Handbook of Power Quality

Edited by

Angelo Baggini
University of Bergamo, Italy

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Contents

List of Contributors Preface

xix xxiii

1 Frequency Variations Hermina Albert, Nicolae Golovanov, Aleksander Kot and Janusz Bro'zek 1.1 Frequency Quality Indices 1.2 Frequency Measuring 1.3 Load-Frequency Characteristics 1.3.1 Influence of the Frequency Variation on the Actuation Motors 1.3.2 Capacitor Bank and Harmonic Filters 1.3.3 Transformers and Coils in the Power Network 1.4 Influence of Frequency on Users'Equipment 1.4.1 Influence of Frequency Variations on Asynchronous Motors 1.4.2 Influence of Frequency Variations on Parallel-Connected Condensers and Coils 1.4.3 Influence of Frequency Variations on Series-Connected Condensers and Coils 1.5 Governing of Turbine Speed 1.6 Frequency Control in Power Systems 1.6.1 Composite Load 1.6.2 The Generation Characteristic 1.6.3 The System Properties and Control Basics 1.6.4 Frequency Control in an Islanding System and in Interconnected Systems 1.6.5 Frequency Control: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary 1.6.6 Technical and Organizational Aspects of Load-Frequency Control Bibliography

3 4 6 6 7 7 8 8 11 12 12 16 17 19 20 22 23 28 29

vi ) 2 Continuity of Supply Krish Gomatom and Tom Short Distribution Reliability 2.1.1 Customer-Based Indices 2.1.2 Load-Based Indices 2.1.3 Variation in the Utility Indices 2.2 Quality of Supply 2.2.1 Customer Service 2.2.2 Continuity of Supply 2.2.3 Voltage 'Quality 2.3 Factors Affecting Reliability Performance 2.3.1 Reliability Indices Reporting 2.3.2 Differences Based on Type of Supply 2.4 Improving Reliability 2.4.1 Utility-Side Improvement Options 2.4.2 Custom Power Devices 2.5 Costs, Markets and Value for Reliability 2.5.1 Size of the End-User Load and Duration Affect Cost 2.5.2 Market for Reliability 2.5.3 Value of Reliability: a Macro View 2.5.4 Impact of Reliability Events on End-User Productivity 2.5.5 Mapping Reliability to End-User Facility Operating Hours Bibliography 3 Voltage Control in Distribution Systems Andnej Kanicki 3.1 3.2 3.3 Description of the Phenomena Disturbance Sources Disturbance Effects 3.3.1 Load Models 3.3.2 Voltage Drop 3.3.3 Voltage Stability Methods of Effect Elimination 3.4.1 Generator Excitation Control 3.4.2 Transformer Ratio Control 3.4.3 Voltage Control by Means of Reactive Power Flow Change 3.4.4 Voltage Control by Means of Network Impedance Change 3.4.5 Node Voltage Optimization Standards 3.5.1 Voltage Standards in Grid Normal Operating Conditions 3.5.2 Voltage Standards in Grid Disturbed Operating Conditions 2.1

CONTENTS 31 31 32 34 35 36 36 37 37 40 41 42 44 44 46 49 49 50 51 53 54 57 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 68 68 70 72 74 76 76 76 76

3.4

3.5

CONTENTS 3.5.3 Bibliography 4 Voltage Dips and Short Supply Interruptions Zbigniew Hanzelka 4.1 Description of the Phenomena 4.2 Parameters 4.2.1 Voltage Dip Duration 4".2_2 - Magnitude of a Voltage Dip 4.3 Sources 4.3.1 Sources of Voltage Dips 4.3.2 Sources of Short Supply Interruptions 4.4 Effects 4.4.1 IT Equipment and Control Systems 4.4.2 Contactors and Relays 4.4.3 Induction Motors 4.4.4 Synchronous Motors 4.4.5 Variable Speed Drives 4.4.6 High-Pressure Discharge Lamps 4.5 Mitigation 4.5.1 Reduction of the Number of Faults 4.5.2 Reduction of the Fault Clearance Time 4.5.3 Modification of the Supply System Configuration 4.5.4 Voltage Stabilizers 4.5.5 Improvement in Equipment Immunity 4.6 Measurement 4.6.1 Principles of Measurement 4.6.2 Statistical Methods of Analysis 4.6.3 Area of Vulnerability 4.7 Contract 4.7.1 Duration of Measurements 4.7.2 Reference Voltage Value 4.7.3 Location and Method of Connection of Measuring Instrument 4.7.4 Technical Specifications for Measuring Instrumentation 4.7.5 Threshold Values for Disturbance Detection 4.7.6 Techniques of Reporting the Measurement Results 4.7.7 Methods for Aggregation of Measurement Results 4.8 Standards 4.9 Alternative Voltage Dip Indices 4.9.1 Indices Based on the Voltage Change 4.9.2 Energy-Related Indices 4.9.3 Others Voltage Standards in Middle- and Low-Voltage Distribution Networks

77 77 79

79 82 82 83 87 87 89 89 90 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 97 98 100 100 112 114 114 116 116 117 118 118 119 119 124 126 126 127 129

CONTENTS Acknowledgement Bibliography 5 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker Araceli Hernandez Bayo 5.1 Description of the Phenomenon 5.1.1 Voltage Changes, Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker 5.1.2 Physiology of Flicker Perception 5.2 Parameters 5.3 Measurement 5.3.1 The IEC Flickermeter 5.3.2 Use of the Flickermeter 5.3.3 Simplified Methods for Pst Assessment 5.4 Sources 5.4.1 Industrial Loads 5.4.2 Electrical Appliances Supplied from LV Networks 5.4.3 Wind Turbine Generation Systems 5.5 Effects 5.6 Mitigation Strategies 5.6.1 Devices Based on Decreasing Reactive Power Variations 5.6.2 Methods Oriented to Increase the Short-Circuit Power 5.6.3 Other Solutions for Flicker Mitigation Bibliography 6 Voltage and Current Unbalance Irena Wasiak 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Description of the Phenomena Symmetrical Components of Currents and Voltages Parameters Measurements Sources Effects 6.6.1 Asynchronous Motors 6.6.2 Synchronous Generators 6.6.3 Converters 6.6.4 Other Loads 6.7 Mitigation 6.7.1 Principle of Balancing 6.7.2 Static Compensators 6.8 Standards 6.8.1 Limits 6.8.2 Principles of Assessment Bibliography 131 131 135 135 135 137 138 139 139 146 148 151 152 155 155 156 156 157 160 161 161 163 163 165 170 171 173 174 174 174 175 175 175 176 178 181 181 183 184

CONTENTS 7 Voltage and Current Harmonics Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka 7.1 Description of the Phenomena 7.1.1 Composition of Distorted Waveform 7.1.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform 7.1.3 Harmonics and Symmetrical Components 7.1.4 Classification of Distortion Components 7.1.5 Quantities Describing Voltage and Current Distortion 7.2 Parameters 7.3 Measurements 7.4 Sources of Current Harmonics 7.4.1 Transformers 7.4.2 Motors and Generators 7.4.3 Arc'Furnaces 7.4.4 Fluorescent Lighting 7.4.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment 7.4.6 Harmonic Current Values/Magnitudes for Selected Loads 7.5 Voltage and Current Harmonics 7.6 Effects Power Factor 7.6.1 7.6.2 Overheating of Phase and Neutral Conductors Skin Effect 7.6.3 7.6.4 Motors and Generators 7.6.5 Transformers 7.6.6 Capacitors 7.6.7 Light Sources 7.6.8 Nuisance Tripping of Circuit-Breakers Earth-Fault Currents 7.6.9 7.6.10 Converters and Electronic Equipment 7.6.11 Measuring Instruments 7.6.12 Relay and Contactor Protective Systems 7.6.13 Telecommunications Interference 7.7 Mitigation 7.7.1 Methods of Voltage Distortion Reduction 7.7.2 Reduction of Harmonic Emission Reduction of the Coupling Between Sensitive 7.7.3 Load and Harmonic Source 7.7.4 Reduction of Load Sensitivity to Disturbances 7.8 Standards Bibliography 187

187 188 189 190 190

192 194 195 200 200 202 202 204 204 208 209 213 214 217 218 221 223 226 227 228 229 230 232 234 236 236 236 237 252
252 257 259

(x

) Overvoltages Franco Bua, Francesco Buratti and Alan Ascolari Description of the Phenomena 8.1.1 Continuous (Power Frequency) Voltage 8.1.2 Temporary Overvoltage 8.1.3 Transient Overvoltage 8.1.4 Combined Overvoltage 8.1.5 Overvoltage Propagation 8.2 Parameters 8.2.1- Lightning Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester 8.2.2 Switching Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester 8.3 Sources 8.3.1 Internal Overvoltages 8.3.2 External Overvoltages 8.4 Effects 8.4.1 Breakdown Consequences 8.4.2 Reduction of Overvoltage Risk and Level 8.5 Mitigation 8.5.1 Principles of Protection 8.5.2 Insulation Coordination 8.5.3 Overvoltage Protective Devices 8.6 Standards 8.6.1 Insulation Coordination Bibliography Analysis of Waveforms in Modern Power Systems Johan Rens and Piet Swart 9.1 9.2 Frequency Analysis of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms: Practical Considerations Analog-to-Digital Conversion 9.2.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 9.2.2 Spectral Leakage and Aliasing 9.2.3 Spectral Leakage and Windowing 9.2.4 Metrological Features of Measurement System 9.2.5 Harmonic Power Measurement in Non-simultaneous Sampling Sequence Component Analysis 9.3.1 Fortesque Transform Redefined for Non-sinusoidal Circuits 9.3.2 Three-Wire Power System Analysis 9.3.3 Four-Wire Power System Analysis IEEE 1459: Power Definitions for Modern Power Systems 9.4.1 Voltage and Current Quantities under Non-sinusoidal Unbalanced Conditions 9.4.2 Apparent Power Definitions 8.1

CONTENTS

299

300 300 300 301 301 302 302 307 307 309 316 321 321 324

9.3

9.4

CONTENTS 9.4.3 Arithmetic Apparent Power 9.4.4 The Vector Apparent Power 9.4.5 The Effective Apparent Power 9.4.6 Harmonic Pollution and Unbalance 9.4.7 Fundamental Frequency Active and Reactive Power 9.4.8 Power Factor Definitions 9.5 Localization of Sources of Waveform Distortion in a Modern Power System Bibliography 10 Earthing Franco Bua, Francesco Buratti and Antoni Klajn Typical Earthing System Electric Resistivity of Soil Electrical Properties of the Earth Electrodes 10.3.1 Resistance and Impedance to Earth 10.3.2 Voltage-to-Earth and Surface Potential Distribution 10.3.3 Properties of Earth Electrodes at Lightning Currents 10.4 Typical Earth-Electrode Constructions 10.4.1 Simple Horizontal Earth Electrodes 10.4.2 Simple Rod, Vertical Earth Electrodes 10.4.3 Simple, Combined Earth Electrodes ' 10.4.4 Meshed Earth Electrodes 10.4.5 Foundation Earth Electrodes 10.4.6 Cable with Earthing Effect 10.5 Earthing Arrangements in Protection Against Electric Shock 10.5.1 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in LV Networks 10.5.2 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in HV Networks 10.6 Role of Earthing in Electronic and Telecommunication Systems 10.6.1 Protective and Functional Earthing 10.6.2 Combined Earthing System 10.6.3 Safety Aspects 10.6.4 Functionality Aspects 10.6.5 Disturbances and Coupling Mechanisms 10.6.6 Low-Noise Equipotential Bonding 10.7 Lifetime Aspects of the Earthing Arrangements 10.7.1 Chemical Corrosion 10.7.2 Corrosion Caused by Stray (Direct) Currents 10.7.3 Galvanic (Electrochemical) Corrosion 10.8 Measurements of Earthing Arrangements 10.8.1 Measurement of Soil Resistivity 10.8.2 Measurement of Resistance to Earth of an Earth Electrode Bibliography 10.1 10.2 10.3

/
324 324 325 326 327 327 328 329 331

331 332 335 335 339 340 342 343 346 349 350 352 354 355 357 358 361 362 362 363 366 367 369 370 370 372 373 375 376 377 380

(S) 11 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Structure Angelo Baggini, David Chapman and Francesco Buratti Basic Schemes of Electrical Grids 11.1.1 Simple Radial System 11.1.2 Ring Scheme 11.1.3 Double Radial Scheme 11.1.4 Meshed Scheme 11.1.5 Compound Scheme 11.2 General Criteria for the Study and Choice of the Schemes 11.2.*!-. Parameters and Basic Conditions 11.2.2 Scheme of the Grid as a Link Between Supplies and Loads 11.2.3 Characteristics of the Installation 11.2.4 The System Supply Section and End Section 11.2.5 The Standard and Preferential Functions Bibliography 11.1

CONTENTS 383 384 384 385 387 388 388 389 389 389 390 400 400 401

12

Reliability of Electricity Supply: Appliances and Equipment Roberto Villafdfila-Robles and Joan Bergas-Jane 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Power Quality, Reliability and Availability General Aspects of Reliability Appliances Power System Protection Alternatives 12.3.1 Power Conditioners Emergency and Standby Power Systems 12.4.1 Engine-Driven Generators 12.4.2 Microturbine-Driven Generators 12.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems 12.4.4 Dynamic UPS 12.4.5 Static UPS 12.4.6 Hybrid Static/Dynamic UPS 12.4.7 D.C. Power Supply Systems 12.4.8 Technological Comparison Dynamic UPS Systems 12.5.1 Modern Flywheels 12.5.2 Components 12.5.3 Classification 12.5.4 Application 12.5.5 Future Developments and Applications Static UPS System 12.6.1 Components 12.6.2 Classification 12.6.3 UPS Technology

403

12.5

12.6

404 405 406 407 410 411 413 414 415 416 417 420 421 425 425 425 426 427 429 429 429 432 433

CONTENTS 12.6.4 Application 12.6.5 Future Developments and Applications 12.7 Good Engineering Practice Bibliography 13 Monitoring Power Quality Andreas Sumper and Samuel Galceran-Arellano Monitoring Objectives ..13,1.1 Benefits of Power Quality Monitoring 13.2 Measurement Issues 13.2.1 Measurement Chain 13.2.2 R.M.S. Measurement 13.2.3 Transients Measurement 13.2.4 Sampling Rate 13.2.5 Bandwidth Amplitude/Frequency 13.2.6 Accuracy 13.2.7 Precision 13.2.8 Resolution 13.2.9 Measurement Aggregation Algorithm 13.3 Selection of Monitoring Instruments 13.3.1 General Features of Monitoring Instruments 13.3.2 Signal Input/Output 13.3.3 Functions 13.4 Successful Power Quality Monitoring 13.4.1 Power Quality Program 13.4.2 Managing Monitoring Projects 13.4.3 Immunization Program 13.5 Postprocessing Monitoring Results 13.5.1 Interpreting Monitoring Results 13.5.2 Data Collection and Monitoring Systems 13.5.3 Software and Data Analysis Tools 13.5.4 Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF) Bibliography 14 Static Converters and Power Quality Mircea Chindris and Antoni Sudria-Andreu 14.1 Impact 14.1.1 14.1.2 14.1.3 14.1.4 14.1.5 of Static Converters on the Supply Network Industrial Equipment Control and Informatics Equipment Solutions Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues Impact on Loads Supplied by Power Converters 13.1

(Xiii 438 440 442 443 445 445 446 447 447 448 448 449 449 449 449 450 450 451 452 453 454 454 454 456 458 460 460 460 460 461 461 463 464 464 469 470 477 481

xivj Impact 14.2.1 14.2.2 14.2.3 Bibliography 15 14.2 of Supply Network Disturbances on Static Converters Impact of Voltage Disturbances on Static Converters Voltage Sag Susceptibility Immunization Techniques

CONTENTS 487 487 490 490 494 499 500 500 502 503 505 506 506 508 510 513 514 515 516 518 519 521 522 522 523 524 524 524 524 525 526 526 526 529 529 530 530

Compensation of Reactive Power Stefan Fassbinder and Alan Ascolari Basics 15.1.1 "Characteristics of Inductances and Capacitances 15.1.2 Reactive Power 15.1.3 Wattless current 15.1.4 Reactive Power Compensator 15.2 Power Factor Correction 15.2.1 Control and Regulation of Reactive Power 15.2.2 Centrally and Dispersed Compensation 15.2.3 Detuning 15.3 Passive Filters 15.3.1 Dedicated Filtering Circuits for Individual Frequencies 15.3.2 Central and Dispersed Solution 15.3.3 L/C Ratio 15.3.4 Sound Frequency Signals Bibliography 15.1

^ '

16

Distributed Generation and Power Quality Vu Van Thong and Johan Driesen Distribution Network Modeling 16.1.1 Steady-State Modeling 16.1.2 Dynamic Modeling 16.2 Power Quality and DG 16.2.1 Voltage Rise 16.2.2 Voltage Dips 16.2.3 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker 16.2.4 Harmonics 16.2.5 Unbalance 16.2.6 Direct Current Bibliography 16.1

17

Electricity Market Pieter Vermeyen and Johan Driesen 17.1 Market Players 17.1.1 Electricity Producers 17.1.2 Grid Operators

CONTENTS 17.1.3 Electricity Retailers a 17.1.4 Regulators 17.2 Contract Types 17.2.1 Residential Customers 17.2.2 Small Businesses 17.2.3 Small and Medium-Sized Companies 17.2.4 Large Companies 17.3 Load Management in the Electricity Market 17.3.1 Reason for Load Management 17.3.2 Multiple Electricity Tariff *-17:3.3 Real-Time Pricing 17.3.4 Contracts for Reducing Consumption 17.3.5 Intelligent Energy Meter 17.3.6 Other Techniques 17.4 Power Quality in the Electricity Market . 17.4.1 Power Quality Contracts 17.4.2 Power Quality Market Bibliography , 18 Cost of Poor Power Quality Roman Targosz and Jonathan Manson 18.1 Exploring PQ Cost 18.1.1 Staff Cost 18.1.2 Work in Progress 18.1.3 Equipment Malfunctioning 18.1.4 Equipment Damage 18.1.5 Other Costs 18.1.6 Specific Costs 18.1.7 Savings 18.2 Studies on Cost of Poor PQ 18.3 Long Interruptions 18.4 Short Interruptions 18.5 Voltage Dips 18.6 Harmonics 18.7 Other Disturbances 18.8 Profiles by Sector 18.9 Cost Per Event of PQ Disturbances 18.10 PQ Solutions 18.11 Investment Analysis to Mitigate Costs of PQ 18.11.1 Investment Analysis 18.11.2 Capital Budgeting 18.11.3 Project Classifications 18.11.4 Cost of Capital 18.11.5 The Time Value of Money 18.11.6 Future Value of a Single Cash Flow 531 531 531 532 532 533 533 534 534 535 535 536 536 537 537 538 542 543 545 547 547 547 548 548 548 548 549 549 552 556 556 558 559 561 570 574 582 582 583 583 584 584 585

CONTENTS

Present Value of a Single Cash Flow and of a Cash Flow Stream 18.11.8 Deterministic Approach to PQ Investment Analysis 18.11.9 Discounted Cash Flow Methods 18.11.10 Non Discounted Cash Flow Methods 18.11.11 Break-even Analysis Bibliography

18.11.7

586 586 587 590 591 592

19

Power Quality and Rational Use of Energy Pieter Vermiyen -and Johan Driesen Reasons for Rational Use of Energy 19.1.1 Sustainable Development 19.1.2 Economic Considerations 19.1.3 Electricity Industry 19.2 Techniques for Rational use of Energy 19.2.1 Adapted Use of Electrical Systems 19.2.2 Efficient Loads 19.2.3 Variable Tariffs 19.3 Impact on Power Quality 19.3.1 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by Fluorescent Lamps 19.3.2 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by VSDs 19.3.3 Immunity of Fluorescent Lamps 19.3.4 Immunity of VSDs Bibliography 19.1

593 594 594 594 595 595 595 596 598 598 598 601 603 603 605 607 607 608 608 609 611 613

20

Perceived Power Quality Maurizio Caciotta 20.1 20.2 20.3 Customer Definition Customer Requirements Analysis Process of the Customer with Respect to the Requirements Concerning the Product 20.4 Multiplicity of Goods: Active Categories in the Territory of Rome Bibliography

Index Case Studies and Annexes Accessible on the Companion Website Annex 1 Angelo Baggini and Alan Ascolari

CONTENTS

Annex 2 Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka Annex 3 Power Theory with Non-sinusoidal Waveforms Andrzej Firlit Annex 4 Series and Parallel Resonance Zbigniew Hanzelka