it all together. Therefore, it follows that the glue (or the product of the cement-water reaction) is critically important to the quality of the hardened concrete. As this glue hardens, the cement is said to be hydrating and the concrete is said to be curing. Curing directly affects concrete strength gain. The 28-day strength is what is dened as the standard, design strength or specied strength of the concrete. That is, 28 days is the standard length of time to achieve the strength specied by a mix design. Standard strength tests are performed on cylinders of concrete cured in water at approximately 74 degrees for 28 days. While this is not how actual concrete products are cured (products are immersed in water for 28 days before they are shipped to customers) it is still an important process because it maintains all parameters that affect the strength of a concrete mix consistent from test cylinder to test cylinder. This is the best way to evaluate the quality of one mix design compared to that of another, even one produced in another plant.
aggregates. Strength gain is based on making use of all the cement. As a rough rule-of-thumb estimate, it takes a w/c of about 0.25 to effectively hydrate all of the cement. This represents the minimum amount of water needed to hydrate the cement powder, but a w/c this low is very difcult because the concrete is not workable and too dry. In practice, the w/c should not be less than 0.30. On the other hand, a w/c of .60 represents a lot of water - and the mix usually looks very liquid. The uidity of a mix can also be affected by the use of chemical admixtures. A mix containing suplerplasticizers also looks very wet, but the actual w/c may be very low. So dont get fooled by the appearance of a concrete mixture - its consistency will almost never tell you much about its w/c. When using a concrete mix with a low w/c ratio, consider the consequences of losing water during curing. If the w/c is already low, and a product is left out in the sun to dry out, the cement will not hydrate effectively, even if the product looks very wet. Only the water can hydrate the cement, not the superplasticizers. The signicance of proper curing cannot be overemphasized. One of the rst steps in designing a mix is to determine the appropriate w/c. That decision then determines how much cement will be needed. Remember, the cement must be hydrated to form the gel that glues everything together. If only half of the powder is hydrated, only half the strength will be achieved - and dry powder is left sitting in the concrete, unused. Improper curing is also a waste of money since cement is usually the most expensive ingredient in the concrete. Remember, the longer you cure, the better. The better the cure, the more watertight your nal product will be.
a.
Why is curing essential?
A low w/c ratio improves watertightness, durability and strength. Good vibration procedures also accomplish the same. Curing in a proper environment does this too but why? A mix design is based on a certain amount of cement, water and
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SECTION SEVEN
b.
Essentials for Proper Curing
For good curing, two things must be controlled: moisture and temperature. Moisture ensures the cement powder is completely hydrated. Temperature is also essential since the higher the temperature, the quicker the curing process is accelerated. The opposite is also true the lower the temperature, the slower the curing process progresses
better to put it in the shade so it can cure longer. If a product is placed outside the next day, and it reaches only 70% of the strength with the air cure and you need 4,000 psi concrete, what should be done? A mix design of 6,000 psi should be used instead of 4,000 psi. This is because after 28 days, the 6,000 psi design mix should reach approximately 4,200 psi.
d.
c.
Concrete Strength vs. Moisture Condition
Concrete Setting Times
Tests have shown that if a product is stripped overnight and left sitting in air, the product will not achieve more than approximately 60% of the design 28-day strength. This is because the water in the concrete has been allowed to escape from the products surface and only about half of the cement has been hydrated. Exposed to air, the concrete cannot retain enough moisture in to fully hydrate the cement. If the product is stripped out of the forms the next day (as opposed to in the middle of the night), then it will achieve around 65-70% of the design 28day strength. If the product is left in the forms on for three days then stripped and left outside, it will achieve about 80% of the design strength. This means that when using a mix with a design strength of 4,000 psi and the forms are left on for three days, chances are the strength will not be much more than 3,200 psi. If the forms are left on for seven days, testing has shown that the concrete will likely achieve 100%of the design strength. This is why ACI requires forms to be left on for seven days for a proper cure. Of course in the precast business, this is not realistic. When stripping a product and placing it outside in the morning, it is
As mentioned previously, the higher the temperature, the faster the setting time and the faster the curing.
e.
Low Temperature vs. Strength
Concrete should be cured at a temperature of 50 degrees or more. As the curing temperature goes up, the early strength increases.
f.
Maintaining Moisture by Wetting
The best way to ensure continued curing of the concrete is prevent moisture from escaping from the concrete. One method of doing so is to cure the product in a moist condition. One good way of doing this is to place wet burlap over exposed surfaces of the product. Then after it has been stripped place wet burlap over it. Should it be left there for 28 days? This is descretionary and may not be necessary. The purpose of using wet burlap is that to keep the moisture in the concrete as long as the burlap blanket is applied. This would be necessary for as long as it takes for the concrete to achieve design strength
g.
Spraying/Misting
Another way to prevent moisture from escaping is spray/misting and fogging.
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Moisture is not added with this technique instead the moisture is maintained within the product. When spraying or misting, it is like a fog - it does not splash water on the product. It keeps the moisture in to help hydrate the cement so the design strength can be achieved. If doors are left open or there is a breeze, the mist may be blown away, so the doors should be shut or the products may need to be sheltered when misting indoors. When using a fogging system, to keep the moisture in, the humidity may not get as high as 100%, as it would when using a live steam system. The humidity can reach about 75 to 80% with a fogging system. Misting systems also work well, but not in colder climates without added steam because cold mist does not generally trigger off the hydration process as much. Some heat is usually necessary.
j.
Dry-Cast Product Curing
A concrete mix with a low w/c ratio falls into the dry-cast category, even if it contains superplasticizers to make it look wet. It is important to keep dry-cast concrete in a humid environment and out of the wind and sun. Even a slight breeze will cause water to evaporate out from the dry-cast product very quickly. This is also true of wet-cast with a low w/c ratio.
k.
Special Conditions: Cold Weather Curing
h.
Accelerated Curing
Using heat to increase early strength gain is acceptable as long as it is used in conjunction with a system to prevent moisture loss. Low-pressure steam is good because it does both. It incorporates high-temperature to accelerate hydration and high humidity to keep the moisture in the product. Then of course, there are chemical accelerators, which can be less expensive than putting in a lot more cement.
It is a good idea to preheat aggregates and/or water during cold weather. If you are located in an area that is not really cold, you may only need to heat the water. Heating water is much easier than heating the aggregates. When heating the water, a nomagraph like the one discussed during this course, can help determine what water temperature is needed.
l.
Special Conditions: Hot Weather Curing
In hot weather, aggregates can be sprinkled to keep them cool and keep them from drying out too much. Ice can be added during mixing to cool down the concrete as well.
i.
Wet-Cast Product Curing
m. Considerations for Accelerated Curing

One thing to keep in mind is that the rate of hydration doubles for every 18 degrees Fahrenheit, or 10 degrees Celsius, that the temperature is increased. So you can see the importance of accelerating curing by having higher concrete temperatures. The advantage of using steam in curing is to keep moisture in the concrete and to accelerate the rate of hydration. Remember, the higher the curing
As discussed previously, keeping the forms on for as long as possible is benecial to concrete curing. It is a good idea, when pouring in the winter, to bring the forms in the night before and to heat them up, rather than use cold forms.
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SECTION SEVEN
temperature, the faster it accelerates the hydration rate.
o.
Target Temperatures
n.
Typical Accelerated Curing Cycle
A typical steam curing cycle will include the following: a preset period to allow the concrete to reach some minimum stregth prior to exposure to steam, a ramping period where the temperature rises and a hold period when the temperature is maintained at some target temperature. Finally, the steam is shut off and the products are allowed to cure.
For concrete pipe, the target concrete maximum temperature is usually somewhere between 120 and 140 degrees F, for precast/prestress it is 150 F, for standard weight concrete blocks it is 160 or 65 F, and for lightweight it is 180 F. When curing is done at too high a temperature, it kills the formation of ettringite while the hydration process is going on. Later if the concrete is exposed to a moist environment ettringite can form and crack the product.
p.
Mels Method for Detecting Flueing
Flueing occurs in a curing kiln when warm
QUICK NOTES
Target Temperatures Concrete Blocks: Slump Heavyweight Lightweight Expanded Clay Shale 170F Pumice Concrete Pipe 180F 120F- 140F 75C 80C 50 C-60C (4-6 Hours) Precast/Prestress
(Canada)
150F 160F
65C 70C
140F
60C
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air escapes and draws cold air in. Flueing is quite common. To detect it, light a cigarette or a match and hold it at the bottom of the kiln. If the ame or smoke moves toward the inside of the kiln ueing is occuring and energy is being lost. This means that somewhere in the kiln, warm air is escaping and drawing cold air in the lower portion of the kiln. It is like an invisible ue pipe and it is moving warm air out. The reason the smoke is going in is because hot energy is going out the top. The bottom of products are probably cold and is not being adequately cured. Another indication is the kiln oor will be dry. If the ame goes the other way, then it is doing what is should be doing. The energy is remaining in the kiln. The heat stays in and slowly escapes out the bottom, and the oor will be damp because the steam will condense on the colder oor. This is the ideal situation.
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SECTION SEVEN
SUMMARY Notes
Purpose of Vibration
l Freshly placed wet cast concrete can contain as much as 20% entrapped air l Proper vibration increases density by driving out entrapped air l Results in: s Optimum strength s Durability s Quality appearance s Watertightness
Vibration will
l Eliminate voids and honeycombs l Release entrapped air l Fully encase reinforcement, embedded items, and blockouts with fresh concrete
Stinger Vibration Procedure

l Drop vertically under own weight (~1sec/ft) l Withdraw slightly slower than inserted (~3sec/ft) l Place stick into each area only once l Overlap vibrating radius l When layering concrete, place stick ~6 into previous layer l Vibrate until surface shiny and level, and no more breaking bubbles l Avoid touching formwork
External Vibration
l Form l Table
Form Vibration
l Dont fasten vibrator directly onto the form. l Mounting brackets should be welded onto a form stiffener.
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Notes
Effects Under Vibration

l Inadequate concrete strength & durability s Excessive entrapped air s Unbonded reinforcement s Honeycombing l Poor appearance s Honeycombing s Sand streaks s Bugholes
Effects of Over-Vibration
l Segregation l Form deection and damage l Sand streaks
Curing
l Hardening of concrete l Hydration chemical reaction between concrete and water l Normal curing cycle (28 Days) l Reduces size of voids l Accelerated curing more important for low w/c ratios
Purpose for Curing

l Reduces permeability s Essential for structure watertightness l Improves durability l Increases early strengths
Essentials for Proper Curing

l Maintain moisture l Maintain temperature
Curing Methods
l Maintaining moisture by wetting (misting/fogging,etc.) l Prevent moisture loss by membrane sealing (wet burlap, etc.) l Applying heat or accelerated curing
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Post post operations
Post pour operations

Stripping
Minimum strength requirements These requirements will vary by plant policy, product, and/or specication. The important thing is that each product shall have a minimum stripping strength requirement, and that it is checked and achieved before stripping. Some products can be stripped from the molds at only 1500 psi, while other products may require over 5000 psi. Green concrete chips, spalls, and cracks easily. Form disassembly To prevent damage to the product or the forms, form disassembly should be given as much attention as form assembly. Rough handling of forms during dismantling can spall corners or edges. Rough handling of forms during disassembly can damage the forms, their edges, their casting faces, their connection hardware, etc. Removing only ve of six bolts that have to come out really raises havoc when you try to pull the form section off. Proper rigging Here is where thought, experience, and preplanning pay off. Unbalanced loads generally damage the product on one corner, and often the base form as well. Incomplete rigging can damage the product by putting overstress on certain lifting devices or by putting extra strain into the product from unexpected bending. The safety aspect of rigging which is insufcient goes without saying. Damage control Think of the stripping process as a form of damage control. Damage causes either repair time and cost, or product rejection; neither is desirable. Time and care spent in properly stripping each piece of concrete is money well spent. Organize other tasks Stripping also consists of form removal and product moving. Where do the stripped forms go? What will convey the product to its next location? Is the next location ready to receive the product? By preparing the entire process, each step goes without delay and problems. Product identication & documentation Stripping time is the best time to insure that every product is properly identied date of casting, piece mark or identier, job number, and other information normally needed for your work. Obviously this should not be done on any face(s) of the product which will be exposed to view in its nal position; but it must be
8-1
SECTION EIGHT
done in a permanent fashion, that will remain readable after yard weathering, and strong enough to stay on or attached to the product. The exception to this is if the identication is put into fresh concrete, as imparted by form letters, or required by the user, such as on the top surface of bridge beams. The other part of this process is to make careful and thorough documentation on your standard daily forms concerning what was stripped each day, and any additional checks, measurements, and observations made like damage or discrepancies to be further evaluated and taken care of.
pour inspection as needing some repair until that work has been satisfactorily completed, the work accepted, and the product status changed to approved for shipment. This needs to be on the piece Inspection Report and on the piece itself. There is a lot of work to careful and thorough piece checking and recording. But it is worth it if you can prevent product being shipped which is not complete, incorrect, or not repaired, or worst of all, marked as rejected.
Repair
Evaluate Defects which will not impair the functional use or expected life of a precast concrete product shall be considered minor defects. Defects which impair the functional use or the expected life of products shall be considered major defects. Unless major defects are repaired the product shall be rejected. Major defects shall be evaluated by qualied personnel to determine if repairs are feasible and if so, to establish the repair procedure. Honeycomb and rock pockets generally are considered as minor defects, although depending on their depth and exposure of reinforcement, they could conceivably be major defects. Some specications or owners conditions of standard practice establish their own criteria for severity and acceptance of defects, which would supercede your own plants standards. Standard repairs each plant should have time-proven, printed procedures used routinely for repair of minor defects and honeycomb situations. The repair mix shall be either a mix essentially the same as used to cast the product, except drier, or a proprietary repair mix, depending on the situation and exposure conditions.
Product checking
Forms At the end of this chapter is an example of a Post-Pour Inspection Report, and a more detailed Casting Inspection Form which combines both pre-pour and post-pour checks. Of course, if your plant has its own forms, they are the ones to use, unless they can be improved. The check box format is convenient and fast, but not the best, because it doesnt prove that thorough and careful checking has been performed. For example, just ticking off that dimensions were checked is not as revealing as actually writing in the dimension measured. Product history These post pour documents need to be retained as part of your historical records of the life of each piece. If there is repair work needed, this sheet must indicate what is required, and should be amplied with notes as to why repair is needed, and what happened, if you know. The best forms format also has room to document repairs (minor or major) made date, what was done, and nal status. Remember, you should never ship a piece which was identied on post-
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Ultra ne cracks should be left alone; ne cracks may be dusted in and rubbed down with dry cement, or given two coats of silane, depending on the size and depth of crack, and conditions of exposure. The purpose of the two latter repairs are simply to minimize the entry of water into the crack. Spalls should be cut back along all ne edges so the repair material has at least 1/4 inch of depth to the repair material. Depending on the depth of repair, pins or even reinforcing steel may be added to the base concrete to help anchor the repair. Dimensional defects are either undersized or oversized. Enlarge undersized structures with more concrete or other repair material. Oversized products can be cut or chiseled to remove excess but this is limited in order to maintain the required cover over the reinforcement. Insert, blockout, or opening defects are remedied on a case by case basis. Missing inserts can usually be replaced by a eldinstalled type. Hole openings can be cut or chiseled to achieve the correct dimensions. The nish of the repaired area should match the original nish if the area is to be exposed to view (and if your plant takes pride in the appearance of all its work). Here is where experience - having tested repair mixes, and allowed them to weather and age - allows the repair person to properly select the mix to use on each class of product. Curing of repair This is no less important than preparing and performing the repair itself. Time must be allowed for the repair to cure, and conditions must be made favorable. This may involve keeping the repair covered with moist burlap for 24 hours, or totally sealing moist rags over the repair with clear poly.
Major repair procedures These procedures are generally established on a case by case basis after an evaluation of the defect has been made by qualied individuals. Practically speaking, they are no different than the repair procedures for minor defects: preparation of the area to be repair, choice of mix, performance of the work, and curing of the repair. But because of the type of repair, full documentation before, during, and after the repair must be kept. In addition, this class of repair normally warrants full inspection. Cracks which have been judged as major defects are usually epoxy injected. Properly done, this procedure renders the cracked area stronger than the original concrete. There are repair kits available for experienced, capable plant personnel to do this work, or there are specialty contractors available in most major areas to do it for you. You should know that it is almost impossible to completely hide an epoxy injected crack in an exposed to view surface. A good inspection practice will identify the defect of the product on daily report sheets, and thereby create a paper trail for that product. Therefore, at the conclusion of the repair, the appropriate documents need to show the repair has been completed, and the status of the product changed to accepted for shipment, or whatever your terminology is. In addition, if the same defects keep occurring, some investigation and analysis is warranted to determine the cause and the changes needed to avoid them in the future.
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SECTION EIGHT
Storage
Maintenance of the storage area Unfortunately, the storage area is seldom given the attention that the production areas get. But it needs to be kept clean, level and rm, well drained, and well lighted. Paved areas eventually pay for themselves, with less maintenance required, and less damage to the product and equipment needed. Planning A good storage yard is planned out, with areas designated for certain types of products so that other procedures are made more efcient, like loading out and maintaining a product inventory. Before new production runs are begun on a job or product, the total space needs should be compared with availability, and a plan made for the yarding crew to follow. Access for equipment This is really part of the planning process. Insure that the material handling equipment has adequate room to move and there has been thought given to where the trucks interface with the unloading/loading equipment. Proper yarding and stacking Here is where care and knowledge are important. Product should always be set level and plumb. Sufcient bearing material must be used to prevent damage to the product or to prevent sinking into the supporting ground. Stacking is a consideration of many things: availability of space, capacity of the support area, shape of the product, lifting height of the yarding equipment. In general, supports are needed in the plane of the lifting points, or near where the eventual bearing points will be. Consult the product drawings for special support requirements that may be called for.
Loading out
Status of product Since you should not ship a non-approved product, the importance of a good documentation trail for repairs is quite obvious. Until the work has been done and accepted, the records adjusted, and the product marked approved, it essentially is not product. Proper support Occasionally the support points or materials needed when loading a piece for shipment differs from that used in yard storage, sometimes because of its geometry, or sometimes because of the piece below it or on top of it. If the piece drawing shows special support, of course it is easy. Otherwise, common sense is needed, to recognize, for instance, that a concentrated load from a piece on top must be carried through or by the piece below. Also, unlike the storage yard, trucks undulate and bounce during transit. This must be recognized in things like height of support material and forces imparted to members due to the bouncing impact. Load binding This is normally the responsibility of the trucker. But whether the truckers are your own personnel or subcontractors or common carriers, you need to watch that things are done properly. Dont bind down so tightly as to induce additional loads into the product, particularly when the trailer is undulating one way and the product is bouncing the other. Insure that binder locations are as near to product support points as possible. Chain guards Even when the product is not exposed, it is good practice to insist on chain guards on edges and corners; there is no cost benet from saving the cost of the guards and then having ugly, damaged product arrive to your customer. Even if the customer accepts damaged goods, it doesnt give a good impression
8-4
of a quality outt that cares for their customers. And of course, chain guards should be required for exposed to view situations. Documentation This doesnt mean just the internal records of what was shipped for inventory and billing purposes, or just making out proper shipping tickets and bills of lading. It also includes remembering to send the other stuff that should go when appropriate -with loads, like warranties of material sources or instructions for unloading and handling or guarantees that product shipped complies with specications. It is embarrassing and expensive to have the load arrive without the complete paperwork. Other accessories In a very similar mode to what was said above, the load isnt complete until the hardware or tools or other supplies that are needed, and shown on the delivery slip, are also on the load and properly secured.
Responsibility for damage This is an argument you dont even want to get into. Who drove too fast and turned the corner too sharply, who bound down the load too tightly/too loosely, who loaded the product on the wrong dunnage, who designed the product and checked its strength, etc. Even though the truckers insurance may pay for damage, or even yours might, you want to avoid the damage. Shipping damage costs far more than the replacement value or repair charge; theres often delay costs, and reputation damage cant be measured. Documentation Once the load leaves your control, you are depending on the driver to carry out delivering the paperwork and the accessories, and even sometimes to pick up a check. Someone should review all special situations with the drivers themselves before they leave the yard; dont expect the trucking company dispatcher to get it right. Instructions to receiver If you are not unloading and handling the load with your own personnel, who you know are experienced and take care, it is good practice to send unloading and handling instructions. In very complicated situations, or with new customers on special orders, it even pays to send an advisor to help. You can be sure that if damage is done, they will claim it came that way, and the driver saw nothing. While your carefully prepared instructions are seldom read, at least you covered yourself. Rigging Some products are so unusual as to need special equipment, which is normally not available elsewhere. In these instances, the equipment almost always has to be sent on the truck, and agreements have to be drawn up and sent for signing acknowledging the users purchase of the equipment at a stated
Shipping
Adequate equipment It is rather unusual for a major trucker to have equipment which is too light for the job he contracted to do, but sometimes it isnt in legal and acceptable condition. And very often if a buyer comes in to pick up his own order, the truck or trailer he brings is undersized or under-length or both. Therefore, it is very important that transportation equipment be in good working condition, meet legal limits, is properly sized, and safe. It doesnt do business any good to ship products using inadequate equipment. Securing of load As we covered above, this is the carriers responsibility. But the producer needs to supervise that it is not overdone to the extent it will cause damage.
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SECTION EIGHT
value, to be used at his own risk, and fully credited upon its satisfactory return. These arrangements need to be made clear and agreed upon in advance. There are legal responsibilities involved when you send your equipment, plus the possibility of having damage done to it (and not reported), or not getting it back at all.
8-6
SUMMARY Notes
Stripping
l Minimum stripping strengths are required before stripping. l Avoid product damage by proper form disassembly l Use proper lifting apparatus l Organize other tasks Stripping also consists of form removal and product moving.
Product identication includes

l l l l l Casting date Piece mark or identier, Job number Other information Marked on product face(s) in a position that can be viewed if needed
Documentation requirements
l Careful and thorough documentation on your standard daily forms l Product stripped l Damage l Design discrepancies l Any additional checks, measurements, and observations
Repair
Minor defects
l Defects that will not impair the functional use or expected life of a precast concrete product
Major defects
l Defects that impair the functional use or the expected life of products l Require evaluation by qualied personnel
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SECTION EIGHT
Notes
Standard repairs
l Each plant should have time-proven, printed procedures used routinely for repair of minor defects and honeycomb situations.
Storage Area Requirements

l l l l l l Well maintained and kept clean Level Firm Well drained Well lit Sufcient room for access equipment
Proper yarding and stacking

l Product set level and plumb l Use sufcient bearing material to prevent damage and sinking l For stacking supports are needed on or near the eventual bearing points l Consult the product drawings for special support requirements
Loading out
l Do not ship a non-approved product l Proper support and binding
Shipping Responsibilties
l l l l Adequate equipment Securing of load Responsibility for damage Documentation
8-8
Quality Control and Operations
QUALITY CONTROL AND OPERATIONS

The Big Picture
Purchasing criteria Engineering, production, and quality control should be involved in advising purchasing with regard to material specications, performance criteria, and other quality expectations, as well as what will be done with material or supplies found unsatisfactory, who will pay for their return or disposal, and so forth. Start right out establishing a level of quality in your procedures, and demand that your suppliers do the same. Receiving inspection All incoming materials should be inspected at the time of arrival to make sure that purchase orders are very clear and specic and that the supplies meet your quality expectations. You should also have a marking program, to clearly identify lots, boxes, drums, stockpiles, etc. with dates received, item description, manufacturer, supplier, job number if for a specic project, and purchase order number. Engineering and drawings There is only one level of quality here it must be correct. But drawings need to be thorough and clear, and presented in a fashion that is easy for production to work from. For example, production workers shouldnt have to add and subtract numbers to get dimensions, or look at different views of the same product on different jobs, or guess which 3/4 inch insert is intended. More on this later. Equipment calibration Batch plant scales and meters need to be kept in calibration, tested and documented at least annually, in order to batch out correct mixes. Laboratory test equipment similarly needs to be calibrated regularly in order to properly evaluate the fresh and hardened concrete. This department has to be the absolute leader when it comes to quality of its operations and procedures. Pre-pour, pouring, and post-pour inspections Typically, these operations are perceived as the second role for the quality control department but it should be one of their top priorities. Pre-pour, pouring, and post-pour inspections are essential for monitoring product quality, satisfying customer requirements, meeting plant certication requirements, and providing independent information to management. During these inspections is the best time to catch mistakes and aid in correcting them!
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SECTION NINE
Concrete and materials testing Since concrete is the heart of our business, we must strive to maintain its healthy quality. We measure concrete strengths and material properties to insure proper concrete qualities for our customers, and for ourselves. Use of statistical analysis of the data generated helps rene the mix designs and illustrate present and future trends. And if things turn ugly, good testing can save you some big expenses and awful embarrassment. Record keeping Meticulous and thorough records of everything is necessary to truly have a useful quality control operation. It is easy to say what yesterdays strength was, or how todays product measured up. But how do you give a prospective customer proof of the 28 day strength for a standard mix without adequate records? Or how can you pinpoint curing temperature as a cause for low strengths without records? Use of specications Project documents refer to standard specications, industry guidelines, certication programs and/or tests. You need to know what specications apply to your work and to meet or exceed their requirements. NPCA Plant Certication Program This program is the top of the line status symbol. Attaining this status says you do enough things right that measure up as a plant capable of producing quality products. Youve got your act together in production, and are capable of proving it. This program is one of the main features and advantages of being an NPCA member. We will review the essence of the program, because it is important that you have a good understanding of what it is and how it works.
NPCA Plant Certication Program

Purpose l To assure a uniformly high degree of excellence in plant facilities, production, procedures, and quality control operations l To assist management in achieving excellence in plant operations l To provide recognition for plants that achieve a high degree of excellence l To help precast users and speciers identify and select high quality precast concrete manufacturers Scope The program outlined in the NPCA Plant Certication Manual is directed at certifying that plants are qualied to produce precast concrete products with a high degree of excellence. This program certies precasting plants, not precast concrete products. Qualication A plant qualies as an NPCA Certied Plant if it exceeds the required level of excellence during the announced initial NCPA inspection and subsequent unannounced annual inspections. Plants shall remain certied if all necessary fees are paid and the plant attains the minimum score on each inspection. (A plant qualies as a certied plant if it achieves a grade score of 75% or higher.)
9-2
Grading A plants score is heavily determined by Production Practices, and then followed closely by Quality Control Operations. These two areas amount to 75% of the points available. Thus, it becomes clear that a plant can be readily certied if it follows good production practices and quality control operations. Conversely, a plant with poor production practices or a lack of adequate quality control will not qualify as an NPCA Certied Plant
Plant Safety
Plan whether your plant is NPCA Certied or not, you should have an active Safety Program. It must incorporate your own plant programs, rules, and regulations to protect your employees to ensure that they work safely. It must comply with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) laws and guidelines. In some states it must also comply with local or state requirements as well. Safety manual you will need your own written manual to document your plant specic plan. The NPCA Guide to Plant Safety is a good outline to work with.
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SECTION NINE
Specications, Standards, and References

l l ACI, ASTM, AWS, CRSI Standards PCI, PCA Publications
enough to keep confusion from setting in, resulting in people using the incorrect drawing. There is very little written on how long drawings should be saved. It is recommended that they be saved indenitely. Over the years, no one else will have any record of the work, the product, the design, etc. All shop drawings and contract drawings will have been thrown out by the original project designers, the contractors, and the owners. If questions come up about capacity or strength or the like, you will have the backup for your product. This may mean building a new record storage room or investing in a way to store it electronically.
It is recommended that your company allocate funds each year to incrementally acquire, and continuously upgrade these publications.
Drawings
Weve already talked about absolute accuracy, clarity, and consistency in detailing, which is a given quality requirement - as is sound engineering design. It is very important that the drawing department issue drawings in a timely manner to production personnel they are needed before a product is scheduled to be produced, not after. The more time everyone has to study a drawing and to plan for its execution, the better it will come off. The drawing status must always be clear - whether it is preliminary, approved for production, or a revision. Preliminary issues are useful for production space planning and work scheduling. However, as we just said, they must be followed by approved drawings on a timely basis. Changes do happen, mistakes are caught, clarications are made, and there always will be revised drawings. A measure of a quality operation is that they keep careful records of each drawings status, issue date, and distribution, and that someone always has the responsibility to deliver revised drawings and remove previous ones from circulation. Just issuing them is not
Concrete Testing
Sampling, ASTM C 172 [Standard Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete] This practice covers procedures for obtaining representative samples of fresh concrete as delivered to the casting location on which tests are to be performed to determine compliance with quality requirements of the specications under which the concrete is furnished. Temperature, ASTM C 1064 [Standard Test Method for Temperature of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Concrete] Concrete temperature is one of the most important factors inuencing the quality, time of set, and strength of the concrete. Without control of the concrete temperature predicting the concretes performance is very difcult, if not impossible. A concrete with a high initial temperature will probably have higher than normal early strength and lower than normal later strength. The ultimate overall quality of the concrete will also probably be lowered. The converse is also generally true.
9-4
Slump, ASTM C 143 [Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete] The purpose of the slump test is to determine the consistency of the concrete. This is a measure of the relative uidity or mobility of the concrete mixture. Slump does not measure the water content or workability of the concrete. An increase or decrease in the water content will cause a corresponding increase or decrease in the slump of the concrete, provided that all of the other materials and conditions are constant. However, many factors can cause the slump of the concrete to change without any change in the water content. Unit Weight, Yield, and air, ASTM C 138 [Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete] The unit weight test is a very important tool used to control the quality of freshly-mixed concrete. After a concrete mix proportion has been established, a change in the concretes unit weight will indicate a change in one or more of the other concrete performance requirements. A lower unit weight may indicate 1) that the materials have changed [lower specic gravity], 2) a higher air content, 3) a higher water content, 4) a change in the proportions of ingredients, and/or 5) a lower cement content. Conversely, the higher unit weight would indicate the reverse of the above-mentioned concrete characteristics. A lower unit weight from the established concrete mix proportion will generally indicate an over-yield. This means that the required cement content for a 27 cubic foot yard is now diluted to produce a greater volume of concrete. Therefore, lower strengths are to be expected, as well as a reduction of the other desirable qualities of the concrete. If the reduction of the unit weight of the concrete is due to an increase in air content, the concrete
may be more durable in its resistance to cycles of freezing and thawing. However, the strength, abrasion resistance, resistance to chemical attack, shrinkage, and cracking qualities of concrete will be aversely affected. Air content, ASTM C 231 [Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method] This test method can be used to determine the air content of normal and heavy weight concretes. It cannot, however, be used with lightweight aggregates, air cooled blast furnace slag, or highly porous aggregates, like those found in lightweight aggregates. This test method will determine the amount of both the entrained and entrapped air voids in the concrete. This standard also includes detailed procedure for calibrating the apparatus. Apparatus: There are two basic operational air meter designs employing the principle of Boyles law. The Standard refers to them as Meter Type A and Meter Type B. The measuring bowl of either shall be essentially cylindrical in shape, made of steel or other hard material not readily attacked by the cement paste, having minimum diameter equal to 0.75 to 1.25 times the height, and capacity of at least 0.20 ft3. The operating principle of Meter Type A consists of introducing water to a predetermined height above a sample of concrete of known volume, and the application of a predetermined air pressure over the water. The determination consists of the reduction in volume of the air in the concrete sample by observing the amount the water level is lowered under the applied pressure, the latter amount being calibrated in terms of percent of air in the concrete sample.
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SECTION NINE
The operating principle of the Type B Meter consists of equalizing a known volume of air at a known pressure in a sealed air chamber with the unknown volume of air in the concrete sample. The dial on the pressure gage being calibrated in terms of percent air for the observed pressure at which equalization takes place. The aggregate correction factor will vary with different aggregates. It can be determined only through testing, since it is apparently not directly related to absorption of the particles. The test can be easily made and must not be ignored. Ordinarily the factor will remain reasonably constant for given aggregates, but an occasional test to verify this is recommended. Calibration of apparatus is covered in the appendix of ASTM C 231, but is not covered in this course. Air content, ASTM C 173 [Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method] This test method can be used to determine the air content of any type of concrete, including lightweight, normal and heavyweight concrete. This test method will determine both the entrained and entrapped air voids in the concrete. Wet sieve the sample to remove any aggregate that would be retained on a 1 sieve. Concrete Test Cylinders, ASTM C 31 [Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field] Concrete strength test specimens must be made according to Method C 31 for two reasons. The rst is so that the results are reliable; the second is so that the test can be reproduced by someone else with the same concrete, following the same procedure and getting (nearly) the same results. Method C 31 details the standard
procedures for lling, compacting, curing, protecting, and transporting concrete cylinders and beams. They must be cured under proper temperature and moisture conditions. If these procedures are followed, the resulting data can be used for the following purposes: l Acceptance testing for specied strength. l Checking adequacy of mixture proportions for strength. l Quality control l Determination of the time the piece or structure may be put in service. l Determination of the time that forms or shores can be removed. Remember that when strength specimens are made, you also must do the tests for slump, air content, and temperature. Initial Curing: After molding, the specimens shall be stored in a temperature range between 60 to 80F in a moist environment to prevent moisture loss for up to 48 h. Record the temperature of the storage environment using a maximum-minimum thermometer. For concrete mixtures with specied strengths of 6000 psi or greater, the initial storage curing temperature shall be between 68 and 78F. Final Curing: Upon completion of initial curing and within 30 min after removing the molds, cure specimens with free water constantly maintained on their surfaces at a temperature of 73+/-3F using water storage tanks or moist rooms. Temperatures between 68 and 86F are permitted, for a period not to exceed 3 h, immediately prior to test if free moisture is maintained on the surfaces of the specimen at all times (except when capping with surfur mortar capping compound, then the ends of the cylinder must be dried).
9-6
The remaining tests to be reviewed are performed in the laboratory by technicians properly trained; they are not part of the concrete inspector routine.
Freeze-Thaw
Freeze-thaw testing is done in commercial or organization laboratories because of the equipment involved. But it is a very important test, reecting upon the strength, porosity, and durability of the concrete, the amount and quality of air entrainment, and the quality of aggregates used. Testing may be done on specially cast sample blocks, on cylinders, or on cores taken from a product. This is a tough, destructive test, applying almost a lifetime of cycles of freezing and thawing to the concrete in a relatively short time. It is highly useful as an aid to developing a mix that is suitable for any application subject to freezing. Such tests, however, take several months to complete. Equivalent evaluations can be obtained more rapidly by conducting air void studies, which uses a microscope to determine the amount, character, and spacing of air in slices of test cores taken from production units or in-place concrete.
There are other types of testing used, called non-destructive testing, such as the calibrated impact rebound hammer. These are considered useful tools to supplement, but not replace, cylinder tests. They can serve to give a comparative or qualitative evaluation of concrete strength for stripping, transfer, or shipping strengths when cylinders have been damaged or have all been used. Non-destructive testing shall be acceptable provided (a) a correlation curve is established for each combination of concrete mix design, curing procedure, and age of test, (b) a minimum of 30 tests is used to establish each correlation curve, and (c) test results fall within the 95% condence limits of the correlation curve.
Aggregate Testing
Recall that in Segment 1 on Materials we discussed aggregates and their grading as well as other characteristics of good aggregates. And it was said that aggregate gradation tests were a must at your plant, and the reasons for it were stated. The gradation of an aggregate is determined by a sieve analysis test in which the particles are divided into their various sizes by standard sieves. The analysis should be made in accordance with ASTM C 136. The grading requirements for concrete aggregate are shown in Chapter Four of the PCA Manual Design and Control of Concrete Mixes, and in ASTM C 33. An important procedure related to aggregate sieving is proper sample reduction, or splitting. As you expect, there is a Procedure for this as well, and every lab has an aggregate sample splitter. (If you dont have a large one for coarse aggregate, the quartering method is used; split the sample pile of aggregate into four quarters, dispose of two opposite
Compressive Testing
Since compressive strength is concretes outstanding asset, and it is the standard method of specication of concrete quality, this is the most common test performed on concrete. As you have learned about making concrete test specimens, this test is used on both wet and dry mixes, and on concrete placed by machine, such as pipe or hollow core. It is used on drilled cores, mortar samples, and even ordinary block. (The ASTM Standard for this is C 39, but laboratory testing is not part of this course.)
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SECTION NINE
quarters, and keep repeating the procedure until you have a useable sample.) The idea here is to take a large enough sample of aggregate to represent the entire aggregate supply being used, be sure it is completely blended, and then to re-size the sample in a manner that will keep the same representative proportions of various sized particles in the small sample which gets put through the sieving process. In the arena of aggregate gradation, there is a useful measured quality called the neness modulus, or FM. It can be calculated for both ne and coarse aggregates. FM is an index of the neness of an aggregate the higher the FM, the coarser the aggregate. Different aggregate grading may have the same FM. FM of ne aggregate is useful in estimating proportions of ne and coarse aggregates in concrete mixtures. Also, changes in the FM of the ne aggregate may require an adjustment of other parts of a mix design. FM is obtained by adding the cumulative percentages by weight retained on each of a specied series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100. The specied sieves are No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 in. Organic impurities in ne aggregate should be determined in accordance with ASTM C 40. A sample of ne aggregate is placed in a sodium hydroxide solution and shaken. The following day the color of the solution is compared with a standard color solution. If the color is darker than the standard, the ne aggregate should not be used for important work without further investigation. Some ne aggregates contain small quantities of coal or lignite that give the liquid a dark color. It should be noted that appreciable quantities of coal or lignite in aggregates can cause popouts and staining of concrete and can reduce durability when concrete is exposed to weathering.
Moisture Content Aggregate surface moisture may be dened as all moisture in the aggregate except that absorbed inside the pores of individual aggregate particles. Aggregate surface moisture is a critical factor in concrete operations. Surface moisture on batched concrete aggregates is part of the water in the concrete mixture. Aggregate surface moisture compensation is necessary for proper moisture control. Concrete ne aggregate generally contains the greatest quantity of surface moisture, since voids between particles are small and capable of retaining large percentages of surface moisture. The total moisture content for ne or coarse aggregate can be tested in accordance with ASTM C 566. In this method a measured sample of damp aggregate is dried either in an oven or over a hotplate or open re. From the weights before and after drying the total and surface (free) moisture contents can be calculated. The total moisture content would be P = 100 ( W D ) / D , where P = moisture content of sample, percent W = weight of original sample D = weight of dried sample The surface moisture content is equal to the total moisture minus the absorption. Absorption can be assumed as 1% for average aggregates or, for greater accuracy, it should be determined in accordance with ASTM C 127 for coarse aggregate and ASTM C 128 for ne aggregate. Only the surface water, not the absorbed water, becomes part of the mixing water in concrete. Another method to determine moisture content, which is not as accurate, is to evaporate the moisture by burning alcohol. In this method, a measured sample of damp ne aggregate is placed in a shallow
9-8
pan; alcohol (about 5 oz for each pound) is poured over the sample; the mixture is stirred with a rod and spread in a thin layer over the bottom of the pan. The alcohol is then ignited and allowed to burn until the sample is dry. After burning, the sand is cooled for a few minutes and weighed. The percentage of moisture is then computed. Electronic moisture meters are used in most plants to check the moisture content of ne aggregates. They operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of damp ne aggregate decreases as moisture content increases, within the range of moisture normally encountered. The meters measure the electrical resistance of the ne aggregate between electrodes protruding into the batch hopper or sand bin just above the discharge gate. Such meters require daily calibration and must be maintained properly. They measure moisture accurately and rapidly, but only at the level of the electrodes. If they are located at the bottom of a sand bin, the rst reading of the day may be inaccurate due to the accumulation of free water overnight at the lowest level. The single sensor microwave absorption technique is the most recent advancement in material moisture measuring. Sensors are positioned to ensure optimum representative sampling of material, i.e., in the bins, in the mixers, or on the belts. By taking many readings each second, the interfacing equipment continuously averages the changing moisture content of owing and mixing material.
Other tests There are numerous other aggregate tests of use, but they require special equipment not normally contained in a plant QC Lab. However, these tests indicate no less important qualities of the aggregate, and therefore the information should be determined and available from the aggregate supplier. You should review the reports available to you, looking for compliance with any ASTM requirements or any changes or trends from past reports; be certain they are from a reputable lab, and are reasonably current. Such tests might be degradation (hardness), alkali-silica and alkali-carbonate reactivity, freeze thaw, absorption, deleterious substances, specic gravity, and thermal properties.
Record Keeping
Throughout this course, we have talked about the necessary role of proper documentation in a well-run business with a dependable quality control function. To close, review again the numerous areas that must be attended to: l Raw material (supplies, such as steel, inserts, etc) test records l Work orders, product drawings, and all designs l Equipment calibration records l Aggregate and concrete test records l Concrete batching reports l All casting and product inspection reports, including status l Training performed; special personnel qualications
9-9
SECTION NINE
SUMMARY
Top priorities of QC Inspectors (QCI)
l Pre-pour inspections s s s s s s s s s Forms Reinforcement Release Agents Blockouts Consolidations Lifts Cracks Areas of Honeycomb Markings
Notes
l Pouring inspections
l Post-pour inspections
Why QCI duties are important

l Monitoring product quality l Satisfying customer requirements l Meeting plant certication requirements l Providing independent information to management l Best time to catch mistakes and correct them l Takes much of the guesswork out of concrete production
Receiving inspection
l Inspect and mark incoming materials at the time of arrival
9-10
Notes
Essentials for drawings

l Must be correct l Thorough and clear l Easy for production to work from l Issued on time
Equipment calibration
l Calibrate batch plant scales and meters at least annually l Calibrate laboratory test equipment regularly
Specications, Standards, and References of importance

l ASTM; American Society for Testing and Materials l CSA; Canadian Standards Association l ACI; American Concrete Institute l AWS; American Welding Society l CRSI; Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute l WRI; Wire Reinforcement Institute l OSHA; Occupational Safety & Health Administration l Keep all specications and standards continually updated
9-11
SECTION NINE
Notes
Concrete Testing
Important Tests
l Sampling l Temperature l Slump l Unit weight, yield l Air content l Compressive testing
Reasons for these tests Sampling

l To achieve an accurate sample
Concrete Temperature
l Determine set time l Predict strength
Slump
l To determine the consistency of the concrete l Measure of the relative uidity or mobility, not the workability of the concrete.
Unit Weight, Yield

l Will indicate a change in other concrete performance requirements
Air content
l To determine the amount of both the entrained and entrapped air voids in the concrete
9-12
Compressive Testing
l Determine concrete strength. l Quality control l Determination of product service time l Determination of stripping time l Evaluating mix designs
Notes
Record Keeping
Keep the reports following on le
l Raw material (supplies, such as steel, inserts, etc) test records l Work orders, product drawings, and all designs l Equipment calibration records l Aggregate and concrete test records l Concrete batching reports l All casting and product inspection reports, including status l Training performed; special personnel qualications
NPCA Plant Certication Program

l To assure a uniformly high degree of excellence in plant facilities, production, procedures, and quality control operations l To assist management in achieving excellence in plants and operations l To provide recognition for plants which achieve a high degree of excellence l To help users and speciers of precast identify and select high quality precast concrete manufacturers
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SECTION NINE
Notes
Proper Handling Methods To Avoid Above, Especially Segregation

l Discharged vertically l Drop at distances < 6-10 l Do not jar or shake during transportation l Avoid s s Open chutes > 20 Long
Conveyor Belt Design Considerations

l Properly size all components l Able to restart fully loaded l Dependability under full loads l 24 head room for down pipe
9-14

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Fundamentals of Quality Precast

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Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Section 1 CONCRETE MATERIALS

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Section 3 MISC. MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

Section 4 CONCRETE MIXES

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Section 5 BATCHING AND MIXING

Section 7 PRODUCTION PRACTICES

Section 6 PRE-POUR OPERATIONS

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Mels Method for Detecting Flueing Summary

Section 8 POST-POUR OPERATIONS

Section 9 QUALITY CONTROL AND OPERATIONS

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Desirable Properties of Hardened Concrete

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Essentials for Producing Quality Concrete

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Desirable Properties of Fresh Concrete

Desirable Properties of Hardened Concrete

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Material Certication Frequency Report

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Samples of Materials Certications

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Cement Mill Certicate

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Cement Mill Certicate

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Reinforcement Supplier Reports

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Cementitious Materials Certication

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Reinforcement Supplier Report

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Reasons for these tests:

Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Organic Impurities in Sand

Moisture Content in Aggregates

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast

Fundamentals of Quality Precast