Actuators

USER GUIDE
for the study of
ACTUATORS
Made by: Ramana Krishnan Swati Bansal B.Tech - MPAE Btech Computer Science Engg. NSIT Delhi College of Engineering
PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

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This tutorial assumes certain basic knowledge of DC motors. This tutorial should be used as a reference material and not as a primary source of study. This tutorial attempts to give the reader a brief peek into the world of actuators
Speed control of DC motor through PWM

One of the most fundamental problems in robotics is DC motor speed control. The most common method of speed control is PWM or pulse width modulation. Pulse width modulation is the process of switching the power to a device on and off at a given frequency, with varying on and off times. These on and off times are referred to as "duty cycle". The diagram below shows the waveforms of 10%, 50%, and 90% duty cycle signals.
As you can see from the diagram, a 10% duty cycle signal is on for 10% of the wavelength and off for 90%, while a 90% duty cycle signal is on for 90% and off for 10%. These signals are sent to the motor at a high enough frequency that the pulsing has no effect on the motor. The end result of the PWM process is that the overall power sent to the motor can be adjusted from off (0% duty cycle) to full on (100% duty cycle) with good efficiency and stable control. While many robot builders use a microcontroller to generate the required PWM signals, the 555 PWM circuit explained here will give the novice robot builder an easy to construct circuit, and good understanding of pulse width modulation. It is also useful in a variety of other applications where the PWM setting need only be changed occasionally.

The 555 timer in the PWM circuit is configured as an astable oscillator. This means that
once power is applied, the 555 will oscillate without any external trigger. Before the technical explanation of the circuit, let's look at the 555 timer IC itself. A block diagram of the 555 timer:

Pin descriptions for the 555 PIN DESCRIPTION PURPOSE 1 Ground DC Ground The trigger pin triggers the beginning of the timing sequence. When it goes LOW, it causes the output pin 2 Trigger to go HIGH. The trigger is activated when the voltage falls below 1/3 of +V on pin 8. The output pin is used to drive external circuitry. It has a "totem pole" configuration, which means that it can source or sink current. The HIGH output is usually about 1.7 volts lower than +V when sourcing 3 Output current. The output pin can sink up to 200mA of current. The output pin is driven HIGH when the trigger pin is taken LOW. The output pin is driven LOW when the threshold pin is taken HIGH, or the reset pin is taken LOW. The reset pin is used to drive the output LOW, regardless of the state of the circuit. When not used, 4 Reset the reset pin should be tied to +V. The control voltage pin allows the input of external voltages to affect the timing of the 555 chip. When 5 Control Voltage not used, it should be bypassed to ground through a 0.01uF capacitor. The threshold pin causes the output to be driven LOW 6 Threshold when its voltage rises above 2/3 of +V. The discharge pin shorts to ground when the output 7 Discharge pin goes HIGH. This is normally used to discharge the timing capacitor during oscillation. 8 +V DC Power? Apply +3 to +18VDC here.

The schematic diagram for the 555 PWM Circuit:
The reset pin is connected to +V, so it has no effect on the circuit's operation. When the circuit powers up, the trigger pin is LOW as capacitor C1 is discharged. This begins the oscillator cycle, causing the output to go HIGH. When the output goes HIGH, capacitor C1 begins to charge through the right side of R1 and diode D2. When the voltage on C1 reaches 2/3 of +V, the threshold (pin 6) is activated, which in turn causes the output (pin 3), and discharge (pin 7) to go LOW. When the output (pin 3) goes LOW, capacitor C1 starts to discharge through the left side of R1 and D1. When the voltage on C1 falls below 1/3 of +V, the output (pin 3) and discharge (pin 7) pins go HIGH, and the cycle repeats. Pin 5 is not used for external voltage input, so it is bypassed to ground with a 0.01uF capacitor. Note the configuration of R1, D1, and D2. Capacitor C1 charges through one side of R1 and discharges through the other side. The sum of the charge and discharge resistance is always the same; therefore the wavelength of the output signal is constant. Only the duty cycle varies with R1. The overall frequency of the PWM signal in this circuit is determined by the values of R1 and C1. In the schematic above, this has been set to 144 Hz.

To compute the component values for other frequencies, use the formula: Frequency = 1.44 / (R1 * C1) In this circuit, the output pin is used to charge and discharge C1, rather than the discharge pin. This is done because the output pin has a "totem pole" configuration. It can source and sink current, while the discharge pin only sinks current. Note that the output and discharge pins go HIGH and LOW at the same time in the oscillator cycle. The discharge pin is used to drive the output. In this case, the output is an IRFZ46N MOSFET. The gate of the MOSFET must be pulled high, as the discharge pin is open collector only. Being an N channel MOSFET, the IRFZ46N will conduct from drain to source when the gate pin rises above 4 volts or so. It will stop conducting when the gate voltage falls below this voltage. The configuration of the output also serves to invert the signal from the 555 circuit.

H-BRIDGE
8 6
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Motor Supply (+12V / +24V) Logic Supply (+5V) Clockwise (Active Low) Counter-Clockwise (Active Low) Ground Points to be soldered with DC motor Power Transistor Opto-Coupler Device to provide isolation

What's all this talk about H-Bridges? How do they work? Well let's see . . .
How do we make a motor turn?

You take a battery; hook the positive side to one side of your DC motor. Then you connect the negative side of the battery to the other motor lead. The motor spins forward. If you swap the battery leads the motor spins in reverse. Ok, that's basic. Now lets say you want a Micro Controller Unit (MCU) to control the motor, how would you do it? Well, for starters you get a device that would act like a solid state switch, a transistor, and hook it up the motor. NOTE: If you connect up these relay circuits, remember to put a diode across the coil of the relay. This will keep the spike voltage (back EMF), coming out of the coil of the relay, from getting into the MCU and damaging it. The anode, which is the arrow side of the diode, should connect to ground. The bar, which is the Cathode side of the diode, should connect to the coil where the MCU connects to the relay
If you connect this circuit to a small hobby motor you can control the motor with a processor (MCU, etc.) Applying a logical one, (+12 Volts in our example) to point A causes the motor to turn forward. Applying a logical zero, (ground) causes the motor to stop turning (to coast and stop).
Hook the motor up in this fashion and the circuit turns the motor in reverse when you apply a logical one (+12Volts) to point B. Apply a logical zero, which is usually a ground, causes the motor to stop spinning. If you hook up these circuits you can only get the motor to stop or turn in one direction, forward for the first circuit or reverse for the second circuit.

Motor Speed You can also pulse the motor control line, (A or B) on and off. This powers the motor in short burst and gets varying degrees of torque, which usually translates into variable motor speed. But if you want to be able to control the motor in both forward and reverse with a processor, you will need more circuitry. You will need an H-Bridge. Notice the "H"looking configuration in the next graphic. Relays configured in this fashion make an HBridge. The "high side drivers" are the relays that control the positive voltage to the motor. This is called sourcing current. The "low side drivers" are the relays that control the negative voltage to sink current to the motor. "Sinking current" is the term for connecting the circuit to the negative side of the power supply, which is usually ground.
So, you turn on the upper left and lower right circuits, and power flows through the motor forward, i.e.: 1 to A, 0 to B, 0 to C, and 1 to D.

Then for reverse you turn on the upper right and lower left circuits and power flows
through the motor in reverse, i.e.: 0 to A, 1 to B, 1 to C, and 0 to D. CAUTION: You should be careful not to turn on both circuits on one side or the other, or you have a direct short which will destroy your circuit; Example: A and C or B and D both high (logical 1). Semiconductor H-Bridges We can better control our motor by using transistors or Field Effect Transistors (FETs). Most of what we have discussed about the relays H-Bridge is true of these circuits. You don't need diodes that were across the relay coils now. You should use diodes across your transistors though. See the following diagram showing how they are connected. These solid state circuits provide power and ground connections to the motor, as did the relay circuits. The high side drivers need to be current "sources" which is what PNP transistors and P-channel FETs are good at. The low side drivers need to be current "sinks" which is what NPN transistors and N-channel FETs are good at.

If you turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, so you effectively have a breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits. This is because the motor is a generator and when it turns it generates a voltage. If the terminals of the motor are connected (shorted), then the voltage generated counteracts the motors freedom to turn. It is as if you are applying a similar but opposite voltage to the one generated by the motor being turned. Vis--vis, it acts like a brake. To be nice to your transistors, you should add diodes to catch the back voltage that is generated by the motor's coil when the power is switched on and off. This flyback
voltage can be many times higher than the supply voltage! If you don't use diodes, you could burn out your transistors.

Transistors, being a semiconductor device, will have some resistance, which causes them to get hot when conducting much current. This is called not being able to sink or source very much power, i.e.: Not able to provide much current from ground or from plus voltage. Mosfets are much more efficient; they can provide much more current and not get as hot. They usually have the flyback diodes built in so you don't need the diodes anymore. This helps guard against flyback voltage frying your MCU. To use Mosfets in an H-Bridge, you need P-Channel Mosfets on top because they can "source" power and N-Channel Mosfets on the bottom because then can "sink" power. NChannel Mosfets are much cheaper than P-Channel Mosfets, but N-Channel Mosfets used to source power require about 7 volts more than the supply voltage, to turn on. As a result, some people manage to use N-Channel Mosfets, on top of the H-Bridge, by using cleaver circuits to overcome the breakdown voltage. It is important that the four quadrants of the H-Bridge circuits be turned on and off properly. When there is a path between the positive and groundside of the H-Bridge, other than through the motor, a condition exists called "shoot through". This is basically a direct short of the power supply and can cause semiconductors to become ballistic, in circuits with large currents flowing. There are H-bridge chips available that are much easier, and safer, to use than designing your own H-Bridge circuit. H-Bridge Devices The L 293 has 2 H-Bridges, can provide about 1 amp to each and occasional peak loads to 2 amps. Motors typically controlled with this controller are near the size of a 35 mm film plastic canister. The L298 has 2 h-bridges on board, can handle 1amp and peak current draws to about 3amps. You often see motors between the size of 35 mm film plastic canister and a coke can, driven by this type H-Bridge. The LMD18200 has one h-bridge on board, can handle about 2 or 3 amps and can handle a peak of about 6 amps. This H-Bridge chip can usually handle an average motor about the size of a coke. There are several more commercially designed H-Bridge chips as well.

Sample Program
Sample Program for the working of 2 DC Motors using H-Bridges
M1R EQU P0.0 M1F EQU P0.1 M2F EQU P0.2 M2R EQU P0.3 FM EQU P1.0 BM EQU P1.1 LM EQU P1.2 RM EQU P1.3 ORG 00H AJMP MAIN ORG 30H MAIN: SETB M1F SETB M1R SETB M2F SETB M2R JNB FM, FMR JNB BM, BMR JNB LM, LMR JNB RM, RMR AJMP MAIN FMR: CLR M1F CLR M2F SETB M1R SETB M2R AJMP MAIN BMR: CLR M1R CLR M2R SETB M1F SETB M2F AJMP MAIN LMR: CLR M1R CLR M2F SETB M1F SETB M2R AJMP MAIN RMR: CLR M1F CLR M2R SETB M1R SETB M2F AJMP MAIN
; Motor 1 Reverse ; Motor 1 Forward ; Motor 2 Forward ; Motor 2 Reverse ; Forward Motion ; Backward Motion ; Left Motion ; Right Motion
; Forward Motion Routine
; Backward Motion Routine
; Left Motion Routine
; Right Motion Routine
Discussion
The above example shows the implementation of a simple Differential Mechanism using two DC Motors.
DC MOTOR 1
DC MOTOR 2
BASE
Figure 1 Forward Motion
DC MOTOR 1
DC MOTOR 2
BASE
Figure 2 Right Motion

In the above figures, a simplified differential motor mechanism has been shown. Figure 1 shows the mechanism involved in Forward motion. Basically, in this both the shafts rotate in the same direction (looking from the left, anti-clockwise). For backward motion, just the direction of both the shafts is reversed (looking from the left, clockwise) and the rest remains same. Figure 2 shows the direction of rotation for the 2 motor shafts for taking a right turn. In this, the motor on the right moves such that it makes a backward rotation (clockwise, looking from left) while the motor on the left continues to rotate in the forward direction. This makes the vehicle turn in the right. A similar effect can be achieved by stopping the right motor, although that would be a bit unreliable and more importantly slow. A Left turn can be achieved similar to a right turn, except that instead of right motor making backward rotation, the left motor makes the backward rotation while the right motor makes the forward rotation.

STEPPER MOTOR
Stepper Motor
Internal diagram
Stepper Motors work under a very similar principle to DC motors, except they have many coils instead of just one. So to operate a stepper motor, one must activate these different coils in particular patterns to generate motor rotation. So stepper motors need to be sent patterned commands to rotate. These commands are sent (by a microcontroller) as high and low logic over several lines, and must be pulsed in a particular order and combination. Steppers are often used because each 'step,' separated by a set step angle, can be counted and used for feedback control. For example, a 10 degree step angle stepper motor would require 36 commands to rotate 360 degrees. However external torque can force movement to a different step, invalidating feedback. Therefore external torque must never exceed the holding torque of a stepper. Notes on Stepper Motors: Stepper motors can be easily found in any 3.5" disk drive or from junk market. They require special stepper motor controllers (i.e. SLA7024M, STK6713BMK4). They have a set resolution; higher resolutions mean higher accuracy but lower holding torque. If torque applied to stepper is greater than holding torque, stepper will lose accurate position measurements Voltage: Polarized (current cannot be reversed) typically from 5-12V, but can range to extremes in special application motors. Higher voltages generally mean more torque, but they also require more power. Steppers can run above or below rated voltage (to meet other design requirements) most efficient at rated voltage. Current: When buying a motor, consider Stall Current, Holding Current and Operating Current (maximum and minimum). Stall Current - The current that a stepper motor requires when powered but held so that it does not rotate.

Holding Current - The current that a stepper motor requires when powered but not signaled to rotate. Operating Current - The current drawn when a stepper motor experiences zero resistance torque. It is best to determine current curves relating voltage, current, and required torque for optimization. When a stepper motor experiences a change in torque (such as motor reversal), expect short-lived current spikes. Current spikes can be up to 2x the stall current, and can fry control circuitry if unprotected. Use diodes to prevent reverse current into your circuitry. Check power ratings of your circuitry and use heat sinks if needed. Power (Voltage x Current) Running motors close to Stall Current often, or reversing current frequently under high torque, can cause motors to melt Heat Sink. Torque When buying a stepper motor, consider Stall Torque and Operating Torque (maximum and minimum). Stall Torque - The torque a stepper motor requires when powered but held so that it does not rotate. Holding Torque - The torque a stepper motor requires when powered but not signaled to rotate. Operating Torque - The torque a stepper motor can apply when experiencing zero resistance torque. Changing the voltage will change the torque. Velocity Motors run most efficient at the highest possible speeds. Gearing a motor allows the stepper motor to run fast, yet have a slower output speed with much higher torque. Remember that torque determines acceleration, so a fast robot with poor acceleration is really a slow robot. If uncertain, favor torque over velocity. Stepper motors are slower than DC motors. Efficiency Stepper motors are most efficient at rated voltage. They are less efficient than DC motors due to non-continuous stepping. Use gearing (opt to buy stepper motors with built-in gearing or gear heads) for higher efficiency. Control Methods Stepper Motors require a special stepper controller (driver) to prevent loss of torque. It has a more precise control than a DC motor.

How does a stepper motor work?

A stepper motor can work on one of three possible ways: 1. Single Coil Mode 2. Double Coil Mode 3. Half Step Mode We consider a motor with 4 coils 1. Coil A 2. Coil B 3. Coil C 4. Coil D Single Coil Mode In single coil mode, one coil is energized at a time. The corresponding pattern as to be implemented in the program is given alongside, assuming active low (active when the particular bit is set to 0).
0111 A D B C 1011 A D B C 1101 A D B C 1110 A D B C
Double Coil Mode In double coil mode, two coils are energized at a time. The pattern for it is again shown alongside.
0011 A D B C 1001 A D B C 1100 A D B C 0110 A D B C

Half Step Mode In half step mode, an alteration of single coil mode and double coil mode is used. A single coil is energized first, then two coils are energized, then again one coil and so on.
0111 A D B C
0011 A D B C
1011 A D B C
1001 A D B C
A D
B C
A D
B C
A D
B C
A D
B C
0110
1110
1100
1101

Driver for Stepper Motor

As we had discussed earlier, stepper motors require a driver circuit. The following is the circuit diagram for one using the IC STK6713BMK4.
+12V
+5V
Connector
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
IC STK6713BMK4
C1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
D C B A
_
C2
A B
C D
C3 100pF C4 0.1F R1 2K
JP2
JP1 R2 1K
GND

The following is the circuitry for another driver of a stepper motor using transistors without the use of the ICs.

Sample Program to run two stepper motors on two separate Ports

BM EQU P1.0 FM EQU P1.1 RM EQU P1.2 LM EQU P1.3 SM1 EQU P0 SM2 EQU P2 ORG 00H MOV SM1, #1110 1110B MOV SM2, #1110 1110B ; Back Motion ; Front Motion ; Right Motion ; Left Motion ; Stepper Motor 1 ; Stepper Motor 2
MAIN:
SETB FM SETB BM SETB LM SETB RM JNB FM, FMF JNB BM, BMF JNB LM, LMF JNB RM, RMF AJMP MAIN MOV A, SM1 RL A MOV SM1, A ACALL DELAY MOV A, SM2 RL A MOV SM2, A ACALL DELAY AJMP MAIN MOV A, SM1 RR A MOV SM1, A ACALL DELAY MOV A, SM2 RR A MOV SM2, A ACALL DELAY AJMP MAIN MOV A, SM1 RR A MOV SM1, A ACALL DELAY MOV A, SM2 RL A MOV SM2, A ACALL DELAY ; Forward Motion Function
FMF:
BMF:
; Backward Motion Function
LMF:
; Left Motion Function

AJMP MAIN
RMF:
MOV A, SM1 RL A MOV SM1, A ACALL DELAY MOV A, SM2 RR A MOV SM2, A ACALL DELAY AJMP MAIN MOV R7, #255 MOV R6, #255 DJNZ R6, D DJNZ R7, D1 RET
; Right Motion Function
DELAY: D1: D:
Sample Program to run two stepper motors on a single Port
M1FW EQU P3.0 M1BW EQU P3.1 M2FW EQU P3.2 M2BW EQU P3.3 PORT EQU P0 FRONT EQU P3.4 BACK EQU P3.5 LEFT EQU P3.6 RIGHT EQU P3.7 ORG 00H AJMP START ORG 030H START: JNB M1FW, GO1 JNB M1BW, GO2 JNB M2FW, GO3 JNB M2BW, GO4 JNB FRONT, GOFR JNB BACK, GOBA JNB LEFT, GOLE JNB RIGHT, GORI ACALL DELAY AJMP START MOV R3, #4 MOV A, #01111111B MOV PORT, A
; Switch for Motor1 Forward ; Switch for Motor1 Backward ; Switch for Motor2 Forward ; Switch for Motor2 Backward ; Port to attach the 2 Stepper Motors ; Switch for Forward motion of ; Switch for Backward motion of machine ; Switch for Left motion of machine ; Switch for Right motion of machine
GO1: LOOP1:
; Motor 1 Forward Motion function

ACALL DELAY RR A DJNZ R3, LOOP1 JNB M1FW, GO1 AJMP START GO2: LOOP2: MOV R3, #4 MOV A, #11101111B MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY RL A DJNZ R3, LOOP2 JNB M2FW, GO2 AJMP START MOV R3, #4 MOV A, #11110111B MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY RR A DJNZ R3, LOOP3 JNB M2FW, GO3 AJMP START MOV R3, #4 MOV A, #11111110B MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY RL A DJNZ R3, LOOP4 JNB M2BW, GO4 AJMP START MOV A, #01110111B RR A MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY JNB FRONT, LOOP11 AJMP START MOV A, #01110111B RL A MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY JNB BACK, LOOP22 AJMP START MOV R3, #4 MOV R4, #01111111B MOV R5, #11111110B MOV A, R4 RL A MOV R4, A MOV A, R5 RR A MOV R5, A ; Motor 1 Backward Motion function
GO3: LOOP3:
; Motor 2 Forward Motion function
GO4: LOOP4:
; Motor 2 Backward Motion function
GOFR: LOOP11:
; Forward Motion function using both motors
GOBA: LOOP22:
; Backward Motion function using both motors
GOLE:
; Left Motion function using both motors
LOOP33:

ANL A, R4 MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY DJNZ R3, LOOP33 JNB LEFT, GOLE AJMP START GORI: MOV R3, #4 MOV R4, #11110111B MOV R5, #11101111B MOV A, R4 RL A MOV R4, A MOV A, R5 RR A MOV R5, A ANL A, R4 MOV PORT, A ACALL DELAY DJNZ R3, LOOP44 JNB RIGHT, GORI AJMP START ; Right Motion function using both motors
LOOP44:
DELAY: D: D1:
MOV R7, #255 MOV R6, #255 DJNZ R6, D1 DJNZ R7, D RET

AC MOTORS
Unlike DC motors, which work using a single constant current, AC motors run under three-phase current. To have three-phase power on a robot, you either need a big bulky/expensive DC-AC converter, or you must tether it to a wall socket. You probably won't use AC motors unless your robot is stationary, such as a robot arm or robot pancake maker. Unless you want the pancake maker to also walk your dog or something . . . But here they are anyway: Voltage: Polarized (current cannot be reversed) Typically from 120-240V AC, usually to match mains power Higher voltages generally mean more torque, but also require more power Rarely used on mobile robots due to power requirements NOTE: A universal motor has brushes like a DC motor, but will operate on AC or DC Current When buying a motor, consider stall and operating current (max and minimum) Stall Current - The current a motor requires when powered but held so that it does not rotate Operating Current - The current draw when a motor experiences zero resistance torque It is best to determine current curves relating voltage, current, and required torque for optimization When a motor experiences a change in torque (such as motor reversal) expect short lived current spikes Current spikes can be up to 2x the stall current, and can fry control circuitry if unprotected Use diodes to prevent reverse current to your circuitry Check power ratings of your circuitry and use heat sinks if needed

Power (Root-Mean Squared Voltage x Current) Running motors close to stall current often, or reversing current often under high torque, can cause motors to melt Heat sink motors if not avoidable Torque When buying a motor, consider stall and operating torque (max and minimum) Stall Torque - The torque a motor requires when powered but held so that it does not rotate Operating Torque - The torque a motor can apply when experiencing zero resistance torque Velocity Motors run most efficient at the highest possible speeds Gearing a motor allows the motor to run fast, yet have a slower output speed with much higher torque Remember that torque determines acceleration, so a fast robot with poor acceleration is really a slow robot If uncertain, favor torque over velocity Efficiency More efficient than DC motors Typically most efficient at rated voltage and frequency Use gearing (opt to buy motors with built-in gearing or gear heads) Control Methods Modifying the AC frequency can alter speed and torque Encoder - device which counts rotations of wheel or motor-shaft to determine velocity for a control feedback loop Tachometer - device which measures current draw of motor to control output torque This circuit will allow you to control the speed of an AC motor. The bridge rectifier produces DC voltage from the 120VAC line. A portion on this current passes through the 10K-ohm pot. The circuit comprised of the 10k pot rated at 3W+, the two 100 ohm resistors and the 50f capacitors delivers gate drive of the SCR.

The diode D1 protects the circuit from reverse voltage spikes. The ratings of the bridge rectifier and the SCR should be 25 amps and PIV 600 volts. The diode D1 should be rated for 2 amps with PIV of 600 volts. The circuit can handle a load up to 10 amps. The SCR should be very well heat sinked.
DISCLAIMER
This is to remind that we do not hold responsibility for any damage (directly, indirectly, consequentially, specially or incidentally) arising to the user by use of this document or any part of it. PLC Institute of Electronics does not claim any liability for damages arising from using the document in any form. Under no circumstances, PLC Institute of Electronics will be liable to the reader, third party, any other person or organisation for any damages (monetary or physical) whatsoever. Further, we claim no perfection and the material may have certain faults/shortcomings/factual mistakes. Any mistake may be notified and the institute will be obliged.


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USER GUIDE

for the study of

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

Speed control of DC motor through PWM

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

The schematic diagram for the 555 PWM Circuit:

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

How do we make a motor turn?

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

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; Forward Motion Routine

; Backward Motion Routine

; Left Motion Routine

; Right Motion Routine

Figure 1 Forward Motion

Figure 2 Right Motion

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

How does a stepper motor work?

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

Driver for Stepper Motor

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

Sample Program to run two stepper motors on two separate Ports

; Backward Motion Function

; Left Motion Function

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; Right Motion Function

Sample Program to run two stepper motors on a single Port

; Motor 1 Forward Motion function

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; Motor 2 Forward Motion function

; Motor 2 Backward Motion function

; Forward Motion function using both motors

; Backward Motion function using both motors

; Left Motion function using both motors

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PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS PLC INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS

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