Synopsis: Clean Coal Combustion for India: Circulating Fluid Bed and Advanced Supercritical Technologies Authors: ( All

of ALSTOM Utility Boiler Business) Dr. G. Scheffknecht, Technical Director J. Seeber, Head of Fluidized Bed Firing Mark Palkes, Senior Consultant John M. Banas, Consulting Engineer Gerhard Weissinger, Head of Thermal Engr. Werner Kessel, Director, Boiler Engineering Electricity generation costs, like all forms of energy conversion, are influenced by fuel and operating costs and by the added necessary costs of protecting the environment. Due to the relatively higher cost of natural gas and oil, coal will continue to be a major resource for India's power generation needs. The challenge to today's power plant owners and operators is to select coal generation technologies that provide reliable, efficient and clean power at competitive costs.

This paper will discuss two Clean Coal technology options for achieving these goals. The first of these is the use of supercritical steam cycles to achieve higher plant efficiencies that translate directly into lower fuel usage and lower emissions per Kwhr produced. The design and performance of state-of-the-art supercritical steam generators capable of sliding pressure operation is reviewed. Details are given on major components of the boiler design including environmental performance.

The second Clean Coal technology to be discussed is Circulating Fluid Bed (CFB), which is an effective way to utilize lower cost indigenous Indian coals with a high sulphur content. Meeting environmental requirements while using these coals requires high desulphurisation efficiency. The paper describes the design of a 2 x 125 MW CFB plant currently under construction in India. Local lignite with a sulphur content of more than 8% (daf) will be utilised. The targeted sulphur capture ratio of 97 % and low NOX values will create an environmentally friendly plant with lower fuel costs and good reliability. . Both of these technologies provide effective options for the Indian power industry to continue to meet the needs of industrial, commercial, and residential customers for clean, reliable energy.

1.0 State-of-the-Art Sliding Pressure Supercritical Steam Generators The new generation of supercritical boiler designs offers full sliding pressure, true cycling capability and simplified start-up systems without complex throttling valves of past designs. Circulation system design and operating considerations for waterwall protection throughout the load range are described. The choice between conventional vertical waterwall and spiral wall arrangements is governed by plant size (MW), steam cycle parameters, fuel properties, and firing system design. Actual test and field experience are reviewed. Future development of supercritical boiler technology for advanced steam conditions is also included. 2.0 Introduction to Supercritical

Due to fuel prices and environmental concerns, plant heat rate plays an important role in the selection of the most cost-effective thermodynamic cycle. A supercritical steam cycle enables higher plant efficiencies from the use of increased operating pressure coupled with elevated steam temperatures. Figure 2.1 illustrates the efficiency advantage of supercritical power plant cycles over subcritical designs at a range of steam temperatures and pressures. In addition, plant efficiency could be further improved by approximately 2% with the installation of a second reheater that had been used on some supercritical designs in the past. The corollary of higher efficiency is lower fuel consumption and lower emissions for the same unit of electrical output. It also means that for every pound of coal that does not have to be burned, there is a pound of coal that doesnt need to be purchased, transported, stored and pulverized. If that coal is not burned, it is not necessary to collect and dispose of the residues of combustion. As a direct function of efficiency, CO2, NOx, SOx, particulates, VOC, CO and trace metal emissions are reduced in proportion to improved efficiency.

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Net Efficiency vs. Design Data

(500) - 600 - [700] MW Class Cond. Pressure : 1.23 psi

Net Efficiency (HHV) [ % ]

39 38 37 36 35

Live Steam Press. Live Steam Temp. Reheat Temp. Feedwater Temp. Numb. of Heaters

998 1000

1005 1040 500 7

2407 1050 998 1112 1000

1005 1040 8

1050 1112

998 1000 525

3625 1005 1050 1040 1112 7

1050 1112

3915 1050 1085 1112 1148 555 8

[ psig ] [ F ] [ F ] [ F ]

Design Data

Figure 2.1 Net Efficiency (HHV) vs. Steam Cycle Design Supercritical designs represent approximately 20% of today's coal-fired steam plants market. New project inquiries are increasingly specifying supercritical technology and it is anticipated that the share of supercritical cycles will continue to increase. ALSTOM has extensive experience in the design and development of supercritical technology and has the largest market share worldwide, offering a range of design options for state-of-the-art supercritical boilers. The new generation of coal fired supercritical steam generators offers full sliding pressure operation and cycling capabilities.

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3.0 3.1

Historical Experience of Supercritical U.S. Experience with Supercritical Steam Cycles

The modern pulverized coal boiler is the product of over 80 years of design development and improvement. The first generation of supercritical units was designed for steam temperatures of 1000oF (538oC). Continued advances in metallurgy allowed steam conditions to be increased. In 1959, this progress culminated with the Eddystone No. 1 unit of the Philadelphia Electric Company, with a boiler supplied by ALSTOM. Designed with steam conditions of 5300 psig (365 bar), 1210oF (654oC) and double reheats of 1050oF (566oC), Eddystone 1 had the highest steam conditions and efficiency of any electric plant in the world. The generating capacity (325 MW) was equal to the largest commercially available unit at the time. However, as a result of limitations of materials of that era, main steam throttle conditions were reduced to 4300 psig (297 bar) and 1125o F (608oC) to permit more reliable operation. Nevertheless, the plant represents the first benchmark in what has been a progressive advancement in steam conditions. In the 1960s, the industry retreated from these high steam conditions to more conservative 3500 psig/l000oF/1000oF (241 bar/538oC/538oC) designs as a compromise between the heat rate benefits of advanced conditions and the attendant metallurgical limits of existing turbine and boiler materials. It was in that period that ALSTOM introduced Combined Circulation boilers. An improvement on the earlier supercritical design, these boilers combined the design features of previous once-through boilers with those of subcritical Controlled Circulation type units. Recirculation flow was superimposed on the once-through flow during start-up, low and intermediate loads, assuring adequate cooling protection to the waterwalls (Figure 3.1.1).

Figure 3.1.1 Simplified flow diagram of Combined Circulation unit Both the early and the later designs, however, had one limitation -- they were essentially base loaded with limited cycling capability. While sliding pressure operation could be achieved in the superheater sections, full load pressure had to be maintained in the furnace walls to avoid film boiling and tube overheating which could occur at subcritical pressures. Constant supercritical pressure was maintained in the furnace walls by boiler throttling valves (BT and BTB valves). In the earlier designs, sliding pressure operation in the superheater was restricted to 30% rating and below as illustrated on Figure 3.1.2.

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Figure 3.1.2 Constant pressure program for Combined Circulation steam generators In later designs, the throttle valve complex of BT and BTB valves was redesigned to enable sliding pressure in the superheater over a wider range while still maintaining the waterwalls at full pressure. Figure 3.1.3 shows a system designed for sliding superheater pressure up to 80% rating. This design did provide some of the advantages of sliding pressure, including reduced turbine thermal stresses and an extended reheat temperature control range. Feed pump power, however, was not reduced and the valves were a source of operational complexity and maintenance.

Figure 3.1.3 Sliding pressure program for Combined Circulation steam generators While the 1960's saw considerable orders for supercritical power plants, especially in North America, a decade later the demand for them had plummeted. No supercritical units have been ordered in the US from 1978 to 2001. There were a number of reasons why the U.S. industry retreated from the supercritical plant. Among them were shifts in the market environment caused by the increase in nuclear power for baseload application and the availability of relatively inexpensive fossil fuel. The existing supercritical power plants lacked the operational flexibility needed for load following duty required by the U.S. electric grid.

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In addition, the industry's belief at the time was that the supercritical plants were less reliable and available than the subcritical units. This belief has been dispelled by a number of comprehensive studies. These independent studies concluded that there is no significant difference in availability due to subcritical/supercritical steam parameters for todays plant designs (References 1, 2, 3). Figure 3.1.4
14 12

10 8
EFOR %

6 4

2 0
Plant (Super) Plant (Sub) Blr (Super) Blr (Sub)

1982-1984 13.347 10.405 8.441 5.928

1985-1987 12.077 9.439 7.285 5.464

1988-1990 9.668 8.16 5.823 4.344

1991-1993 7.685 6.793 4.872 3.811

1994-1996 7.534 7.103 4.434 3.926

1997 7.482 7.013 4.023 4.018

Comparison of Subcritical and Supercritical Cycle Availability (Data Source: NERC) 3.2 European Experience with Supercritical Steam Cycles Due to special conditions of the European markets, steam generators had to be designed for cycling duty. These boilers enabled quick start-up, shutdown and rapid load changes. To permit this mode of operation in an economically acceptable manner a once-through flow boiler with a spiral-wound furnace configuration was developed. The design provides sliding pressure operation and has been successfully used for both subcritical and supercritical designs. The boiler throttling valves are completely eliminated from the design and the furnace walls are allowed to enter the subcritical pressure range along with the superheater circuits over the entire load range as required. Figure 3.2.1 shows four typical 700-750 MW bituminous coal fired once-through steam generators. They are installed at the Scholven F, Bergkamen A, Bexbach I and Heilbronn Unit 7 power plants in Germany.

Figure 3.2.1 Bituminous Coal Fired Once-Through Boilers of Capacity Class 700 750 MW

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These plants went into operation in the years between 1979 to 1985. The boilers are of a tower type and are designed for sliding pressure operation down to 35% minimum once-through load. The boilers are equipped with the tangential firing systems. Each boiler has 16 fuel nozzle pairs. The nozzles are installed in the corners at four elevations with four twin nozzles per elevation. The firing system includes four bowl mills installed along one of the sides of the boilers. One mill delivers coal to a level of nozzles. The Bexbach I plant is equipped with an induced draught fan, a forced-draught fan, a primary air fan and an air preheater all sized at 100% capacity. The other three have a more traditional arrangement and are equipped with two of the above components each one sized to operate at 50% capacity. Figure 3.2.2 shows a supercritical unit at the GKM Mannheim Central Power Station commissioned in Germany in May 1982. Design conditions are shown. A requirement for high efficiency was imposed on the design of this plant. Because of this requirement, a double reheat cycle was selected. In addition, the design incorporates a recuperative heat exchanger installed outside the boiler proper. It was applied in place of a desuperheater for reheat steam temperature control. Desuperheating of reheat steam is generally not desirable because of the negative effect on plant heat rate. In the heat exchanger design solution, excess temperature is removed by transferring heat from the superheater to the high pressure reheater and to the low pressure reheater. Consequently, heat losses associated with spraying water into the reheat steam flow are eliminated.
Live Steam 3990 psig /275 bar (design pressure) 986 F /530C 3,015,000 lb/h/ 1345 tonnes/hr Reheater Steam (1st Stage) 1260 psig//86 bar 1005 F / 541C 2,640,000 lb/h / 1178t onnes/hr Reheater Steam (2nd Stage) 261 psig/ 18 bar 986 F /539C 2,068,000 lb/hr/ 923tonnes/hr Feedwater 590 F/ 310C Fuel: Ruhr and Saar Coals

Figure 3.2.2 475 MW Once-Through Boiler (Double Reheat) with DeNOx Plant

Of more recent designs there are two steam generators for the Schwarze Pumpe power station constructed in Germany in 1993 (Figure 3.2.3). These supercritical boilers were designed to fire brown coal. With a furnace cross section of 24X24 m and a height of 161 m, these steam generators are among the physically largest steam generators in operation worldwide.

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Live Steam ) 4130Psig/285 bar (design pressure 1017 F/547C 5,420,800 lb/h /2420tonnes/hr Reheater Steam 827 Psig/57 bar 1050F/565C 4,745,000 lb/ 2118 tonnes/hr Feedwater 523 F/273C Fuel Brown coal

Figure 3.2.3 Power Station Schwarze Pumpe Another recent design is a 1000 MW coal fired boiler, Niederaussem K, in Germany. The most important technical data is summarized in Table 3.2.1. Table 3.2.1 Once-Through Boilers Reference List Typical Units
Year of Commissioning Patnow Wai Gao Qiao Yonghung Niederauem K Florina Mai Liao Schwarze Pumpe Poryong 3 & 4 Vestkraft Unit 3 Shidongkou II GKM Mannheim Boiler 18 Scholven, Unit F 2004 2003 2003 2002 2002 2000 1997 1993 .. 1992 1992 1982 1979 .. Brown Coal Bituminous Coal Bituminous Coal Brown Coal Lignite Bituminous Coal Brown Coal Bituminous Coal Coal Coal Coal Bituminous Coal Bituminous Bituminous Bituminous Temperature SH/Reheat [F] [C] 1010/1055 544/568 1008/1055 542/568 1056/1056 569/569 1075/1112 580/600 1010/1008 543/542 1005/1055 540/569 1017/1050 547/565 1005/1005 541/541 1040/1040 560/560 1005/1055 541/569 986/1004/986 530/540/530 995/995 535/535

Plant

Fuel Type

Electrical Output Steam Capacity [MW] 460 2 x 900 (980) 2 x 800 1,012 330 2 x 600 2 x 800 2x 500 400 2 x 600 475 4 x 750 [KPPH/tonnes/hr 3012/1345 6247/2789 5410/2415 5860/2662 2278/1017 4368/1950 5420/2420 3852/1720 2420/1080 4250/1897

Design Pressure [psig/bar) 4205/290 4045/279 3930/271 4205/290 3800/262 3841/265 4135/285 3840/265 4000/276

3885/268 3990/275 3335/230

3068/1370 4928/2200

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3.3

Asian Experience with Supercritical Steam Cycles

During the past two decades supercritical technology has captured a growing share of the Asian market. The major driver for the increased commercial activities in supercritical plants is due to high fuel cost and heightened environmental awareness including growing concern about greenhouse gas emissions. In Japan, essentially all of the new steam power plants of the 1990s are supercritical. South Korea, China and Taiwan have accepted supercritical technology on par with subcritical drum type designs. All supercritical units constructed in Asia are capable of variable waterwall pressure. Some of the plants were designed to operate at steam turbine inlet temperature as high as 1112o F (600o C). Most recent designs are represented by 2X800 MW boilers for the Korean Electric Power Company utility at Yonghung, 2X900 MW boilers for Shanghai Electric at WaiGaoQiao in Shanghai, China, as well as 2X600 MW boilers for Formosa Plastics at Mai-Liao, Taiwan (Figure 3.3.1).

Live Steam 3841 psig/265 bar (design pressure) 1005 F/541C 3,948,000 lb/h /1763 tonnes/hr Reheater Steam 1056 F/569C Fuel: Bituminous coal

4.0

Figure 3.3.1 Mai-Liao, Formosa 2 x 600 MW Coal fired Sliding Pressure Supercritical Once-through Supercritical Technology for Flexible Operation

The design of a thermal plant is governed by the operating duty specified by the plant owner. Optimal economy demands high operational flexibility from power plants which, in turn, often requires that the plants are suitable for a variable load program and two-shift operation (i.e. load following/cycling operation). In order to satisfy these requirements, excellent dynamic behavior and high load gradient accommodation are absolutely essential. Modern supercritical designs have greater operational flexibility as a result of their lower thermal inertia and are suited for cycling duty. However, the requirement for daily cycling and/or two shift operation can create undesirable thermal stresses especially in the steam turbine. These concerns can be minimized by adopting sliding pressure operation that significantly minimizes temperature differences in the turbine. The emphasis of designing more flexible units as well as extending component life has led to the wide use of sliding pressure operation with once-through boiler systems. There are a number of variable pressures versus load programs available as shown in Figure 4.1. These programs differ mainly in the level of unit load at which sliding pressure operation occurs. Natural sliding pressure operation (Program 3 in Figure 4.1) requires that the turbine inlet valves are fully open during normal operation. Consequently, turbine throttle pressure is proportional to the steam flow. Natural sliding pressure operation, however, has a disadvantage -- boiler response to changes in load demand is relatively slow and may not satisfy the power-system control requirements. Compared with the steam turbine, the boiler has a significantly larger thermal storage capacity. For this reason, the mode of operation known as modified sliding pressure program (Program 2 in Figure 4.1) is more frequently used. In the modified sliding pressure mode of operation, a turbine is operated with a certain amount of throttle reserve for rapid change. The admission cross section at the turbine is altered briefly when the load is varied, so that accumulated steam in the boiler is discharged at once.

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psig 4350 3625 2900 2175 1450 725 0

Figure 4.1 Pressure operation mode at boiler outlet 5.0 5.1 Furnace Walls Design for Supercritical Steam Cycles Basic Design Considerations

Furnace walls are formed by finned or fusion welded tubes that form a continuous water-cooled envelope. The major concern for once-through operation is designing for sufficiently high mass velocity to ensure cooling of the furnace tubes. Drum units maintain the proper mass flows by the use of either natural or forced circulation. These boilers are designed to generate steam in the furnace walls under nucleate boiling conditions. Nucleate boiling is characterized by formation and release of steam bubbles at the surface-liquid interface with the water continues wetting the inner surface of the tube In a once-through boiler, waterwall mass flow changes in direct proportion to steam flow. In the supercritical pressure region, the fluid inside the tubes is heated and the heat is directly converted into a higher temperature. In the subcritical once-through pressure region the process of heat transfer is more complicated and the process involves a change in phase from liquid to steam as well as superheating. In most practical situations, a fluid at a temperature below its boiling point at the system pressure enters a furnace tube in which it is heated so that progressive vaporization and slight superheating occurs. The process of heat transfer during vaporization depends on many variables. As the quality of the steam-liquid mixture increases, various two-phase flow patterns are encountered as illustrated on Figure 5.1.1.

Figure 5.1.1 DNB and DO Phenomenon

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Boiler designers must be concerned with two conditions that may occur when a boiler operates in the subcritical pressure region. These conditions are Departure from Nucleate Boiling (DNB) and Dryout (DO). DNB and DO are characterized by formation of a flow of steam which covers the inner surface of a tube resulting in a sharp decrease in heat transfer coefficient and consequent high metal temperature rise. DNB typically occurs at higher subcritical pressures and high heat fluxes and low steam contents and flow velocities. DO occurs at relatively high steam content and flow velocity. Both DNB and DO may occur during transitional (subcritical) operation within some waterwall areas in a once-through boiler. However, through the use of sophisticated furnace design programs, ALSTOM boiler designers mitigate the impact of DO/DNB conditions. In addition, materials are selected which accommodate these conditions and assure reliable operation. Once-through operation brings about a second design challenge; namely avoiding potentially damaging stresses resulting from temperature differences at the furnace wall outlet. A drum unit always operates with saturation temperature in the waterwalls and all circuits are at the same fluid temperature. With a once-through design, the steam outlet of the furnace walls is slightly superheated, i.e. outside of the steam dome or saturation region. Therefore, tube circuits can be at different temperatures caused by variation in heat absorption patterns around the furnace perimeter. These temperature differences must be maintained within acceptable limits. Design strategies to deal with the above concerns have been well proven and are described below.

5.2

Spiral Wall Design for Supercritical Steam Cycles

The spiral wall design has over thirty years of experience and can be applied to all unit sizes, pressures and fuels. The basic concept of the spiral wall is to increase the mass flow per tube by reducing the number of tubes required to envelop the furnace wall without increasing the spacing between the tubes. Figure 5.2.1 illustrates this concept.
Features R educed num ber of tubes w ith pitch. Increased m ass flow . M ass flow rate can be chosen by num ber of parallel tubes.

Figure 5.2.1 Spiral Wall Design Figure 5.2.2 shows a comparison between the inclined tube arrangement and the vertical tube arrangement.

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Figure 5.2.2 Evaporator Wall Design

The spiral furnace wall system employs smooth bore tubes that require high mass velocity to provide acceptable tube cooling. The high mass velocity produces high film conductance that ensures low metal temperatures and thus economical selection of tube materials. Fewer and longer tubes combined with higher mass flow rate, however, produce higher pressure drop in the furnace walls. For a given furnace size and fuel selection, the expected heat flux rate determines the mass velocity rate required to ensure cooling of the furnace wall tubes. With a spiral wall design, the number and size of the tubes is selected to provide sufficient cooling over the entire load range. Additionally, by spiraling around the furnace, every tube is part of all four walls, which means that the difference in length between the furnace tubes is minimized and that the heat pickup by individual tubes is approximately the same. This makes the spiral wall system less sensitive to changes in the heat absorption profile in the furnace. The measured steam temperatures at the outlet of the spiral wall tubing for an 800 MW supercritical boiler are shown in Figure 5.2.3.

Figure 5.2.3 Evaporator Temperature at Spiral Outlet

930 500
Te m pe ra ture a t s pira l outle t
oF

100 % Load

750 400 570 300 390 200 210 100

40 % Load left side wall right side wall

front wall

rear wall

10

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Practical design considerations require a vertical waterwall configuration in the upper furnace region. This transition to a vertical wall is accomplished in a zone where heat fluxes are relatively low and the requirements on tube cooling are not as high as in the lower furnace zone. The transition requires the use of an intermediate header or bifurcated/trifurcated fittings. Typical waterwall construction includes 1.5(38.1 mm) OD tubes in the spiral portion and 1.25( 31.75 mm) OD tubes in the vertical portion of the furnace. Because the furnace wall tubes are at an angle, there is a need to transfer some of the weight load from the spiral furnace tubes to support straps. The support straps are welded to the spiral walls by means of scalloped clips and transfer the collected load to the vertical wall tubes by means of finger straps (Figure 5.2.4).

Transition Zone

Spiral Tubes

Finger Straps

Tension Strap Vertical Buckstay Horizontal Buckstay

Corner Assembly

Figure 5.2.4
Wall Furnace Supporting Structure

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5.3

Vertical Wall Rifled Tubing

As an alternative to the spiral wall designs, ALSTOM has developed a design that uses conventional vertical tube walls for ease of construction and maintenance. The design is a derivative of the Combined Circulation design that ALSTOM has continually improved since its introduction in 1961. Rifled tubing is used in the furnace walls. A vertical wall configuration typically employs either 1-1/4 (31.8mm) or 1-1/8 (28.6mm) O.D. internally rifled tubes (Figure 5.3.1).

Figure 5.3.1 Rifled Tube Rifled tubing offers significant advantages over smooth tubing in the evaporation range of subcritical pressure boiler operation. The advantages are best summed up by Figure 5.3.2.

Figure 5.3.2 Comparison of wall temperature between rifled and smooth tubes (pressure 2990 psig) Figure 5.3.2 compares the inside wall temperatures of smooth and rifled tubes for three different heat flux rates 12

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at a pressure of 2900 psig (200 bar). It is evident from this figure that for smooth tubes the wall temperature rises steeply, even at relatively low steam qualities. The increase occurs earlier in the case of higher heat flux rate and the maximum values are higher. With rifled tubes, the sudden rise of the wall temperatures is displaced towards higher steam qualities. The use of rifled tubing therefore permits much lower mass flows with the same margin of protection against DNB and overheating. Extensive testing at ALSTOMs Power Plant Laboratories has characterized the heat transfer and flow behavior of rifled tubing for vertical tube furnace application. Actual size and rib configuration tubes were subjected to the full matrix of heat flux, mass flow, and pressure conditions which will be experienced by these units during sliding pressure mode of operation (Figures 5.3.3 and 5.3.4). Of particular interest was flow and heat transfer behavior in the transition zone between the supercritical and subcritical pressure. Engineering development of vertical wall rifled tubing steam generators has involved detailed analytical evaluations of the furnace walls for operating parameters shown on Figures 5.3.3 and 5.3.4.

Figure 5.3.3 ALSTOM rifled tube test program heat flux vs. pressure

Figure 5.3.4 ALSTOM rifled tube test program mass flow vs. pressure Rifling promotes turbulence and aids in wetting the inside tube surface, consequently, increasing the nucleate boiling quality for a given heat flux, mass velocity, and pressure. Similar to the spiral-wound design, the waterwall panels can be formed by either fin or fusion welded tubes. Typical average mass velocity per tube is much smaller than for the spiral arrangement. However, more than adequate margin of safety is provided by the combined effect of a smaller diameter tube and inside tube rifling. All supercritical units must be designed to minimize temperature differences in the furnace walls. Waterwall outlet temperature deviations for vertical wall sliding pressure supercritical units are minimized in the same manner as on the earlier Combined Circulation designs. This is accomplished by installing individual tube orifices, which distribute flow in conjunction with heat absorption by each circuit. Designers are able to select 13

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correct size orifices and prescribe required quantity of cooling flow because ALSTOMs tangential firing system generates a well-defined heat absorption pattern across the furnace wall width. A typical heat absorption profile, which is constructed applying empirical data obtained from numerous field tests, is illustrated in Figure 5.3.5 for a MCR load. Similar standards are available for lower loads.

Heat Absorption Q EFF / QAVG

Percent of wall dimension, corner to corner Figure 5.3.5 Predicted lateral water wall heat accumulation Detailed waterwall analysis based on operating experience shows that satisfactory temperature differentials throughout the entire operating load range can be achieved with sliding pressure operation. The temperature difference between the maximum and minimum value is well within acceptable range. In addition, orifices are installed in a supply sphere (Figure 5.3.6). These orifices insure that the prescribed amount of flow is distributed to each wall. Their main task is to ensure adequate flow distribution to each wall at lower loads. The viability of a vertical wall rifled tube technology was demonstrated in Japan in the successful design and operation of 7001000 MW coal fired and 700 MW gas fired boilers.

Figure 5.3.6 Furnace Waterside Arrangement

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6.0 6.1

Boiler Concepts for Reheat Steam Generators Available Boiler Concepts

Two principal arrangements of heating surfaces are utilized by ALSTOM for reheat steam generators. These are the pendant panel surface (two-pass) and the horizontal surface (tower) designs, both of which are used in subcritical and supercritical cycle applications. Regardless of the boiler concept, the location of the various superheat, reheat, and economizer sections in the flue gas path is determined by: the temperature difference between the gas and internal fluid the method of steam temperature control the allowable metal temperature limits The decision to use a pendant panel design versus a horizontal design is not dependent on the cycle choice (i.e., subcritical vs. supercritical). Each of these configurations has its advantages and allows for customer preference as a factor in the final arrangement of the heating surface. The following briefly highlights each design. 6.2 Pendant Panel Design

A pendant supercritical unit surface arrangement is illustrated in Figure 6.2.1. It shows superheat panels and platens above the furnace. The superheat panels are the primary superheater surfaces, while the platens are the secondary. The temperature entering the primary superheater on a supercritical unit is relatively high since the fluid leaving the furnace walls is already slightly superheated. The temperature is approximately 800F (427C). This high fluid temperature makes it impractical to place the primary superheater in a low gas temperature zone. The difference between the fluid temperature in the tubes and the gas temperature over the tubes must be maintained at a sufficient level to ensure efficient convective heat transfer. The final superheater is located in the tunnel between the final reheat section and the backpass. Because of higher operating pressures, supercritical designs require tubes with thicker walls and/or a smaller diameter when compared to subcritical designs. The thicker walls result in higher metal temperatures and consequently require application of more advanced alloys. The installation of the finishing superheater in the tunnel, in a lower flue gas temperature zone and away from high radiation of the furnace, enables the designers to maintain lower metal temperatures, thus minimizing the use of expensive alloys. The final reheater is installed before the final superheater. In the design shown in Figure 6.2.1, reheat temperature is controlled primarily by fuel nozzle tilts. This system provides for altering the gas temperature leaving the furnace by changing the location of the fireball inside the furnace. Fuel nozzle tilts rapidly adjust to changing furnace conditions in order to maintain the desired steam temperature leaving the reheater. In order to effectively control reheat steam temperature through the use of fuel nozzle tilts, the heating surface must be located such that it is exposed to both radiant and convective heat. In this way the fuel nozzle tilt has a maximum effect on the reheater surface. The first stage of reheat, because of its lower inlet temperature, is placed just ahead of the economizer in the backpass resulting in lower overall boiler surface requirements. In addition, with this heating surface arrangement, control of reheat steam temperature at lower loads is improved. By placing a reheater horizontally in the rear convective pass, the reheat temperature can be further controlled by varying excess combustion air in the furnace. Thus, reheat steam temperature is controlled by both fuel nozzle tilt and by excess combustion air.

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Figure 6.2.1 Arrangement of Supercritical Pendant-Panel Unit 6.3 Tower Type Design

In a tower design, all convective heat transfer surfaces including superheater and reheater sections and the economizer are arranged in the upper part of the boiler. Only the regenerative air preheater is located at the lower part of the second pass. A typical design of a tower-type boiler for a 900 MW supercritical unit is shown in Figure 6.3.1.

Live Steam 4050 Psig/279 bar (design pressure) 1008 F/542C 6,247,360 lb/h/r/2789tonnes/hr Reheater Steam 1000 psig/ 69 bar 1055 F/568C 5,445,000 lb/h2431 tonnes/hr Feedwater 523 F/272 C Fuel: Bituminous Coal

Figure 6.3.1 WaiGaoQiao, 2 x 900 MW

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The economizer is the furthest downstream section and is installed in the parallel flow type arrangement. The flow from the economizer is fed to the hopper inlet header that supplies the furnace tubes. The flow from the furnace walls is collected and is piped to the water separators. Steam from the separators is fed to the hanger tubes that support the convective sections. Typically superheating and reheating is carried out in three main steam superheater and two reheater stages. More detailed information is shown in the water/steam diagram for a 900 MW supercritical unit in Figure 6.3.2.
S H S e p a ra to rs S H 2 I 2 S H S u r r o u n d in g w a lls E v a p o ra to r L e v e lin g v e s s e l 4 0  14 0 E c o n o m iz e r 4 0  14 0 3 1 I 1

Figure 6.3.2 Water/Steam Diagram With the exception of the SH and RH final stages, which are arranged in parallel flow, all other superheat and reheat sections are arranged in counterflow. The parallel flow of the final stages was selected for two reasons. The first one is to prevent potential flow of condensed steam (that will occur during prolonged unit shutdown) into the main steam and reheat piping during boiler restart. The second reason is that parallel flow results in a lower heat flux and, therefore, a lower metal temperature of the last sections of the finishing superheater and reheater tubes. 6.4 Modified Tower Designs In addition to the pure tower arrangement, a modified arrangement exists where the economizer is located in the second (rear) pass above the air preheater. This affords reduced boiler structure, counterflow economizer flow and cased economizer surface. Figure 6.4.1 illustrates this arrangement.

Figure 6.4.1 Modified Tower Arrangement

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6.5 Steam Temperature Control In both pendent panel and tower arrangements, primary steam temperature is controlled by establishing the proper ratio of firing rate to feedwater flow. In addition, tilting fuel nozzles may be used to control reheater outlet temperature. Depending upon the severity of operational requirements, including transient conditions, one or two spray water stations on the primary and reheater steam sides can also be used to assist steam temperature control. 7.0 7.1 Start-up Systems for Supercritical Steam Cycles General Design Considerations

Todays supercritical power plants are designed to follow a rigorous load program that often includes two shift or cycling operations. To accommodate this operating requirement most effectively, a supercritical steam generator must be capable of sliding pressure operation in the entire system. This means that during low load and start-up the steam generators are operated in a subcritical pressure range. Therefore, to facilitate satisfactory service, a low load start-up system is provided. Selection of a minimum once-through flow depends on such factors as mode of operation, circuit stability, and tube materials. For boilers which are primarily base loaded, the once-through minimum load should be selected as high as possible. This results in the lowest pressure drop in the waterwalls at a full-load condition. Steam generators which are required to cycle must be designed for a lower once-through minimum load so that once-through flow operation is extended to the lowest load practical. Commercial experience with a minimum once-through flow down to 30% to 40% load has proven to be successful. Lower once-through loads are also feasible. The start up system includes a water separator system located between the waterwalls and the primary superheater, a water storage tank and a drain water discharge system with heat recovery capabilities. The water separator consists of one or more vertical vessels with tangential inlets (Figure 7.1.1).

Figure 7.1.1 Steam-water separator system and water storage tank Steam outlets are located in the upper part and the drain is discharged through the lower part. The water separator is in wet condition when it operates in flow recirculation mode and it is dry when the flow is once-through. The drain discharge systems with heat recovery capabilities can be of two types: indirect heat recovery direct heat recovery

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There are also two types of direct heat recovery systems that are available. The first is a system with a low load recirculation pump; the second is a system that includes a drain return line via a heat exchanger into the deaerator/feedwater storage tank. The suitability of each system depends on the economic evaluation associated with operational requirements of a steam generator. For example, base loaded units will typically not benefit from a direct heat recovery system. The need to minimize heat and water losses during start-up is important for two-shift and daily start/stop units. However, increased equipment cost due to added equipment must be weighed against the operational benefits such as reduced fuel consumption and retained water saved by a direct heat recovery system. 7.2 Drain Discharge with Indirect Heat Recovery System

In this type of start-up system the minimum required cooling flow is assured by the feedwater pump. The feedwater flows into the economizer, the waterwalls and then to the water/steam separator and the storage tank (Figure 7.2.1).

Figure 7.2.1 Drain Discharge with Indirect Heat Recovery System From there water returns through a control valve to the feedwater (deaerator) tank and partly through one of the two control valves located on the boiler house flash tank. During a cold start, as water begins to swell, the HWL and WL valves open and return water from the water separator storage tank into the boiler house flash tank as well as into the deaerator. As the pressure in the water separator increases, the return water flow will increase into the feedwater tank. As the return water temperature increases, the related heat will be transferred to the feedwater. Thus the heat produced in the boiler during startup will be largely conserved in the feedwater system, thereby reducing the start-up time and associated losses. Under ideal operating conditions (e.g. acceptable feedwater tank level and pressure) the flash tank valves are closed allowing the entire drain water flow into the feedwater tank. In the event that the pressure limitations are exceeded in the feedwater tank, the flow will be rerouted into the flash tank thus maintaining acceptable separator level. Drain water flow from the flash tank is routed through a receiving tank, through a drain transfer pump and back into the condenser.

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7.3

Drain Discharge with Direct Heat Recovery Utilizing Low Load Recirculating Pump System

Systems that include a small low load recirculation pump, utilize this pump to maintain the required minimum flow in the economizer and waterwalls during start-up and wet condition operation (Figure 7.3.1).

Figure 7.3.1 Drain water return system with low load circulation pump The recirculation pump takes its suction from a mixing tee located downstream of the water storage tank. The tee combines the flow of the feedwater system with the drain water flow from the storage tank. In this start-up system the feedwater pump and circulation pump are installed in series. A parallel arrangement is available also. In the parallel system the feedwater flow is combined with the recirculation flow at the circulation pump discharge. During initial start-up, when no steam is being produced, the feedwater pump is de-energized and the entire flow through the economizer and waterwalls is supplied by the drain system. As steam production begins, the level in the storage tank begins to decrease. As this occurs, the flow through the evaporator begins to vary from entirely drain water recirculation to a mix of feedwater and drain water recirculation. This trend continues until the minimum once-through load is reached at which point the circulation pump is taken out of service. Above the minimum once-through load, the steam generator has entered into the once-through mode where all of the water is being evaporated into steam and the entire flow through the evaporator is supplied by the feedwater pump. 7.4 Drain Discharge with Direct Heat Recovery Utilizing a Start-up Heat Exchanger System

The drain discharge line via a start-up heat exchanger is equipped much like the system with indirect heat recovery. The notable difference is the incorporation of a straight tube type heat exchanger integrated into the drain line that leads from the separator/storage tank to the feedwater tank (deaerator). The heat exchanger allows for the direct recuperation of excess heat in the water from the waterwalls into the feedwater line to the economizer (Figure 7.4.1).

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54 36

18 0

Figure 7.4.1 Drain Water Return System with a Start-up Heat Exchanger System

Similarly to the system with the recirculation pump, this system has the advantage of minimizing the heat losses during start-up and low load operation and as with the pump system the operational savings must be compared to the increased initial capital cost of the added equipment. 8.0 Operating Experience with Supercritical Steam Cycles

After a design has been completed and a boiler erected, operating testing provides an opportunity to determine whether it meets performance guarantees and whether any design adjustments are required. Individual units should follow load programs, participate in cycle load operations and should have capability for emergency operation following power plant disturbances. All these requirements put an increased demand on plant and boiler controls. The control quality of the main steam parameters is illustrated on the next few figures. Figure 8-1 shows the results of field tests conducted on a 750 MW once-through tower type unit.
SH 2 SH 1
806 788 770 752

5th tube row from top

boiler load

top
896 878 860 842 896

14th tube row from top o = 9th tube from top + = bottom tube

boiler load
top

bottom

bottom

temperature F

temperature F temp. F
644 680 716 752 788

770 752 734 716 698 680 662 644 626 608

878 860 842 824 860 842 824 806 788 770

temp. left
806 824 842 860 878 896

left

SH 3
932

right 5th tube row from top boiler load

section A-B
top

SH 4
1022 1004

right 11th tube row from top boiler load

section A-B
top bottom

914 Horizontal and Vertical 896 Temperature Distribution inlet

bottom

inlet
869 873 880 867

temperature F

829

822

temperature F

for Superheaters 1, 2, 3 and 4 828 826 860 at 100 %, 60 % and 25 % Load

914 896 878 860 842 914 896 878 860 842
822 808 829 806

878

986 968 1022 1004 986 968 1022 1004 986 968 950

inlet
862 867 880 858

inlet
842 824

inlet
846 824

inlet
905 860 860 858

left

temp. right
842 860 878 896 914 932

932

temp.
932 950 968 986 1004

section A-B

left

right

section A-B

Figure 8.1 Horizontal and Vertical Temperature Distribution for Superheaters 1,2,3 and 4 at 100%, 60% and 25% Load

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The results show the horizontal and vertical temperature distribution at the outlet of the superheater tubes at 100%, 60% and 25% loads. The temperature measurements were taken over the entire furnace width as well as over the superheater height for the center row tube. As can be seen, the temperature profiles and heat absorption by individual tubes (Figure 8.2) are quite uniform indicating excellent gas side and steam side flow distribution. Because of these excellent results, available design margins for the superheater tubes were maintained.

Temperatures in oF
990
1000

988

1000

1000 990 986

997

997

+121

+115

+120 880

+133 867

+85

+126

+137 860

+141 856 -32 -27

869 -20 -38 900

873 -27 -33 900 907 900 -29 -4

905

860

889

883

909

892

+72 828 -34 -31 862

+74 826

+78 829

+78 822

+67 822 -39 -36 -13 0

+75 808

+63 846

+68 824 -38 -2

860 858 Heat Absorption 865 of the S uperheater S tages

846 835 846

826

at 100 % and 25 % Load (4 Lines in parallel)

Temperatures in C

+169
SH 4

+92

+95
SH 4

+99 761

+81 777

+197

+191

+62

770

770
SH 3

666
SH 3

649

655

664

777 761

770 770
SH 2 SH 2

664 655

666 649

+24

+22
SH 1

+126
SH 1

+108 534 550 550

736 738

748 748

Separator
071 083p

Separator 25 % load

534

100 % load

Figure 8.2 Heat Absorption of the Superheater Stages at 100% and 25% Load (4 Lines in parallel) Load transfer from the recirculation mode to once-through mode as well as reverse load transfer is fully automated. At the transfer point to once-through flow, control strategy shifts from controlling the water level in the tank and maintaining minimum cooling flow to the waterwalls to the control of enthalpy in the separator. Boiler transient load behavior was tested at an 800 MW unit. Figure 8.3 illustrates maximum fluctuation in the steam temperature and pressure leaving the superheater and reheater as boiler load increases at 6%/minute.

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3625 psig 3263 2900 2538 2175 1813 1450 1088 725 363 0

1112 F 1022 932 842 752 662 572 482 392 302 212 122 32

120 % 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10:00 10:05 10:10 10:15 10:20 10:25 10:30 95.28 %/10:14:52 6.7 %/min. 64.8 %/10:10:19

Total firing rate [%] RH Steam temperature [F] SH Steam pressure [ psig ]

SH Steam temperature [F] SH Steam flow [%] Auxiliary line

Figure 8.3 Load increase with over 6% Steam Flow Variation It should be mentioned that these load changes were achieved at constant turbine inlet valve position. If the control system was modified to account for stored heat capacity of the steam generator, successful operation of the steam generator could be achieved even with higher load change rates. Boiler availability and minimum temperature variation during emergency conditions were tested also. Failure of one of two forced or induced draught fans was simulated. Figure 8.4 shows the results of the load run-back from 100% to 50% in a time frame of a little more than one minute.
3625 1292 100 psig F % 3263 1256 90 2900 1220 2538 1184 2175 1148 1813 1112 1450 1076 1088 1040 725 1004 363 968 0 932 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8:30 Total firing rate [%] RH Steam temperature [F]
8:3 8:30:20 80:24 8:30:28 8:30:32 8:30:36 8:30:36 8:30:40 8:30:44 8:30:48 8:30:52 8:30:56 8:31:00 8:31:04 8:31:08 8:31:08 8:31:12 8:31:16 8:31:21 8:31:24 8:31:28 8:31:32 8:31:36 8:31:36 8:31:40 8:31:44 8:31:48 8:31:52 8:31:56

8:45 SH Steam pressure [psig] SH Steam temperature [F] SH Steam flow [%]

9:00

Figure 8.4 Load Runback to 50% (Schwarze Pumpe) The control quality attained was excellent. The reheat and superheat outlet temperature variations were within allowable temperature differences. Over the past few decades, considerable body of experience became available with the design and operation of supercritical sliding pressure steam generators. Figure 8.5 shows a partial list of ALSTOM steam generators that have been operating successfully in the base-load and cycling mode of operation.

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Commissioning Scholven F Bergkamen A GKM K 18 Bexbach I Heilbronn Unit 7 Vestkraft

1) Shidongkou 1 & 2

Status 12/2000 12/2000 12/2000 02/2001 12/2000 06/2000 12/2000 12/2000 12/2000 06/2002 12/2000

Hours of operation 137,200 147,096 140,950 106,156 83,230 58,300 63,842/60,474 60,685/61,025 57,378/56,818 40,457/35,050 27,631/25,418

No. of start-ups 1,830 311 350 2,007 1,108 200 162/112 73/71 113/74 120/124 19/14

1979 1981 1982 1983 1985 1992 1992 1993 1993 1997 1997

Poryong 3 & 41) Poryong 5 & 61) Schwarze Pumpe A/B Hadong 1 & 21)

Note: 1) Above data includes only startups after commercial operation, i.e., no commissioning phase startups

Figure 8.5 Year of Commissioning, Hours of Operation and No. of Start-Ups 9.0 Materials and State-of-the-Art Steam Parameters

Except for the waterwalls, where tubing made of low Cr alloy is used instead of carbon steel, materials applied in supercritical boiler designs are similar to materials selected for drum-type steam generators. Creep rupture strength and its oxidation limit often establish the temperature limits of a material. For a given temperature, the creep rupture strength of a material decreases over time. As the steam parameters increase, available design margin of many conventional alloys decreases and at some temperature level their application becomes impractical. The use of alloys for critical pressure part components such as waterwalls, finishing superheat and reheat sections, and thick wall components including high pressure steam outlet headers and main steam piping are reviewed in the next few sections. 9.1 Materials for Waterwalls

Furnace tubes are subject to the highest heat fluxes in the furnace. Typical tubing alloys applied in the commercial designs are: 1.25 Cr-0.5Mo (T-12) material, a 2.25 Cr 1.0 Mo (T22) material and a European developed material 15Mo3. These alloys have excellent mechanical properties suitable for easy fabrication of the waterwall panels. Design limit of T12 was studied for a cycle with the superheater outlet steam conditions up to 4060 psig (280 bar) and 1112F (600 C). For non-corrosive coals and based on the furnace outlet temperature of 2280F (1250C), T12 can be applied in waterwalls up to the waterwall outlet temperature of about 880F (470C). T12 is used for lower temperatures in the panel designs. For higher steam conditions and higher water wall outlet temperatures respectively, different materials are required. For example, T22 has slightly higher creep rupture strength properties and higher oxidation limits and is frequently used in place of T12. Its application, however, doesnt enable any significant increase in cycle parameters. In recent years new ferritic alloys became commercially available that could be applied to waterwall construction. They offer a substantial improvement in the creep strength and can be used instead of conventional alloys or enable higher steam parameters cycle. These materials are a 2.25Cr-1.6W-V (T23) alloy (ASME code approved) developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries and a 7CrMoVTiB1010 (T24) alloy developed by Vallourec & Mannesmann Tubes. Allowable stresses of ferritic alloys are shown on Figure 9.1.1. For comparison, a 9Cr-1Mo-V (T91) alloy, used mainly in the construction of superheater and reheater surfaces, is shown also.

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A LLO W A B LE S T R E S S T 91 , T 22 v s. T 23 140

20.3

120 17.4 Allowable Stress, MPA Allowable Stress, ksi 100 14.5 80 11.6 60 8.7 40 5.8 20 2.9 T91 T23 T22

0 0
3 7 0698 .0 4 2 0 .0 0 .0 .0 .0 788 4 7 0 .878 5 2 0968 5 7 01058 6 2 01148 T e m p e r a t u r e , od e g . C

Temp F

Figure 9.1.1 Allowable stresses for ferritic alloys 9.2 Materials for Superheater and Reheater Tubes When selecting superheater and reheater tube materials, the creep strength of the selected alloys must be high enough to provide adequate margins of safety in the operating pressure and temperature range. In addition to the requirement for high strength, corrosion resistance, both on the flue gas side and on the steam side, must be considered. Oxides will always form on the inside and outside surface of a tube. It is a known fact that exfoliating metal-oxide scale from the internal surfaces of superheater and reheater tubes, headers, and piping can lead to solid particle erosion in steam turbine blading and valves. Solid particle erosion predominantly occurred in the intermediate pressure stages and seldom in the high pressure stages of steam turbines and valves. The exfoliated oxides are mostly ferritic types. Low chrome ferritic alloys are predominant materials throughout the reheater system and are more prone to exfoliation than high chrome ferritic alloys like the 12% Cr material X20CrMoV121 and austenitic alloys. ALSTOMs design approach mitigates this exfoliation phenomena by limiting application of low chrome ferritic alloys to relatively low temperatures and through conservative selection criteria regarding allowable metal temperatures. In the past ten years new higher Cr ferritic containing 9-12% Cr alloys became commercially available. Ferritic materials allow for more economical design and have the advantage of avoiding dissimilar metal welds and the large coefficient of expansion of austenitic steels that are typically used for higher temperature tubes. These high chrome ferritic alloys are continuously being improved for high strength and higher resistance to oxidation. The addition of Tungsten (W) and other carbide and nitride forming elements have led to considerable improvements in the high temperature strength of the 9-12Cr steels. However, even for these higher strength alloys ALSTOM design practice is to limit their application to steam temperatures less than approximately 1060F (570C). For higher temperatures, austenitic alloys can be used. A new generation of ferritic materials is being developed which will give enhanced temperature capabilities relative to those now available. Very high operating steam temperatures, considered for higher efficiency cycles, will require the application of materials with greater creep strength and greater corrosion resistance than the best boiler materials in use today. The most attractive alternative appears to be nickel-base alloys for the very highest temperature components. The creep strength is sufficient to allow operation with steam temperatures close to 1300F (700C). In the USA, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has acted as the focus for development of advanced materials. Under the EPRI 1403-50 project, co-operative research and development with USA utilities and equipment manufacturers in the USA, Europe and Japan materials properties and performance have been studied to enable alloys to be used for pressure parts operating at high temperature. Projects of similar nature have been conducted in Europe and Japan. These projects have been successful in developing a number of material that were qualified and introduced into a number of power plants in Europe with maximum steam temperatures of 1110F (600C). Figure 9.2.1 shows the strength of some of these alloys. 25

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X 20: DIN 17175 and DIN 17176 T 91: VdTV Material Sheet 511/2 HCM 12: VdTV Material Sheet 510 1.4910: DIN 17459 Tempaloy A-1: NKK Tempaloy A-3: NKK

250
100,000 h - Creep rupture values (average)

SUPER 304 H: Sumitomo and ASME C.C. 2328 TP 347 HFG: Sumitomo and ASME C.C. 2159 NF 709: Nippon Steel SAVE 25: Sumitomo HR 3C: Sumitomo and ASME C.C. 2115 Alloy 617: VdTV Material Sheet 485 Alloy 617: Research Project A 130

N/mm2 200 TP 347 HFG 150 HCM 12 SAVE 25

Alloy 617: A 130

SUPER 304 H Alloy 617: VdTV HR 3C NF 709

100 X 20 50

T 91

1.4910 Tempaloy A-1 Tempaloy A-3 650 680 710 740 C 770

0 560 590 620 Temperature

Figure 9.2.1 100,000 h Creep Rupture Strength for SH and RH Materials Long term superheat and reheat tubing material tests have been conducted in the Danish Power Plant Vestkraft Unit 3 since 1995. Many test superheaters made up of a number of material samples have been installed in the boiler. The goal of the project has been to investigate and validate high-temperature corrosion and oxidation resistance of new materials. Also, the effect of long exposure to high temperatures on microstructure of materials and welds is being studied. The test program is being carried out in three phases with maximum steam temperatures at 1150F (620C), 1180F (635C) and 1300F (700C). More than 35,000 operating hours have been accumulated. External corrosion rates and internal scales are being determined. 9.3 Materials for High-Pressure Outlet Headers and Piping

Traditional material used for manufacturing of the main steam outlet headers and piping is Grade 22 (2.25 Cr 1.0 Mo) and, in Europe, the 12% Cr alloy X20CrMoV121. In the past decade, P91 (9 Cr 1.0 Mo-V) ferritic steel with much higher creep rupture strength properties became available and has been used in power plant applications. Oxidation limits of P22 and P91 alloys are 1075F (580C) and 1150F (621C) respectively. In Europe, X20CrMoV121 has been widely used for headers and piping with steam conditions up to 3750 psig/1020F (260 bar/ 550C. The allowable stresses of Grade 22 decrease significantly at higher temperatures, thus requiring thicker walled headers and piping. This required increase in wall thickness limits application of this alloy in cyclic duty designs. For higher temperature and pressure, P91 is a better choice because it enables manufacturers to produce components of thinner wall and lower cost. Higher creep strength ferritic alloys also have become available in recent years. These alloys are P92 (9 Cr 2.0 W) and P122 (12 Cr 2.0W) and are ASME code approved for power plant use. For high steam conditions, application of these alloys results in thinner walls and lower cost. These materials can be used for steam parameters of approximately 4350psig/1110F (300bar/600C SH outlet). A new generation of steels is being developed which will give enhanced capability relative to those now available. Of particular interest are Save12 (10Cr-W-3Co), New NF12 (11Cr-2.6W-2.5Co), and VS 2161A(11Cr-1.6W-4Co) which show a gain in strength of around 30% compared with current state-of-the-art materials. Figure 9.3.1 illustrates comparative strength of conventional materials and some of the new alloys.

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36.25 100 000 h - Creep rupture values (average) ksi 29

X 20: DIN 17175 and DIN P 91: VdTV Material Sheet E 911:VdTV Material Sheet

HCM 12 A (P 122): umitomo and ASME C.C. S P 92: ASME C.C. 2179 NF 12: Nippon

E 911

HCM 12 A (P 122) P 92 P 91 NF 12

21.75

14.5

X 20 7.25

986

1040

1094 Temperature

1148

1202

Figure 9.3.1 100,000 h Creep Rupture Strength for Pipe and Header Materials 10. Future Supercritical Cycle Developments

The fundamental need for improved cycle efficiency capable of variable pressure operation will require increases in steam temperatures and pressures. Available materials make cycles with steam conditions of 4350 psig/1110F/1150F (300 bar/600C/620C) feasible in todays market. A number of material development programs in the US and Europe will enable superheat steam temperatures higher than 1110F (600C) in the future. For example, Ni bond alloys are being developed and tested for higher steam conditions. The European research project, Thermie, is aiming at the development of a cycle with steam conditions at 5440 psig/1290F/1330F (375 bar/700C/720C). The boiler waterwalls will need to be constructed of tubes made of higher-strength, corrosion resistant martensitic steels. The high-pressure outlet headers, piping, and the final stage of the superheater tubes will need to be fabricated of Ni-based steels. The Thermie project goal is to make this cycle available in the next 10-15 years. Predicted plant efficiency will be more than 50% net based on net calorif value. .

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11.0 Circulating Fluid Bed Combustion for High Sulfur Fuels Introduction Despite the tendency of the world energy market to become more and more dependent on international fuel supplies like imported coal, oil or gas, there is still the need for local fuel supply in different countries and regions. Local fuel supply is especially important in cases where the infrastructure does not allow transportation of gas or coal. Such application generally covers medium size power plants of about 50 MW to 300 MW. Most of the local fuels exhibit higher moisture content and / or lower heating values than international steam coals. Therefore, they are commonly not beneficiated in washery plants as is done for steam coals. Besides peat, oil shale and biomass, the most typical local fuel is lignite, and many of the different types of lignite can contain significant amounts of sulphur. The main advantage of lignite is that it usually can be excavated in open cast mines which makes it an economically very attractive fuel. Beneficiating of high sulphur lignite to reduce the ash and sulphur content is generally not applied for economical reasons. High sulphur lignite is found in many countries around the world. Table 11.1 gives some data about utilized high sulphur lignite.
Origin Country Greece Greece Turkey Turkey Turkey Yugoslavia Slovenia India Germany Czech Republic India France Turkey NCV (MJ/kg) 5.2 8.0 8.4 5.4 4.8 7.3 9.2 12.0 11.5 10.7 12.7 15.3 10.9 Volatile matter (% maf) 59 62 64 69 75 60 68 59.1 59.6 52 57.1 43.7 58 Moisture (% ar) 55 36.8 26.2 51 52 43.9 41 35 47.9 37 39.7 11.7 22 Ash (% ar) 18 27.36 39.4 20 23 22.3 17.1 21 5.8 20.3 12.4 25.9 32 Sulphur (% maf) 2.4 2.6 5.4 8.0 8.0 3.0 3.2 8.8 3.6 3.2 5.6 5.5 8.7

Site Amyntheon

Meliti Achlada ayirhan Kangal Elbistan Drmno Sostanj Akrimota Whlitz Tisova Kutch Provence an

Table 11.1 Typical Analysis of High Sulphur Lignites ALSTOM, as the market leader for lignite fired power plants, has been involved in combustion of high sulphur lignite for more than 40 years. The two boilers of the lignite fired power plant in Kutch in Gujarat, India, as an example, are operating with a PC firing system designed and supplied by ALSTOM. The lignite from the nearby open-cast mine has a net calorific value of 12,7 MJ/kg and sulphur contents of up to 6 %. Based on the conservative design of the boilers and a firing system taking the high sulphur content (mostly pyrite) into account, the boilers have been continuously in operation for about 14 years.

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12.0 Advantages of CFB firing for high sulphur lignite The ability of CFB plants to achieve very high sulphur capture with moderate limestone consumption is not the only advantage when firing high sulphur coals. Other advantages are: Significantly lower SO3 emissions allow lower flue gas exit temperatures and thus increase the boiler efficiency, avoiding of slagging in the furnace and reducing of fouling in the backpass and the ability to utilize fuels which could not be utilized with conventional combustion technology.

13.0 Experience with existing PC fired plants and CFB fired plants While PC fired boilers with high sulphur coals usually operate at flue gas exit temperatures of 320F/160 C or above, the flue gas outlet temperature of CFB boilers can be reduced to 284F/140 C or less. As predicted from chemistry, the SO3 capture via CaO is significantly higher than the capture of SO2. Measurements with German high sulphur lignite of approximately 4 % maf sulphur showed marginal SO3 levels of less than 0.1 ppm in the flue gas. Nevertheless, special technical precautions must be taken at the cold end of the air preheater to avoid corrosion. With non-adequate tubular air preheater design, it has been found that even with marginal SO3 levels corrosion can occur if the cold end of the air preheater is not protected properly or if certain operational conditions such as very low ambient temperature or low load operation are not taken into consideration. Adequately sized steam coil air preheaters can safely avoid these conditions. In PC fired plants, when the sulphur in the lignite occurs as pyrite severe slagging of the furnace can occur. In the last fifteen years more than 10,000 MW of boiler capacity was modified to low NOX conditions by ALSTOM. Generally, air staging was applied to limit NOX emissions. It turned out that furnace slagging decreased the more air staging was used. CFB plants have shown that slagging in the furnace does not occur even when utilizing high sulphur coals. The experience with the plants Waehlitz, Germany, Tisova, Czech Republic and Gardanne, France (all these boilers are in operation for more than 4 years) showed that no slagging occurred in the furnace, cyclones or the loop seals. 14.0 CFB Plant Akrimota in India In 1999, ALSTOM was awarded the contract for two CFB steam generators for the 2 x 125 MWe Steam Power Plant in Akrimota, Gujarat/India. The owner of the plant is the Gujarat Mining and Development Company (GMDC). The power plant is located in Chher Nani, near the city of Bhuj, close to the Arabian sea and not far from the lignite fired power plant Kutch. It is currently under construction and the first unit will be commissioned in 2003. The fuel supply is coming from the nearby open-cast mines Panandhro and Akrimota. The Pandandhro mine is already in operation, while the Akrimota mine is to be opened with the construction of the power plant. Bore probes across the coal field of the Akrimota mine showed significant variations in sulphur content in the coal, ranging from 3.9% up to 4.6% depending on location and seam. Table 14.1 depicts several of these analyses.

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Borehole No. Total Sulphur Pyritic Sulphur Sulphate Sulphur Organic Sulphur % % % %

53 4.43 54.8 27.0 18.2

60 2.00 37.3 10.6 52.0

61 2.33 55.2 6.7 38.0

63 7.84 4.8 25.5 69.7

Table 14.1 Typical Analysis Data of High Sulphur Lignites The major forms of the sulphur are pyritic sulphur and organic sulphur. Both of these substances will react completely to form SO2 when fired at temperatures of approximately 850 C, which are prevailing in the CFB furnace. The sulphate sulphur on the other hand will not further react in the CFB, SO2 from sulphate will be released only at elevated temperatures in excess of 1100 C or higher, which is not the case in a CFB boiler. A cross sectional drawing of the Akrimota boiler is depicted in Figure 14.1.

+ 50.0 m

Figure 14.1 Power Station Akrimota

2x125 MW Circulating Fluid Bed

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The CFB boilers are of well proven design, featuring several technical items which make them especially suitable for combustion of high sulphur lignite. These items include: Cyclones with high efficiency Re-injection of screened bottom ash Equal fuel injection and distribution Equal limestone injection and distribution

These measures are required to achieve the guaranteed desulphurization rate of 97 % for the whole coal range and load range. Special importance was given to the cyclone design. As it is known, the desulphurization reaction is an adsorption process of the gaseous SO2 and O2 penetrating into the CaO to form CaSO4. Therefore, the desulphurization reaction is highly time dependent, especially because the penetration of the gaseous components into the limestone particle core is reduced due to the presence of a dense sulphate layer formed at the outside of the CaO particle. The routing of the cyclone inlet ducts and the shape and arrangement of the eccentric vortex finder was further developed such to optimize cyclone efficiency. The aim of these measures is to increase the particle residence time to a maximum, especially for small particles between 40 m and 300 m (typical limestone PSD). The effects of the cyclone inlet duct shape on the cyclone efficiency have been tested in cold model tests in the ALSTOM laboratory and by CFD analysis (see Figures 14.2 and 14.3).

Figure 14.2 Cyclone Test Rig at ALSTOM laboratories

Figure 14.3 CFD Analysis of Cyclone Performance 31

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First tests with eccentric vortex finder arrangement were performed in 1995 in the 250 t/h lignite fired CFB plant Berrenrath, Germany (see Figure 14.4). This testing improved the particle residence time and thus reduced the loss of limestone and bed material through the cyclone significantly.

Figure 14.4 Eccentric Vortex Finder Arrangement

Figure 14.5 summarizes the various measures to improve the cyclone performance.
Secon d Pass Eccentric Vortex Fin der Arran gem en t D o w nw ard Inclin ed Inlet D u ct Advan ced Vortex Fin der Sh ape

H igh Perform ance Refra cto ry fo r Inlet Area

Figure 14.5 Cyclone Improvement Measures

To Seal Pot

The positive effect of these modifications on the cyclone performance is illustrated by the particle size distribution (PSD) of the furnace inventory. Figure 14.6 shows the PSD of three plants using a traditional cyclone designed at the end of the eighties and the PSD of the improved cyclone design used in the Mlad Boleslav plant located in the Czech Republic.

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0.1 1.0 (%) 1 0.0 2 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0 5 0.0 6 0.0 7 0.0 8 0.0 Re sidue R 9 0.0 ne w cyclone de sign old cyclone de sign

9 9.0

9 9.9 10 1 00 Gra in size d m 1 00 0

Figure 14.6 Particle Size Distribution of Solid Inventory (Old vs. New Cyclone Designs) The fine PSD of the inventory leads also to higher solid recirculation in the furnace itself and also higher solid densities will be achieved. Therefore, the temperature homogeneity will be increased to a maximum and the furnace temperature control could be improved. Both effects support the sulphation of CaO. Another side effect of the cyclone enhancement is an improved fuel utilization. Again, a higher particle residence time will explain this effect. Even if for highly reactive lignite this impact on the boiler efficiency is very limited, there is a significant influence for medium to low reactive fuels. 15.0 Recycling of screened bottom ash The ash content of the Akrimota fuel can vary in a wide range from about 5 % to approx. 45 % in the bore probes resulting in long-term variations of the coal fed to the boilers between 18 % and 35 %. The reason for this wide range is due to the way the mine will be operated. The different seams of the mine have different thicknesses and for certain smaller seams it will be more economical to excavate smaller seams which are close together in one batch including the intermediate ash rich layer which partly contains high sulphur levels, thus increasing the overall sulphur content in the fuel even more. The large variation of the ash quantity was decisive for the design of the ash handling system with the bottom ash quantities varying by a factor of more than 10. Water-cooled fluidized bed ash coolers are installed which are able to cool down large ash quantities without the need of high temperature water-cooled screw coolers (Figure 15.1).

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Re turn to furna ce

Ash inle t duct from furna ce bottom

Conve yor a sh to a sh silo

Fluidizing a ir

Figure 15.1 Water Cooled Ash Cooler To avoid removing too much bed material containing CaO with poor sulphation a screening plant for the bottom ash is planned by the customer. This screening plant allows screen off of the fines which contain the majority of poorly sulphated lime from the bottom ash and recycle it to the furnace or to the bed make-up silo. Recycling of the screened bottom ash also allows influencing the PSD of the furnace inventory thereby providing a tool for furnace temperature control, especially during times when low ash lignite is fed. 16.0 Equal fuel injection and distribution Equal fuel distribution for high sulphur fuels is of utmost importance because: even fuel distribution avoids temperature unbalances in the fluid bed thus enhancing sulphur capture; even fuel distribution leads to a balanced fuel / air mixing, thus ensuring that sufficient oxygen for the desulphurization process is available.

In order to achieve an equal fuel mixing, the Akrimota furnace will be equipped with four fuel feeding chutes located on the return legs coming from the split loop seal. The split loop seal was specifically developed to improve fuel / air mixing by doubling the number of fuel feeding points per cyclone (see Figure 16.1). The first installation of double loop seals has been in the lignite fired 130 MW power plant Goldenberg, Germany in 1992.

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from Cyclone Coa l

to Furna ce

Figure 16.1 Split Loop Seal 17.0 Equal limestone injection and distribution The limestone feeding system is designed redundantly. The crushed and dried limestone, stored in a day bunker, is dosed by rotary feeders and pneumatically transported to the furnace. The feeding lines are kept as short as possible to reduce the power consumption. Each line is split into four further lines, which are equally distributed to all return legs from the loop seals. This gives a good limestone distribution regardless of whether only one or two limestone feeders are in operation. 18.0 Limestone characteristics In case of high sulphur lignite, the limestone characteristics influence to a large extent the economics of the plant. While desulphurization rates of 97 %, as required for the Akrimota plant, demand high purity and high reactivity limestones, the economics ask for the lowest cost available limestone source which should be as close to the plant as possible to minimize transportation costs. Luckily, for the Akrimota plant both requirements match extremely well. Geologic investigation has shown that for a large extent the surface layer of the coal mine consists of a limestone layer of several meter thickness totalling about 30 MM tons (coal about 200 MM tons). Several samples from the limestone layer were taken and analyzed in the ALSTOM Power fuel lab. Tests showed that despite the purity of the limestone of only approximately 91 % the limestone can be ranked as a highly reactive limestone according to the ALSTOM Power based reactivity test. The ALSTOM Power reactivity index is determined in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA). The amount of sulphur removed from a gas containing SO2 and passing the limestone sample is measured for a certain time interval. This amount gives a reliable indication of the limestone reactivity, as field data from more than 30 plants have shown. 19.0 Outlook One of the future trends in CFB combustion is going towards inexpensive local fuel. High sulphur lignite is one of them. The Akrimota power plant will be India's first CFB plant operating on high sulphur lignite and

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expecting sulphur removal rates of 97 % using also local limestone. The technical concept used by ALSTOM is based on previous experience with high sulphur lignites. The next step of plants firing high sulphur lignite will be the 2 x 160 MWe Can power plant in Turkey, firing lignite with up to 14 % maf sulphur content. This plant is currently being built by ALSTOM as turnkey supplier and will be commissioned in 2003. Figure 19.1 shows the CFB boilers. It will be the first large CFB plant in Turkey. Combustion tests were performed in the 1.2 MW test facility in the German Niederaussem power station which proved that the required desulphurization rate of 97 % can be achieved with the predicted amount of limestone. Table 19.1 summarizes the main data of ALSTOMs CFB plants for high sulphur lignite.

Figure 19.1 Can Power Plant 2x160 MW CFB

Pla nt Ste a m ge ne ra tor ca pa city Ca lorific va lue NCV Ash conte nt Sulphur conte nt Moisture conte nt SH Ste a m flow SH Te mpe ra ture SH Pre ssure RH Ste a m flow RH Te m pe ra ture RH Pre ssure Comm issioning MWe l MJ/ kg % ma f % % t/ h C ba r t/ h C ba r Ye a r W hlitz 1 x 40 Tiso va 1 x 90 Pro ve n ce 1 x 2 50 Akrim o ta 2 x 125 a n 2 x 160

1 0 .5 - 1 2 .0 4 .5 - 8 .5 3 .6 - 4 .8 47 - 54 150 535 115 1994 Consortium Lurgi - ALSTO M

9 .8 - 1 2 .8 13 - 25 0 .7 - 9 .2 36 - 40 350 505 94 1995 Engine e ring by ALSTO M

1 5 .3 26 5 .5 1 1 .7 700 567 169 654 565 36 1995 Consortium Lurgi - ALSTO M

7 .2 - 1 2 .1 18 - 35 4 - 13 30 - 35 405 538 138 375 537 36 2 0 02

9 .8 - 1 2 .1 32 4 - 14 22 45 7 54 3 17 5 40 7 54 2 38 2003

Re ma rks

Table 19.1 ALSTOM's High Sulphur Lignite CFB Plants

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Conclusion This paper has summarized the advantages of two Clean Coal technology options: State-of-the-art Sliding Pressure Supercritical designs respond to the need for higher efficiency steam cycles, with their corresponding environmental benefits and fuel savings. Supercritical units have proven their ability to achieve high availability in both base load and load following operating modes throughout the world. Circulating fluid bed designs provide the flexibility to burn high sulphur and difficult to burn fuels both cleanly and reliably. The Akrimota power plant will be India's first CFB plant operating on such local Indian fuel and will achieve sulphur removal rates of 97 % using also local limestone. The selection of a steam cycle, whether supercritical or subcritical, and a combustion technology - pulverized coal or fluidized bed, will, of course, be extremely fuel and site specific. Modern-day optimized designs strike a balance among plant economics, proven design experience, and prudent engineering selections. Ultimately, each plant owner will need to evaluate the most cost-competitive solution for their unique combination of fuel costs, operating profile, power revenues, and financing structure. ALSTOM looks forward to working with you to ensure that your steam cycle and combustion technology selections meet your performance and environmental goals.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. NERC-US (1989) Boiler tube failure trends VGB-D (1988-97) Availability of thermal power plants KEMA-NL (1997) Comparison of subcritical and supercritical units The Supercritical Steam Power Plant: Operational Success and Technological Advancement, Edward S. Sadlon, Guenter Scheffknecht. Analysis and Summary of Rifled Tube Heat Transfer Date, Mark Palkes, J. H. Chiu State-of-the-Art Large Capacity Sliding Pressure Supercritical Steam Generators, Mark Palkes, Edward S. Sadlon, A Salem First 900 MW supercritical boilers in China. A new generation of coal fired power stations. , Kessel, W., Scheffknecht, G.: Power-Gen Europe 2000, 20.-22. June 2000, Helsinki, Finland. Material issues for supercritical boilers , Scheffknecht, G., Chen, Q.:. PARSONS 2000, 5th International Charles Parsons Turbine Conference "Advanced Materials for 21st Century Turbines and Power Plant", 03.07. July 2000, Cambridge, England. Advanced Steam Power Plant Technology: Reliable Technology for High Efficiencies ,Rdiger, H., Scheffknecht, G.:. Power-Gen Europe 2001, 29.-31. May 2001, Brussels, Belgium. Material aspects for ultra supercritical boilers ,Chen, Q., Weissinger, G., Scheffknecht, G.:. The 8th Japanese-German Joint Seminar on Structural Integrity and NDE in Power Engineering. 31. May - 01. June 2001, Tokyo, Japan.

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