MC LC

Chng 1 .......................................................................................................................... 2
TNG QUAN ................................................................................................................... 2
Gii hn bn c tnh theo cng thc:....................................................................8
1
Chng 1
TNG QUAN
1.1 KHI NIM V VT LIU.
1.1.1 Khi nim chung
Vt liu theo cch hiu ph bin nht l nhng vt rn m con ngi dng ch to ra
cc my mc, thit b, dng c, v.v trong cc ngnh cng nghip, nng nghip, giao thng
vn ti, trong xy dng cc cng trnh, nh ca hay thay th cc b phn c th con ngi hoc
th hin cc ngh thut, v.v.
Vt liu hc l mt khoa hc ng dng v quan h gia thnh phn, cu to v tnh cht
ca vt liu, nhm gii quyt nhng vn k thut quan trng nht, lin quan n vic tit
kim vt liu, gim khi lng thit b my mc v dng c, nng cao chnh xc, tin cy
v kh nng lm vic ca cc chi tit my v dng c.
C s l thuyt ca vt liu hc l cc phn tng ng ca vt l v ha hc nhng v c
bn th khoa hc v vt liu c pht trin bng con ng thc nghim. Vic a ra nhng
phng php thc nghim mi nghin cu cu to (cu trc) v cc tnh cht c, l ca vt
liu s to iu kin mn vt liu hc tip tc pht trin.
Nghin cu cc tnh cht vt l nh mt , dn in, dn nhit, v.v hay c tnh
nh bn, do, cng, mun n hi, ... hoc tnh cng ngh nh chy long, kh
nng gia cng ct gt, ... v cc tnh nng lm vic nh tnh chng n mn, tnh chng mi mn
v mi, tnh dn lnh, tnh bn nhit, ... ca vt liu s cho php xc nh lnh vc ng dng
hp l cc vt liu khc nhau, tuy nhin c tnh n cc i hi ca tnh kinh t.
Tm li, vt liu hc l mn khoa hc phc v cho s pht trin v s dng vt liu, trn
c s ra cc bin php cng ngh nhm ci thin tnh cht v s dng thch hp ngy
mt tt hn. N lin quan trc tip n tt c nhng ngi lm vic trong lnh vc ch to, gia
cng v s dng vt liu.
1.1.2 Phn loi vt liu
Da theo cc tnh cht c trng, ngi ta phn bit ba nhm vt liu chnh l vt liu kim
loi, vt liu v c - ceramc v vt liu hu c - polyme. Tuy nhin nhng nm gn y
xut hin mt nhm vt liu quan trng th t l vt liu kt hp - vt liu compozt.
1.1.2.1 Vt liu kim loi.
Thnh phn ch yu l hp kim gm: KL+ kim hoc KL khc
L nhng vt th dn nhit, dn in tt, phn x nh sng vi mu sc c trng, khng
cho nh sng i qua, d bin dng do (cn, ko, rn, p)
C bn c hc, nhng km bn vng ha hc, tr nhm (Al), cc kim loi thng dng
khc nh: Fe, Cu, ... u kh nng, nhit chy bin i trong phm vi t thp n cao
nn p ng c yu cu a dng ca k thut.
c im cu trc ca vt liu kim loi l s sp xp trt t ca cc nguyn t to thnh
mng tinh th vi xp cht cao v lin kt vi nhau nh kh in t t do.
Trong mng tinh th lun lun tn ti cc khuyt tt v trong mt s iu kin chng c
th chuyn hon ton sang trng thi khng trt t thuc dng v nh hnh. Vt liu kim loi
c chia lm hai nhm ln:
2
Kim loi v hp kim st l nhng vt liu m trong thnh phn ch yu c nguyn t st.
Thuc nhm ny ch yu l thp v gang.
Kim loi v hp kim khng st l loi vt liu m trong thnh phn ca chng khng
cha hoc cha rt t st. Th d nh ng, nhm, km, niken v cc loi hp kim ca chng.
Nhm ny cn c tn gi l kim loi v hp kim mu.
1.1.2.2 Vt liu v c ceramc.
L hp cht gia kim loi, silic vi kim: thnh phn cu to ca vt liu v c -
ceramc ch yu l cc hp cht gia kim loi nh Mg, Al, Si, Ti, ... v cc phi kim di dng
cc xt, ccbt, hay nitrt, ... vi lin kt bn vng kiu ion hoc kiu ng ha tr c sp xp
trt t to thnh mng tinh th hoc c sp xp khng trt t nh trng thi thy tinh hay v
nh hnh.
Tn gi ceramc c bt ngun t ting Hylp "keramikos" c ngha l "vt nung" nn
khi ch to vt liu loi ny thng phi qua nung nng, thiu kt.
Cc vt liu v c - ceramc truyn thng c th k n l: gm v vt liu chu la, thy
tinh & gm thu tinh, ximng & btng.
Ngy nay, nhiu loi vt liu v c - ceramc mi tm thy c nhng tnh nng rt qu nh
nh, chu nhit tt, rt bn vng ha hc v c tnh chng mi mn tt c ng dng ngy
cng nhiu trong cng nghip in, in t v hng khng v tr.
1.1.2.3 Vt liu hu c polyme.
C ngun gc hu c, thnh phn ha hc ch yu l C, H v cc kim, c cu trc
phn t ln.
- Nh, dn nhit, dn in km.
- Ni chung d un do, c bit khi nng cao nhit nn bn nhit thp.
- Bn vng ha hc nhit thng v trong kh quyn.
Vt liu hu c polyme bao gm cc cht hu c cha cc bon c cu trc a phn t
vi hai nguyn t thnh phn ch yu l cc bon v hydr c th cha thm xy, clo, nit, ...
lin kt vi nhau trong cc mch phn t kch thc ln sp xp trt t c gi trng thi tinh
th hoc khng trt t trng thi v nh hnh. Tuy nhin chng c th c cu trc hn hp
va tinh th va v nh hnh.
Ngoi cc vt liu hu c t nhin nh cao su, xenlulo v.v ra phn ln vt liu hu c
c s dng rng ri trong cng nghip cng nh trong cuc sng l cc polyme tng hp,
chng l sn phm ca qu trnh trng hp (polyme ha) cc phn t n (monome) v do
ty theo ngun gc cht trng hp, chng c cc tn gi khc nhau nh polyetylen (PE),
polypropylen (PP) hay polystyren (PS), v.v.
1.1.2.4 Vt liu kt hp compozit.
L loi vt liu c kt hp gia hai hay nhiu loi vt liu khc nhau vi tnh cht c
trng khc hn nhau, mang hu nh cc c tnh tt ca cc vt liu thnh phn. V d: b
tng ct thp l s kt hp gia thp (vt liu kim loi) c tnh chu ti trng ko tt v b tng
(l vt liu v c) c tnh chu nn tt, v th b tng ct thp l loi vt liu kt cu va chu
ko v va chu nn tt.
3
S kt hp gia kim loi vi polyme, gia polyme vi ceramc, gia ceramc vi kim loi,
v.v l c s ch to cc loi vt liu kt hp-compozt vi nhng tnh nng khc nhau
phc v tt trong cc ngnh cng nghip v sn xut c kh ni chung. Mt s vt liu kt hp -
compozt c ng dng trong ngnh hng khng rt c hiu qu nh si thy tinh bn cao
v si cc bon.
Ngoi bn nhm vt liu chnh va c nu trn cn c cc nhm vt liu khc c tnh
nng v thnh phn rt ring bit nh:
- Bn dn, siu dn nhit thp, siu dn nhit cao, chng nm trung gian gia
kim loi v ceramic (trong hai nhm u gn vi kim loi hn, nhm sau cng gn vi
ceramic hn).
- Silicon nm trung gian gia vt liu v c vi hu c, song gn vi vt liu hu c
hn.
1.2. LCH S PHT TRIN VT LIU.
Lch s pht trin khoa hc vt liu gn lin vi lch s pht trin ca loi ngi, c th
chia ra lm 3 giai on ln sau:
1.2.1. Giai on tin s ca loi ngi.
T hng ngn, hng vn nm trc cng nguyn con ngi nguyn thy bit s dng
cng c lao ng duy tr v pht trin cng ng, ngy h bit s dng cc vt liu c
sn trong t nhin nh :
Vt liu v c l t st, , v cc loi khong vt v.v.
Vt liu hu c nh da, si thc vt, g, tre v.v.
Vt liu kim loi nh vng, bc, ng t nhin v st thin thch v.v.
Trong giai on ny, cc vt liu c s dng a phn dng nguyn thy, khng qua
ch bin. Cc vt dng c ch to ch yu bng cc ct, mi, p hay nghin v.v. Ti thi k
Kim loi
Compozt
Hu c -
polyme
V c -
ceramc
3
3
4 3
3
1
2
4
Hnh 1.1 S minh ha cc nhm vt liu v quan h gia chng.
1. Bn dn; 2. Siu dn; 3. Silicon; 4. Polyme dn in.
ny ring ngi Ai Cp c, ngi Babylon, ngi La M v ngi Trung Quc bit ch to
ra gch xy ct bng cch phi kh t st ngoi nng.
1.2.2.Giai on ch to v s dng vt liu theo kinh nghim.
Phi tri qua mt thi gian rt lu, ngha l sau hng nghn nm tch ly cc quan st
ngu nhin v cc kinh nghim, thc hin cc th nghim mt cch ri rc v m mm, con
ngi thi trc Cng nguyn cng to ra c nhiu s kin quan trng v lnh vc vt
liu. C th k ra y vi v d:
Trc Cng nguyn khong 6.000 nm, ngi ta bit luyn ng t qung ch to ra
nhng cng c lao ng v v kh. Nhng cc x ng vi tui 8.500 nm, m ngi ta pht
hin c cao nguyn Anotolia Th Nh K ni ln s xut hin rt sm ngh luyn ng
t qung trn tri t ca chng ta.
St thp cng xut hin kh sm. Vo khong th k 15 trc Cng nguyn ngi ta
bit s dng cng c bng thp v sau khong 4 th k, ngi Hy Lp v La M bit s
dng phng php nhit luyn ti thp lm tng cng cho thp. K thut ny t c
nh cao vo thi trung c vi cc thanh kim ni ting nh Damascus (Syrie) cho n ngy
nay vn cn l mt b mt v cng ngh. Cc nh kho c hc khi khai qut Ninevia - kinh
ca s c Assiria trong cung in vua Sargon nh th k th VIII trc Cng nguyn
pht hin ra mt kho cha khong 200 tn sn phm bng st nh m st, li ca v cc cng
c rn v.v.
Mt k tch v cng ngh luyn kim ca nhn loi c xa c tm thy nh cy ct tr
bng st ni ting ca n gn nh nguyn cht (n cha ti 99,72% st) nng ti 6,5 tn,
cao hn 7m c xy dng t nm 415 tng nim v vua Chanragupta nh. Nhng l
luyn st u tin c Trung Quc v Ai cp tng xut hin t hn 3.000 nm trc Cng
nguyn.
Vo cui th k th XVIII k thut ch to thp vi qui m ln xut hin, m nh
con ngi s dng ph bin ch to ra cc my hi nc, tu thy, xy dng cu cng,
nh ca v ng st v.v. Mt cng trnh bng thp s phi k n thp Effen ti th Pari
ca Php. Thp ny nng 7.341 tn v cao ti 320 m c xy dng xong nm 1889 khng
nhng l nim t ho v l biu tng vn minh ca nc Php m cn l mt k quan ca th
gii.
Ngoi s pht trin mnh ca nhng vt liu kim loi nu trn, vt liu v c cng
c nhng bc tin rt sm. T th k XV trc Cng nguyn, Ai Cp, Babylon v La M
ngi ta bit s dng hn hp nghin vi vi ti ri ti u th k XIX xi mng portlan
xut hin Anh, M, Nga v sau k thut c b tng ct thp s dng trong xy dng
xut hin M vo nm 1875 v ngy nay loi vt liu ny ngy cng c s dng rng ri
trong cc cng trnh xy dng cu ng, nh ca v.v.
1.2.3.Giai on ch to v s dng vt liu theo kin thc khoa hc.
Ngi ta i su tm hiu bn cht ca vt liu, tm hiu nguyn nhn ca s hnh thnh
cc tnh cht khc nhau ca chng. Chnh nh nhng kin thc khoa hc m con ngi
nh gi c nh tnh chiu hng pht trin ca vt liu v nh hng cc cng ngh ch
to vt liu vi nhng tnh cht mong mun.
C th k ra y mt vi bc tin ni bt v cng ngh vt liu:
5
Nm 1930 cng ngh ch to hp kim nhm cng c tn uara (duaralumin) xut hin
nh qu trnh ha gi bin cng.
Nm 1940 cng ngh ch to cht do polyme ra i nh qu trnh trng hp.
Nm 1955 cng ngh ch to bn dn bng k thut tinh luyn v to lp chuyn tip.
Nm 1965 mt lot vt liu mi ra i nh thp xy dng vi hp kim ha, thp kt cu
bn cao v c bit l s xut hin vt liu kt hp compozt.
Nm 1975 ch to vt liu nh hnh.
Nm 1980 ch to thnh cng kim loi thy tinh v.v
Bt k mt sng to no ca con ngi cng u phi s dng vt liu, u phi khai
thc cc c tnh khc nhau ca vt liu
Cc s kin ni bt:
Ct thp New Dehli, 6,5 tn khong TK 5 SCN, khng g?
Luyn thp quy m CN

TK 19 to ra thp Eiffel cao 320m, nng 7341 tn

B tng ct thp, nm 1875 (Hoa k), gm Vit nam Trung hoa rt lu i
S dng vi tnh

my tnh

cng ngh cao vi nn kinh t tri thc

?
C kh (vt liu kim loi)

my tnh c hc (vi chc php tnh/pht)

n in t

my tnh in t MHCK22 (vi trm php tnh/pht)

Bn dn (vi x l) (90 - 130)MHz

200MHz (P)

(330 - 400)MHz (P
II
)

(400
-7
00)MHz (P
III
), P
IV

1GHz,.. ?
My ht bi: g (hp)

kim loi (tr)

polyme (cu) cng sut gp 10, kch thc

1/3.
Xu hng pht trin ca vt liu :
t (M) 1978: thp (60)%, polyme (10-20)%, HK Al (3-5)%, VL khc cn li
1993: thp (50-60)%, polyme (10-20)%, HK Al (5-10)%, VL khc cn li.
Polyme, compozit xu hng tng, kim loi

gim nhng vn quan trng nht.

Tuy nhin cn c rt nhiu loi vt liu hin cn ang trong qu trnh nghin cu ti cc
phng th nghim c nhiu trin vng ng dng rng ri vo thc t trong tng lai.
6
Hnh 1.1.
Phn b vt
liu
1.3. NHNG TNH CHT C BN CA VT LIU.
1.2.1 Ba yu cu c bn i vi vt liu
Vt liu ni chung v vt liu dng trong c kh ni ring c s dng rng ri trong
cng nghip ch to cc chi tit my, cc dng c, cc kt cu cng trnh v to nn cc sn
phm cho cuc sng v.v.
Tuy nhin khi ch to v s dng, chng ta cn phi da vo cc yu cu k thut la
chn vt liu thch hp, bo m cht lng v tnh kinh t ca sn phm.
Ba yu cu c bn i vi vt liu nh sau:
Th nht l yu cu v tnh s dng.
bo m mt sn phm c kh c th s dng c (tc lm vic c trong thc t)
th vt liu ch to ra n phi c c tnh, l tnh, ha tnh v.v sao cho sn phm s dng c
bn lu vi tin cy trong thi gian d kin.
Th hai l tnh cng ngh ca vt liu.
Tnh cng ngh ca vt liu c hiu l kh nng c th gia cng vt liu bng cc
phng php khc nhau nh c, hn, rn, nhit luyn v.v to ra sn phm c cht lng
ph hp vi yu cu s dng.
Th ba l tnh kinh t.
Tnh kinh t l yu cu tt yu ca sn phm, n i hi vt liu ch to ra n phi cho gi
thnh thp nht trong khi cc yu cu v cng ngh v s dng c tha mn.
1.2.2 Nhng tnh cht c bn ca vt liu
Trong khun kh ca mn hc, cun sch ny ch cp n hai yu cu c bn ban u
vi nhng tnh cht c hc, tnh cht vt l, tnh cht ha hc, tnh cng ngh ng thi s lc
v tin cy v tui th ca vt liu.
1.2.2.1 Tnh cht c hc.
Tnh cht c hc (hay cn c gi l c tnh) ca vt liu l nhng c trng c hc biu
th kh nng ca vt liu chu tc dng ca cc loi ti trng.
Cc c trng quan trng ca c tnh l bn, do, cng, dai va p, bn
mi v tnh chng mi mn.
a. bn.
bn l kh nng c hc ca vt liu chu tc dng ca ngoi lc m khng b ph hy
v c k hiu bng (xch ma). n v o bn c tnh bng N/mm
2
, kN/m
2
, hay MPa.
Nhm cc c trng cho bn bao gm:
Gii hn n hi
dh
(cn c k hiu l R
e
).
Gii hn n hi l ng sut ln nht tc dng ln mu o m sau khi b n i mu khng
b bin dng do hoc ch b bin dng do rt nh ( bin dng d vo khong 0,001
0,005% so vi chiu di ban u ca mu).
Gii hn n hi c tnh theo cng thc:

0
F
P
p
dh

, (N/mm
2


hay MPa).
Trong : F
0
(mm
2
) l tit din ban u ca mu.
P
p
(N) l lc tc dng.
Trong giai on n hi, nu l n hi tuyn tnh, quan h gia ng sut v bin dng
tun theo nh lut Hook, v n c th biu din di dng cng thc n gin.
= E. , (MPa).
7
Vi E (N/m
2
) l m un n hi khi ko, nn.
Ngi ta qui nh gi
0,002
l gii hn n hi qui c.
Gii hn chy
c
(cn c k hiu l R
0,2
).
Gii hn chy l ng sut ti vt liu b "chy", tc tip tc b bin dng vi ng sut
khng i .
0
F
P
c
c

, (N/mm
2


hay MPa).
Vi P
c
(N) l lc tc dng bt u bin dng do.
F
0
(mm
2
) l tit din ban u ca mu.
Thc t rt kh xc nh gi tr P
c
ng vi lc vt liu bt u chy, cho nn khi vt liu c
tnh do km, khng c thm chy r, ngi ta thng qui c ti trng ng vi khi mu b
bin dng 0,2% l ti trng chy, v th gi tr
0
2 , 0
2 , 0
F
P

c gi l gii hn chy qui c.
Gii hn bn
b
(cn c k hiu l R
m
).
Gii hn bn l ng sut ng vi ti trng tc dng ln nht P
b
hay P
max
lm cho thanh vt
liu b t. Theo tiu chun Vit Nam TCVN 197-85 gii hn bn cn c gi l gi tr
bn tc thi.
Gii hn bn c tnh theo cng thc:
0
F
P
b
b

, (N/mm
2


hay MPa).
Vi F
0
(mm
2
) l tit din ban u ca mu.
P
b
(N) l lc tc dng ln nht.
Trong h SI gii hn bn c o bng N/mm
2
. Gii hn bn cng ln, kh nng chu ti
m khng gy ph hy ca kt cu cng ln.
Ty theo dng khc nhau ca ngoi lc m ta c cc bn nh bn ko
k
, bn un

u
v bn nn
n
v.v.
b. do:
do l kh nng bin dng ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca ngoi lc m khng b
ph hy. do c xc nh bng gin di tng i (%) v tht t i (%).
gin di tng i (%)
gin di tng i l t l tnh theo phn trm gia lng gin di tuyt i ca mu
sau khi t vi chiu di ban u.
gin di tng i c tnh theo cng thc:
% 100 .
0
0 1
l
l l

, (%).
Vi: l
0
(mm) v l
1
(mm) l di ca mu trc v sau khi ko.
tht tng i hay tht t i (%).
tht t i cng l t s tnh theo phn trm gia tht tuyt i ca mu sau khi t
vi din tch mt ct ngang ban u. tht t i c tnh theo cng thc:
% 100 .
0
F
F

, (%).
8
Hnh 1.3 S o cng Brinen
(a) v s o ng knh vt lm
bng knh lp c thc mu (b).
Trong F = F
0
F
1
vi F
0
v F
1
l tit in ca mu trc v sau khi ko tnh cng n
v o (mm
2
). Vt liu c gin di tng i v tht t i cng ln th cng do v ngc
li.
C nhiu phng php th xc nh bn v do ca vt liu nhng thng dng
nht l th ko.
Th ko
Ni dung ca phng php ny l dng my ko nn vn nng (hnh 1.2) ko mu th
c lm theo tiu chun n khi mu b t.
Qu trnh tng ti s gy ra bin dng mu mt lng l.
Mi quan h gia lc P v lng bin dng tuyt i l hoc ng sut v bin dng
tng i c ghi li trn gin ko.
Mu th ko c chn theo nhng qui nh ring v c hnh dng, kch thc theo tiu
chun.
Th ko l phng php tc ng t t ln mu mt ti trng ko cho n khi mu t ri.
Hnh 1.2 gii thiu mt loi my th ko, nn vn nng.
c. cng
cng l kh nng ca vt liu chng li bin dng do cc b khi c ngoi lc tc dng
thng qua vt nn. Nu cng mt gi tr lc nn, lm bin dng trn mu cng ln, cng su th
cng ca mu o cng km. o cng l phng php th n gin v nhanh chng
xc nh tnh cht ca vt liu m khng cn ph hy chi tit.
cng c th o bng nhiu phng php khc nhau nhng u dng ti trng n vin
bi bng thp nhit luyn cng hoc mi cn kim cng hoc mi chp kim cng ln b mt
ca vt liu cn th, ri xc nh kch thc vt lm in trn b mt vt liu o. Thng dng
cc loi cng Brinen (HB), cng Rockwell (HRC, HRB v HRA), v cng Vcke
(HV).
cng Brinen
cng Brinen c xc nh bng cch dng ti trng P n vin bi bng thp nhit
luyn c ng knh D ln b mt vt liu mun th (hnh 1.3). n v o cng Brinen HB
l kG/mm
2
hoc i ra MPa.
Ty theo chiu dy ca mu th chng ta chn ng knh ca vin bi l D = 10 mm, D =
5 mm hoc D = 0,25 mm, ng thi ty thuc vo tnh cht ca vt liu chng ta chn ti trng
P cho thch hp.
i vi thp v gang th P = 30D
2
.
i vi ng v hp kim ng P = 10D
2
.
i vi nhm, babt v hp kim mm khc P = 2,5D
2
.
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P
D
d
a.
b.
Hnh 1.3 S o cng Brinen
(a) v s o ng knh vt lm
bng knh lp c thc mu (b).
Hnh 1.2 My th ko nn vn nng.
Th d:
Khi th thp dng bi c ng knh D = 10 mm ta chn ti trng P = 30D
2
= 300 kG.
cng Brinen c tnh theo cng thc:
F
P
HB .
Trong F l din tch mt cu ca vt lm v c tnh:
2 2
2
2
.
2
.
d D
D D
F

, (mm
2
).
V do
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
2
1 1
2
D
d
D
P
HB

Vi D (mm) l ng knh vin bi v d (mm) l ng knh vt lm.
cng HB ca vt liu c kim tra khng ln hn 450 (kG/mm
2
).
cng Rockwell.
cng Rockwell c xc nh bng cch dng ti trng P n vin bi bng thp
nhit luyn c ng knh 1,587mm tng ng 1/16" (thang B) hoc mi cn bng kim
cng c gc nh 120
0
(thang A hoc C) ln b mt vt liu mun th (hnh 1.4).
Vin bi thp dng th nhng vt liu t cng, cn mi cn kim cng dng th cc
vt liu c cng cao nh thp nhit luyn. Khi o cng Rockwell bao gi ti trng P
cng tc ng hai ln:
Ln u l ti trng s b vi P
0
= 10 kG, chiu su vt lm tnh t y. Sau n ti trng
chnh P (ti trng chnh P ph thuc vo cng ca vt liu theo bng).
Trong khi th, s o cng c ch trc tip ngay bng kim ng h. S o cng
Rockwell c biu th bng n v qui c (khng c th nguyn). C nhiu thang o cng
Hnh 1.4 V tr tng i gia mi
m v mu o cc thi im o:
00: lc cha o;
11: ti trng s b P
0
22: thm ti trng chnh P
1
;
33: P
1
.
10
Rockwell, nhng trong thc t dng nhiu nht l thang B (HRB), thang A (HRA) v thang C
(HRC).
Thang HRB dng bi thp vi P = 100 kG p dng cho cc vt liu mm v cng va nh
gang, thp sau khi , hp kim ng nhm. Thang HRC dng mi kim cng vi P = 150 kG p
dng cho cc vt liu c cng trung bnh v cao nh gang, thp sau khi ti v ram. Thang
HRA dng mi kim cng vi P = 60 kG p dng cho cc vt liu rt cng nh hp kim cng,
lp thm xuyanua.
cng Vicke.
cng Vicke l loi cng c phng php o tng t nh Brinen, nhng c nhng
im khc nh:
Mi m lm bng kim cng vi hnh thp bn mt u c gc nh gia hai mt i
din l 1360 (hnh 1.5).
Ti trng tc dng nh t 1 n 100 kG, trong mc 30 kG vi thi gian gi ti trng 10
n 15 giy c coi l iu kin tiu chun.
Khi n mi hnh thp, t l gia cc ng cho vt lm nhn c khi thay i ti trng
lun lun khng i nn cho php tng hay gim ti trng ty thuc vo mc ch nghin
cu.
cng Vicke c dng o cng ca cc vt liu t rt mm n rt cng vi lp
cn o rt mng c th ti 0,04 n 0,06mm ca b mt sau khi thm than, thm nit v nhit
luyn.
cng Vicke c k hiu l HV n v kG/mm
2
v c xc nh theo cng thc:
Trong : P (kG) l ti trng. d (mm) l ng cho ca vt lm.
Lu : cng iu kin tiu chun ch cn vit vn tt bng HV
v s o m khng cn ghi th nguyn. Th d: HV300.
cng iu kin phi tiu chun th phi ghi thm cc iu kin. HV
10/
30
300 c hiu l cng HV c o bng ti trng 10 kG vi thi gian gi ti trng 30 giy
l 300 kG/mm
2
.
cng Vicke c dng c trong cng t vi.
d. dai va chm.
Hnh 1.5 Mi m
hnh thp (a) v vt
lm (b) khi o
cng bng phng
php Vicke

136
0
d
d

a.
b.
11
2
854 , 1
d
P
HV
C nhng chi tit my khi lm vic phi chu cc ti trng tc dng t ngt (hay ti trng
va p). Kh nng chu ng ca vt liu bi cc ti trng t ngt hay va p m khng b
ph hy c gi l dai va p (hay dai va chm). Mun th va p cn phi c mu th
c la chn theo nhng qui nh ring nh ngang hay dc th, v tr no trn sn phm v c
hnh dng kch thc theo tiu chun.
Nhn chung cc nc u qui nh mu th l thanh c tit din hnh vung 10 x 10 (mm)
v c chiu di 55 mm hoc 75 mm. Chng khc nhau ch yu hnh dng v kch thc ca
vt kha trn mu, ni tp trung ng sut ph hy dn.
Hin nay, ngi ta s dng ph bin hai phng php th va p v km theo l hai
dng mu th:
Loi Charpy (c chiu di 55 mm).
Loi Izod (c chiu di 75 mm).
TCVN 312 - 69 qui nh mt mu chnh v bn mu ph. S th va p c m t
trn hnh 1.6.
Ba vi khi lng P c th ri t do t cao h, p vo mu ri lm v n, v th ch
tr
v
ti
cao h' < h. Nng lng va p dng ph hy mu c k hiu l A
K
v c xc nh
theo cng thc:
A
K
= P.h - P.h' = P.(h - h').
Nng lng (ph hy do) va p A
K
c tnh theo n v cng, trc y theo kG.m, theo
h quc t SI c o bng Jun (J) vi 1J = 1N.m.
Trong cc qui nh ca TCVN v mt s nc dai va p c k hiu l a
k
. N l
cng cn thit ph hy mt n v din tch, mt ct ngang ca mu ch c rnh v c
xc nh theo cng thc:
12
Hnh1.6. S th va p:
a. Cch g mu Izod; b. Cch g mu Charpy; c. S thit b v qu trnh th.
F
A
a
K
K

vi n v o l J/mm
2
hay kJ/m
2
.


Trong A
K
(J hay kJ) l

nng lng va p.
F (mm
2
) l din tch mt ct ngang ca mu ch c rnh.
e. bn mi.
Khi chi tit my lm vic trong iu kin ti trng bin i theo thi gian, c qui lut v
c lp i lp li theo chu k nhiu ln thng xy ra ph hy vi ng sut thp hn gii hn
bn ko tnh. Hin tng ny c gi l hin tng mi. Nguyn nhn ca mi l do c s
tch ly dn cc khuyt tt mng dn n hnh thnh cc vt nt t vi, ri cc vt nt ny pht
trin to nn s ph hy.
Kh nng chng li hin tng mi ca vt liu c gi l bn mi. Trong ph hy
mi ngi ta quan tm n hai ch tiu quan trng l bn mi v tui th chu k.
bn mi l ng sut ln nht m vt liu c th chu ng c mt s chu trnh lm
vic bt k m khng b ph hy v n c k hiu l
-1
. Cn s chu k ti thiu m vt liu
chu ng c trc khi xut hin vt nt mi c kch thc ln dn n ph hy c gi
l tui th chu k v c k hiu l N
G
.
Tui

th chu k c th l v hn khi
Max
ln hn
-1
. i vi thp N
G
= 10
6
10
7
cn hp
kim nhm th N
G
= 10
6
(xem thm chng 5 phn ph hy mi).
f. Tnh chng mi mn.
Mi mn l qu trnh ph hy dn lp b mt chi tit ca vt liu bng cch tch cc ht
khi b mt do tc dng ca ma st. Ngi ta xc nh s mi mn theo s thay i kch thc
hoc khi lng ca vt liu.
Kh nng ca vt liu chng li s mi mn trong nhng iu kin ma st nht nh ca
vt liu c gi l tnh chng mi mn ca vt liu.
nh gi mc mn, ngi ta thng dng:
Tc mi mn V
h
l t s gia lng mi mn v thi gian mi mn.
Cng mi mn j
h
l nghch o ca tc mn.
Gi tr vn tc mi mn cng nh th tui th lm vic ca vt liu cng cao.
1.2.2.2 Tnh cht vt l.
Tnh cht vt l hay cn c gi l l tnh ca vt liu l nhng tnh cht ca vt liu th
hin qua cc hin tng vt l khi thnh phn ha hc ca chng khng b thay i.
L tnh c bn ca vt liu gm c: khi lng ring, nhit nng chy, tnh cht nhit,
tnh cht in v t tnh.
1. Khi lng ring.
Khi lng ring l khi lng ca 1 cm
3
vt cht. Nu gi P l khi lng ca vt cht
(g), V l th tch ca vt cht (cm
3
) v l khi lng ring ca vt cht (hay vt liu) ta c:
V
P
(g/cm
3
)
ng dng ca khi lng ring trong k thut rt rng ri, n khng nhng c th dng
so snh cc vt liu nng nh khc nhau tin vic la chn vt liu m cn c th gii
quyt nhng vn thc t.
Th d, nhng vt ln, thp hnh kh cn c khi lng, nhng bit c khi lng
ring ca vt liu v o c kch thc ca chng, ngi ta c th tnh c th tch nn c
th khng cn cn c vt m ta vn tnh c khi lng ca chng.
13
2. Nhit nng chy.
Nhit nng chy ca vt liu l nhit m khi nung nng n th vt liu t th rn
chuyn thnh th lng.
Tnh cht ny rt quan trng i vi cng nghip ch to c kh, v tnh chy long ca vt
liu th lng tt hay xu do nhit nng chy ca chng quyt nh. Nhit nng chy
ca vt liu cng thp th tnh chy long ca chng cng tt v cng d c.
3. Tnh cht nhit.
Khi mt vt rn hp th nng lng di dng nhit, nhit ca n tng ln v cc kch
thc ca n gin n ra. Nhit lng ca n c th c truyn t vng nhit cao hn ti
vng c nhit thp hn.
Nhit dung, tnh gin n nhit v dn nhit l nhng tnh cht nhit quan trng ca vt
liu rn.
a. Nhit dung:
Nhit dung biu th nng lng cn thit nng nhit ca mt n v vt cht ln mt
. Nhit dung c xc nh theo cng thc:
dT
dQ
C .
Trong : dQ l nng lng cn thit gy ra bin thin nhit dT.
Thng thng nhit dung c n v o l jun hoc calo cho mt mol vt liu (J/mol hay
cal/mol.K). Nhit dung ca mt n v khi lng c gi l nhit dung ring v c th
nguyn l J/kG.K hay cal/g.K.
b. Tnh dn n nhit:
Tnh dn n nhit l kh nng dn n ca vt liu khi nung nng. dn n ln hay b c
th biu th bng h s dn n theo chiu di. a s cc vt liu n ra khi b nung nng nng v
co li khi lnh.
Nguyn nhn ca hin tng gin n nhit chnh l s tng khong cch trung bnh gia
cc nguyn t khi tng nhit . S thay i chiu di theo nhit ca vt liu ca vt liu rn
c xc nh nh sau:
) (
0 1
0
0 1
T T
l
l l
l

hay
T
l
l
l

.
0

Trong :
l
0
(mm) v l
1
(mm) l chiu di ban u v chiu di sau khi thay i nhit t T
0
n
T
1
.

l
l h s gin n v nhit vi th nguyn
0
C
-1
.
Cc vt liu polyme thng c h s gin n nhit

l
ln (vo khong 50.10
-3
/
0
C n
300.10
-3
/
0
C). Vt liu v c gm, kim loi c
l
nh hn (vo khong 0,5.10
-6
/
0
C n 25.10
-
6
/
0
C).
Gia cc on ng ray ni nhau, ngi ta lun khe h chnh l d phng s thay
i kch thc do dn n nhit.
c. Tnh dn nhit.
Dn nhit l hin tng nhit c truyn t vng nhit cao n vng nhit thp ca
vt liu. c trng cho kh nng dn nhit ca vt liu l dn nhit vi th nguyn l
W/m.K..
14
Trong vt rn, nhit c truyn bi sng dao ng mng (phtn) v in t t do. Cc
kim loi thng dn nhit tt, ngc li cc vt liu khc nh gm, vt liu phi kim v polyme
dn nhit km, nn chng thng c dng lm vt liu cch nhit.
4. Tnh cht in.
Mt trong nhng c tnh quan trng nht ca vt liu rn l kh nng dn in ca n.
Tnh dn in.
Tnh dn in ca vt liu l kh nng truyn dng in ca vt liu. c trng cho kh
nng dn in ca kim loi l dn in vi n v o (cm)
-1
. Cc kim loi u l vt dn
in tt. Dn in tt nht l bc, sau n ng v nhm. Hp kim ni chung v cc vt liu
phi kim c tnh dn in km hn kim loi.
dn in c biu din bng in tch Q (Culng) i qua mt n v din tch S (cm
2
)
trong mt n v thi gian t thng tnh bng giy ca dy dn di l (cm) c in p hai u
dy l U (V).
] . [
. .
. 1
1 1
cm
S t U
l Q

.
Vi l in tr sut ca vt liu mu (.cm).
Cc vt liu rn c dn in tri rng trn 27 c s. Cn c vo kh nng dn in, cc
vt liu rn c chia thnh ba loi: vt liu dn in, vt liu bn dn v vt liu cch in.
Cc vt liu dn in c dn in c
10
7
(cm)
-1
, thng cc kim loi l nhng
vt liu dn in tt. Cc vt liu cch in
cn c gi l cc in mi c dn in
thp, nm trong khong 10
-10
(cm)
-1
v 10
-20
(cm)
-1
. Cc vt liu bn dn l cc loi vt
liu c dn in trung gian gia hai loi
trn, n nm trong khong t 10
-6
(cm)
-1
n 10
4
(cm)
-1
.
Dng in c to thnh do chuyn
ng ca cc ht mang in tch di tc
dng lc ca mt in trng ngoi t vo.
Cc ht mang in dng c gia tc theo
hng ca in trng cn cc ht mang in m th theo hng ngc li.
Trong hu ht cc vt liu rn, dng in c to thnh do cc dng in t v l s
dn in bng in t. Ngoi ra, trong cc vt liu ion, s chuyn ng thun ty ca cc ion
cng c th to ra mt dng in v l s dn in bng ion.
Siu dn (in). a s kim loi khi c lm lnh xung n nhit gn 0
0
K th
in tr gim t t v t ti mt gi tr nht nh.
Cc vt liu c tnh cht trn c gi l vt liu siu dn v nhit ti vt liu t ti
trng thi siu dn c gi l nhit ti hn T
C .
Hin tng siu dn c gii thch bng l thuyt kh phc tp, nhng v c bn, trng thi
siu dn c c l do tng tc ht gia cp in t dn. Chuyn ng ca nhng in t ghp
cp ny hu nh khng b tn x bi dao ng nhit v cc nguyn t phc tp, nh m in
tr vn t l vi cng tn x in t s bng khng.
Hin tng siu dn c nhng ng dng thc t rt a dng, v d nh:
15
Hnh 1.7 S ph thuc in tr-nhit ca
vt dn bnh thng v vt liu siu dn gn
0
0
K.
Cc nam chm siu dn c kh nng to ra nhng t trng mnh vi cng sut tiu th
thp c s dng trong cc thit b th nghim v nghin cu khoa hc.
Nam chm cho cc my gia tc ht nng lng cao.
Truyn tn hiu v chuyn mch tc cao hn cho my tnh.
Tu m t cao tc vi m nng nh lc y ca t trng.
Tic thay, tr ngi ln nht ca vt liu siu dn l kh khn trong vic t v lm ch
c nhit rt thp (khong t 77
0
K n 130
0
K). Chng ta hy vng tr ngi ny sm c
khc phc cng vi s pht trin th h mi ca cc cht siu dn vi nhit ti hn cao hp
l.
5. T tnh.
Hin tng cc vt liu biu hin lc ht hoc lc y c nh hng ln cc vt liu khc
gi l hin tng "t".
T tnh l kh nng dn t ca kim loi. St, niken, c ban v hp kim ca chng u c t
tnh th hin rt r rt nn chng c gi l kim loi t tnh.
Vt liu t c tm quan trng ln trong hng lot ngnh cng nghip nh ch to ng c
in, my pht v my bin th in, in thoi v my tnh v.v.
1.2.2.3 Tnh cht ha hc.
Tnh cht ha hc ng quan tm nht i vi vt liu dng trong c kh l tnh n nh
ha hc ca vt liu khi chng tip xc vi mi trng c hot tnh khc nhau nh xy, nc,
axt, baz v.v m khng b ph hy.
Thng thng mi vt liu c tnh n nh ha hc ng vi tng mi trng nht nh.
Tnh nng ha hc c bn ca vt liu c th chia thnh my loi sau:
Tnh chu n mn:
Tnh chu n mn ca vt liu l bn ca vt liu i vi s n mn ca cc mi trng
xung quanh.
Tnh chu nhit:
Tnh chu nhit ca vt liu l bn ca vt liu i vi s n mn ca xy trong khng
kh nhit cao hoc i vi tc dng n mn ca mt vi th lng hoc th kh c bit
nhit cao.
Tnh chu axt:
Tnh chu axt ca vt liu l bn ca vt liu i vi s n mn ca axt.
1.2.2.4 Tnh cng ngh.
Tnh cng ngh l kh nng ca vt liu cho php gia cng nng hay gia cng ngui. Tnh
cng ngh bao gm cc tnh cht sau:
Tnh c:
Tnh c ca vt liu l kh nng in y vt liu lng vo lng khun v n c c
trng bi chy long, co, tnh ho tan kh v tnh thin tch.
Tnh rn:
Tnh rn l kh nng bin dng vnh cu ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca ngoi lc
to thnh hnh dng ca chi tit m khng b ph hy.
Thp c tnh rn cao khi nung nng n nhit ph hp v tnh do tng i ln. Gang
khng c kh nng rn v dn. ng, ch c tnh rn tt ngay c trng thi ngui v.v.
Tnh hn
16
Tnh hn l kh nng to thnh s lin kt gia cc chi tit hn c nung nng cc b ch
mi hn n trng thi chy hay do. Tnh hn ca vt liu ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc,
bn cht vt liu v.v.
Tnh ct gt:
Tnh ct gt l kh nng ca vt liu cho php gia cng ct gt nh tin, phay, bo v.v d
hay kh. Nhn t nh hng n tnh ct gt l cng. cng ca thp gia cng ct
thun li t bng b mt cao vo khong 180 200 HB.
1.2.2.5 tin cy.
tin cy l xc sut khng xut hin h hng ca vt liu trong mt thi gian hoc trong
mt phm vi lm vic no .
V d: tin cy lm vic khng hng ca bnh rng sau khi chy 300.000 km l 0,9 c
ngha l sau khi lm vic (chy c 300.000 km) th s c khong 10% bnh rng hng v b
mn, trc hoc gy v.v.
tin cy ca vt liu ph thuc vo kh nng ca vt liu chng li cc ph hy khi xut
hin cc ng sut cc i. Ni cch khc, tin cy l kh nng ca vt liu lm vic bnh
thng trong thi gian ngn hn, di tc dng ca tnh hung ngoi tnh ton nh p sut,
nhit v mi trng.
S xut hin ph hy dn l tnh hung nguy him nht i vi tin cy ca kt cu.
Chnh v th, nng cao tin cy ca kt cu cn phi thc hin cc bin php gim kh
nng (xc sut) ph hy dn bng cch ch to ra vt liu kt cu c do v dai va
p.
1.2.2.6 Tui th.
Tui th ca vt liu c trng cho kh nng ca vt liu chng li s pht trin dn ca
ph hy, m bo duy tr kh nng lm vic ca chi tit trong thi gian nh. y l ch tiu
c tnh cht tng hp ca vt liu.
Lm tng tui th ca vt liu c ngha l lm gim tc ph hy n mc ti thiu. Vi
a s cc chi tit my, tui th c quyt nh bi bn mi v tnh chng mi mn.
1.3 Ni dung mn hc gm bn phn chnh:
- Cu trc v c tnh: quan h gia cu trc v c tnh c nhn mnh hn cho kim loi
gm cu trc tinh th, to pha, t chc, bin dng, ph hy.
- Hp kim v bin i t chc: cu trc ca hp kim, chuyn pha

nhit luyn.
- Vt liu kim loi: t chc, thnh phn ha hc, c tnh, nhit luyn v cng dng
- Vt liu phi kim loi: cu trc, thnh phn, c tnh, to hnh v cng dng
La chn & S dng hp l vt liu: m bo cc ch tiu c, l, ho tnh, tnh cng
ngh ng thi r, nh v bo v mi trng

CMS (Cambridge Materials Selector).

Quan h t chc - tnh cht hay s ph thuc ca tnh cht ca vt liu vo cu trc l
ni dung c bn ca ton b mn hc.
T chc hay cu trc l s sp xp ca cc thnh phn bn trong bao gm t chc
v m v vi m ca vt liu.
T chc v m cn gi l t chc th i (macrostructure) l hnh thi sp xp ca cc
phn t ln, quan st c bng mt thng (0,3mm) hoc bng knh lp (0,01mm).
T chc vi m l hnh thi sp xp ca cc phn t nh, khng quan st c bng mt
17
hay lp. Bao gm 2 loi:
- T chc t vi (microstructure) l hnh thi sp xp ca cc nhm nguyn t hay phn
t (pha) vi kch thc c micromet hay c cc ht tinh th (mm) vi s gip ca
knh hin vi quang hc (0,15mm) hay knh hin vi in t (10nm).
- Cu to tinh th l hnh thi sp xp v tng tc gia cc nguyn t trong
khng gian, cc dng khuyt tt ca mng tinh th

tia X v phng tin khc.

Tnh cht bao gm: c tnh, vt l tnh, ha tnh, tnh cng ngh & s dng.
3. Cc tiu chun vt liu
- Tiu chun Vit Nam - TCVN
- Tiu chun Nga OCT
- Cc tiu chun Hoa K:
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials),
AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute),
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers),
AA (Aluminum Association),
CDA (Copper Development Association),
UNS (Unified Numbering System)
.......
- Tiu chun Nht Bn JIS
- Tiu chun Chu u EN
- c DIN, Php NF, Anh BS cng l cc tiu chun quan trng cn bit.
18
19
CHNG 3
CU TO HP KIM V GIN TRNG THI
Trong k thut, c bit l trong ch to c kh rt t dng kim loi nguyn cht, m
thng dng cc hp kim. Do , trong chng ny s kho st cu to v gin trng thi
ca hp kim.
3.1. Cc khi nim c bn
3.1.1. Khi nim hp kim
Hp kim l hn hp ng nht v mt t chc ca t hai nguyn t tr ln trong
c t nht mt nguyn t l kim loi v nguyn t kim loi ng vai tr chnh tc l c
hm lng ln nht, tnh cht ca n th hin r rt nht.
3.1.2. c im ca hp kim
- Hp kim d sn xut hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c nhiu tnh cht tt hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c th to ra nhng tnh cht c bit m kim loi nguyn cht khng th c.
- Hp kim c gi thnh r hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c tnh cng ngh cao hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht v c th hin : Tnh
do: Khi s dng hp kim cho tnh do cao, do kh nng bin dng do tt, d dng cho vic
gia cng p lc.
Tnh c: Khi s dng cc hp kim c th thu c iu kin nng chy thp hn kim loi
nguyn cht, do tnh chy long cao nn c th in y cc lng khun phc tp.
Tnh ct gt tt hn.
Chnh v th trong thc t hu nh ch s dng hp kim.
3.1.3. Cc nh ngha c bn v hp kim
- Pha (F): l cu phn ng nht ca hp kim cng t chc v cng trng thi (khi trng
thi rn phi c cng kiu mng v thng s mng), c ngn cch bng mt b mt phn pha
ln.
- H: l tp hp cc pha trng thi cn bng (cc pha tn ti n nh trong mt iu kin
bn ngoi xc nh).
- H cn bng: h c coi l h cn bng khi cc qa trnh xy ra trong h c tnh thun
nghch.
Qa trnh thun nghch: nhng qa trnh m khi c s thay i ca mt yu t bn ngoi
hoc bn trong s lm h bin i theo mt hng. Khi yu t bn ngoi thay i theo chiu
ngc li v i qua cc giai on nh hng bin i trc.
- Cu t (nguyn) (N): l nhng cu phn c lp ca h (c th l n cht hoc hp cht)
c thnh phn ha hc n nh m n c nhim v cu to nn tt c cc pha ca h.
- Bc t do ca h (T): l s cc yu t bn ngoi (P, T0) hoc bn trong (thnh
phn) c th thay i c m h khng b thay i trng thi.
Quy tc pha (Gibbs) tnh bc t do: T = N - F + 2
Trong :
N: l s cu t cu to nn h
F: l s pha ca h ti im tnh bc t do
2: l s yu t bn ngoi (P, T0)
Trong thc t, coi P = const nn: T = N - F + 1 (cng thc Gibbs).
20
ngha ca bc t do: gip chng ta bit c trng thi ca h. Khi T = 0 th h s suy
bin thnh mt im.
Nu T = 0 tc l F = N + 1 khi h l v bin, hay khng c yu t no (nhit hay
thnh phn) c th thay i c. V d kim loi nguyn cht (N = 1) khi nng chy hay kt
tinh s tn ti 2 pha (F = 2 nn T = 0), iu ny chng t kim loi nguyn cht nng chy sau
kt tinh nhit khng i (v trong h mt nguyn khng c bin s v thnh phn ha hc).
Nu T = 1 tc l F = N h l n bin tc l ch c mt yu t (hoc nhit hoc l thnh
phn) c th thay i c. V d hp kim Cu - Ni khi nung nng s bin thnh dung dch lng,
v vy s pha F = 2 nn T = 1 do N = 2, iu ny chng t qu trnh nng chy ca hp kim Cu
- Ni xy ra trong mt khong nhit hoc l ti mt nhit no y trong qu trnh nng
chy ta c thm vo mt t Cu (hoc Ni) m vn khng lm thay i s pha ca h.
Nu T = 2 tc l F = N - 1 h l nh bin tc l cng mt lc c th thay i c 2 yu t
nhit v thnh phn. V d, phn ln cc hp kim 2 nguyn trng thi lng u ha tan v
hn vo nhau nn ch c t chc mt pha l dung dch lng, iu ny chng t trng thi lng
ta c th thay i thnh phn hoc nhit kh d dng m hp kim vn ch c t chc mt
pha.

3.2. Cc dng cu trc hp kim c bn
- Dung dch rn
- Cc pha trung gian
- Hn hp c hc
3.2.1. Dung dch rn
3.2.1.1. Khi nim
Dung dch rn l mt dng cu trc hp kim to bi hai nguyn, trong mt nguyn bo
tn c kiu mng gi l dung mi, nguyn th hai ha tan vo trong kiu mng gi l cht
tan.
Vi thc t, c th c dung dch rn c nhiu cht tan.
3.2.1.2. Phn loi dung dch rn
Da vo kiu ha tan ca cht tan trng mng dung mi, ngha l kiu sp xp ca nguyn
t cht tan trong mng tinh th dung mi th dung dch rn c phn thnh: dung dch rn thay
th, dung dch rn xen k v dung dch rn c trt t.
3.2.1.2.1. Dung dch rn thay th
- Khi nim: Dung dch rn thay th l dung dch rn trong cc nguyn t cht tan
chim ch ca nguyn t dung mi ti v tr cc nt mng l
- c im: Dung dch rn thay th gi nguyn kiu mng ca dung mi nhng
to ra cc sai lch im trong mng tinh th nn to ng sut d trong mng v du ca
ng sut d ph thuc vo ng knh nguyn t cht tan.
- iu kin to dung dch rn thay th:
21
iu kin kch thc:
Trong : d
A
: ng knh nguyn t dung mi
d
B
: ng knh nguyn t cht tan
Nu sai khc ng knh nguyn t cng nh th cng d to dung dch rn thay th
- Cc loi dung dch rn thay th: Dung dch rn thay th c th c dng ha tan v hn
hoc ha tan c hn.
Dung dch rn thay th ha tan c hn: tn ti mt gii hn ha tan ca cht tan trong dung
mi.
T l dung mi x
A
: x
A
+ x
B
= 1
T l cht tan x
B
: x
B
< 1
Dung dch rn thay th ha tan v hn: x
B
= 1
- iu kin to thnh ha tan v hn:
+ Dung mi v cht tan phi c cng kiu mng.
T nguyn l "thay th" thy rng: nu hai nguyn A v B ha tan v hn vo nhau th
chng phi c kiu mng ging nhau. iu kin ging nhau v kiu mng ch mi l iu kin
cn. Kh nng to thnh dung dch rn v hn cn ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khc. Nhiu
nguyn t c kiu mng ging nhau nhng cha chc to nn dung dch rn v hn. Da vo
bng h thng tun hon ta thy thng thng cc nguyn t cng mt chu k th c kiu mng
ging nhau.
S tng quan v ng knh nguyn t khi ng knh nguyn t ca cc nguyn thnh
phn A v B khng ging nhau nn khi ha tan vo nhau chng to ra sai lch im v xung
quanh mt nguyn t ho tan xut hin trng sai lch n hi. S sai khc ng knh nguyn
t gia cc nguyn A v B cng ln, nng ha tan cng cao th mc sai lch mng cng
nhiu v n mt mc no mng tr nn khng n nh. Khi , s sai khc v ng knh
nguyn t cht tan (dB) v ng knh nguyn t dung mi (dA) khng vt qu 15%. iu
ny gii thch ti sao i a s cc dung dch rn thay th c to thnh gia cc kim loi vi
nhau, ch mt s t trng hp l gia kim loi v kim.
+ Ch s nng in t Ce (s in t ha tr ca dung dch rn to thnh) phi nh hn
Ce gii hn.
Ce = x
A
.v
A
+ x
B
.v
B
v
A
, vB: Ha tr ca cc nguyn
Ce = v
A
.x
A
+v
B
.(1 - x
A
)
Thc nghim v l thuyt cho thy, khi to thnh dung dch rn thay th dng ha tan v
hn th tr s nng in t nh hn gii hn nht nh. Gii hn ny ph thuc vo kiu
mng v bn cht ca dung mi. Thng thng, ngi ta thy rng nguyn t B mun ha tan
v hn vo trong A th phi c ha tr bng hoc nh hn ha tr ca A.
+ Tng quan v m in ( ): Sai khc v m in cng nh th kh nng ha tan
v hn cng tng.
3.2.1.2.2. Dung dch rn xen k
- Khi nim: Dung dch rn xen k l loi dung dch rn m cc nguyn t cht tan i vo
v tr cc l hng trong mng tinh th dung mi.
22
- c im ca dung dch rn xen k:
+ Gi nguyn kiu mng ca dung mi, tn ti cc sai lch im loi nt xen k, to ra
trng ng sut ln hn do kch thc l hng nh hn nhiu so vi ng knh nguyn t.
+ Khng th xy ra dng dung dch rn ha tan v hn.
+ Dung dch rn xen k c bn v cng cao hn so vi dung dch rn thay th do
mc x lch mng ln hn.
- iu kin to dung dch rn xen k:
iu kin kch thc:
Nu sai khc nguyn t cng ln th cng d to ra dung dch rn xen k.
3.2.1.2.3. Dung dch rn c trt t
Ch xy ra vi dung dch rn thay th. Trong trng hp ny cc nguyn t cht tan c
sp xp theo mt quy lut xc nh.
- iu kin to dung dch rn c trt t:
Trong :
E
A
: Nng lng bin ca min Brillouin trong cht tan
E
B
: Nng lng bin ca min Brillouin trong dung mi.
3.2.1.3.Tnh cht chung ca dung dch rn
- Mang tnh cht ca dung mi: vi hp kim, dung mi phi l kim loi do dung dch
rn mang tnh kim loi.
- Trong dung dch rn tn ti nhiu khuyt tt mng do s xen k hoc thay th
ca cc nguyn t cht tan, mc nng lng t do cao hn nguyn t nguyn cht do
km n nh hn.
- bn, cng v rn thng cao hn kim loi nguyn cht.
3.2.2. Cc pha trung gian
3.2.2.1. Khi nim
Cc pha trung gian l dng cu trc hp kim to bi cc cu t c kiu mng ring bit ca
mnh, khng ph thuc vo kiu mng ca cc nguyn to ra n.
3.2.2.2. Cc loi pha trung gian
Cc pha trung gian c rt nhiu loi khc nhau ph thuc vo kch thc nguyn t tng
i gia cc nguyn, ha tr ca cc nguyn v v tr ca cc nguyn trong bng h thng tun
hon:
- Hp cht ha hc ha tr
- Pha xen k
23
- Pha in t
- Pha Lavies
- Pha
- Cu trc khuyt
3.2.2.2.1. Hp cht ha hc ha tr
L pha c to thnh trn c s cc nguyn t c tnh cht ha hc khc nhau theo lin
kt ha tr (Fe
2
O
3
, FeO, Al
2
O
3
, SiO
2
...). Loi pha ny t gp trong hp kim.
3.2.2.2.2. Pha xen k
L cc pha to thnh c kiu mng ring v l hp cht ha hc to nn gia cc kim loi
nhm chuyn tip c ng knh nguyn t ln vi cc kim c ng knh nguyn t b v
tha mn iu kin kch thc:
- Khi d
B
/ d
A
< 0,59 to thnh pha xen k vi cc kiu mng n gin ca cc nguyn t
kim loi, c kiu mng khc c A v B (pha xen k n gin). Thng l cc loi cc bt VC,
WC, TiC ...
c im: ht nh, cng v bn cao, c dng lm cc pha ha bn l tng
cho hp kim.
- Khi d
B
/ d
A
> 0,59 to thnh pha xen k c kiu mng tinh th phc tp, c ti hng chc
c bn trong mt nguyn t (pha xen k phc tp). V d : Fe
3
C, Mn
3
C, Cr
7
C
3
...
c im: C kiu mng rt phc tp.
Tnh cht: C cng, bn cao v nhit nng chy cao. Thng dng ha bn cho
hp kim lm vic nhit thng.
3.2.2.2.3. Pha in t (Pha Hum - Rzri)
L pha to nn bi cc kim loi c ha tr khc nhau, c hnh thnh c kiu mng ring
nhng phi tha mn quy lut v tr s nng in t Ce.
Pha in t c ba dng c bn:
- Pha : Ce = 3 / 2 - C kiu mng lp phng th tm A2
- Pha : Ce = 21 / 13 - C kiu mng lp phng phc tp vi 52 nguyn t trong mt c
bn
- Pha : Ce = 7 / 4 - C kiu mng lc gic.
Trong :
n
A
, n
B
: ch s ca cc nguyn trong cu to pha v
A
, v
B
: ha tr ca cc nguyn.
V d: Trong hp kim Cu - Zn
Cc dng cu trc:
24
Ch : Cu to pha in t ch c tc dng tnh ton ch s Ce, t ch ra kiu mng. Bn
thn cc pha in t tn ti trong phm vi thnh phn.
Tnh cht: Pha in t c ht rt nh, cng v bn cao. S lng khng ln, vng
thnh phn khng rng do t dng trong vic ha bn.
3.2.2.2.4. Pha Laves
L hp kim ca nhm cc kim loi chuyn tip m c thnh phn khng i thng c
biu din bng cng thc AB2 (MgCu2, CuZn2 ...).
c im ca pha Laves: rt gin lm gim c tnh ca hp kim, do trong sn xut hp
kim trnh s xut hin ca pha Laves.
Pha Laves c cu trc mng tinh th theo h lp phng v lc gic.
3.2.2.2.5. Pha
L cc pha trung gian c di thnh phn t A
4
BAB
4
.
c im: pha c kiu mng rt phc tp, tnh gin rt cao, vng thnh phn rng do
lm gim c tnh rt mnh ca hp kim, khi la chn hp kim trnh hnh thnh pha .
3.2.3. Hn hp c hc
3.2.3.1. Khi nim
Hn hp c hc l cc t chc ca hp kim c hai pha cng tn ti trong mt th thng
nht, hai pha c to ra cng mt lc v gi nguyn b mt phn pha.
3.2.3.2. Cc loi hn hp c hc
- Hn hp c hc cng tinh: l dng hn hp c hc cng mt lc kt tinh ra hai pha t th
lng.
L [A + B]
T = 2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Phn ng cng tinh xy ra nhit v thnh phn xc nh.
c im ca hn hp c hc cng tinh l c nhit nng chy thp nn c tnh c tt,
nhng li c tnh gin cao dn n kh gia cng p lc.
- Hn hp c hc cng tch: l dng hn hp c hc tit ra cng mt lc th
RA [RB + RC]
T = 0
Phn ng cng tch xy ra nhit v thnh phn xc nh.
c im ca hn hp cng tch l c bn v cng cao thch hp vi vic sn xut
cc sn phm yu cu c tnh tt. Tuy nhin vi cng cao dn n kh gia cng p lc.
3.2.3.3. Thnh phn to nn hn hp c hc
- Hai dung dch rn
- Mt dung dch rn + mt pha trung gian (ph bin nht)
- Hai pha trung gian
3.3. Gin trng thi ca hp kim
3.3.1. Khi nim
Gin trng thi ca hp kim l th xy dng mi quan h gia t chc pha ca hp
kim ph thuc vo nhit .
Cc loi gin trng thi:
- Gin mt nguyn
- Gin hai nguyn
- Gin ba nguyn
- Gin bn nguyn
25
3.3.2. ngha v phng php xy dng gin trng thi
3.3.2.1. ngha
- Dng xc nh t chc ca hp kim theo cc iu kin bn ngoi v bn trong (nhit
v thnh phn).
- Xc nh cc trng thi ti hn ca hp kim tt c cc v tr phc v cho x l nhit
luyn hp kim.
- La chn phng n sn xut hp kim mt cch hp l nht.
3.3.2.2. Phng php xy dng
- H ta ca gin hai nguyn l nhit v thnh phn.
- Thng thng l xy dng bng phng php phn tch nhit: Gi s cn xy dng gin
trng thi ca h hai nguyn A v B ngi ta ch to cc mu hp kim c thnh phn thay
i t 100%A 100%B. Sau nung n trng thi lng hon ton cc mu ri cho kt tinh
vi mt tc kt tinh chm o, nh du cc im chuyn bin v ni cc im cng
tnh cht li thu c gin trng thi.
3.3.3. Mt s loi gin trng thi hai nguyn c bn
3.3.3.1. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng v trng thi rn
Phn ln trng hp hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng, nhng s trng hp
ha tan v hn trng thi rn li rt t, l trng hp ca h: Cu - Ni; Au - Ag; Au - Pt; Fe
- Ni; Au - Ni; Cr - Mo ...
- Dng gin :
- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
m T
B
: l ng lng
T
A
n T
B
: l ng c
26
: dung dch rn thay th ca B trong A hoc A trong B.
im T
A
v T
B
ng vi nhit nng chy ca hai kim loi nguyn cht to nn h hp
kim.
- S kt tinh ca kim loi in hnh: Trn im (1) - hp kim lng.
T im (1) n (2) - lng chuyn sang rn. Di im (2) - kt thc kt tinh .
- ng ngui ca hp kim in hnh: hnh v
Pha trn ng lng l vng tn ti ca dung dch lng, pha di ng c l
vng tn ti ca dung dch rn (), trong khong gia 2 ng lng v c gm c c 2
pha: dung dch rn v dung dch lng, y l vng ng vi s kt tinh hay nng chy ca hp
kim.
- c im ca hp kim:
C tnh do cao do ng nht l mt pha dung dch rn. Lun xy ra s thin tch do t
s dng sn xut c.
* Quy tc n by xc nh thnh phn pha trong hp kim:
Kho st hp kim cha x%B nhit t
0
trng thi ny c biu din bi im Q. Gi
s nhit cho, hp kim bao gm 2 pha M v N, trong pha M c cha x1%B, cn trong
pha N ch cha x2%B. Ta cn tm lng tng i ca 2 pha l m v n trong mt n v ca
hp kim. Ta thy m.x
1
l lng cha ca B trong M; n.x
2
l lng cha ca B trong N nn:
Quy tc ny gip ta tnh c t l pha ca hp kim nu n cu to bi 2 pha.
3.3.3.2. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng, khng ha tan trng thi rn
v c to thnh cng tinh
Trong thc t, cng c gp trng hp hai nguyn ha tan v hn vo nhau trng thi
lng, nhng trng thi rn li hon ton khng ha tan vo nhau, l trng hp ca cc h:
Pb - Sb; Sn - Zn.
- Dng gin :
27
khng ha tan trng thi rn v c to thnh cng tinh
- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
Q T
B
: l ng lng
P Q R: l ng c (ng cng tinh, im Q gi l im cng tinh).
ng lng v ng c phn gin lm 4 khu vc. Khu vc pha trn ng lng l
vng tn ti dung dch lng, khu vc gia ng lng T
A
Q v ng c l vng tn ti ca 2
pha dung dch lng (L) v tinh th A, khu vc gia ng lng T
B
Q v ng c l vng tn
ti ca hai pha dung dch lng (L) v tinh th B, khu vc pha di ng c l vng tn ti
ca hai pha rn A v B.
Do 2 nguyn ha tan v hn vo nhau trng thi lng nn c th to nn dung dch lng,
v hn (L). trng thi rn chng khng ha tan vo nhau to nn dung dch rn m vn nm
trng thi gm cc nguyn nguyn cht A v B. Vy cc pha c th to nn trong gin ny l
dung dch lng, nguyn nguyn cht A v B nn s pha ln nht F = 3.
- Hp kim c thnh phn ng vi im Q c c trng l c nhit nng chy thp, kt
tinh nhit khng i v kt tinh ra ngay hai pha rn mt lc. im Q
c gi l im cng tinh, phn ng cng tinh xy ra nh sau: LQ [A + B] (cng mt
lc kt tinh ra c A v B)
Hp kim bn tri im Q gi l hp kim trc cng tinh, sau im Q gi l hp kim sau
cng tinh.
- ng ngui ca hp kim in hnh: hnh v
- c im ca hp kim.
+ Tnh do km do s xut hin ca cng tinh [A + B].
+ Nhit nng chy ca hp kim gim dn, thp nht ti thnh phn cng tinh nn hay
dng sn xut c.
+ Cng do xut hin cng tinh [A + B] nn phn tn, cng cao dn n kh gia cng
p lc.
* Tam gic Tam man xc nh lng cng tinh:
- Theo quy tc n by:
Xt hp kim I, hp kim ny sau khi kt tinh xong c t chc A + [A + B] trong
tinh th A biu din im C v cng tinh [A + B] biu din ti im E. Do vy:
28
- Theo cch tnh t tam gic Tamman:
Ngoi ra, trong hnh v trn, nu coi EF l 100% lng cng tinh th cc on thng vung
gc vi CD v nm trong cc tam gic CEF v DEF s ch r lng cng tinh ca cc hp kim
tng ng (hnh a). Tng t, cng c th xc nh lng pha A (hnh b) v pha B (hnh c).
3.3.3.3. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng, ha tan c hn trng thi
rn v c to thnh cng tinh
- Gin trng thi:
- Cc ng trn gin :
TA Q TB: l ng lng
29
TA P Q R TB: l ng c
P Q R: ng cng tinh
Q: im cng tinh
PE: ng gii hn ho tan ca B trong A theo nhit RF: ng gii hn ho tan ca A
trong B theo nhit : dung dch rn xen k ca B trong A
: dung dch rn xen k ca A trong B
II, II: vn l , nhng c tit ra trng thi rn
[ + ]: hn hp c hc cng tinh ca A v B
- ng ngui ca hp kim in hnh: hnh v
- c im ca hp kim: c hai vng
+ Dung dch rn
+ C hn hp c hc cng tinh
Tu theo thnh phn hp kim ngi ta c th la chn cc phng php gia cng khc
nhau:
+ Cc hp kim c %B<%P v > %R: y l hp kim do, c th gia cng p lc.
+ Cc hp kim c % B thuc khong [ P, R ]: y l hp kim c, tnh cht ph thuc vo
lng v .
3.3.3.4. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng v to thnh bao tinh
- Dng gin :
- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
M T
B
: l ng lng
T
A
N P T
B
: l ng c
M N P: ng bao tinh, xy ra phn ng bao tinh
LM + P N
3.3.3.5. Mt s dng gin c bit
- Loi to cng tch
30
Phn ng cng tch :

[p + K] gi l hn hp c hc cng tch
V d: Gin trng thi Fe + C (s nghin cu phn sau)
- Loi to thnh hp cht ha hc n nh
Cc hp cht ha hc to thnh lun n nh v thnh phn ha hc.
V d: Gin trng thi Mg - Ca
31
CHNG 4
BIN DNG DO V C TNH CA KIM LOI
a s cc vt phm kim loi c ch to bng cch gia cng bin dng. Trong cc nh
my luyn kim sau khi nu chy v c kim loi thnh nhng thi ln, ngi ta em cn thnh
nhng bn thnh phm khc nhau: dng thi, tm hnh vv... cc nh my c kh ch to, cc
chi tit c gia cng bng rn, rp, tin, phay bo ...
Trong tt c cc phng php gia cng , kim loi b bin dng do nhn c hnh
dng cn thit. Khi cn, rn, rp, qu trnh bin dng kim loi xy ra trong ton b hoc hu ht
th tch kim loi, cn khi tin phay, bo....ch xy ra trn mt phn th tch (thng thng l lp
b mt) vi kt qu cui cng ca bin dng l s tch phai. Mc ch ca chng ny l
nghin cu bn cht ca qu trnh bin dng m ch yu l bin dng do c nu khi qut v
bin dng n hi v s ph hu, ng thi nghin cu nhng thay i v t chc v tnh cht
do bin dng do gy ra, nh hng ca nhit n trng thi sau bin dng.
4.1. Cc khi nim
4.1.1. Bin dng n hi, bin dng do v ph hy
4.1.1.1. Biu ko kim loi
Kho st qu trnh bin dng ca mu, ta c th rt ra 3 yu t bin dng sau
y: Bin dng n hi l bin dng b mt i ngay sau khi kh ti trng, bin dng do c
km theo s thay i hnh dng sau khi kh ti trng v s ph hy lm cho mu tch ri thnh
nhng phn ring l. Tng ng vi 3 yu t l 3 giai on ca bin dng.
+ Bin dng n hi (on OA)
+ Bin dng do - ng cong AB
+ Bin cng - ng cong BC
+ Giai on ph hy - ng cong CD
Bin dng n hi khng nhng xy ra trong giai on n hi m ngay c trong giai on
bin dng do v ph hy. Chnh v vy, bin dng ca 2 giai on ny gm 2 phn: n hi
v do nn L = lh + ld
V d: Ti im K mun tm 2 thnh phn ny, ta phi k KN//OA; KM// trc tung. Khi
ON l ld on NM l lh
4.1.1.2. Bn cht ca bin dng n hi. nh lut Hooke
32
+ Bin dng n hi l bin dng m b mt i sau khi kh ti trng. Bin dng
n hi tun theo nh lut Hooke tc l ng sut tc dng ln kim loi gy ra bin
dng t l thun vi sut : = E.
E: gi l muyn n hi php tuyn ca vt liu (MN/mm2; Mpa) Vi trng thi ng sut
tip th: = G.
gc lch ca tinh th khi chu ng sut
G: muyn trt ca vt liu (MN/mm2; Mpa)
+ Muyn n hi php tuyn E v muyn trt G l 2 c tnh quan trng ca bin dng
n hi. Gia chng c quan h sau: E = 2G(1 + )
: l h s poisson ty thuc vo tng loi kim loi thng thng 1/3
T cc biu thc trn, ta thy nh lut Hooke ch ng trong giai on bin dng n hi.
+ Cc yu t nh hng n muyn n hi, nhit , nguyn t hp kim v t chc ca
vt liu.
4.1.1.3. Bin dng do
c trng ca bin dng do l bin dng sau khi b ti trng m vn tn ti mt lng
bin dng d lm mu b thay i v hnh dng v kch thc.
ngha: Lm thay i hnh dng, kch thc m kim loi khng b ph hy cho php gia
cng cc sn phm c hnh dng xc nh, lm c s l thuyt gia cng kim loi bng p lc.
4.1.2. Bin dng do n tinh th
4.1.2.1. Dng ng sut gy bin dng do
Xt ng sut trn mt tinh th:
* Khi ng sut l ng sut php ()
Nu tc dng ln tinh th ng sut php thun ty (ko theo nn) th khong cch nguyn
t theo chiu trc giao vi mt tinh th s tng hoc gim. Nu ng sut b th s thay i
khong cch nguyn t cng b v khi kh ng sut, lc ht hoc y s a nguyn t v v
tr c, tc l bin dng s mt i. Nu ng sut php ln lm cho s thay i khong cch
nguyn t vt qu gi tr cho php th s xy ra qu trnh ph hy. Nh vy, ng sut php
khng lm cho tinh th bin dng do m ch c bin dng n hi v sau ph hy dn, tc
ph hy khng km theo bin dng do.
* Khi ng sut l ng sut tip ()
33
Khi ng sut tip c tr s nh, cc lp nguyn t b x dch n hi mt gc
(hnh b) v khi kh ng sut, cc nguyn t tr li v tr c, do tinh th tr li vi kch
thc v hnh dng ban u. Khi ng sut ln, ngoi s x dch n hi c th xy ra hin
tng trt (hnh c) phn trn ca tinh th trt khi phn di mt on bng mt khong
cch nguyn t. Mt phng ni xy ra trt gi l mt trt. Khi trt, nguyn t ph v mi
lin kt vi nguyn t c xong li ti mi lin kt mi vi nguyn t mi nn mi lin kt gia
cc nguyn t khng b ph hy. Kch thc v hnh dng ca tinh th thay i m khng b
ph hy v nh vy xy ra bin dng do. Vy, ch c ng sut tip mi gy ra bin dng
do.
4.1.2.2. bn l thuyt v thc t ca kim loi
* bn l thuyt
xc nh bn ca kim loi cn nghin cu v tnh ton thng qua c ch trt.
to ra s x dch d th lp nguyn t trn phi trt tng ng vi lp nguyn t di mt
on t nht l bng 1 thng s mng.
V lc cc nguyn t chim cc v tr cn bng mi, trng vi cc nt mng ca tinh
th.
Gi x l x dch ca mi nguyn t v cng l x dch chung ca ton lp nguyn t.
Ti v tr trung gian x=b/2, th lc tc dng ln nguyn t A bng 0 v lc ht c cn bng t
2 pha. Khi x dch x > b/2 th n chu tc dng lc ht t nguyn t C nn lc tc dng ln
34
nguyn t khi trt c tnh l:
F: l lc trt cn thit m mi nguyn t phi thng dch chuyn vi x dch x. Mt
khc, theo nh lut Hooke ta c:
k: gi l bin ca lc, n l lc ln nht cn tc dng ln mt trt to ra s trt.
Do , bn l thuyt ca tinh th kim loi l
* bn thc t
bn thc t nh hn gi tr bn l thuyt t (10
3
10
4
) ln. S khc nhau ny ch
c th gii thch c khi xut hin l thuyt lch theo , cu trc mng tinh th thc t l
khng hon chnh v c cha nhiu lnh.
Ti trung tm lch n nh km do tng nng lng t do chnh v vy, ch
cn tc ng nh th n lm thay i trng thi v v tr. Khi , gi tr ng sut gy ra
chuyn ng ca lch gn bng vi ng sut thc t v c tnh theo cng thc
Peiers- Nabbaro
a: khong cch gia cc mt nguyn t song song vi mt trt
b: khong cch gia cc nguyn t theo hng trt

35
Tm li, trong tinh th c cu to hon chnh l tng, trt xy ra bng cch cc nguyn
t trn mt trt x dch cng mt lc trn mt khong cch nguyn t do cn phi c lc
tc dng rt ln. Trong tinh th thc t, trt xy ra bng chuyn ng ca lch, cc nguyn t
trn mt trt x dch khng cng lc nn ch cn lc tc dng tng i nh.
* Ngun to lch Frank - Read
Theo m hnh, bin dng mt lch to ra mt bc c tr s l mt thng s mng
b . Trong tinh th nu c n lch s to ra mt bc c tr s l n. .
Thc t, mc bin dng to ra c tr s ln hn n. rt nhiu. Gi thuyt trong qu
trnh bin dng do cc lch mi sinh ra. Ngun pht sinh lch trong khi bin dng c gi l
ngun Frank - Read vi nguyn l hot ng nh sau:
Gi s c mt on ng lch AB b kp cht. l nhng nt gp nhau ca cc ng
lch trn nhng mt trt khc nhau, nhng nguyn t tp cht hay cc nguyn nhn khc.
Di tc dng ca ng sut tip , ng lch phi chuyn ng trn mt trt nhng do A, B
b kp cht nn ng lch AB b cong dn. ng sut cn thit ng lch c bn knh cong
cc tiu gi l ng sut ti hn.
b: ln vct bragg
l: l khong cch gia hai im AB
4.1.3. Cc c ch bin dng do
4.1.3.1. Trt
L c ch bin dng do m trong qu trnh bin dng mt phn tinh th trt tng i
so vi mt mt c nh gi l mt trt. Trong mt trt theo cc phng xc nh gi l
phng trt.
+ Mt trt l mt c mt mt st cht Ms ln nht.
+ Phng trt l phng c s nguyn t ln nht
36
+ H trt l tch s gia mt trt v phng trt. Kiu mng no c h trt ln th
kh nng bin dng cng cao.
V d: Vi mng A1K12
Mt trt (111) c 6 mt
Phng trt (110) c 2 phng nn c 12 h trt
Vi mng A2K8:
Mt trt (111) c 4 mt
Phng trt (111) c 3 phng nn c 12 h trt
C 2 mng A1K12 v A2K8 cng c 12 h trt xong mng A1K12 d bin dng do hn
do c s mt trt ln hn
Vi mng A3L12:
Mt trt (0001) c 1 mt
Phng trt (2110) c 3 phng nn c 3 h trt v vy mng A3L12 rt kh bin dng
do
4.1.3.2. i tinh
i tinh l qu trnh bin dng do m cc phn tinh th dch chuyn i xng nhau qua
mt mt phng c nh gi l mt i tinh (song tinh)
c im ca i tinh
+ Ging nh trt, i tinh cng xy ra theo nhng mt v phng xc nh.
+ Khi bin dng, qu trnh i tinh bt u khi ng sut vt qu tr s nht
+ i tinh xy ra t ngt tr khng phi t t vi tc xc nh nh qu trnh trt. V
vy, n c kh nng tin hnh d dng trong iu kin ti trng nhanh.
+ V s chuyn dch ca nguyn t trn mi mt phng xy ra ch mt ln trn khong
cch ngn nn bin dng d to ra khi i tinh c tr s rt, b nn nhng tinh th khi bin
dng do bng i tinh th qu trnh ph hy l ph hy dn.
+ i tinh xy ra th c tc dng lm cho qu trnh trt cng xy ra d dng hn.
4.1.3.3. Vai tr ca mt trt v phng trt trong bin dng do
37
Coi = 0 ta thy nu = 0 v = 90
0
th cho d lc P c ln n u cng khng xy ra
trt v tr thun li nht ca mt trt (

)max l = 45
0
Khi :
max
=(1/2)
0
4.1.4. S thay i t chc v cu trc tinh th sau bin dng do, cc phng php
nng cao bn vt liu
4.1.4.1. S thay i t chc v cu trc ca tinh th
+ Xut hin cc ng trt, di trt hoc ng i tinh, di song tinh. Ta bit rng,
mt lch i ra mt ngoi to ra mt bc c ln . Tp hp cc im i ra mt ngoi ca
lch to thnh ng trt. Tp hp cc ng trt gi l di trt.
+ To thnh cc t chc ht nh v c tnh nh hng
38
+ To thnh th lm tng tnh d hng ca vt liu
+ Nng cao mt lch v khuyt tt trong tinh th
+ S to thnh Textua bin dng l t chc sau bin dng khng ng vi gc ca mt
trt do b hn ch phng trt hay cn gi l hin tng quay mt trt.
+ To thnh ng sut d sau bin dng do nn to ra cc trung tm ng sut d do tng
mt khuch tn.
+ To ra ng sut d th i tn ti trong ton b th tch sau khi bin dng
+ To ra ng sut d t vi tn ti trong ni b mt ht tinh th do to nn trung tm gy
ra cc vt nt u tin lm ph hy kim loi v vy sau bin dng do phi kh ng sut d.
+ Lm thay i c tnh ca kim loi m in hnh lm tng cng, gii hn
n hi, gii hn chy v gii hn bn. Lm gim do, dai, va p
+ Bin dng do lm tng mc sai lch mng lm tng ng sut d v ht nh v vy
lm gim tnh dn in, tnh dn nhit.
4.1.4.2. Cc phng php nng cao bn vt liu
* Nu kim loi c cu to mng hon ton l tng:
Trong kim loi m cu to mng l l tng tc l khng cha lch th n c bn rt
cao tng ng vi bn l thuyt. l do trong cc si n tinh th vi kch thc nh, s
lng sai lch mng l v cng nh b, do c ch bin dng gn ging vi c ch i vi
tinh th hon chnh. Tinh th si c ng knh cng nh th s lng sai lch mng cng t v
bn cng cao. Nh vy, vic ch to cc tinh th kim loi si l mt phng hng nng cao
bn ca vt liu.
* Nu kim loi c cu to mng thc t:
Do s c mt ca sai lch mng nn chng c bn thp v bin dng do gy ra ch yu
l do chuyn ng ca lch. Mun c bn cao th cn c bin php cn tr chuyn ng ca
lch tc l to ra cc yu t hm lch.
+ Tng mt lch v phn b u trong th tch. Mt lch cng ln, khong cch gia
chng cng nh, tng tc gia chng cng mnh.
+ Tng cng tc dng hm lch ca bin gii ht v bin gii siu ht bng cch to ra
kim loi c ht nh v kch thc ht siu b.
39
+ To ra pha th 2 c bn cao hn di dng nhng ht nh phn tn.
+ To ra sai lch mng bng cch chuyn bin pha
4.1.5. Cc yu t hm lch trong tinh th
Khi lch chuyn ng trn mt trt, chng c th gp nhng chng ngi khc nhau lm
cho tc chm li hoc ng hn li, khng chuyn ng c na.
Nghin cu cc yu t cn tr chuyn ng ca lch l vn rt cn thit v rng s hm
lch c lin quan trc tip n c tnh ca kim loi, m trc ht l bn. Lch c th b hm
do nhng lch khc do nhng dng khuyt tt khc nhau trong tinh th, cc nguyn t tp cht
v nguyn t hp kim vv... chng ta s kho st ni dung ch yu ca qu trnh hm lch do cc
yu t k trn.Khi nim: Khi kh nng linh ng ca lch gim dn n kh nng bin dng
km lm gii hn chy ca vt liu tng. tng bn ca vt liu ta cn tng cc yu t cn tr
chuyn ng ca lch.
4.1.5.1. Tng tc gia cc lch
Trong mt th tch vt liu khi tn ti nhiu lch th cc trc lch ct nhau. Do hng
chuyn ng ca cc lch khc nhau nn chuyn ng ca mt lch phi ko theo chuyn ng
ca lch khc c tng tc vi n nn lm gim tnh linh ng ca lch (gi l chng ngi
Lommer - Cottrell)
Chng ngi Lommer - Cottrell l chng ngi ch yu v tc dng rt mnh.
c bit l khi to thnh rng lnh v li lnh (c trng bi h s bin i in tr theo
nhit )
4.1.5.2. Cc nguyn t tp cht
Trong bt k tinh th no cng lun tn ti cc nguyn t tp cht. Cc nguyn t tp cht
c xu hng tp trung v trung tm lch dc theo trc lch nn chng to thnh cc chui gn
ng lch c gi l kh quyn Cottrell. S c mt ca kh quyn Cottrell c tc dng hm
lch v rng lch mun chuyn ng th phi ko theo kh quyn m tc chuyn ng ca
lch ln cn nguyn t tp cht chuyn ng vi tc b. Lch c bao bc bi kh quyn
cottrell (nn ch c th chuyn ng trong cc trng hp sau).
+ Nu tc trt rt b m nhit cao lm cho kh nng khuch tn ca nguyn t tp
cht v ca lch gn bng nhau nn lch chuyn ng s ko theo kh quyn ca cc nguyn t
tp cht.
+ Nu ng sut tc dng ln c kh nng tch nguyn t tp cht ra khi trng ht ca
lch th lch c th c gii phng.
Nhc im: Ha bn khng mnh, c th to cc t chc khc theo yu cu nn khng
dng ha bn vt liu.
4.1.5.3. Bin gii ht v bin gii siu ht
Bin gii ht v siu ht l vng sp xp nguyn t khng c trt t, khng c mt trt v
phng trt xc nh nn s trt kh pht trin.
Khi lch chuyn ng qua bin gii ht th mt phn nng lng b mt i do lm gim
linh ng ca lch. V vy, ht cng nh th bin gii ht cng nhiu lm cho lch cng kh
chuyn ng.
4.1.5.4. Pha th hai phn tn
Trong t chc hp kim thng c s xut hin ca cc pha th hai l cc loi pha trung
gian di dng nhng ht nh phn tn. Chng cng c coi l yu t cn tr chuyn ng
ca lch kh hiu qu.
40
+ Nu khong cch gia cc ht nh lch c th i xuyn qua cc ht bng cch ct chng
theo mt trt. Kh nng ct ph thuc vo
B
muyn n hi ca pha th 2 nn thng xy
ra vi cc pha mm.
+ Nu khong cch gia cc ht ln di tc dng ca ng sut tip ln hn tr s ti
hn
th ng lch b un cong. Khi vt qua cc ht, lch b un cong li nhng vng lch
bao xung quanh chng lm cn tr chuyn ng ca cc lch tip theo sau
C hai trng hp trn, lch mun vt qua cc ht phn tn u phi tn nng lng. Nu
ng sut tc dng khng tng th lch c th b hm v mun tip tc chuyn ng th phi tng
ng sut. chnh l mt trong nhng yu t ha bn c hiu qu.
4.1.6. c im bin dng do a tinh th
a tinh th bao gm v s n tinh th c nh v phng mng khc nhau khi chu ti
trng s lng cc ht c nh v phng mng ph hp vi iu kin bin dng theo cc
phng l nh nhau nn a tinh th ng hng v tnh bin dng.
Vng bin gii ht l cc vng sai sp xp c mt khuyt tt ln nn lm cn tr
chuyn ng ca lch chnh v vy a tinh th kh bin dng do hn so vi n tinh th.
Khi chu ti trng theo mt phng no th c nhng ht thun li, cho bin dng
nhiu, c nhng ht thun li cho bin dng t, c nhng ht khng c kh nng bin dng.
trnh ph hy, cc ht khng thun li cho vic bin dng phi c s quay mt trt. Quan h
gia bn v kch thc ht thng c biu din bng cng thc Hall - Petch.

s
=
0
+ k.d
-1/2

s
: gii hn chy ca a tinh th

0
: hng s, ni ln kh nng chng trt ca trng thi t chc v cu trc ban u ca
tinh th
k: hng s, ph thuc vo kh nng hm lch ca tinh gii
d: kch thc trung bnh ca ht
4.1.7. Nung kim loi sau bin dng do
4.1.7.1. Mc ch
41
Kim loi sau bin dng do c mt khuyt tt tng, ng sut d xut hin lm nng
lng t do tng ln. V vy, kim loi sau khi bin dng do lun c xu hng tr v trng thi
n nh vi nng lng b. Mun tr v trng thi n nh ny cn phi cung cp nng lng
cho h bng cch nung tr li kim loi qua bin dng do.
4.1.7.2. Cc giai on xy ra khi nung kim loi qua bin dng do
* Giai on hi phc: l qu trnh nung kim loi qua bin dng do vt qua mt nhit
xc nh ty thuc vo bn cht kim loi gi l nhit hi phc, T
0
hp
=0,2T
0
nng chy.
Cc hin tng xy ra trong giai on hi phc l:
- Gim ng sut d
y l mt trong nhng thay i quan trng. S tng cng tnh di ng ca nguyn t
khi nung lm cho chng c kh nng quay v v tr cn bng, khc phc nhng sai lch b
phn. Do nng lng cp nh nn di cc nguyn t x nh hn thng s mng a nn lm
cho ng sut d c phn b li trong ni b mt ht.
- Qu trnh a canh ha: l s tp trung cc lch v nhng v tr thng hng trn cc mt
tinh th khc nhau. S tng cng tnh di ng ca nguyn t khi nung lm cho cc lch
chuyn ng hoc dc theo mt trt hoc theo chiu trc giao vi mt trt. Nu 2 lch khc
du chuyn ng ngc chiu trong cng mt mt phng trt chng s trit tiu nhau. Nhng
lch cng du khi chuyn ng trn nhng mt trt song song, do trng ng sut n hi ca
chnh bn thn, chng sp xp thnh tng dy theo chiu trc giao vi mt trt.
- S thay i tnh cht
Trong giai on phc hi, mt s tnh cht ca kim loi cng thay i c th l lm tng
dn in, c tnh thay i khng ng k, lm gim bn, cng mt t.
* Kt tinh li: l qu trnh nung kim loi qua bin dng do vt qua mt nhit xc
nh gi l nhit kt tinh li.
T
0
kt tinh li = (0,3 0,4) T
0
nng chy
Cc hin tng xy ra ca qu trnh ny:
- S to mm kt tinh li l qu trnh to ra nhng ht tinh th mi m nhng ht ny c
pht trin t nhng trung tm ban u gi l mm. Thc nghim cho thy, s to mm c cc
c im sau y.
+ Mm c to ra trc tin nhng vng c mc sai lch mng ln nh vng tinh
gii, vng mt trt.
+ Mc bin dng cng ln mm c to ra cng nhiu
S to mm lm gim nng lng ca h nn kh c ng sut d k c ng sut d th
i. Bn cnh , n lm cho bn, cng gim ng thi do dai tng ln. S to mm
trng thi rn nn c t chc ht nh. S ln ln ca mm bng cch st nhp cc ht nh vo
ht ln v to s n nh v nng lng.
- Nhit kt tinh li
l t
0
nung ti thiu m y qu trnh kt tinh li (to mm v ln ln ca mm) xy ra
vi tc ng k. Kt tinh li c lin quan vi s dch chuyn cc nguyn t trn nhng
khong cch ln do lin quan n kh nng t khuch tn. Nh vy nhit kt tinh li ph
thuc vo bn cht kim loi, mc bin dng, thi gian gi nhit v tp cht.
* S thay i tnh cht sau kt tinh li
Trong giai on kt tinh li ng sut d, in tr sut v nng lng t do tip tc gim.
Xu hng chung l cc t chc tr v trng thi ban u khi cha bin dng.
42
S thay i quan trng nht v tnh cht do kt tinh li l c tnh. Nu bin dng do lm
tng bn, cng, gim do th kt tinh li kh b nhng nh hng tc lm gim ,
cng v tng do. Hay ni khc i kt tinh li c tc dng "thi bn" ngc vi tc dng
ha bn ca bin dng do.
- Khi nim v gia cng nng v gia cng ngui
Gia cng ngui l hnh thc bin dng c km theo s ha bn v phi tin hnh nhit
thp hn nhit kt tinh li.
Gia cng nng l hnh thc gia cng nhit cao hn nhit kt tinh li v c km
theo s thi bn.
Nhn chung, gia cng nng c s dng rng ri v c nhng u im chnh sau:
+ t c kh nng nt hng khi bin dng, nht l khi rn, rp, cn v khi bin dng nng
kim loi hoc t khng b ha bn. Thm vo lch d chuyn ng hn, trt d hn, li c
thm nhng mt trt mi vv... tc tng mnh kh nng bin dng do ca kim loi m khng
sinh ra vt nt.
+ Khi gia cng nng, kim loi c kh nng bin dng ln nn vi lc tc dng tng i
b cng c th gy nn bin dng cao. iu ny cho php gim cng sut my hoc cng
cng sut nh nhau, gia cng c nhng khi kim loi hoc chi tit ln hn. l u im
quan trng cho php ch to c nhng chi tit ln nh rn trc khuu, trc tucbin nng
hng chc hoc hng trm.
+ Nu bin dng nng tin hnh nhit cao v vi tc tng i chm th khng
cn phi nung (tc ) trung gian gia cc ln bin dng, iu thng phi lm khi bin dng
ngui. V d khi cn ngui, sau mi ln cn kim loi b ha bn nn mun cn tip tc phi tin
hnh trung gian. Cn nu cn nng, c th cn i cn li nhiu ln, khng cn phi nung.
+ C kh nng iu chnh ht. T chc ht c to thnh khi bin dng nng l kt
qu ca hai qu trnh bin dng do v kt tinh li, ph thuc vo cc yu t nh trnh by
trn. Mun nhn c ht nh, phi ch cc im sau:
- Da vo gin kt tinh li chn mc bin dng nhn c ht nh. Khng nn
bin dng vi mc thp v ht ln.
- Bin dng phi tin hnh lin tc v nhit qu trnh ln ln ca ht xy ra rt nhanh,
nu ngng lu trong mt thi gian no th ht kp ln ln v ht ln.
- Nhit kt thc bin dng ch nn chn cao hn mt t so vi nhit kt tinh li v
nhit cng thp, ht cng nh. Tuy nhin i vi nhng kim loi km do, nhit kt
thc bin dng phi chn th no kim loi khng b nt v.
Song gia cng nng cng c nhng nhc sau:
+ Kh khng ch nhit trong phm vi cho php, nht l i vi cc vt phm c kch
thc b nh l mng, si v.v... Mun khng ch nhit phi c thit b o v iu chnh
chnh xc, nh vy gi thnh s cao. Cng v th, i vi mi kim loi ngi ta ra mt kch
thc ti hn, nu vt phm dy hn - nn bin dng nng, mng hn - bin dng ngui.
+ T chc v tnh cht t ng nht hn so vi bin dng ngui nht l i vi kim loi c
chuyn bin th hnh v kch thc ln.
Mt loi khuyt tt b mt quan trng khi bin dng nng l lp oxyt trn b mt chi tit
i hi phi c nhng bin php kh b tip theo sau nh gia cng ct gt, nh bng v.v....
+ Nhc im na ca gia cng nng l khng ch kch thc v hnh dng vt phm v
th tch kim loi nng ln hn, kh tnh ton lng d chnh xc, nht l trong trng hp kim
loi b oxy ha. Thm vo khi lm ngui do ng sut nhit, hnh dng kch thc c th thay
i.
43
4.2. Cc c trng c tnh ca vt liu
4.2.1. bn tnh v do
4.2.1.1. Nhm c trng cho bn
- Gii hn n hi
h
[KG/mm
2
]: l ng sut tc dng ln nht m khi ngng tc dng ti
trng th vt liu khng b bin dng hoc bin dng do rt b.

Trong :
P
h
: l lc sinh ra ln nht vt liu khng b bin dng do [KG]
F: l tit din ban u [mm
2
].
- Gii hn chy
ch
,
0,2
[KG/mm
2
; MN/m
2
; MPa]: l gi tr ng sut m khi ng sut gy
ra do ti trng tc ng vt qa n th vt liu bt u bin dng do.
P
ch
: l ti trng tc ng ti thi im chy [KG]
F: l tit din ban u [mm2].
- Gii hn bn
B
[KG / mm
2
, MN/m
2
, MPa): l gi tr ng sut ln nht m khi ng sut
gy ra do tc ng ca ti trng vt qua n th vt liu b ph hy.
P: l ti trng tc ng ti thi im ph hy [KG] F: l tit din ca mu th [mm2].
4.2.1.2. Nhm c trng cho do
- gin di tng i ca vt liu (%):
l: chiu di ca mu sau khi ko l0: chiu di ban u ca mu
gin di tng i c trng cho tnh do ca vt liu.
- tht t i (%):
F
0
: l tit din ban u ca mu
F: l tit din mu ti v tr b ko t
4.2.2. Ch tiu c tnh di tc dng ca ti trng tnh m khng ph hy mu
cng l kh nng chng li bin dng do ca vt liu khi chu tc ng ca ti trng
thng qua mt vt cng tc ng ln vt liu.
4.2.2.1. cng Brinell (HB)
+ Ti trng tiu chun: P = 3000KG
+ Mi m: vin bi bng thp c ti cng, ng knh tiu chun ca vin bi d =
10mm
HB P (KG/mm
2
) F
F: din tch vt lm do vin bi gy ra trn b mt vt liu th
+) Phm vi ng dng vt liu mm (thp sau , hp kim ng, nhm)
4.2.2.2. cng Rocoel (HR)
44
C 3 thang A, B, C l HRA, HRB, HRC
* cng HRA
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 60KG
+ Mi m: kim cng hoc hp kim cng hnh thp c gc nh 120
0
HRA = a - bh
a, b: l hng s thc nghim
HRA: l i lng khng th nguyn
+ Phm vi p dng: o cc vt liu rt cng (nh thp thm C, N)
* cng HRB
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 100KG
+ Mi m: vin bi c ng knh d = 1/16 inch
+ Phm vi p dng: o tng t nh HB nhng p dng cho tm mng
* cng HRC
+ Ti trng: P = 150KG
+ Mi m: Kim cng, hp kim cng hnh thp c gc nh 120
0
+ Phm vi p dng: Dng o vt liu c cng cao nh thp sau khi ti
4.2.2.3. cng Vicken (HV)
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 2 50 (KG)
+ Mi m c dng hnh chp c gc nh l 1360
+ Phm vi p dng: o vt liu c cng cao nhng mng

F: din tch vt lm (mm2)
4.2.2.4. cng t vi (H)
+ Ti trng: P = 1 500 (g)
+ Mi m: Kim cng hoc hp kim cng c gc nh l 120
0

o cng ny v quan st c din tch vt lm phi i km vi knh hin vi
+ Phm vi p dng: p dng o cng ca cc pha khc nhau trong t chc ca vt
liu.
4.2.3. Ch tiu c tnh di tc dng ca ti trng ng
Ti trng ng l ti trng tc ng ln vt liu di dng cc xung lc hay va p.
Ch tiu c trng: dai va p a
k
(KG.m/cm
2
; kJ/cm
2
)
dai va p l cng tiu ph ph hy mu c vt kha chia cho din tch ca tit din
ngang ch c vt kha.
4.2.4. bn ca vt liu di tc dng ca ti trng chu k (gii hn bn mi)
45
Ph hy mi l dng ph hy xy ra khi kim loi chu ti tc dng ca ti trng thay i
theo chu k theo mt quy lut bt k no . Hin tng mi ca vt liu m hu qu ca n l
ph hy mi c ht sc ch khi thit k cc chi tit my. Ph hy mi c cc c im sau:
+ Kh nng ph hy mi khng ph thuc vo thi gian m thng qua s lng chu k t
ti trng.
+ Nu ng sut thc t b hn mt gi tr xc nh th ph hy mi khng bao gi xy ra
d s lng chu k l rt ln. Gi tr ng sut ny gi l gii hn mi -1; -r (kG/mm
2
)
Cch xc nh gii hn mi bng cch xy dng ng cong mi
Nh vy, gii hn bn mi l gi tr ng sut m khi s chu k ti trng ln hn 10
7
mu
mi b ph hy.
+ Gii hn mi ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt liu v h s bt i xng ti trng c
trng cho chu k

+ Ph hy mi thng "nhy cm" vi yu t gy ra s tp trung ng sut
46
CHNG 5.
GIN TRNG THI ST - CCBON
Trong phn ny nghin cu v gin trng thi st - ccbon, cc khi nim c bn v
gang - thp, cc phng php nhit luyn, ha - nhit luyn, c - nhit luyn v s lc v cc
thit b nhit luyn. Do vy cn hiu c cc chuyn bin khi nung nng v lm ngui thng
qua gin trng thi Fe - C v cc gin c lin quan, bn cht ca cc t chc to thnh,
mi quan h gia cc t chc.
C s nghin cu gang - thp v tm hiu cc tnh cht ca n l gin trng thi Fe -
C. nghin cu gin trng thi Fe - C trc ht phi kho st cc c tnh ca cc nguyn
thnh phn.
5.1. Cc bon v st
5.1.1. Cc bon
Cc bon l nguyn t kim thuc nhm IV trong bng h thng tun hon v c th hai
dng th hnh: Grapht v kim cng. Trong iu kin bnh thng Grapht l dng th hnh n
nh cn kim cng khng n nh. Trong hp kim Fe - C, cc bon nguyn cht ch c th tn
ti dng Grapht - n c mng lc gic v rt mm.
5.1.2. St
St l nguyn t hp kim thuc nhm VII trong bng h thng tun hon, n thuc nhm
kim loi chuyn tip. Cng ging nh cc nguyn t khc n khng th tn ti dng tuyt i
tinh khit m thng tn ti di dng hp cht. St c cc tnh cht sau:
5.1.2.1. C tnh
- Gii hn bn ko
b
: 250 N/mm2
- Gii hn chy
0,2
: 120 N/mm2
- gin di tng i : 50 %
- tht t i : 85 %
- cng HB : 80 kG/mm2
- dai va p a
k
: 3000 kJ/m2
Nh vy so vi nhiu kim loi thng dng nh nhm, ng, st c bn, cng cao
hn hn, nhng vn cn thp so vi yu cu ca ch to c kh. l nguyn nhn ngi ta
hu nh khng dng st nguyn cht trong ch to c kh, m dng hp kim ca n v c c
tnh cao hn r rt.
5.1.2.2. Tnh th hnh
- Mng lp phng th tm tn ti hai khong nhit : Di 911
0
C c gi l Fe() v
t (1392 1539)
0
C c gi l Fe().
- Mng lp phng din tm tn ti khong (911 1392)0C c gi l Fe(). Do
mng lp phng din tm c mt mng Mv ln hn mng lp phng th tm nn khi nung
nng qu 910
0
C c chuyn bin th hnh t Fe() sang Fe().
47
5.2. Gin trng thi Fe - C
5.2.1. Gin trng thi
Theo l thuyt, gin trng thi Fe - C phi c xy dng t 100% Fe n 100%C
song do khng dng cc hp kim Fe - C vi lng cc bon nhiu hn 5% nn ta ch xy dng
gin n 6,67% cc bon tc l ng vi hp cht ha hc Fe
3
C. Trong thc t, Fe vi C tn
ti 3 dng hp cht l FeC, Fe
2
C, Fe
3
C song xmentt (Fe
3
C) n nh v thnh phn ha hc
mi nhit nh hn nhit nng chy nn dng Fe
3
C lm cu t.
Bng 5.1. Bng ta cc im
im %C Nhit im %C Nhit
A 0 1539 E 2,14 1147
H 0,1 1499 C 4,3 1147
J 0,16 1499 F 6,67 1147
B 0,51 1499 R 0,02 727
N 0 1392 S 0,8 727
D 6,67 1600 K 6,67 727
G 0 910 Q 0,006 0
5.2.2. Cc t chc ca hp kim Fe - C
Trn gin , ng ABCD l ng lng
ng AHJECF l ng c
5.2.2.1. Cc t chc mt pha
- Hp kim lng (L): l dung dch lng ca ccbon trong st, tn ti pha trn ng lng
ABCD.
- Xementit (k hiu l Xe hay Fe
3
C): l hp cht ha hc ca st vi cc bon - Fe
3
C, ng
vi ng thng ng DFK.
- Xementit th nht (XeI): l loi kt tinh t hp kim lng, n c to thnh trong cc
hp kim cha nhiu hn 4,3% v trong khong nhit (1147 1600)
0
C. Do to nn t pha
lng v nhit cao nn XeI c t chc ht to.
- Xementit th hai (XeII): l loi c tit ra t dung dch rn Auxtenit trong khong
nhit (727 1147)
0
C khi ha tan ca cacbon trong pha ny gim t 2,14% xung cn
0,8% do vy XeII c trong hp kim vi thnh phn cc bon ln hn 0,8%. Do to t pha rn v
48
nhit khng cao lm nn XeII c t chc ht nh hn, do c tit ra t Auxtenit nn
thng dng li bao quanh Auxtenit.
- Xemetit th ba (XeIII): l loi c tit ra t dung dch rn Ferit trong khong nhit
thp hn 7270C khi ha tan gii hn ca ccbon trong Ferit gim t 0,02% xung 0,006%.
XeIII c trong mi hp kim c thnh phn C ln hn 0,006% nhng vi lng rt t. Do to
nn t pha rn v nhit thp, kh nng khuch tn ca nguyn t rt km nn XeIII thng
dng mng li hay ht rt nh bn cnh Ferit.
Cc dng Xementit khng khc nhau v bn cht pha, ch khc nhau v kch thc ht v
s phn b do iu kin to thnh khc nhau.
- Ferit (k hiu l F hay ): l dung dch rn xen k ca cacbon trong Fe(), c mng lp
phng th tm nn kh nng ha tan ca cacbon trong Fe() l khng ng k, ln nht
727
0
C l 0,02% v nh nht nhit thng l 0,006%.
- Auxtenit (k hiu l As hay ): l dung dch rn xen k ca cacbon trong Fe( ), c mng
lp phng din tm nn kh nng ha tan cacbon ca Fe() kh ln, ln nht nhit
1147
0
C vi 2,14% v nh nht 727
0
C vi 0,8%C.
Auxtenit rt do v dai khi cc nguyn t khc ha tan vo khng nhng lm cng tng
ln v do dai gim i ng k m cn lm thay i ng hc chuyn bin do nh
hng ln ti nhit luyn.
5.2.2.2. Cc t chc 2 pha
- Peclit (k hiu l P hay [+Xe]): Peclit l hn hp c hc cng tch ca Ferit v Xementit
( + Xe) to thnh 727
0
C t dung dch rn Auxtenit cha 0,8%C. Trong Peclit c 88% Ferit
v 12% Xementit. T gin trng thi Fe - C ta thy trong qu trnh lm ngui, thnh phn
cacbon ca Auxtenit s bin i v khi n 727
0
C c 0,8%C (cc hp kim c lng cacbon nh
hn 0,8% th thnh phn Auxtenit bin i theo hng tit ra Ferit lm tng cacbon cn cc
hp kim c lng cacbon ln hn 0,8% th thnh phn Auxtenit bin i theo hng tit ra
Xementit lm gim cacbon, c 2 trng hp trn u a n lng cacbon trong Auxtenit l
0,8% 727
0
C). Lc , Auxtenit c 0,8% C s chuyn bin thnh hn hp cng tch ca Ferit
v Xementit:
Ty theo hnh dng Xmentit trong hn hp, ngi ta chia ra 2 loi peclit l peclit tm
v peclit ht (Peclit tm Xe dng tm phin cn Peclit ht th Xe dng ht). Peclit l hn
hp c hc nn c tnh cht trung gian. Kt hp gia tnh do, dai ca v cng, dn ca Xe
nn ni chung P c cng, bn cao, tnh do dai thp. Tuy nhin c tnh ca n c th thay
i trong phm vi kh rng ph thuc vo ht ca Xe.
- Ledeburit (k hiu l Le hoc [+Xe] hay [P+Xe]): Ledeburit l hn hp c hc cng
tinh, kt tnh t pha lng c nng 4,3%C 1147
0
C.
Lc u mi to thnh n gm v Xe (trong khong 727
0
C 1147
0
C). Khi lm ngui
xung di 727
0
C, chuyn bin thnh P do vy Ldeburit l hn hp c hc ca Peclit v
Xementit. Nh vy cui cng Ldeburit c 2 pha l v Xe trong Xe chim t l gn 2/3
nn Leeburit rt cng v dn.
5.2.3. Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim Fe-C
5.2.3.1. Phn pha trn ng c AHJECF
49
- Khu vc c thnh phn (0,1 0,51) %C:
Khi lm ngui n ng lng AB, hp kim lng s kt tinh ra dung dch rn trc. Khi
h nhit xung ti 1499
0
C, hp kim c 2 pha l dung dch rn cha 0,1%C v dung dch
lng cha 0,51%C nn xy ra phn ng bao tinh to ra dung dch rn Austenit cha 0,16%C.
- Khu vc c thnh phn (0,51 4,3) %C:
Khi lm ngui hp kim ti ng lng BC n s kt tinh ra . Cc hp kim c thnh phn
t (0,51 2,14) %C kt thc kt tinh bng s to thnh dung dch rn cn cc hp kim c
thnh phn t (2,14 4,3) %C kt thc kt tinh bng s kt tinh ca dung dch lng c thnh
phn ng vi im C to ra 2 pha c thnh phn ng vi im E v Xe 1147
0
C.

Hn hp c hc trn gi l hn hp c hc cng tinh Ledeburit
Khi T > 727
0
C t chc Le gm [ + Xe] Khi T < 727
0
C t chc Le gm [P + Xe]
5.2.3.2. Phn pha di ng c AHJECF
Ti 727
0
C c thnh phn 0,8%C s chuyn bin thnh P l hn hp ca 2 pha v
Xe gi l hn hp c hc cng tch.
5.3. Phn loi hp kim Fe - C theo gin trng thi
phn loi hp kim Fe - C ngi ta da vo hm lng ca cacbon trong hp kim .
5.3.1. Thp
L hp kim ca Fe vi C m hm lng C trong n nh hn 2,14%. Do vy, ta c th phn
ra lm 3 loi thp.
- Thp trc cng tch: Thp c hm lng cacbon < 0,8%
T chc ca thp trc cng tch l (P + )
- Thp cng tch: Thp c thnh phn cacbon = 0,8%. T chc ca thp cng tch l hn
hp c hc cng tch P.
50
- Thp sau cng tch: L thp c hm lng cacbon nm trong khong (0,8 2,14) %. T
chc ca thp sau cng tch l P + XeII. Lng XeII t c tit ra di dng mng li bao
quanh ht P nn c tnh dn cao chnh v vy, trn thc t ngi ta ch dng thp c hm lng
cacbon nh hn 1,3%.
51
5.3.2. Gang
L hp kim ca Fe vi C m hm lng C trong n ln hn 2,14% v nh hn 6,67%. Da
vo hm lng cacbon v tng t i vi thp, ta c th phn ra lm 3 loi gang sau:
- Gang trc cng tinh l loi gang c hm lng cacbon < 4,3%.
T chc ca gang trc cng tinh l P + XeII + Le. y l loi gang thng c s dng
trong thc t
- Gang cng tinh l loi gang c hm lng cacbon l 4,3% T chc ca gang cng tinh l
Le
Gang sau cng tinh: l loi gang c hm lng cacbon ln hn 4,3%
T chc ca gang sau cng tinh l Le + XeI
Cc loi gang trn c gi chung l gang trng, cacbon trong gang trng u tn ti di
dng Xe.
52
5.3.3. c im c tnh ca thp v gang theo gin trng thi
5.3.3.1. Thp
- Thp trc cng tch, lng cacbon t nn lng Xe cng t v vy thp c tnh do cao.
- Thp sau cng tch v cng tch, hm lng cacbon tng nn t l pha Xe tng do vy lm
tng cng, tnh dn ng thi lm tht t i , gin di tng i gim xung. V
nhng l do trn m trn thc t, ngi ta khng dng thp c hm lng cacbon qu cao (%C
> 1,3%).
5.3.3.2. Gang
Gang sau cng tch c lng Xe qu nhiu gy dn v cng, khng c kh nng ct gt do
vy khng c s dng. Thc t, ngi ta s dng gang trc cng tch c hm lng cacbon
nh hn 3,5%.
5.4. Cc nhit ti hn hp kim Fe - C theo gin trng thi
5.4.1. Nhit phn ng cng tinh (T = 1147
0
C)
Vi hm lng cacbon ln hn 2,14% c dng xc nh ch nu luyn ca hp
kim.
5.4.2. Nhit phn ng cng tch (T = 727
0
C)
[F + Xe] (khi lm ngui) v [F + Xe] (khi nung).
Hm lng cacbon ln hn 0,02% v c p dng nhiu trong nhit luyn l ng A1.
Trong thc t, nhit chuyn bin khi nung nng v lm ngui bao gi cng khc vi
gin . biu th qu trnh nung nng khi c s chuyn bin pha trn thc t ngi ta gi
l ng AC1 v khi lm ngui l ng Ar1
5.4.3. Nhit ng gii hn ha tan ca Ferit () trong Auxtenit ( ) l ng A3
Nhit gii hn ha tan c thay i theo hm lng cacbon gi l ng A3. Khu
nung vt qua nhit AC3 th kt thc qu trnh ha tan ca Ferit () vo Auxtenit (). ng
thi, khi lm ngui xung nhit nh hn Ar3 th bt u tit ra Ferit () t Auxtenit().
53
Nh vy: T
0
Ar
3
< T
0
A
3
< T
0
Ac
3
ngha: Dng chn ch nhit luyn thp trc cng tch.
5.4.4. Nhit ng gii hn ha tan ca Xementit (Xe) vo Auxtenit ( ) l ng
Acm
Nhit gii hn ha tan c thay i theo hm lng cacbon gi l ng Acm. Khi
nung vt qua nhit Accm th kt thc qu trnh ha tan ca Xementit (Xe) vo Auxtenit ().
ng thi, khi lm ngui xung nhit nh hn Arcm th bt u c s tit ra Xementit (Xe)
t Auxtenit ().
Nh vy: T
0
Arcm < T
0
Acm < T
0
Accm.
54
CHNG 6
CC CHUYN BIN XY RA
KHI NUNG V LM NGUI THP
Nhit luyn thp chim a v ch yu trong nhit luyn ni chung v l mt khu quan
trng, khng th thiu c trong ch to c kh, s d nh vy v thp c s dng nh l vt
liu ch yu v quan trng nht trong s cc kim loi ng thi c th p dng nhiu phng
php nhit luyn khc nhau ci bin c tnh v tnh cng ngh ca n.
Tc dng ca nhit luyn l 2 im sau:
- Lm tng bn, cng, tnh chng mi mn ca chi tit bng thp (gang) m vn bo
m yu cu v do v dai. Do vy c th lm cho chi tit chu c ti trng ln hn
hoc c th lm nh, gn hn, s dng c bn, lu hng hn.
Trong thc t sn xut c kh thy r tc dng ny. Nhiu loi thp sau khi nhit luyn
bng cch ti + ram bn, cng tng ln 2 - 3 ln (tuy do dai c gim) rt c li trong
vic ho bn cc chi tit ny, cc chi tit my chu ma st nh bnh rng, trc ... Nu khng ho
bn bng nhit luyn rt chng mn, hng (thi hn lm vic gim i t hng chc n hng
trm ln). i vi dao ct, khun rp tc dng ny ca nhit luyn li cng c ngha quyt
nh. Cc sn phm ny nu khng qua ti v ram th khng th lm vic c. Mt trong
nhng yu t quan trng quyt nh cht lng cc sn phm c kh l trnh ca nhit luyn.
- Ci thin tnh cng ngh
Ngoi tc dng ho bn k trn, nhit luyn cn c kh nng ci thin tnh cng ngh. Khi
thnh hnh sn phm khng th khng ch n tnh thch ng ca thp i vi cc phng
php gia cng khc nhau: c, rn hn, ct, gt ... Ci thin cc tnh cng ngh lm qu trnh
gia cng ch to c thun li v c th tin hnh vi nng sut cao hn, gp phn nng cao
sut lao ng. Trong ch to c kh thng gp hin tng sau khi rn, thp b bin cng mt
phn rt kh (c trng hp khng th ct gt, trong trng hp ny phi tin hnh nhit luyn
bng phng php thch hp () cng gim i, ct gt tr nn d dng. i vi thp cacbon
thp, cng ca n trng thi qu thp cng kh ct gt phi tin hnh thng ho tng
thm cng m bo ct gt d. p dng cc phng php nhit luyn thch hp gia cc
khu gia cng c kh l mt trong nhng bin php nng cao nng sut lao ng trong ngnh c
kh (nh nng cao tc ct gt, kh nng rp su ...)
Do tc dng quan trng nh vy nn hu ht cc chi tit quan trng cc my
u c qua nhit luyn. V d chi tit qua nhit luyn trong t - my ko chim (70-
80)% trong my cng c (60 - 70)%, tt c cc dng c u phi nhit luyn.
6.1. Khi nim v nhit luyn
6.1.1. nh ngha
L phng php gia cng kim loi bng cch nung kim loi ti mt nhit xc nh, gi
nhit mt thi gian v lm ngui vi tc ngui c xc nh trc nhm t c t chc
v tnh cht ca vt liu kim loi theo yu cu.
m t cng ngh nhit luyn dng h to T
0 - t
:
55
Khi nhit luyn khng c php nung nng kim loi n trng thi nng chy hay chy
b phn. Trong mi qu trnh nhit luyn kim loi lun lun trng thi rn, hnh dng v kch
thc ca sn phm hu nh khng thay i hoc thay i rt t.
6.1.2. Cc c im ca nhit luyn
- Trong qu trnh nhit luyn th sn phm khng thay i v hnh dng v kch thc m
ch thay i v t chc v c tnh ca vt liu.
- Cc thng s cng ngh c xc nh nh gin trng thi ca cc loi hp kim.
- Sn phm sau khi nhit luyn phi thu c y cc thng s ca hp kim.
6.1.3. Cc yu t c trng cho qu trnh nhit luyn
Cc yu t quan trng nht c trng cho qu trnh nhit luyn l: nhit nung, thi gian
gi nhit v tc lm ngui.
- Nhit nung nng t
0
nung l nhit cao nht phi t n khi nung nng nhit.
- Thi gian gi nhit g.n l thi gian cn thit duy tr kim loi nhit nung.
- Tc ngui vngui l gim ca nhit theo thi gian sau khong thi gian gi
6.1.4. Phn loi nhit luyn
Tu theo v tr ca nhit luyn trong qu trnh gia cng c kh, ngi ta phn n thnh 2
nhm:
- Nhit luyn s b: l nhng dng nhit luyn m sn phm sau nhit luyn cn tip tc
gia cng c kh.
- Nhit luyn kt thc: l dng nhit luyn m sn phm sau nhit luyn khng tip tc gia
cng.
6.2. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung thp
6.2.1. M t th nghim
S dng mu th nghim l thp cha 0,8% cacbon, c t chc l Peclit (P=[+Xe]) lm
hng lot mu c kch thc v hnh dng ging nhau v tin hnh nung ti nhit ln hn
nhit Ac1. Gi cc mu ti nhit nung vi cc thi gian khc nhau sau tin hnh lm
ngui nhanh. o lng chuyn bin P thnh theo thi gian.
56
Trn c s o lng chuyn bin , ta xy dng ng cong phn trm lng theo thi
gian t: % = f(t)
ng cong trn chnh l ng cong ng hc chuyn bin P thnh . OA: giai on
phi thai, bt u to cc trung tm sinh mm.
AB: giai on bt u chuyn bin P thnh . giai on ny, c s thay i nng lng
t do.
G = G
th tch
+ G
b mt
+ G
n hi
Do vy, ta thy rng qu trnh to mm trng thi rn l kh khn v chm hn do bin
thin nng lng cao hn.
BC: giai on chuyn bin xy ra nhanh do lng mm to ra nhiu v kh nng ln ln
mnh do G
n hi
cha qu ln.
CD: giai on chuyn bin chm li do G
n hi
ln
6.2.2. Nhit chuyn bin Peclit thnh Auxtenit
6.2.2.1. ng cong ng hc chuyn bin khi nung nng thp cng tch
T gin trng thi Fe-C thy rng chuyn bin P thnh xy ra 727
0
C, nhng iuny
ch ng vi khi nung nng bng tc v cng b. Vi tc nung nng thc t, nhit ti
xy ra chuyn bin ny lun lun cao hn 727
0
C, tc nung cng ln, nhit xy ra
chuyn bin cng cao v chuyn bin thc t xy ra trong mt khong nhit . iu ny c
th hin trn gin chuyn bin p thnh .
57
(1): ng bt u qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2): ng kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P
S dng 2 trc tra to l thi gian v nhit , ta c th t trn cc ng biu
din tc nung nng xt nh hng ca tc nung n nhit chuyn bin. Nu nung
nng vi tc v1 th thi im bt u v kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin l a1, b1 cn nu
nung nng vi tc v2 ln hn v1
l im a2, b2. Do ta thy rng tc
nung nng cng cao, chuyn bin P
xy ra nhit cng cao v vi
thi gian cng ngn.
ngha ca vic xy ra dng
ng cong ng hc chuyn bin P
:
- Tnh c nhit bt u v kt
thc chuyn bin P vi cc tc
nung khc nhau. T nh ra cng
ngh nhit luyn.
- Xc nh mc n nh ca cc
pha ph thuc vo thng s cng ngh
6.2.2.2. ng cong ng hc chuyn bin khi nung nng thp v sau cng tch
58
- Thp trc cng tch: i vi thp trc cng tch t chc bao gm P + F. Nn c
chuyn bin hon ton thnh cn nung thp vt qu nhit Ac3. Khi ng cong ng
hc c dng nh sau:
(1): ng cong bt u qu
trnh chuyn bin P
(2): ng cong kt thc qu
trnh chuyn bin P
(3) ng cong bt u ho
tan F
(4): ng kt thc ho tan F

- Thp sau cng tch: i vi
thp sau cng tch t chc bao
gm P + Xe
II
. Nn c chuyn
bin hon ton thnh cn nung thp ti nhit ln hn nhit Accm. Khi ng cong
ng hc c dng nh sau:
(1): ng cong bt
u qu trnh chuyn bin P

(2): ng cong kt
thc qu trnh chuyn bin P

(3) ng cong bt
u ho tan XeII
(4): ng kt thc
ho tan XeII
6.2.3. C ch hnh thnh khi nung
Qu trnh nung nng thp cng tch l qu trnh chuyn ho
P[F
0,02
+ Xe
6,67
]
0,8
Qu trnh ny ch xy ra khi c s ba ng v nng lng m ba ng v thnh phn ho
hc l nguyn nhn ch yu to ra ba ng nng lng. Qu trnh ba ng to ra nhng
vng c thnh phn cacbon gn bng 0,8%. ranh gii gia Xe v F lun c hm lng cacbon
cao nht nn thun li cho qu trnh to mm. Do vy, mm u tin s xut hin trn ranh
gii 2 pha F v Xe. Cc mm pht trin, thc hin qu trnh chuyn bin P .
59
Tc pht trin ca mm v 2 pha Xe v F l khc nhau
Nhn thy C
/F
<< C
/Xe
nn v
/F
> v
/Xe
v vy F b ho tan ht trc sau Xe mi b
ho tan ht vo .
Qu trnh trn c th m t bng hnh v bn di:
6.2.4. ht ca v biu din ht trn gin trng thi
Khi nung nng n nhit AC1 trong thp xy ra chuyn bin P . Chuyn bin ny
cng c c ch nh qu trnh kt tinh. To mm v pht trin mm. Cc mm c to ra trn
b mt phn chia gia 2 pha F v Xe. Nh vy, bin gii gia 2 pha F v Xe trong P rt nhiu
nn ny sinh nhiu mm v khi kt thc chuyn bin bao gi cng c nh min. Chuyn
bin P bao gi cng lm nh ht. Sau khi thu c nh mn nhit AC1, nu tip
tc nng cao nhit , ht s tip tc pht trin nh qu trnh st nhp cc ht vi nhau. S
pht trin cc ht ph thuc vo nhit nung v thi gian gi nhit. Nhit nung cng cao,
thi gian gi nhit cng di th ht cng ln.
60
6.3. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi lm ngui thp
Nu cc thp c nung nng n nhit thp hn Ac1, trong thp cha c chuyn bin
g, do khi lm ngui tip theo cng khng c chuyn bin g. y, ch xt trng hp lm
ngui thp c nung ti trng thi (ln hn nhit Ac1) v n gin ch xt cho thp
cng tch. V phng thc lm ngui c phn ra 2 trng hp: lm ngui ng nhit v lm
ngui lin tc.
6.3.1. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi lm ngui ng nhit Auxtenit
6.3.1.1. M t th nghim: Lm th nghim vi thp cng tch (0,8%C)
Lm hng lot mu c hnh dng v kch thc nh nhau. Nung n trng thi hon ton ,
gi nhit t c s ng u ton b th tch c t chc . Tin hnh lm ngui xung
di nhit Ac1, gi ng nhit cc nhit khc nhau. Do chuyn bin ca thnh P. Trn
c s xy dng th lng chuyn bin theo thi gian.
6.3.1.2. nh hng ca qu ngui n chuyn bin
61
Trn l thuyt P i vi thp cng tch l 727
0
C song cng ging nh khi nung
nng, chuyn bin ny khng xy ra 727
0
C m nhit thp hn. Nh vy, chuyn bin
xy ra vi qu ngui T = T
A1
- T
Ar1
. Tc chuyn bin thnh hn hp c hc cng tch
P ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:
- S chnh lch gia nng lng t do ca hn hp F + Xe v . qu ngui T cng
ln th s chnh lch ny cng nhiu khi cng d chuyn bin thnh hn hp F + Xe.
- Tc khuch tn ca cacbon. Chuyn bin thnh F v Xe l chuyn bin khuch tn
v cacbon phn b u trong phi sp xp li to nn 2 pha c thnh phn cacbon rt
khc nhau l F (hu nh khng cha cacbon) v Xe (cha 6,67% cacbon).
6.3.1.3. Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca qu ngui
(1) ng bt u xy ra qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2) Kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P
6.3.1.4. Cc sn phm ca s phn ho ng nhit ca Auxtenit qu ngui
- Chuyn bin Peclit (500 727)
0
C:
+ Chuyn bin P xy ra vi s to thnh hn hp F + Xe dng tm. Nu qu ngui
phn ho nhit st A1 tc ng vi qu ngui b (t < 50
0
C) s c hn hp ca F +
Xe, trong Xe dng tm c kch thc ln. Hn hp gi l Peclit.
+ Nu qu ngui phn ho nhit thp hn (vi T= 500 n 100
0
C) cng c hn
hp c hc ca F + Xe trong Xe dng tm vi kch thc ht b. Hn hp ny gi l
Xoocbit (X).
62
+ Nu qu ngui c phn ho nhit thp hn na khong 500 600
0
C ng vi
nhit khi qu ngui km n nh nht, khi cng c hn hp c hc F + Xe trong
Xe cng dng tm xong b hn dng tm Xoocbit. T chc ny gi l Trutxtit (T).
Vy Peclit, Xoocbit, Trutxtit u l hn hp c hc ca F + Xe nhng vi nh mn ca
Xe khc nhau. Do vy, khi tng qu ngui, s mm to ra cng nhiu do hn hp cng
tr nn nh mn v cng, bn cng cao.
- Chuyn bin trung gian (240
0
C 500
0
C)
di 500
0
C, qu ngui phn ho thnh hn hp c hc ca F v Xe vi c ch v c
im ring. Chuyn bin ny gi l chuyn bin trung gian to nn t chc Bainit (B). Ngi ta
phn ra thnh 2 loi Bainit l: Bainit trn (Bt) v Bainit di (Bd) trong Bt c to ra t
(350 500)
0
C cn Bd c to ra t (240 350)
0
C.
Bainit cng gn 2 pha l F v Xe, nhng trong Xe c dng tm rt nh mn. c im
ca chuyn bin ny l xy ra khng hon ton, tc l sau chuyn bin vn cn mt lng d.
C tnh ca 2 loi Bainit cng khc nhau Bd c cng, bn cao hn ng thi vn c
do, dai nn c dng nhiu hn.
6.3.1.5 Gin chuyn bin ng nhit qu ngui ca thp trc cng tch v sau
cng tch
6.3.2. Chuyn bin P khi lm ngui lin tc
Trong thc t, nhit luyn hay dng cch lm ngui lin tc, tc l nhit lun lun gim
theo thi gian. So vi loi gin chuyn bin ng nhit, phn trn ca ng cong ch "C"
ca loi gin lm ngui lin tc dch chuyn sang phi v xung di mt cht. Do vy, v
nguyn tc c th s dng gin ng nhit thay cho trng hp lm ngui lin tc m khng
b sai s ln. Khi lm ngui lin tc c cc c im sau:
+ Vi cc tc ngui khc nhau s t c cc t chc khc nhau.
63
Gi s lm ngui vi tc v1 th s phn ho thnh F + Xe nhit cao nn Xe c
dng tm th. Khi lm ngui vi tc v2 th vn phn ho thnh F + Xe nhit thp hn
nn Xe thu c s nh mn hn. Cn khi lm ngui vi tc v3 s thu c t chc Truxtit
xong khng hon ton sau bin thnh Mactenxit.
+ Tnh n nh ca qu ngui tng do ng cong ch "C" dch sang bn phi.
+ T chc Bainit ch t c khi lm ngui ng nhit.
* ngha: Xc nh tc ngui hp l nhm thu c cc t chc sau nhit luyn theo
yu cu ca sn phm.
* C ch hnh thnh Peclit
P-ban u c dng hnh cu (to cc qu cu Peclit)
Nu gi nhit cc nhit khc nhau, qu cu P pht trin v c th to thnh cc dng
tm ln P, tm nh X, hay dng kim T.
6.3.3. Chuyn bin ca khi lm ngui nhanh - chuyn bin Mactenxit
6.3.3.1. Khi nim:
Khi tin hnh lm ngui tht nhanh xung nhit thp. Cacbon khng kp khuch tn
nn ton b cacbon trong gi li trong mng ca Ferit (
0,8%

0,8%
) gi l chuyn bin
Mactenxit.
Theo gin trng thi, %C trong ln nht l 0,02% nn khi %C trong l 0,8% s to
ra t chc qu bo ho cacbon trong do vy to ra t chc khng cn bng ca gi l t
chc Mactenxit (M).
64
6.3.3.2. Tc ngui ti hn xy ra chuyn bin Mactenxit
Tc ngui nhanh chuyn bin M phi ln hn hay bng mt gi tr ti hn, tc ng
vi cc ng biu din khng ct ng cong ch "C"
t
th
: l thi gian km n nh nht ca qu ngui
T
0
: l nhit ng vi thi gian ti hn
T
1
: l nhit nung
Vi mi loi thp xc nh th c mt tc ngui ti hn xc nh. Vi mi v
ng
> v
ng.t.h
u cho chuyn bin Mactenxit.
6.3.3.3. c im ca chuyn bin Mactenxit
- Ch xy ra khi tc ngui ln hn mt tc ngui xc nh
- Ch xy ra khi lm ngui lin tc trong mt khong nhit xc nh vi nhit bt
u M
s
v kt thc l M
f
. trong khong M
s
M
f
nu ta dng lm ngui th chuyn bin M b
dng li.
V tr ca hai im M
s
v M
f
ca chuyn bin M ch ph thuc vo thnh phn cacbon v
nguyn t hp kim trong , ngoi ra khng ph thuc vo cc yu t khc k c tc ngui
nhanh hay chm. Auxtenit cng cha nhiu cacbon v nguyn t hp kim (Si, Al, Co) th cc
im M
s
v M
f
cng h thp.
65
- Chuyn bin M xy ra theo dng bng n: Cng mt lc to ra hng lot cc kim M v
pht trin vi tc rt nhanh (108cm/s). S va p ca cc kim M to ra cc vt nt t vi
trong t chc M.
- Chuyn bin M xy ra nhit thp (thng < 200
0
C), cacbon hu nh khng khuch
tn nn gi nguyn v tr hoc nu c dch chuyn th dch chuyn x < a
Mng chuyn thnh mng tng ng l mng A
1
chuyn thnh mng A
2
theo c ch
trt mng gy x lch mng nn b bin cng. Cc nguyn t cacbon i vo l hng khi 8
mt ca mng lm gin chiu cao ca mng to ra mng M l mng chnh phng th tm.
Gia mng v M c mi quan h
- Mt (110) ca M // mt (100) ca
- Mt (111) ca(M) // mt (110) ca
C ch trt mng:
Cacbon ng sn l hng khi 8 mt lm gin chiu cao
ca mng to mng chnh phng th tm.
* Chuyn bin M l chuyn bin khng hon ton:
66
Khi kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin, trong t chc M bao gi cng cn mt lng d. (
d: l t chc tn ti trong M nhit thng).
Nguyn nhn: Do th tch ring ca M ln hn th tch ring ca m c th l
Nn khi chuyn bin thnh M s to trng ng sut d qu ln do vy chuyn bin
dng li v tn ti d.
Lng d trong thp ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:
+ V tr im M
f
. im M
f
cng thp di 200C th lng d cng nhiu. Vy mi yu
t hm h thp im Mf u lm tng lng d.
+ Thnh phn ho hc ca : Ta bit rng lng cacbon trong 2 pha v M l bng nhau
khi hm lng cacbon ca M cng cao th chnh phng c v th tch a
ring cng ln nn cng nhiu khng chuyn bin c do vy cng nhiu d.
* Nhit bt u v kt thc chuyn bin:
M thay i theo thnh phn ho hc ca thp vi thp cacbon v cc nguyn t hp kim th
M
s
v M
f
nh.
6.3.3.4. C tnh ca M
* cng ca M:
Mactenxit l dung dch rn qu bo ho ca cacbon trong , do vy cng ca M ch
ph thuc vo lng cacbon trong n. Cacbon cng cao, chnh phng ca M cng ln,
mng tinh th cng x lch, cng cng cao, kh nng chu mi mn tt.
Thp c lng cacbon qu thp (%C < 0,25%) th M c to ra khng th t c
cng cao, khng chng mi mn. Thng thng dng thp c hm lng cacbon ln hn
0,4% th M to ra c cng cao mi kh nng chng mi mn xong vi thp c %C >
0,6% th lng d sau chuyn bin M nhiu, lc ny cng ca thp l cng chung ch
yu l ca M v d do s thp hn cng ca bn thn pha M.
67
* dn ca M:
Nhc im ca M l tnh dn cao, c im ny c lin quan n cng v ng sut d
trong n. Tuy nhin, tnh dn ca M cng dao ng trong mt phm vi kh rng ph thuc vo
mt s yu t sau:
+ cng ca M cng cao th th dn cng ln, do vy M cng cha nhiu cacbon th cng
cng v cng dn. Tuy nhin, vi cng thnh phn cacbon nh nhau, cng nh nhau nhng
tnh dn c th khc nhau nu kch thc ht M khc nhau.
+ ng sut d to thnh c nh hng ln n tnh dn gm c ng sut nhit (do thay i
nhit xut hin khi nung v lm ngui) v ng sut t chc (do s chuyn bin t chc).
6.4. CHUYN BIN KHI NUNG THP TI
Sau khi ti, t c t chc M v mt lng d do vy, ngi ta phi nung nng li
n cc nhit thp hn Ac1. Nguyn cng ny c gi l ram. Mc ch ca vic lm trn
l a t chc sau khi ti v t chc n nh hn.
6.4.1. Tnh khng n nh ca M v d
Theo gin trng thi Fe - C, t nhit thng n 727
0
C t chc n nh ca thp l
hn hp + Xe (gi chung l P), nh vy M v d l hai pha khng n nh v c xu hng
tr v trng thi t chc n nh k trn.
M l dung dch rn qu bo ho ca cacbon trong Fe(), lng cacbon ca M bng lng
cacbon ca . Khi nung nng, bo m cng ca thp ti phi nung nng ti nhit d
thch hp cacbon ho tan vo , khi lm ngui nhanh tip theo lng cacbon cc
nh li trong , do tr nn qu bo ho. Phn cacbon vt qu gii hn ho tan lun
lun c xu hng i ra khi cc v tr xen k cc l hng, tp trung v mt vng no , kt
hp vi st to nn Xe. Xu th chuyn bin ca M s l:
(M) Fe(c) Fe() + Fe3C (Xe)
Chnh phng th tm Lp phng th tm
l dung dch rn ca cacbon trong Fe(). trng thi n nh Fe() vi mng lp
phng din tm khng th tn ti di 727
0
C, ti cc nhit ny Fe() c xu hng
chuyn sang Fe() vi lng ho tan cacbon rt t, c th coi nh st nguyn cht v lng
cacbon tha ra cng to nn Xe. Xu th chuyn bin ca s l:
Fe(C) Fe() + Fe3C (Xe)
Tuy c hai pha M v u khng n nh v c xu hng chuyn bin thnh hn hp +
Xe, nhng iu kin c xy ra c hay khng li ph thuc ch yu vo nhit . Nung nng,
68
tc l cung cp nng lng cho s dch chuyn cc nguyn t s lm cho chuyn bin trn xy
ra c d dng. nhit thng, qu trnh chuyn bin xy ra v cng chm c th coi bng
khng.
Cn ch rng, khi nung nng M v d khng chuyn bin ngay thnh hn hp ca +
Xe m bao gi cng qua t chc trung gian l Mactenxit ram.
6.4.2. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi ram
phn tch cc pha to thnh trong qu trnh ram c th dng phng php phn tch t
chc bng ria Rnghen hay phng php o gin n. o gin n l phng php thng dng
xc nh cc chuyn bin khi ram, n da trn s khc nhau v th tch ca P, M v (V
M
>
V
p
> V

). Khi nung nng thp thp ti (c t chc M v d) thy th tch mu gim i t M

chuyn bin thnh P, th tch mu m tng ln tc l chuyn bin thnh P. Quy lut trn c
biu din nh sau:
a: S thay i chiu di ca mu i vi thp
b: S thay i chiu di ca mu khi nung nng thp sau khi ti
6.4.2.1. Giai on I (T
0
< 200
0
C)
- Khi nung nhit nh hn 80
0
C, chiu di mu khng thay i tc l khng c chuyn
bin g, trong t chc vn cn M +
d
- Khi nung khong 80 200
0
C, chiu di ca mu gim i mt cht chng t
M chuyn bin. Mt phn cacbon trong M tit ra di dng cacbit (k hiu l vi kiu
mng lc gic c thnh phn ho hc gn vi cng thc Fe
2
C v dng tm rt mng. Do tit
cacbon di dng cacbit nn phnM cn li tr nn ngho cacbon. n 200
0
C lng cacbon
cn li trong M ti a khong 0,25 0,4% v c chnh phng c/a gim tin gn n 1 (do
vy mu co li).
Cui giai on ny, t chc thu c l M ngho cacbon v cacbit () c gi l
Mactenxit ram. Mactenxit ram c cng gn nh Mactenxit ti nhng c ng sut bn trong
nh hn do s tit ra cacbon lm gim x lch mng.
c trng ca giai on I l chuyn bin ca Mactenxit ti thnh Mactenxit ram (Mram)
6.4.2.2. Giai on II (200
0
C < T
0
< 260
0
C)
69
Khi nung n nhit 200 260
0
C s tit ra cacbon khi M dng cacbt nh giai on
I vn tip tc, lng cacbon ho tan, trong M gim ti ch cn 0,15 0,2% cui giai on
ny. ng thi vi qu trnh trn, chuyn bin mi xy ra trong giai on ny l d chuyn
bin thnh Mram (do vy mu di ra mt cht). Vy cui giai on ny t chc ca thp ti
ch l Mram gm cacbt v M ngho cacbon (0,15 0,2%C).
n y, cng c th gim i hoc tng ln cht t l tu thuc vo lng d sau khi
ti. Nu lng d t, cng c th gim i cht t, cn nu lng d nhiu, cng c th
tng l do chuyn bin M c th vt qua hiu ng gim cng do phn ho M. Hin
tng ny c gi l cng th hai ch xy ra khi ram thp dng c hp kim cao.
6.4.2.3. Giai on III (260
0
C < T
0
< 400
0
C)
Khi nung nng n nhit 260 400
0
C c hai qu trnh sau xy ra:
- Tt c cacbon qu bo ho c tit ht ra khi M di dng cacbit, chnh phng
ca M b mt i ( c/a 1 ) thc M ngho cacbon bin thnh F.
- Cacbt c to thnh t M mt lin kt cng mng vi Fe() v chuyn bin thnh
Xe(Fe3C) c dng ht c hai qu trnh ny u lm gim chiu di mu.
Vy n cui giai on III, thp c t chc l hn hp ca F + Xe dng ht rt nh mn v
phn tn. Hn hp gi l Trutxit ram (Tram).
cng ca thp ti trong giai on ny gim i r rt do tt c cacbon qu bo ho c
tit ht ra khi Fe() tuy nhin do Xe c to thnh kh nh mn v phn tn nn vn gi
c cng cao v c tnh n hi tt. T chc Tram c tnh n hi tt nht chnh l do
hiu ng tit cacbon ra khi Fe() lm mt hon ton ng sut bn trong.
6.4.2.4. Giai on IV (T
0
> 400
0
C)
Khi nung nng n nhit ln hn 400
0
C, trong thp ti khng xy ra chuyn bin
pha, lc ny ch c cc thay i v hnh dng v kch thc v F v Xe. Trong giai on III, Xe
c to thnh tuy bt u c dng ht nhng vn cn chu nh hng ca dng tm ban u,
giai on ny cng vi s tng ca nhit xy ra hin tng kt t v cu ho: cc phn t Xe
ln dn ln v dn dn c dng cu. T chc F cng c thay i: gim mt lch, cc ht F
ln dn ln v c dng a cnh gn ti trng thi n nh.
Hn hp F v Xe dng ht to nn nhit 500 600
0
C c gi l Xoocbit ram
(Xram). T chc ny c c tnh tng hp tt. Nu tip tc ram nhit gn Ac1, s kt t v
cu ho Xe rt mnh to nn hn hp F + Xe nhn c l P ht.
Trong giai on ny, chiu di ca mu gim i cht t, khng ng k, song song vi n
l cng cng gim i do s thay i v hnh dng v kch thc ht.
6.4.3. C tnh ca thp sau nhit luyn ti v ram
T chc nhn c sau khi ti v ram l Mram, Tram v Xram bao gi cng cho cc ch
tiu c tnh tt hn t chc tng ng nhn c do s phn ho trc tip t (Mti, Tti v
Xti). Do vy, s kt hp gia ti v ram c ng dung rng ri trong nhit luyn to cho
thp c tnh cui cng ph hp vi iu kin lm vic.
6.4.3.1. Gia Mti v Mram:
C cng khng khc nhau nhiu lm. cng ca M
ram
nh hn cng ca Mti
khong (1 2) HRC. Ko theo , bn gim xong do v dai ca M
ram
ln hn M
ti
.
6.4.3.2. Gia Tti v Tram:
Vi 2 t chc ny cho thy t chc c khi ram cho gii hn n hi cao nht v trong t
chc ny khng c ng sut d v ht Xe dng ht nh. Cn T ti to thnh do phn ho
70
trc tip nn to ra Xe tm. Gii hn n hi ca thp cao nht t c khi ram khong
400
0
C.

6.4.3.3. Gia Xti v Xram:
Vi X
ram
c s kt hp gia chy v do tt v do Xe dng ht nn t chc ny c
dai cao do vy ch tiu c tnh nh dai va p (a
k
) cao. Cn Xti th Xe dng tm v l pha
dn nn nh hng xu n tnh do.
Vy, t chc T
ram
p ng tt nht yu cu lm vic ca cc chi tit n hi cn X
ram
p
ng tt cc chi tit chu ti trng tnh v va p.
71
CHNG 7:
CC PHNG PHP NHIT LUYN THP
Nhit luyn l nhng qu trnh cng ngh bao gm vic nung nng, gi nhit v lm ngui
vt phm kim loi vi mc ch thay i t chc (cu trc) v tnh cht ca chng.
Nhit luyn p dng cho cc thi c, vt c, bn thnh phn, mi hn, chi tit my v
dng c cc loi.
Cc dng c bn ca nhit luyn bao gm: , ti, ram v ho gi. Nu nh do kt qu ca
ti nhit 20 25
0
C m gi c trng thi dung dch rn nhit cao th s ho bn
ng k ca hp kim trc tip sau khi ti s khng xy ra, s ho bn ch yu xy ra khi nung
tr li nhit thp (ram) hoc l trong thi gian gi nhit 20 25
0
C (ho gi t
nhin).
Vi hp kim c tnh cht c bit, ti c th lm thay i nhng tnh cht (ho l) nhy
cm vi s thay i cu trc nh lm tng in tr sut hoc l lc kh t, lm gim bn
chng n mn...
Ram v ho gi l cc phng php nhit luyn sau khi ti m kt qu ca n l xy ra s
chuyn pha, a t chc v gn trng thi cn bng.
Thc t s kt hp ti v ram hay ho gi lun lun nhn c cc tnh cht tt hn (
cng, cc c trng bn, lc kh t, in tr sut...) so vi trng thi .
Phn ln cc hp kim sau khi ti nhn c dung dch rn qu bo ho (hoc l hn hp
cc dung dch rn) trong trng hp ny qu trnh c bn xy ra khi ram hoc ho gi l s
phn r dung dch rn qu bo ho .
Nhit v thi gian gi nhit c chn nh th no sau khi gia cng t c t
chc v tnh cht nh mong mun m khng phi l t chc cn bng nh sau khi . Tc
ngui khi ram hay ho gi, tr mt s trng hp c bit, khng nh hng n t chc v
tnh cht ca hp kim.
V nguyn tc, vic la chn phng php nhit luyn no u c th da trn c s gin
cn bng pha ca hp kim. Do c th chia thnh cc nhm hp kim c bn sau:
- Cc hp kim khng c chuyn pha trng thi rn
- Cc hp kim c ho tan thay i trng thi rn
- Cc hp kim c chuyn bin cng tch
Bt k mt qu trnh cng ngh nhit luyn no cng bao gm ba giai on c bn sau:
nung nng, gi ng nhit v lm ngui.
7.1. V THNG HA THP
7.1.1. thp
7.1.1.1. nh ngha v mc ch ca thp
* nh ngha: thp l phng php nung nng thp n nhit nht nh, gi nhit ri
lm ngui chm cng vi l, t c t chc n nh theo gin trng thi vi cng
thp nht v do cao. T chc t c sau khi thp l P (c th c thm F hay XeII tu
loi thp trc hay sau cng tch).
* c im:
- Nhit khng quy nh theo quy lut chung m tu thuc vo tng phng php
- Qu trnh lm ngui tin hnh rt chm, thng l ngui cng vi l (vi tc
khong 10 50(
0
C/h)) phn ho nhit A1 cho ra P.
* Mc ch ca thp:
- Lm gim cng (lm mm) thp d tin hnh gia cng ct gt.
72
- Lm tng do dai tin hnh rp, cn vo ko thp trng thi ngui.
- Lm gim hay lm mt ng sut bn trong sau cc nguyn cng gia cng c kh (mi,
qun ngui, ct gt ... )v c, hn.
- Lm ng u thnh phn ho hc trn ton tit din ca vt c thp b thin tch
- Lm nh ht thp nu nguyn cng trc lm ht ln
- To t chc n nh chun b cho nhit luyn kt thc
- Cu ho Xe c t chc ht khc vi Xe dng tm.
Vi mc ch a dng nh vy th khng phng php no t c c cc mc tiu
trn. Thng thng mi phng php ch t c mt hoc vi trong s cc ch tiu k trn.
7.1.1.2. Phn loi
C nhiu phng php . Theo chuyn bin pha P khi nung nng, ngi ta chia cc
phng php thnh 2 nhm: c chuyn bin pha v khng c chuyn bin pha.
* Cc phng php khng c chuyn bin pha:
Cc phng php khng c chuyn bin pha c nhit thp hn Ac1, khi khng
xy ra chuyn bin P .
+ thp ( non):
- nh ngha: thp l phng php nung nng thp ti nhit nh hn Ac1 khng
c chuyn bin pha xy ra.
- Mc ch v c: thp c tc dng lm gim hay kh b ng sut bn trong cc vt
c hay cc sn phm thp qua gia cng c kh.
+) Nu nhit thp (200 300
0
C) ch c tc dng lm gim mt phn ng sut bn
trong nhng nhng nhit cao hn (450 600
0
C) tc dng kh b ng sut bn trong c
th hon ton hn.
+) Do lm ngui nhanh, khng u, do chuyn pha khi c, trong vt c tn ti ng sut
bn trong. i vi mt s vt c c yu cu c bit khng cho php tn ti ng sut d .
kh b hon ton ng sut d, ngi ta tin hnh nung nng n 450 600
0
C, sau lm
ngui chm tip theo trnh to li ng sut d. i vi trng hp yu cu khng cao, ch
cn gim ng sut d n mc nht nh, c th tin hnh bo qun t0 thng trong khong 9
12 thng, qu trnh ny cn gi l ho gi t nhin. Do nhit thp nn phng php
ny khng lm thay i cng v kch thc ht.
+ kt tinh li:
- nh ngha: kt tinh li l phng php nung nng thp ti nhit nh hn Ac1
khng c chuyn bin pha xy ra.
- Mc ch v c im: kt tinh li c tin hnh cho cc thp qua bin dng ngui b
bin cng cn khi phc li tnh do, cng trc khi gia cng c kh.
+) Nhit kt tinh li cho thp cacbon l t 600 700
0
C tc l thp hn nhit Ac1.
Loi ny lm thay i c kch thc ht v gim cng, nhng rt t p dng cho thp v
kh trnh to nn ht ln.
+) i vi kim loi a tinh th, do khng ng nht v phng mang gia cc ht nn
ng sut tc dng v bin dng phn b khng u, phn thp b bin dng vi mc ti
hn sau khi c kch thc ln, lm dn thp. trnh hin tng ny, thng dng cc
phng php c chuyn bin pha.
Cc phng php c chuyn bin pha:
Cc phng php c chuyn bin pha c nhit cao hn Ac1, khi c xy ra
chuyn bin P .
73
+ hon ton:
- nh ngha: hon ton l phng php gm nung nng thp ti trng thi hon ton
, tc l phi nung cao hn nhit Ac3 hoc Accm.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Lm nh ht. Nu ch nung qu nhit Ac3 khong 20 30
0
C ng vi nhit
trong khong 780 860
0
C, ht nhn c vn gi c kch thc b, sau lm ngui
chm c t chc F + P ht nh. T chc ny c dai tt.
+) Lm gim cng v tng do, d ct gt v rp ngui. Do lm ngui chm, phn
ho ra t chc F + P (tm) c cng trong khong 160 200HB, bo m ct gt tt v do,
d rp ngui. Nh vy nhit hon ton l

Loi ny ch p dng cho thp c hm lng cacbon ln hn hoc bng 0,3
0
C
+ khng hon ton:
- nh ngha: L phng php gm nung nng thp ti trng thi cha hon ton l ,
nhit cao hn Ac1 nhng thp hn Ac3 hay Accm.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Lm gim cng n mc c th ct gt c, s chuyn bin pha y l khng
hon ton ch c P cn F hoc XeII vn cn (do vy khi lm ngui khng lm thay i
kch thc ht ca 2 pha ).
+) i vi thp trc cng tch, loi thp c yu cu dai cao v khng lm nh c ht
F nn khng p dng dng ny. Do vy, khng hon ton thng c p dng ch yu cho
thp cng tch v sau cng tch vi hm lng cacbon > 0,7%.
+) i vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,7% m ch yu l thp cng tch v sau cng
tch (thp c cng kh cao, kh ct gt). Nu tin hnh hon ton thp ny, t chc nhn
c l P tm, cng c th ln hn 220HB gy cho vic ct gt gp kh khn. Nu tin
hnh khng hon ton, th nhit nung do t c t chc v cc phn t XeII cha
tan ht nn khi lm ngui, cc phn t ny nh l nhng mm gip cho to nn P ht. Sau khi
khng hon ton, thp c t chc P ht vi cng thp hn (khong 200HB) nn m bo ct
gt tt hn.
Vy nhit khng hon ton cho mi thp cacbon lngi
T
0
.k.h.t
= T
0
Ac1
+ (20 30
0
C)
Dng c bit ca khng hon ton l cu ho, trong nhit nung dao ng tun
hon trn di A1: nung n 750 770
0
C ri li lm ngui xung 650 680
0
C, c th trong
nhiu ln. Vi cch lm nh vy, khng nhng cu ho c Xe ca P m c XeII thng
dng li trong thp sau cng tch.
74
+ khuch tn:
- nh ngha: L phng php gm nung nng thp n nhit rt cao 1100 1150
0
C
v gi nhit trong nhiu gi (khong 10 15h)
- Mc ch v c im:
+) To ra ht qu ln do nung lu nhit cao, v vy ch p dng cho vt c trc khi
gia cng p lc. Nu khng qua bin dng do lm nh ht th sau phi li bng cch
hon ton lm nh ht.
+) Lm u thnh phn ca thp do hin tng thin tch gy ra. Cch ny p dng cho
cc thi c bng thp hp kim cao, thng c hin tng khng ng nht v thnh phn ho
hc.
+ ng nhit:
- nh ngha: l phng php gm nung nng thp ti nhit (xc nh theo l
hon ton hay khng hon ton), gi nhit ri lm ngui nhanh xung di A1 khong 50
1000C tu theo yu cu v t chc nhn c.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Vic gi nhit lu trong l nhit di A1 phn ho thnh phn hn hp F +
Xe
+) Thi gian gi nhit tu thuc vo tnh n nh qu ngui ca thp nhit gi
ng nhit (thng gi hng gi)
+) Gim cng thu c cng thp nht ng vi t chc ca P. Kh nhiu thp
hp kim cao, do tnh n nh ca qu ngui qu ln nn lm ngui chm cng l khi cng
khng t c cng thp do vy phi lm cho tc ngui chm hn na nhng rt kh
khn nn khng ch tnh n nh ca qu ngui bng qu ngui.
7.1.2. Thng ha thp
7.1.2.1. nh ngha
Thng ho l phng php nhit luyn gm nung nng thp n trng thi hon ton
(cao hn Ac3 hoc Accm); gi nhit ri lm ngui tip theo trong khng kh tnh (thng ko
ra ngui trn sn) phn ho thnh P phn tn hay X vi cng tng i thp.
Nhit thng ho l :T = T
0
(Ac3 hay Accm) + (20 30)
0
C
7.1.2.2. c im ca thng ho thp
- So vi thp, thng ho kinh t hn do khng phi lm ngui trong l do vy thng
c p dng.
- Tc ngui ngoi khng kh tnh ln hn tc ngui trong l khi , tc ngui tng
tc l qu ngui T cng ln do vy ht thu c c kch thc nh hn so vi khi lm
cho c tnh c tng ln.
- Tng nng sut ca qu trnh cng ngh
- Vi thp sau cng tch th ph c li XeII v to ra t chc ph hp trc khi nhit
luyn kt thc.
- Vi thp c hm lng cacbon trung bnh (%C = 0,35 0,5%) th thng ho to ra t
chc P c cng tng i cao (24 28HRC) nn c th dng lm nhit luyn kt thc thay
ti v ram vi chi tit khng quan trng.
7.1.2.3. Mc ch p dng ca thng ho
Trn c s phn tch cc c im ca thng ho, ta c th thy s dng thng ho c
th t c cc mc ch yu cu sau:
- t cng thch hp gia cng ct gt vi thp cacbon thp (%C < 0,25%)
75
i vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,3% thng tin hnh cn i vi thp c hm
lng cacbon thp cn tin hnh thng ho. Thp c hm lng cacbon thp nh vy nu em
hon ton s cho cng rt thp (nh hn 140HV), thp do, phi kh gy, qun ly dao,
khi thng ho s cho cng cao hn (khong 140 180HB), thch hp vi cc ch gia
cng ct gt.
Nh vy, m bo tnh gia cng ct gt, vi thp c hm lng cacbon < 0,25% phi
thng ho, t 0,3 0,65% cn hon ton v thp c hm lng > 0,7% cn khng hon
ton ( cu ho).
- Lm nh Xe chun b cho nhit luyn kt thc.
Khi thng ho to ra t chc P phn tn hay X vi Xe c kch thc b. Mt khc, Xe
ng nh bin gii ht cng nhiu, do vy khi ho s to ra nhiu mm , nhn c ht nh
mn v chuyn bin xy ra nhanh. Yu cu ny rt cn thit i vi trng hp ti b mt.
- Lm mt XeII dng li ca thp sau cng tch
Nhiu trng hp sau khi lm ngui chm sau khi thp sau cng tch hay b mt thp
thm cacbon, trong t chc xut hin XeII dng li lin tc bao quanh P lm thp rt dn v
nh hng n nhn bng khi gia cng ct gt. Thng ho c th khc phc c trng
thi ny, do lm ngui nhanh hn, Xe khng kp tit ra dng lin nhau m dng t ri. Cc
xa nhau lm thp t dn hn, b mt t c nhn bng cao hn.
7.1.2.4. Nhit v thng ho thp theo gin trng thi
7.2. TI THP
7.2.1. nh ngha
76
Ti thp l phng php nhit luyn nung thp ln cao qu nhit ti hn (Ac1) lm
xut hin t chc , gi nhit ri lm ngui nhanh thch hp chuyn bin thnh M hay cc
t chc khng n nh khc vi cng (nh B, T khi ti ng nhit) v tnh chng mi mn
cao.
7.2.2. c im
- Phi lm ngui trong cc mi trng c tc ngui ph hp (vng > vng.ti hn)
- T chc thu c sau khi ti l t chc khng n nh nn phi kt hp vi ram to t
chc n nh hn.
- Do ti ngui nhanh c im ca chuyn bin M nn chi tit sau khi ti d tn ti bin
dng v ng sut d.
- cng ca sn phm sau khi ti ph thuc vo hm lng cacbon trong thp v tc
ngui (mi trng hay phng php lm ngui).
7.2.3. Mc ch ca ti
- Nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn ca thp do ko di c thi gian lm
vic ca cc chi tit chu mi mn. cng ca thp ti ph thuc vo lng cacbon. Thp c
lng cacbon qu thp < 0,25% khi ti c cng khng cao, khng chu mi mn. Vy,
mun t c mc ch ny thp ti phi c hm lng cacbon trung bnh v cao t 0,3%
cacbon tr ln.
- Nng cao bn do nng cao c sc chu ti ca chi tit my. N tnh cht ny m
ngi ta tin hnh ti thp cho cc chi tit my quan trng (chu ti nng, chng mn v gy),
cc chi tit quyt nh kh nng lm vic lu di ca my. Nguyn cng ti thp ng v tr
quan trng c bit trong nhit luyn v cc l do sau:
+) N quyt nh c tnh ca thp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic do vy quyt nh tui
th ca chi tit my.
+) L mt trong nhng nguyn cng gia cng cui cng, chi tit dng thnh phm.
Cc mc ch nu trn ch t c bng s kt hp vi ram tip theo.
7.2.4. Tc ti ti hn v thm ti
7.2.4.1. Tc ti ti hn
- nh ngha: L tc ngui nh nht cn thit chuyn bin thnh M vi tng loi
thp khc nhau.
T1: nhit ti hn di ca thp; T0: nhit cng vi qu ngui km n nh nht;
Tgh: thi gian km n nh nht ca
77
- c im:
+) Tc ti hn ca thp cng nh cng d ti cng v lc ch cn dng cc mi
trng ngui chm cng t cng.
+) Tc ti ti hn ca cc thp khc nhau cng khc nhau.
N ph thuc vo v tr ca ng cong ch "c" hay l tnh n nh ca qu ngui. Tnh
n nh ca qu ngui cng ln, ng cong ch "c" hay l tnh n nh ca qu ngui.
Tnh n nh ca qu ngui cng ln, ng cong ch "c" dch sang phi cng nhiu, tc
ti ti hn cng nh.
7.2.4.2. thm ti
- nh ngha: l chiu dy lp c chuyn bin M khi ti
Gi s c mt chi tit hnh tr, vi tc ngui ti hn xc nh trn, nhng vng no
c tc ngui ln hn tc ngui ti hn s cho chuyn bin M, vng cn li l chuyn bin
P.
- c im v ngha:
+) thm ti hay chiu dy ca lp c chuyn bin M nh hng n tnh nng lm vic
ca chi tit. Trn c s , vic chn la v tnh ton thm ti ca chi tit ph thuc vo
vic la chn mi trng v phng php lm ngui.
+) Tnh ton ng nhng vng c ti cng ca thp, lm c s xc nh kh nng
lm vic ca chi tit.
7.2.5. Xc nh nhit ti
Khi ti thp, t nht phi nung
thp qu nhit Ac1, tuy nhin i
vi thp c lng cacbon khc nhau th
cch xc nh nhit ti cng khc
nhau.
i vi thp trc cng tch v
cng tch (%C < 0,8%):
78
- Nhit ti ly cao hn Ac3 tc l nung nng thp n trng thi hon ton l
. Cch ti ny gi l ti hon ton
T
0
ti = Ac3 + (30 50)
0
C
Vy, khong nhit ti c xc nh nh sau:
Nh vy, nhit ti ca thp ging nhau v khng ph thuc vo hm lng cacbon.
- Vic chn nhit ti nh vy v l do sau: Vi thp sau cng tch khng th tin hnh
ti hon ton v thp ny c hm lng cacbon cao (>0,8%). Khi nung qu Accm tt c XeII
ha tan ht vo lm cho pha ny c lng cacbon cao (bng lng cacbon ca thp) nn khi
lm ngui nhanh c M vi hm lng cacbon cao, th tch ring ln v do cn li nhiu
d. Mc d, trong cch ti ny M c cng cao nht nhng cng chung ca thp ti (M +
d) li thp do vy thp khng t yu cu v cng. Mt khc, nung thp qua Accm tc l
nhit cao s lm ht ln (gy dn cho thp ti), oxy ha v thot cacbon b mt. Do
vy, i vi thp sau cng tch cn ti khng hon ton t chc nhn c sau khi ti gm
M + XeII + d, c cng chung cao nht khong 62 65HRC. Trong t chc ny, XeII cn
c cng cao hn M cht t hn na XeII do cha ha tan ht vo nn tn ti dng ht
nh phn b u lm tng tnh chng mi mn.
7.2.6. Cc phng php ti
7.2.6.1. Yu cu i vi mi trng lm ngui
- Mi trng ti phi to c chuyn bin M. Mun vy, mi trng ti phi c kh nng
lm ngui thp vi tc ln hn hay bng tc ti ti hn.
- Gim c tc chuyn bin trnh bin dng v ng sut d. Lm ngui chm thp
trong khong nhit trn 600
0
C v di 500
0
C c bit l trong khong nhit chuyn
bin M (di 300
0
C), tc ngui cng chm cng tt v chuyn bin ny gy ra ng sut t
chc ln. t c yu cu ny s m bo thp ti khng b nt v t cong vnh.
iu kin lm ngui l tng nht c m t trn hnh v sau:
thu c t chc M v trnh to ng sut d ta cn ch l trong khong 550
650
0
C nn lm ngui nhanh v khong 200 300
0
C cn lm ngui chm.
- Ngoi 2 yu cu quan trng bn trn, cn ch cc yu cu khc i vi mi trng ti
nh: d kim, s dng an ton, khng c tng tc ha hc, in ha, c bm vo b mt
cao mi trng tip xc u vi chi tit.
7.2.6.2. Cc phng php ti thng thng
* Ti mt mi trng:
79
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti m chi tit ch c lm ngui trong mt mi trng duy
nht (ng (1))
- c im:
+) n gin, d thao tc
+) Khng hn ch c tc ngui khi c chuyn bin M do chi tit d b bin dng
v nt
- Phm vi p dng: Do cc c im trn m ti mt mi trng ch p dng cho cc chi
tit khng quan trng, kt cu n gin.
* Ti 2 mi trng:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti m chi tit c lm ngu trong 2 mi trng c tc
ngui khc nhau. Mi trng 2 c tc ngui chm hn mi trng 1 (ng (2))
- c im:
+) Li dng c u im ca 2 mi trng ti. Lc u khi cn nhit cao, thp c
lm ngui mi trng c tc ngui mnh, su khi gn n nhit chuyn bin M thp
c chuyn sang lm ngui trong mi trng c tc ngui b hn. Chuyn bin M xy ra
trong mi trng ngui chm nn gim bt ng sut bn trong, t nt. y l cch ti thch hp
cho thp cacbon (c bit cho thp cacbon cao) va bo m t cng, va t xy ra bin
dng, nt.
+) Kh xc nh c thi im chuyn chi tit t mi trng mt sang mi trng hai.
Thi im chuyn mi trng tt nht l khi thp c nhit cao hn M
s
khong 100
0
C. Nu
chuyn qu sm, thp b ngui trong mi trng hai c vng nh s d khng t c cng
yu cu, nu chuyn qu mun, chuyn bin M s xy ra ngay trong mi trng mt, ng
sut bn trong ln, gy bin dng v nt.
- Phm vi p dng:
Do cc c im ca ti 2 mi trng m thc hin n phi i hi cng nhn c tay
ngh cao (xc nh thi im chuyn mi trng), kh c kh ha, thng p dng cho sn xut
tng loi nh hoc n chic.
* Ti phn cp:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti s dng mi trng lm ngui l mt loi mui nng chy
nhit ln hn M
s
; T
0
= M
s
+ (30 50)
0
C. Thp c lm ngui v gi ng nhit trong mt
thi gian nht nh t c nhit ca mi trng mui nng chy, sau chuyn sang
mi trng khng kh lm ngui chm to chuyn bin M (ng (3)).
- c im:
80
+) ng sut bn trong thp do qu trnh ngui c chia lm 2 cp nn chynh lch nhit
gia li v b mt thp, chuyn bin M xy ra vi tc ngui rt chm.
+) C th tin hnh nn, sa cong vnh trong cc g c bit khi lm ngui thp trong
khng kh t nhit "phn cp".
+) Khng p dng c cho cc chi tit c tit din ln v mi trng lm ngui c nhit
cao (300 500)
0
C kh nng lm ngui chm nn vi chi tit c tit din ln kh t n
vng.th
+) Mi trng mui nng chy d b n, gy mt an ton v rt c hi
- Phm vi p dng: Cc dng c bng thp hp kim vi tnh n nh ca qu ngui ln
(vt.h nh) c tit din b.
* Ti ng nhit:
- nh ngha: l qu trnh ti cng dng mi trng mui nng chy, gi chi tit trong
mui mt thi gian phn ha hon ton thnh F + Xe c cng tng i cao v dai
tt (thng gi ng nhit 250
0
400
0
C c Bainit) (ng (4)).
- c im:
+) T chc sau ti l B, c cng nh hn M sau khi ti ng nhit, khng cn Ram
+) Vi thp cacbon v hp kim cao, sau khi ti phi tin hnh gia cng lnh nhm mc
ch chuyn bin M hon ton.
Gia cng lnh phi tin hnh ngay sau khi ti v lu nhit thng s lm n nh
ha , hiu qu s km.
- Phm vi p dng: Ch p dng cho cc thp hp kim c tnh n nh ca qu ngui ln
v vi tit din nh. Do to nn t chc tm khng tt nn phm vi p dng ca ti ng nhit
b hn ch. C th p dng cho mt s chi tit v dng c c dng tm mng.
7.2.6.3. Cc phng php ti c bit
* Ti b phn:
- nh ngha: L phng php ti m ch c mt phn chi tit c ti cng tc l c
chuyn bin M.
- Cc cch thc hin: C 2 cch ti b phn.
+) Nung nng b phn: Ch nung nng phn cn ti cng n nhit ti, sau lm
ngui bnh thng trong mi trng ti thch hp, phn c nung nng s c ti cng, cc
phn cn li vn m bo do.
+) Nung nng ton b, lm ngui b phn: Nung nng ton b chi tit ln n nhit ti,
nhng ch lm ngui bng mi trng ti thch hp nhng phn cn cng.
- Phm vi p dng: Thng p dng ti cc chi tit nh li ca, c hay u mt
xupp ca ng c.
81
* C nhit luyn:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ha bn cho php nh s kt hp gia qu trnh c hc (bin
dng do) vi qu trnh nhit luyn (ti) thp.
- Bn cht:
+) C nhit luyn l qu trnh cng tin hnh 2 c ch ha bn l bin dng do v ti
trong mt qu trnh cng ngh duy nht. Sau c nhit luyn, thp c ram thp 100
200
0
C. T chc nhn c l M
ram
.
+) Do bin dng do, cc ht tr nn nh hn, to nn nhiu block, mt lch cao v
th khi ti tip theo s c t chc M rt nh, mn nn c s kt hp cao gia bn, do
v dai m cha c phng php ha bn no c c.
- Phn loi:
Ty thuc vo nhit bin dng cao hay thp hn nhit kt tinh, ngi ta chia c -
nhit luyn nhit cao v nhit thp.
+) C nhit luyn nhit cao
Trong c nhit luyn nhit cao, ngi ta bin dng thp nhit cao hn Ac3 ri ti
ngay tip theo cho s kt tinh li khng kp tin hnh. C nhit luyn nhit cao c cc
c im: phm vi p dng rng ri cho loi thp k c thp cacbon, d tin hnh (v nhit
cao hn Ac3 th do v n nh); c do, dai cao song bn thp do vy c nhit
luyn nhit cao thng c thc hin trong cc xng cn nng thp thnh cc bn thnh
phm.

+) C nhit luyn nhit thp
Trong c nhit luyn nhit thp, ngi ta bin dng thp nhit ca qu ngui c
tnh n nh tng i cao (400 600
0
C) nhit ny phi cao hn Ms nhng thp hn nhit
kt tinh li nhng cn phi trnh chuyn bin thnh T hoc B. C nhit luyn nhit thp
c cc c im ch p dng cho thp hp kim l thp c tnh n nh ca qu ngui cao, kh
tin hnh v cng ngh phc tp, bn t c cao nhng do, dai khng cao.
Nu sau c - nhit luyn li tin hnh bin dng ngui Mram s lm tng bn.
- Phm vi p dng: Hin nay, c nhit luyn c p dng cc xng cn thp ca cc
nh my luyn kim sn xut cc bn thnh phm (thp tm, thp hnh).
7.2.6.4. Mt s mi trng ngui hay dng
* Nc:
82
- c im:
+) L mi trng ti d kim, r tin v an ton
+) C tc ngui nhanh
+) D ph o hi v linh ng cao
+) D gy nt, cong vnh do tc ngui vng chuyn bin M ln
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti cho thp cacbon (%C trung bnh) v nhng chi tit
n gin.
* Du:
- c im:
+) Lp mng hi ca du n nh do tc ngui chm hn so vi nc.
+) linh ng km v o hi kh ph ha
+) Mi trng ti t an ton, d chy
Du thng dng l du mazut, du my
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti theo c hm lng cacbon cao, thp hp kim trung bnh vi
t cch l mi trng ti th hai.
* Mui nng chy:
- c im:
+) Trnh c hin tng oxi ha thp
+) To tc ngui n nh nhng tc ngui chm
+) c hi v d n
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti thp hp kim cao
7.3. RAM THP
7.3.1. nh ngha v mc ch
73.1.1 nh ngha:
Ram l phng php nhit luyn nung thp ti thnh t chc M ln n cc nhit
thp hn Ac1 gi nhit mt thi gian v lm ngui theo yu cu M v d phn ha thnh
cc t chc thch hp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic quy nh.
7.3.1.2 Mc ch:
Sau khi ti thp t c cng cao, do v dai thp v tn ti nhiu ng sut bn
trong. Vi trng thi nh vy, tuy c tnh chng mi mn tt nht thp d b ph hy dn. V
vy, sau khi ti t t chc M, phi tin hnh nung li gim bt cng, tng do,
dai, gim hay kh b ng sut bn trong, lm c tnh ca thp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic
ca chi tit hay dng c.
Ch : Nhit ram khng c > Ac1 v lc s xut hin v ph thuc vo tc
ngui tip theo. Yu t quyt nh t chc v do quyt nh c tnh ca thp ram l nhit ,
thi gian gi nhit khi ram. Do vy, vi mc ch l lm gim hoc mt ng sut d, bin t
chc M + d sau khi ti thnh cc t chc khc c do v dai cao hn nhng cng
v bn ph hp th ram c th coi l nguyn cng nhit luyn cui cng, ch p dng cho
thp ti.
7.3.2. Cc phng php ram
i vi thp cacbon v thp hp kim thp, theo nhit ram v t chc to thnh ngi ta
chia thnh 3 loi ram: ram thp, ram trung bnh v ram cao.
7.3.2.1. Ram thp
- nh ngha :l phng php nung thp ti trong khong 150 250
0
C t
chc t c l Mram.
83
- Mc ch: lm gim ng sut d trong M, tit ra mt phn cacbon khi M lm
cng gim i rt t (1 3HRC).
- Phm vi p dng: Cc sn phm chu ram thp sau khi ti l cc chi tit v dng c cn
cng v tnh chng mi mn cao: dao ct kim loi, khun rp ngui, dng c o, vng bi.
7.3.2.2. Ram trung bnh
- nh ngha: L phng php nung thp ti trong khong 300 4500C t chc thu
c l T
ram
.
- Mc ch: Lm gim gn nh ton b ng sut d, tit cacbon ra khi M tuy nhin
cng ca thp vn cn kh cao, gii hn n hi t c gi tr cao nht, do, dai tng
ln.
- Phm vi p dng: Cc sn phm cn ram trung bnh sau khi ti thng l cc chi tit yu
cu c tnh n hi cao nh l xo, nhp, dng c cn dai cao nh khun rp nng, khun rn.
7.3.2.3. Ram cao
- nh ngha: L phng php nung thp ti trong khong 500 6500C t chc thu
c l Xram.
- Mc ch: cng ca thp ti gim mnh, ng sut bn trong b trit tiu, bn gim
i, cn do, dai tng ln mnh.
- Phm vi p dng: Ti v ram cao cn c gi l nhit luyn ha tt nn thng c p
dng ch to cc chi tit c yu cu v c tnh tng hp cao, chnh v th nhit luyn ha tt
thng c p dng cho cc chi tit chu va p nh trc khuu, trc truyn lc, thanh truyn,
xupp np, bnh rng...Thp dng nhit luyn ha tt thng c hm lng cacbon trong
khong 0,3 0,5%.
7.3.3. Cc khuyt tt xy ra khi nhit luyn
Nhit luyn ci thin rt nhiu c tnh ca thp, song nu thc khng ng s gy ra cc
h hng. Cc h hng xy ra khi nhit luyn, c bit khi nhit luyn kt thc (ti + ram) s
gy ra lng ph ln. Cn hiu r cc nguyn nhn gy ra cc h hng , cng nh cc bin
php ngn nga v khc phc chng.
7.3.3.1. Bin dng, nt
- Hin tng: S khng m bo v hnh dng ban u hoc xut hin cc vt nt t vi
trn sn phm sau khi nhit luyn (c bit nguy him khi ti).
- Nguyn nhn: Do ng sut d pht sinh bn trong gy ra bin dng v nt. Khuyt tt
ny c th xy ra c khi nung nng ln khi lm ngui. Nung nng nhanh v c bit l i vi
cc thp dn nhit km (thp hp kim cao) s gy ra ng sut nhit ln, trong dng ny thng
xy ra khi lm ngui. Lm ngui nhanh trong qu trnh ti, ng sut nhit v ng sut t chc
u ln.
Nu ng sut bn trong vt qu gii hn bn, thp s nt l dng khuyt tt khng th
cha c. Nu ng sut bn trong vt qu gii hn chy, chi tit s b bin dng (cong vnh).
- Tc hi: C hai loi bin dng v nt u gy ph phm.
- Cch khc phc: Ngn nga xy ra bin dng v nt bng cch gim ng sut bn trong.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt trong qu trnh nung bng cc bin php:
+) Xc nh tc nung nhanh hp l trnh nt. i vi thp hp kim cao c tnh dn
nhit km, khi nung nng khng a t ngt vo l c nhit ti cao ngay, m trc cn
nung trc cc l c nhit thp hn.
+) Cn xc nh ng cch thc nung chi tit cho hp l.
84
i vi cc trc di, khi nung trong l khng nn t nm ngang trn sn l m nn treo
thng ng.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt trong qu trnh ngui khi ti bng cc bin php:
+) Chn mi trng v phng php ti thch hp c chuyn bin M
+) Chn phng php nhng chi tit, dng c vo mi trng ti. Khi nhng phi tun
theo cc nguyn tc: Chi tit gm nhiu b phn dy, mng khc nhau th phi nhng phn dy
trc, chi tit di, nh v l xo phng, mng phi nhng thng ng. Cc chi tit hnh ng phi
m bo trc vung gc vi mt cht lng.
+) gim ng sut nhit do lm ngui khi ti thng p dng bin php ti h nhit tc
l chi tit ngoi khng kh t ngui khong 50 70
0
C sau mi nhng vo mi trng
ti. Cch lm ny thng p dng cho thp ti nhit cao nh thp thm cacbon, thp dng
c hp kim.
+) i vi cc chi tit d cong vnh nh tm mng, bnh rng th bin php chng bin
dng l lm ngui khi ti trong khun p.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt bng bin php thit k:
C gng to cho chi tit c thnh dy u, cn i khng c gc nhn v nhng phn thay
i tit din t ngt.
7.3.3.2. Oxi ha v thot cacbon
- Hin tng: Oxy ha l hin tng to nn cc vy oxyt trn b mt thp, lp oxt st
khng bn, d b bong ra, lm sai kch thc v xu b mt sn phm.
Thot cacbon l hin tng hm lng cacbon b mt thp b gim i do n b chy v
vy lm c tnh lp b mt - phn quan trng nht ca chi tit - b gim thp.
- Nguyn nhn:
+) xi ha: Do khi nung n nhit cao (ln hn 570
0
C) trn b mt ca thp xut hin
mng oxuyt st, c xp cao nn khng ngn cn c oxi n tip xc do vy gy ra hin
tng xi ha b mt thp.
+) Thot cacbon: Cng vi hin tng xi ha b mt thp, th cacbon cng kt hp vi xi
to ra cc xuyt cacbon (CO, CO2) lm gim cht lng b mt ca chi tit.
Thot cacbon thng xy ra vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,6%. Do tn ti chnh lch
nng cacbon gia sn phm v mi trng nn to thun li cho qu trnh khuch tn
cacbon b mt thp. nhit cao, h s khuch tn tng mnh.
D
c
= D
0
.e-Q/KT
Khuyt tt ny hay xy ra cc nguyn cng nhit luyn v thng ha thp.
- Tc hi
+) Lm hao ht kim loi gy sai hng v kch thc cho chi tit
+) Lm gim c tnh ca sn phm m in hnh l gim cng
- Cch khc phc
i vi cc nguyn cng nhit luyn s b, v sau cn tin hnh gia cng c nn nu
chiu su lp khuch tn ny nh hn lng d gia cng th khng cn lu v lp s b bc i,
khng cn li trn sn phm.
Bin php ngn nga tt nht l to ra mi trng nung khng gy ra cc tc dng xy ha
st v cacbon. Trong k thut thng dng cc mi trng sau.
+) Kh quyn bo v: l mi trng kh vi t l xy rt thp v gm c cc kh CO
2
,
CO, H
2
O, H
2
, CH
4
v N
2
trong N
2
chim t l ch yu t 50 75% v vi cc t l nht nh
85
gia nhng thnh phn ca cc kh xy ha v hon nguyn ca cc kh lm thot cacbon v
thm cacbon
Vi t l thch hp ca cc kh c tc dng ngc nhau s lm cho thp khng b xy ha
v thot cacbon.
+) Kh quyn trung tnh: Kh quyn bo v ch p dng cho thp cacbon v thp hp kim
thp. Vi cc thp crom cao c cc lc mnh vi xy do vy khng dng c quyn bo v
nn phi dng cc kh nh H
2
, N
2
, NH
3
.
+) Nung trong chn khng: l phng php nung trong cc l c chn khng cao
khong 10
-2
10
-4
mmHg nn c kh nng chng xy ha v thot cacbon rt tt song y l
phng php rt t nn t c s dng.
Trong iu kin khng c cc bin php bo v k trn, phi dng cc bin php khc nh:
ri than trn sn l, cho chi tit vo hp c ph than, kh xy trit trong cc l mui...
7.3.3.3. cng khng t
- Hin tng: cng khng t l dng khuyt tt cng cao hoc thp hn so vi
cng m thp c th t c tng ng vi loi thp v phng php nhit luyn cho.
- Nguyn nhn:
+) cng cao: Khi v thng ha xy ra hin tng ny lm kh khn cho ct gt v
bin dng do tip theo. Nguyn nhn c th l do tc ngui ln.
+) cng thp: Khi ti xy ra hin tng ny lm cho thp khng c tnh lm vic.
Nguyn nhn c th l: thiu nhit (nung cha n nhit yu cu, thi gian gi nhit cha
), lm ngui khng nhanh xy ra chuyn bin M hay do thot cacbon b mt.
- Tc hi: Lm gim tui th v tin cy ca chi tit
- Cch khc phc:
+) nh li chnh xc cng ngh nhit luyn
+) Kim tra cht ch qu trnh thc hin
7.3.3.4. Tnh dn cao
- Hin tng: Sau khi ti, thp b dn qu mc v lm gim t ngt dai va p.
- Nguyn nhn: Khi nung nng thp nhit cao qu quy nh lm ht ln nn khi ti
c t chc M hnh kim ln, tnh dn cao.
- Tc hi: Lm gim tui th v tin cy ca chi tit
- Cch khc phc:
+) Thng ha thp ri ti li nhit ng quy nh.
+) Kim tra cht ch nhit nung
7.3.3.5. Dn ram
- Hin tng: Khi ram, nu tng nhit ram ko theo dai va p tng song trn thc
t, khi ram thp hp kim li c hin tng gim cc b dai va p ak khi tng nhit ram.
- Nguyn nhn: Do trong thp cha cc nguyn t c li gy dn thp l P v S.
- Tc hi: Lm gim kh nng lm vic ca chi tit, gy nguy him khi s dng.
- Cch khc phc: Dn ram t c kh nng khc phc nn trnh hin tng ny cho chi tit.
Trn thc t, dn ram ch c th khc bng cch ram nhit cao hn vng dn ram 2 sau
lm ngui nhanh.
7.4. S LC V CC THIT B NHIT LUYN
7.4.1. c im ca l nhit luyn
86
Cc l nhit luyn l cc l dng nung nng thp, gang v cc kim loi khc khi nhit
luyn. Chng c nhng yu cu ring so vi cc loi l khc dng trong ch to my v luyn
kim.
7.4.1.1. Yu cu i vi l nhit luyn
bo m cht lng khi nung nng, l nhit luyn phi m bo c cc yu cu sau
y:
- D dng khng ch nhit, tc phi iu chnh nhit mt cch d dng, v nh th bin
nhit cao hoc thp hn gi tr quy nh u gy h hng. Nhit phi c khng ch
trong phm vi hp +(5 10
0
C). Tt nht l dng l s dng nng lng in c thit b o v
khng ch nhit . Cng c th dng l vi nhin liu kh hoc lng.
- Nhit gia cc vng trong khong khng lm vic ca l khng sai khc nhau nhiu.
- Kh quyn ca l cng t xy ha, t thot cacbon cng tt.
- D c kh ha, t ng ha.
- An ton v t c hi.
7.4.1.2. Phn loi l nhit luyn
C nhiu cch phn loi khc nhau ph thuc vo cng dng ,cch thc s dng hay
phng thc lm vic.
Theo cng dng: - Theo cng dng cc l nhit luyn c th c chia ra : , ti, ram,
thm cacbon, ti b mt...Tuy nhin, theo nhit lm vic mt l c th c nhiu cng dng.
V d loi l bung in tr c nhit lm vic n 950
0
C c th dng ti, , thng ha,
thm cacbon th rn.
- Theo phng thc lm vic: cc l nhit luyn c phn ra l lm vic gin on (theo
chu k, t): cho vo v ly ra theo tng m v l lm vic lin tc.
- Theo ngun nhit: Theo ngun pht ra nhit nung c cc loi sau:
+)L in: Loi dng in pht ra nhit, hnh thc c th khc nhau nh dng in tr,
dng in cm ng, dng in trong cht in phn (l mui in cc)...Phn ln cc l nhit
luyn thuc loi ny.
+) L dng than: dng than t nh l phn x dng than , l dng than qu
bng...Nhc im ca loi l ny l kh khng ch nhit , nhit cc vng chnh lch,
iu kin lm vic.
+) L du: loi l t bng du mazut
+) L kh: loi l t bng kh t
Hai loi l sau cng t ph bin nc ta.
- Theo mi trng truyn nhit: c th chia ra cc loi:
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l khng kh: loi l t bng dy in tr. y l loi l dng
ph bin nc ta.
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l khi bo v: kh quyn c th khng ch kh tr...
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l kh chy: l phn x t than, l du, l kh
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l cht rn: l lp si
7.4.2. Cc nhm thit b nhit luyn
7.4.2.1. Nhm thit b nung (gia nhit)
* L phn x t nhin liu rn
S nguyn l
87
1. Bung t
2. Tng chn
3. Bung nung phi
4. ng khi
5. Chi tit
- Nguyn l lm vic: Nhin liu (than ) c t trong bung (1). Nhit lng bc x
nung nng vm bung (3),vm bung (3) bc x xung vt nung trn y l v nung nng vt
cn gia nhit. Tng l, bung t xy bng gch chu la(samt)
- c im:
+) Kt cu n gin, d xy dng, r tin
+) C kch thc a dng kh nng p dng rng ri
+) S dng nhin liu sn c
+) Thao tc d dng, d sa cha
+) Kh to mi trng kh bo v
+) Khng ch t
0
khng chnh xc
+) Khi cn m bo mi trng khng tt, hiu qu km
- Phm vi p dng: p dng cho nhit luyn s b
* L s dng nng lng in
- Nguyn l: Dng bin p h in li xung in p lm vic c 24 - 48V, cng
dng qua thanh (dy) in tr tng nn nhit ta ra. Dng nhit ta ra nung nng khng
gian bung l v chi tit. Tng l xy bng gch chu v v ngoi bng kim loi
88
- c im:
+) Kch thc khng th qu ln
+) t tin: Thit b, nhin liu
+) Khng gian bung l kn c th to c mi trng bo v
+) Lun c cc thit b khng ch t0 chnh xc
- Phm vi p dng: c dng nung thp khi ti
K hiu: CHO, CHz, N, KDE CHO - 30 - 45 - 60 - 25c
CHO: mi trng b xi ha
30-45-60: kch thc l
250: cng sut
CHz - 30 - 45 - 60
CHz: mi trng c kh bo v
M - 30 - 45 - 60
M: l cht lng thng
* L mui (l mui in cc)
- Nguyn l: Dng mi trng mui nng chy nung thp khi ti.
- c im:
+) Bo v chi tit rt tt
+) Trng nhit ng u
+) c hi, d mt an ton
- Phm vi p dng: c p dng cho chi tit c bit quan trng
* L ging
- c im: Dng hnh tr, khi lp, 80% l chm trong lng t
- Phm vi p dng: Ti, ram cc chi tit trc, bc c chiu di ln
7.4.2.2. Nung nng thp v xc nh thi gian nung nng ti
* Cc phng php nung
Trong nhit luyn tn dng phng php nung nhanh do t dng phng php cht chi
tit vo l ri cng nng nhit vi l. Thng p dng cch nung nng bng cch cho chi tit
vo l c nung nng c nhit gn bng hoc cao hn nhit cn nung.
89
- Cho chi tit cn vo l nhit 500 600
0
C, sau nung chi tit cng vi l n
nhit quy nh, gi nhit ri lm ngui chm cng l.
- Cho chi tit vo l khi t n nhit quy nh. Cch nung ny nhanh thng p
dng cho nung nng ti.
- Cho chi tit vo l khi l t nhit cao hn nhit quy nh, lc ban u s lm nhit
ca l h thp xung nhit quy nh mt cch d dng. Cch nung ny nhanh nht.
- Trong cng nghip cn dng cc loi l nung lin tc, chng c dy bung v nhit
khc nhau t nhit thp n nhit quy nh, khi chi tit chuyn ng dc qua ht dy
bung s hon thnh c qu trnh nung nng
* Xc nh thi gian nung nng ti
Xc nh ng thi gian nung nng l yu t quan trng xc nh cht lng nhit
luyn, c bit l khi ti thp. Nh vy khi nung nng thp c 2 qu trnh l: nng nhit - qu
trnh nng nhit chi tit ln n nhit ca l v gi nhit - qu trnh gi chi tit nhit
khng i ca l.
Do , tnung = tnng nhit + tgi nhit
7.4.2.3. Nhm thit b lm ngui v thit b kim tra
- Nhm thit b lm ngui: Rt a dng ph thuc vo yu cu ca sn phm.
- Nhm thit b kim tra: o c nhit nung nng mt cch chnh xc l yu t quan
trng u tin m bo cht lng nhit luyn. Khng kim tra v khng ch c nhit
nhung s gy ra phn ln cc khuyt tt nhit luyn v vy kim tra nhit nung l vic rt
quan trng v kh trong qu trnh nhit luyn. C th kim tra bng cc phng php sau: Kim
tra bng ha quang k hoc kim tra bng cp nhit, hay dng phng php khng ch nhit
t ng - t chnh xc cao nhng ch hp vi khng gian bung l trung bnh v nh.

90
CHNG 8: HA BN B MT THP
8.1. B MT CHI TIT V CC PHNG PHP HA BN B MT
8.1.1. B mt chi tit v cc yu cu lm vic ca b mt
B mt chi tit l phn ranh gii gia chi tit my v mi trng lm vic hoc vi chi tit
my khc trong c cu, b phn.
iu kin lm vic:
- Chu nh hng trc tip cc tc ng mi trng nh cc tc ng c, l ha.
- L ni u tin tip nhn ti trng nn thng xuyn chu ma st, mi mn trong cc c
cu.
- D b bin dng hoc trc r b mt.
Cc iu kin lm vic trn cho thy, b mt chi tit l ni c iu kin lm vic khc
nghit nht do vy vic cn thit phi ha bn b mt nng cao tin cy ca chi tit. Cc
thng s tin cy ca chi tit bao gm (B; 0,2; -1; cng HRC, do dai v ; a
k
;
do d). Mc ch ca ha bn b mt l tng tin cy ca chi tit trong qu trnh lm
vic.
8.1.2. Cc phng php ha bn b mt thp
B mt ca chi tit bng thp l b phn c yu cu cao nht v b mt chnh l ni lm
vic chu ng sut tc dng ln nht, chu mi mn khi chu ma st vi chi tit khc. Rt nhiu
chi tit ch yu cu b mt c cng, bn cao trong khi li vn gi nguyn do dai
tt.
C 3 phng php lm tng cng ca b mt so vi li:
- Phng php c hc
- Phng php nhit luyn b mt
- Phng php ha nhit luyn
8.2. PHNG PHP C HC
8.2.1. Nguyn l
Nu bng phng php c kh lm bin dng c b mt ca thp n chiu su nht
nh, th lp ny do mng tinh th b x lch s b bin cng ( cng v bn tng ln). Nh
vy, chi tit c cng b mt cao, cn trong li vn gi c do dai tt.
Bin cng b mt c cc c im sau:
- Lp b mt c cng cao do chng mi mn tt hn.
- To nn lp ng sut nn d lp b mt do vy lm tng gii hn mi.
- Khi bin dng nh vy lm mt i kh nhiu tt hng b mt nh vt kha, r, do vy
lm gim ngun gc sinh ra cc vt nt mi.
- Di tc dng ca ng sut khi bin dng, trong thp ti c chuyn bin d thnh M,
do vy lm tng tnh chng mi mn ca b mt thp ti. Bin cng b mt c p dng
khng nhng cho thp m c cho thp ti.
8.2.2. Cc phng php c hc
8.2.2.1. Phun bi
Phun bn nhng vin bi cng lm bng thp l xo hay gang trng vi kch thc (0,5
1,5) mm l b mt chi tit. Tc ca bi t n (50 100) m/s bng my ly tm quay nhanh
s va p do phun bn cc vin bi ln b mt c tc dng to ra trn b mt chi tit v s cc
vt lm nh. Chiu su lp bin cng b mt t n 0,7mm.
c im ca phun bi l t bin dng do ng u, cht lng cao, thit b n gin
d iu chnh, khng to c lp ha bn c chiu di ln.
91
8.2.2.2. Ln p
Ln bng con ln hay bng bi vi p lc ln nh l xo hay my nn thy lc. Chiu su
lp bin cng c th t ti 15mm. Thng p dng cho cc chi tit ln nh c trc toa xe la,
c trc khuu.
8.2.2.3. p
p l hnh thc bin dng b mt bng va p to nn bi cc dng c va p, g lp va
p bng l xo v c thc hin trn my cng c. Lp bin cng c th sau ti 35 mm, v
vy thng dng p trong ch to ha bn cc chi tit ln ca thit b rn p v my nn
thy lc.
8.3. PHNG PHP NHIT LUYN B MT
8.3.1. nh ngha
Ti b mt l phng php nung nhanh b mt thp ti nhit ti sau lm ngui
thu c b mt c t chc M, phn li vn gi nguyn c tnh tng hp cao.
8.3.2. Nguyn l
C nhiu phng php ti b mt song song chng u da trn nguyn l chung l nung
nng tht nhanh b mt vi chiu su nht nh ln n nhit ti, trong khi phn ln tit
din khng c nung nng, khi lm ngui nhanh tip theo ch c b mt c ti cng cn li
khng c ti vn m bo mm, do. C th nung nng nhanh b mt ti bng cc
phng php sau:
- Nung nng bng dng in cm ng c tn s cao
- Nung nng bng ngn la ca hn hp kh C
2
H
2
+ O
2
- Nung nng bng tip xc gia 2 phn gip nhau khi c dng in chy qua
- Nung nng trong cht in phn
8.3.3. Cc phng php ti b mt
8.3.3.1. Phng php ti b mt bng dng in c tn s cao
- Nguyn l:
Khi mt chi tit kim loi t trong t trng bin thin s sinh ra sc in ng cm ng
nn trong chi tit s c dng in cm ng cng tn s. Nh tnh cht ny ngi ta dng dng
in c tn s cao hng nghn n hng chc vn Hz nn dng cm ng cng c tn s cao nh
vy. c tnh ni bt ca dng in cm ng c tn s cao l n c mt ln nht b mt v
gim nhanh v pha li vt dn, nh c kh nng nung nng nhanh b mt ln n nhit
ti. Chiu su ca lp c dng in chy qua ph thuc vo tn s ca dng in, in tr sut
v t thm ca vt nung.
: t thm (gaus/ecstet)
f: tn s (Hz)
: in tr sut (.cm)
Nh vy, tn s cng cao, chiu su lp nung nng v lp ti cng mng. Thc t, ngi ta
dng dng in c tn s trong khong 2.500 250.000 (Hz)
- S :
1. Thit b to dng in c tn s cao
2. ng dn
3. Vng cm ng v nc lm mt
92
4. Chi tit
Vng cm ng thng lm bng ng c dng hnh ng hoc l xo xon rut g vi
ng kmh trong ln hn ng knh ln nht ca chi tit. Khi nung nng, chi tit c t
trong vng cm ng sau b mt i dng in cm ng nung nng n nhit ti (qu trnh ny
ch ko di t vi n vi chc giy), ngi ta nhc chi tit ra ri nhng vo mi trng ti
(thng thng lm ngui bng cch phun nc hoc dung dch lm ngui) ngy trong vng
cm ng.
- Chn tn s v thit b to dng tn s cao:
Tn s ca dng in quyt nh chiu dy lp nung nng do quyt nh chiu su lp
ti cng. Chiu su lp ti cng i vi cc chi tit khc nhau cng khc nhau, cc chi tit vi
tit din ln cn chiu su lp ti cng dy hn so vi cc chi tit vi tit din b hn. Thng
thng, chiu su lp ti cng c chn theo 2 mc (4 6) mm i vi chi tit ln v (1
2) mm i vi chi tit b.
Cc chi tit ln chn tn s t (2500 8000) Hz cn cc chi tit b c tn s t (50.000
250.000) Hz.
Thit b to dng c tn s cao s dng my pht c cng sut t (400 500) KW v
thit b iu ch c cng sut t (15 75) KW.
- c im ca chuyn bin pha khi nung nng bng dng in cm ng c tn s cao:
Khc vi phng php nung nng thng thng trong cc l nung th tch c tc
nung nng chm, nung nng bng dng in cm ng rt nhanh, nn chuyn bin pha ca thp
c cc c im sau:
+ Do nung vi tc cao, cc nhit chuyn bin pha u nng cao. Do vy, nhit ti
phi ly cao hn nhit ti chn theo cch thng thng t 100 200
0
C.
+ Do nung vi qu nhit cao nn tc chuyn bin pha khi nung rt nhanh, thi gian
nung nng rt ngn.
+ Do thi gian nung ngn, mc d nhit cao, ht vn khng kp ln ln, nn sau khi
ti c c M hnh kim rt nh (gi l M khng t chc (tc l khng thy hnh kim
phng i 500).
T chc ny c c tnh rt tt, tc l khng nhng c cng cao hn M thng thng m
li t dn hn.
m bo t c t chc , trc khi ti cao tn, thp nn c t chc X- ram, vi t
chc F + Xe nh mn ny, khi nung cm ng vi tc cao, to nn rt nhiu mm . V vy
trc khi ti cao tn, thp thng c nhit luyn ha tt.
- Thp dng ti cao tn:
Do yu cu ca chi tit em ti cao tm l lm tng cng ca t mt m li vn m
bo do, nn thp em dng phi l thp cacbon trung bnh, trong khong 0,4 0,6%. Vi thp
c hm lng cacbon hn 0,4% th khi ti cng b mt khng t chng mi mn, cn
thp vi lng cacbon cao hn 0,6% th sau khi ti b mt rt cng nhng li li km do, d
nt do s truyn nhit. V vy, thp dng ti cao tn thng l thp 40, 45, 40x, 50x .
- Ch ram v c tnh t c:
m bo cng cao b mt, sau khi ti cao tn, ngi ta ch tin hnh ram thp.
Lc , b mt s c t chc Mram rt cng, cn li c t chc P hay X, c bn v do
cao. Mt trong nhng u vit ca phng php ti b mt bng dng in c tn s cao l to
nn b mt lp chu ng sut nn d, c th t n gi tr 800MN/mm2. Nguyn nhn to
thnh ng sut nn d l do c chuyn bin M lm tng th tch cn trong li khng c
93
chuyn bin g, 2 phn ny cn tr ln nhau nn lp ngoi chu nn v trong chu ko. Lp ng
sut nn d c nh hng tt n tnh chu mi ca thp.
- u im ca ti cao tn:
+ Nng sut cao do thi gian nung ngn
+ Cht lng tt do nhit c to thnh chnh trong lp kim loi b mt trong thi gian
rt ngn nn gim rtn hiu nhng khuyt tt c th xy ra khi nung nng.
+ Gim nh iu kin lao ng ca cng nhn do mi trng lm vic sch, khng c kh
c, d c kh ho v t ng ho.
8.3.3.2. Ti b mt bng nung nng bi ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2
Ti b mt theo phng php ny c thc hin bng cch dng m t hn hp kh
C
2
H
2
+ O
2
ca thit b hn hi.
Ngn la ca m t hn hp kh trn rt nng, c ch ti 3000
0
C do vy c kh nng
nung nng nhanh b mt n nhit cao, trong khi li vn ngui. Sau khi lm ngui nhanh
ch c lp b mt c ti cng.
- Cu to ngn la:
Cu to ca ngn la gm 3 vng: Vng nhn, vng lm vic (c nhit cao nht) v
vng nung s b. Vng c nhit cao nht chnh l vng c s dng nung chi tit n
nhit ti.
- c im ca phng php ti bng ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2
:
+ Thit b n gin, d thc hin: Tnh c ng cao (d lp t, di chuyn v c th t
ngay trong xng c kh). C th ti nhng chi tit ln hoc b.
+ Cht lng kh bo m tt. Ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2
c nhit qu cao do vy b mt thp
d b qu nhit, ht ln (M hnh kim ln) do vy c th gy ra oxy ho v d b chy b mt.
Chiu dy lp ti khong 5 10mm v kh iu chnh lp nung nng.
+ Nng sut thp, ch thch hp vi sn xut n chic.
8.4. Phng php ho nhit luyn
8.4.1. Khi nim
L phng php nhit lm bo ho (khuych tn) vo b mt ca thp mt hay nhiu
nguyn t lm thay i thnh phn ho hc, do lm thay i t chc v tnh cht ca lp
b mt theo mc ch nht nh.
8.4.2. Mc ch
- Tng cng v tnh chng mi mn, bn mi ca chi tit. Mc ch ny ca ho
nhit luyn ging phng php ti b mt nhng t hiu qu cao hn.
- Nng cao tnh chng mi mn in ho v ho hc (chng oxi ho nhit cao), chu
axit ca lp b mt chi tit thp.
94
8.4.3. C s l thuyt ca qu trnh ho nhit luyn
Thng thng, khi ho - nhit luyn ngi ta t chi tit thp vo mi trng (rn, lng
hoc kh) c kh nng phn ho ra nguyn t hot ng ca nguyn t nh khuch tn, ri
nung nng n nhit thch hp. Cc qu trnh xy ra theo 3 giai on ni tip nhau.
Phn ly: L qu trnh to ra cc nguyn t hot tnh ca nguyn t cn a vo chi tit
(nguyn t cn thm) c nng lng v kh nng khuch tn cao. C th tin hnh bng phn
ng ho hc hoc phn ly nhit.
Hp th: Sau giai on phn ly, cc nguyn t ht c hp th vo b mt thp sau
chng khuch tn vo kim loi c s to nn dung dch rn hoc cc pha phc tp: Pha trung
gian hoc hp cht ho hc. Kt qu ca s hp th l to nn b mt thp lp c nng
nguyn t nh khuch tn cao, to nn chnh lch v nng gia b mt v li c ch ca
qu trnh hp th c th nh: lc ho hc, lc lin kt hoc lc ht tnh in.
Khuch tn: L qu trnh cc nguyn t cht thm i su vo bmt ca chi tit cn thm,
tng tc vi cc nguyn t nn (chi tit) v to thnh lp thm. Qu trnh khuch tn l quan
trng nht, n quyt nh chiu dy ca lp thm to thnh.
C s khuch tn: L mt qu trnh t pht, xy ra khi c s chnh lch nng ca cc
nguyn t. Qu trnh ny tun theo nh lut Fick.
- nh lut Fick 2
Phng trnh vi phn ca nh lut

t: thi gian
x: kh nng phn b theo to
Trong :
+ Khi T = const th coi D = const cn khi T thay i th D thay i
+ S thay i h s khuch tn theo nhit c biu th nh sau:
95
Q: hot nng khuch tn
+ thay i x dng phng php thay i
thi gian cn gi nguyn nhit .
8.4.4. Cc c ch khuch tn
- C ch nt trng: Cc nguyn t ca nguyn
t cn thm i vo cc nt trng trong mng ca
nguyn t cu to nn chi tit do vy lp b mt to
thnh dung dch thay th.
- C ch nt xen k: i vo l hng ca mng tinh th ca nguyn t nn to dung dch
rn xen k hoc pha xen k.
- C ch i ch theo vng: Cc nguyn t s i ch cho nhau to dng vt cht chuyn
ng hoc i ch tng cp.
8.4.5. Cng ngh thm cacbon
8.4.5.1. nh ngha
Thm cacbon l phng php nhit luyn lm bo ho (thm, khuch tn) cacbon vo b
mt ca thp cacbon thp (thng l 0,1 0,25% cacbon) to ra lp b mt c t chc thp
sau cng tch (P + XeII) nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn nhng vn gi nguyn
tnh do ca li.
8.4.5.2. Mc ch v yu cu i vi lp thm, chn loi thp thm
Mc ch: Mc ch ca thm cacbon l lm cho b mt ca thp cng ti trn 60HRC, c
tnh chng mi mn cao, chu mi tt, cn li vn gi c tnh do, dai ca thp ban u em
thm. Do , chi tit em thm cacbon l chi ti chu ti trng va p m b mt chu ma st.
Mc ch trn ch t c nu chi tit c ti v ram thp sau thm.
Yu cu i vi lp thm:
t c cc mc ch trn, lp thm ccbon v li phi t c cc yu cu sau:
- Lp thm c nng cacbon trong khong 0,8 1% thm di gii hn ny sau khi ti
lp thm khng cng v tnh chng mi mn, cao hn gii hn ny lp thm c th b
dn, trc. Thc nghim cho thy, vi nng cacbon ca lp thm nh vy chi tit va c
cng, tnh chng mi mn tt li t c bn ln nht.
- T chc t vi ca b mt v li sau khi thm, ti v ram thp phi t: b mt - mactenxit
v cc phn t cacbit nh mn phn b u, li - mactenxit v khng c ferit.
Chn loi thp thm: Thp thm cacbon s dng cc loi thp c hm lng cacbon
thp (< 0,25%C)
8.4.5.3. Chn nhit v thi gian thm
Nhit thm:
- Nguyn tc chn nhit thm cacbon l sao cho ti thp c t chc hon ton (v
ch c t chc ny mi c kh nng ho tan nhiu cacbon).
96
- Nhit cng cao, qu trnh khuch tn cng mnh, cng nhanh t chiu su lp thm.
Do vy, ngi ta s dng nhit thm cacbon cao song khi nhit cao th lm ht ln nn
lm tng tnh dn.
- Theo thc nghim Dcmax (920 950)
0
C nn ngi ta thng chn nhit thm
khong c qu trnh khuch tn mnh nht.
- Sau khi thm, nng cacbon s tng t C
0
C
1
ng thi lm thay i t chc b mt
ca chi tit. C th l trong li, chi tit ca t chc P + Fe (m bo tnh do ca li) tip
l P v b mt chi tit c t chc l P + XeII (m bo cng ca b mt). Hay ni khc i, t
chc ca thp thay i t trc cng tch cng tch sau cng tch tng ng t li ra b
mt ca chi tit.
- Nng cacbon lp b mt t t (0,9 1,1)% v chiu su lp thm m bo tnh
chng mi mn phi t t (0,8 1,2)mm.
Thi gian thm:
Thi gian thm cacbon ph thuc ch yu vo chiu dy lp thm yu cu, nhit thm
v mi trng thm.
- Chiu dy lp thm yu cu cng ln, thi gian thm cng di, mc tng thi gian thm
ln hn nhiu so vi mc tng chiu dy lp thm.
- Nhit tng cng cao, thi gian thm cng ngn. Nhit thm ph thuc vo loi
thp ang dng.
97
- Mi trng thm khc nhau thi gian thm cng khc nhau. Thm trong mi trng lng
thi gian ngn nht, sau n khi, di nht l thm trong mi trng rn.
8.4.6. Cc phng php thm cacbon
Tu theo trng thi cht thm khc nhau m ngi ta phn ra lm cc phng php thm
khc nhau: Thm th rn, thm th lng v thm th kh.
8.4.6.1. Thm cacbon th rn
Phng php thm: Hn hp than hoa v cht tr dung (dng cc mui cacbonat).
- Than hoa c p vn (c ht t 0,5 1m) trn u vi cht tr dung (BaCO
3
) v
cng vi chi tit cn thm c ng vo hp kn, trong cc chi tit cch nhau v cch thnh
hn hp khong 25 40m. Sau a hp vo nung n nhit thm.
- nhit thm, thp c t chc hon ton l v trong iu kin rt thiu oxi nn xy ra
phn ng ho hc 2C + O
2
2CO
Khi gp b mt thp v di tc dng xc tc ca n, kh CO b phn ho v to thnh
cacbon nguyn t.
2CO CO2 + Cnguyn t
Cc mui cacbonat y ng vai tr quan trng v n phn ho nhit cao thnh kh
CO2 v kh ny c li cho vic to thnh cacbon nguyn t theo phn ng:
+ Cnguyn t
Cacbon nguyn t c to thnh b mt thp c tnh hot cao, b hp th v khuch tn
vo lp b mt n chiu dy nht nh. Nguyn t cacbon xen k vo trong mng ca v lm
thnh phn ca pha ny tng ln.
c im:
- n gin, d thc hin, r tin
- Khng th iu chnh c nng cacbon thm vo lp b mt theo yu cu, thng
nng cacbon t trn 1,2% tc l ng vi gii hn ho tan cacbon trong .
- Thi gian thm rt di do mt nhiu thi gian nung nng hp cha than.
- Kh c kh ho, t ng ho, iu kin ng hp bi, bn, nng sut thp.
Do nhng c im trn, m thm cacbon th rn khng p dng cho cc chi tit quan
trng.
8.4.6.2. Thm cacbon th lng
Phng php thm: Dng hn hp mui nng chy gm:
(75 85%) Na
2
CO
3
+ (10 15%) NaCl + (6 10%) SiC
nhit 840 860
0
C. Trong SiC l thnh phn chnh thm cacbon nn thnh phn
ca n gim i trong qu trnh lm vic.
c im:
- Thi gian ngn, nung nng v thm ng u
- Khng iu chnh c nng cacbon lp b mt
- Kh thao tc l, iu kin lao ng khng tt
- Kh c kh ho, t ng ho, nng sut rt thp
- Khng thm c cho cc chi tit ln do phi dng l mui in cc c kch thc b.
98
8.4.6.3. Thm cacbon th kh
Phng php thm: Dng kh CH
4
to ra cacbon nguyn t theo phng trnh phn ng.

Cacbon nguyn t c kh nng hp th tt vo b mt thp. Trong thc t, ngi ta khng
th dng ch hn hp CO, CH
4
v cc hirocacbon khc thm v nh vy to ra qu nhiu
cacbon nguyn t v lp thm c nng cacbon qu cao. Hn hp kh thm cacbon thng
dng, ngoi cc thnh phn kh c tc dng thm nh CH
4
, CO v cc hirocacbon khc cn
phi c mt lng nht nh cc thnh phn kh khc nh CO
2
, N
2
, H
2
, O
2
l nhng kh ln vo
hoc c a vo iu chnh nng kh thm nhm khng ch lng cacbon b mt thp.
c im:
- Cht lng tt do m bo iu chnh c nng cacbon lp b mt thp theo yu
cu.
- Thi gian ngn do khng phi nung nng hp cha than
- D c kh ho, t ng ho
- iu kin lao ng tt, khng c hi
- Thit b t tin nn thng p dng cho cc chi tit quan trng.
8.4.6.4. Nhit luyn sau thm cacbon
Do thm cacbon nhit cao (920 950)
0
C nn thp c trng thi ht ln do vy khi
lm ngui thu c t chc M th, sut hin nhiu vt nt t vi v ng ng sut d ln chnh v
th buc phi nhit luyn sau thm cacbon
Ch nhit luyn:
- Nhm c ht di truyn ht ln:
Ti nhit thm, to ht ln nn lm xu c tnh. Nhit luyn sau khi thm khng
nhng phi m bo b mt cng m cn phi khc phc c khuyt tt . Do vy phi tin
hnh hai ln ti: ln th nht - cho li lm nh ht, ln th hai - cho b mt t cng
cao. Nh vy, nhit ca 2 ln ti phi khc nhau v li l thp trc cng tch c nhit ti
cao hn b mt l thp sau cng tch v cng tch. Nn ch nhit luyn ca loi thp ny: Ti
2 ln + ram thp.
Ti ln 1: Cho phn li m T
ti
= 850 870
0
C vi 2 mc ch:
+ Lm nh ht thp, do nung ti nhit > Ac3 ca li c chuyn bin F + P
ht nh
+) Lm mt li XeII lp b mt do lm ngui nhanh pha ny khng kp tit ra khi .
Sau ln ti ny, cng b mt khng t c gi tr cao nht chng mi mn, do
vy phi ti tip ln na.
Ti ln 2: Cho b mt nhit 760 780
0
C b mt l thp sau cng tch v cng tch
c cng ln nht. Ln ti ny khng nh hng xu n kt qu t c ln ti trc.
Ram thp: Nhit 180 280
0
C vi mc ch kh b 1 phn ng sut m vn gi
c cng cao b mt.
c im v phm vi p dng: Thp thu c c c tnh tt (ht nh, do ca li cao,
b mt cng), nhng do nung nng lm ngui nhiu ln d sinh oxy ho, thot cacbon v bin
dng, chu trnh cng ngh di, tn km hn, do vy ch p dng cho chi tit quan trng, c yu
cu cao v c tnh v lm bng thp cacbon.
99

- Nhm c ht di truyn ht nh:
i vi cc chi tit t quan trng, lm bng thp cacbon hoc hp kim c th p dng
phng n ti 1 ln v ram thp v khi , ti ch tin hnh cho ti b mt.
i vi thp c ht bn cht nh, d gi nhit lu nhit cao, ht vn gi c kch
thc b do vy khng cn nguyn cng nhit luyn lm nh ht v c th tin hnh ti trc
tip ngay sau khi thm cacbon m khng cn c qu trnh nung nng li.
Ti ln 1: Nhit t 750 770
0
C
Ram thp: Nhit ram t 180 2200
c im: Rt ngn thi gian thc hin, d c kh ho, t ng ho, cho nng sut cao nn
thng c p dng cho cc chi tit n gin.
8.4.6.5. T chc v c tnh ca chi tit thm cacbon
Sau khi nhit luyn, ton b chi tit thm cacbon c t chc Mram. b mt do nng
cacbon cao, M c cng cao cng vi 1 lng nht nh cacbt d s m
bo tnh chng mi mn cao. trong li, do thnh phn cacbon thp, M c cng trung
bnh vi bn tt v do tng i cao.
- cng b mt phi t 60 63 HRC, cng ca li 30 40 HRC.
- cng b mt cao hn v do c tnh chng mi mn tt v th thng chn cng
ngh thm cacbon cho cc chi tit lm vic trong iu kin "nng" (V d nh bnh rng gim
tc).
Ch :
Vi thp hp kim cao, sau thm cacbon phi kt hp gia cng lnh. Thp c Ti, V (thp c
ht di truyn ht nh), ch tin hnh ti 1 ln + ram thp.
8.4.7. Thm Nit
8.4.7.1. nh ngha v mc ch
100
Thm nit l phng php ho nhit luyn nhm bo ho lp b mt thp bi nit to ra
cc pha xen k c cng v phn tn cao. Do vy lm tng cng, bn v tnh chng
mi mn ca chi tit.
8.4.7.2. Cu to ca lp thm nit
Thm nit ch tin hnh th kh. Ngi ta tin hnh thm nit bng cch nung nng chi
tit trong dng kh amoniac (NH
3
) nhit 480 650
0
C l nhit m ti n b phn ho
mnh nht theo phn ng.
Nit nguyn t c hot tnh cao, b hp th v khuch tn vo mt thp. C s xc nh
t chc ca lp thm nit l gin trng thi Fe - N.
Cc pha trong h Fe - N gm c:
- dung dch rn xen k ca nit trong Fe - Fenitnit
- dung dch rn xen k ca nit trong Fe - Auxtenit nit
Ch tn ti nhit cao hn 591
0
C, ti nhit ny khi lm phn ho thnh hn hp
cng tch [ + '].
': dung dch rn trn c s ca pha xen k kiu Fe
4
N - l pha c cng cao (>1200HV)
: dung dch rn trn c s ca pha xen k kiu Fe
2
N
8.4.7.3. Cng ngh thm nit
- Khi thm nit, t cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, ngi ta khng dng thp
cacbon thng thng, v cc nitrit st c khuynh hng kt t nhit cao, do vy c kch
thc ln, lp thm khng c cng v tnh chng mi mn tht cao v tr nn dn, d trc.
Do vy, thm nit ngi ta thng dng thp hp kim c bit vi cc nguyn t Cr, Mo,
Al. (V chng c p lc mnh hn st) c tnh phn tn ln, n nh nhit cao nn lp thm c
cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, chc, khng trc.
- Mc ch thm nit l to ra pha ' v trn lp b mt nn khng cn nng nhit n
trng thi hon ton. Mt khc, h s khuch tn Dmax 500
0
C nn ngi ta chn nhit
thm khong 500
0
C. Thi gian thm ko di, to ra cc pha xen k.
101
- Khng th ti v ram sau khi thm nit, v lp thm mng, nung nng t
0
cao d gy ra
h hng. Do nhit thm thp hn nhit ram nn qu trnh thm khng lm gim c tnh
cao ca li t c khi ti v ram cao trc .

8.4.7.4. c im ca lp thm nit
+ cng rt cao, tnh chng mi mn tt, kh nng dnh bm tt. So vi thm cacbon,
thm nit c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao hn r rt. Hn na, tnh cht ny ca lp
thm gi c ti nhit cao 500 600
0
C v theo gin trng thi Fe-N cu trc ca lp
thm khng thay i nhit di 591
0
C.
+ Nng cao bn mi do to nn lp ng sut nn d b mt
+ Nng cao tnh chng mi mn trong kh quyn. B mt ngoi cng lp thm nit c t
chc l pha , pha ny c c tnh l cu to rt xt cht, do vy c tnh bo v tt.
+ Thi gian ca qu trnh thm rt di v ch c th tin hnh thm nit th kh.
V nhng l do trn, m thm nit thng p dng cho cc chi tit my quan trng nh
trc khuu v cc trc quan trng.
8.4.8. Thm Cacbon - Nit
8.4.8.1. nh ngha v mc ch
- Thm cacbon nit l phng php lm bo ho (thm, khuch tn) ng thi cacbon v
nit vo b mt thp nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn. cng v tnh chng mi
mn ca lp thm cacbon - nit cao hn so vi thm cacbon nhng thp hn so vi thm nit.
- Tu thuc cc t l ca cacbon v nit m lp thm c th gn vi thm cacbon hn hoc
nit hn. Nu qu trnh xy ra nhit cao (920 950
0
C) th qu trnh ch yu l thm
cacbon, cn nhit thp (500 550
0
C) th qu trnh ch yu l thm nit.
102
8.4.8.2. Cc phng php thm
- Thm cacbon nit th rn. Tin hnh ging nh thm cacbon th rn. Trong cht th
m c 20 40% mui K
4
Fe (CN)
6
hoc mui K3Fe(CN)
6
; 10%Na
2
CO
3
cn li l than g.
Phng php ny thng dng cho cc dng c bng thp gi, thp crm cao tng cng,
tnh chng mi mn v tnh cng nng song do mi trng rt c, nng sut thp nn t dng.
- Thm cacbon - nit th lng: Thm cacbon - nit th lng tin hnh trong cc b
mui m thnh phn gm cc mui xianua: NaCN; KCN, K
4
Fe(CN)
6
, K
3
Fe(CN)
6
v cc mui
trung tnh Na
2
CO
3
, NaCl, KCl. Tu theo nhit thm m phm vi p dng cng khc nhau
song phng php b hn ch p dng do mi trng thm rt c.
- Thm cacbon - nit th kh: V c bn, cch thm ny khng khc thm cacbon th
kh nhiu nhng c nhiu u im hn, to pha cabon - nitrit (Fe
3
CN) phn tn, rt cng lm
tng tnh chng mi mn, thi gian thm ngn, nng sut cao, thi gian s dng thit b thm
c ko di nn phng php ny thng c p dng rng ri hn v thng c s dng
trong sn xut cc chi tit t, my ko, ng c...
Ngoi 3 phng php thm cacbon, nit, cacbon - nit, ngi ta cn thm mt s nguyn
t khc nh Bo, Cr, Al, Si nhm t c cc mc ch khc nhau ca ngi s dng.
CHNG 9
GANG V NHIT LUYN GANG
9.1. Gii thiu chung v gang
9.1.1. nh ngha
- Theo thnh phn ho hc: Gang l hp kim ca Fe vi C m trong thnh phn C >
2,14%.
- Theo t chc t vi: Gang l hp kim ca Fe vi C m trong t chc c Le.
Cc cch nh ngha trn u tng ng vi trng thi cn bng gi n nh theo ng gin
trng thi Fe - Fe
3
C
9.1.2. Phn loi
Trong qu trnh s dng tin phn loi ngi ta da vo t chc t vi ca gang. Trn c
s , gang c phn thnh cc loi sau:
- Gang trng: L gang c cacbon tn ti dng Xe(Fe
3
C). Nh vy, t chc t vi ca gang
trng hon ton ph hp vi gin gi n nh Fe - Fe
3
C lun lun c cha hn hp cng tinh
Le.
103
- Gang xm, cu, do l loi gang trong phn ln hay ton b cacbon di dng t do
- graphit vi cc hnh dng khc nhau: tm, cu, bng. Trong t chc khng c Le, do t
chc t vi khng ph hp vi gin trng thi Fe - C. T chc t vi ca gang c Graphit v
Xe. Ngi ta chia t chc ca chng ta ra hai phn: phn phi kim loi - Graphit v nn kim loi
gm F v Xe. Khi tt c cacbn dng t do th nn kim loi ca t chc ch gm c F, cn khi
mt phn cacbon dng lin kt th nn kim loi ca t chc c th l F - P; P hoc P - Xe.
Chnh do c im v t chc t vi nh vy m cc loi gang c c tnh v cng dng khc
nhau.
9.1.3. C tnh v tnh cng ngh
- C tnh: Nhn chung gang l loi vt liu c bn do thp, dn cao Xe l pha cng
v dn, s tn ti ca n vi mt lng ln v tp trung trong gang trng lm d dng cho s
to vt nt di tc dng ca ti trng ko. Do , gang trng c bn ko thp v dn
cao.
Trong gang xm, do, cu t chc Graphit nh l cc l hng c sn trong gang, l ni tp
trung ng sut ln, lm gang km bn. Mc tp trung ng sut ph thuc vo hnh dng
graphit, ln nht gang xm vi graphit dng tm v b nht gang cu vi graphit dng cu
trn. V vy, gang cu c bn cao nht, tnh do tt nht trong cc loi gang. Song s c mt
ca graphit trong gang c mt s nh hng tt n c tnh nh tng kh nng chng mn do
ma st, lm tt rung ng v dao ng cng hng
- Tnh cng ngh
Gang c tnh c v tnh gia cng ct khng tt: cc loi gang thng dng c thnh phn
gn cng tinh nn nhit chy thp, do chy lng cao v l mt trong nhng yu t
quan trng ca tnh c, graphit trong cc gang xm, do v cu lm phi d gy vn khi gia
cng ct.
9.1.4. Cng dng
Ni chung gang c c tnh tng hp khng cao nh thp nhng c tnh c tt v r nn
dng ngi ta dng gang lm rt nhiu cc chi tit my nh: b my, v, np, cc b phn t
phi di chuyn hay c th dng gang cu lm trc khuu thay cho thp.
9.1.5. S hnh thnh graphit trong gang
Cc loi gang c thnh phn cacbon ging nhau (>2%) nhng c loi ch to nn Xe nh
gang trng, c loi li to nn Graphit. Trong gang, graphit c th c 3 dng ch yu: tm, cu,
nhng dng tm ca graphit trong gang xm l dng t nhin.
9.1.5.1. Graphit
Graphit c mng lc gic, trong cc nguyn t cacbon nh c xp thnh tng lp
mt: khong cch gia cc nguyn t trn mi lp rt gn nhau -1,42A0; cn gia cc lp li
rt xa nhau -3,4A0. Do cu trc nh vy nn khi to thnh t trng thi lng, graphit pht trin
rt nhanh (theo cc phng v mt c mt nguyn t ln), lm cc lp ny di, rng ra rt
nhanh c dng tm (phin) cong. Chnh v vy, graphit tm l dng t nhin ca graphit
trong gang.
9.1.5.2. S to thnh graphit trong gang
xt kh nng to thnh graphit trong gang hy ln lt xt cc yu t nng lng t do
v cng ngh to mm ca graphit v Xe.
* iu kin nng lng: Nng lng t do ca Graphit lun lun nh hn ca Xe mi
khong nhit . Nh vy, v phng din ny s to thnh Graphit c li hn. Nhng nng
lng t do ch l yu t quyt nh chiu hng ca qu trnh, s kt tnh ra Graphit c thc
hin c hay khng cn ph thuc vo cng to mm na.
104
* Cng tc mm: Cng to mm ca Xe nh hn ca Graphit rt nhiu. Do vy v phng
din ny, s to thnh Xe c li hn s d, cng to mm Graphit ln hn Xe l do:
- V thnh phn ho hc: Graphit c 100%C, cn Xe c 6,67%C cn gang lng khong
3 4%C, <2,14%C. T thy rng, t gang lng v t , to nn Xe, cacbon phi khuch
tn, ba ng t hn so vi khi to nn Graphit.
- V cu to mng tinh th: c mng lp phng gn vi Xe hn l vi Graphit c mng
lc gic.
+) S to thnh Graphit t gang lng v t khi lm ngui ch xy ra trong phm vi nhit
hp, mun xy ra phi lm ngui vi tc rt chm.
+) S to thnh graphit t gang lng v t l qu trnh chm chp v cng to mm
graphit ln v cn s khuch tn nhiu ca cacbon.
9.1.5.3. Cc yu t nh hng n qu trnh hnh thnh Graphit khi kt tinh
* Thnh phn ho hc: thnh phn ho hc ca gang nh hng ln n s to thnh
graphit. Gang l hp kim ngoi Fe, C ra cn cha nhiu cc nguyn t khc nh Mn, Si, P,
S...chng c nh hng khc nhau n s to thnh Graphit.
Si l nguyn t thc y mnh s to thnh Graphit v n lm gim kh nng ho tan ca
cacbon trong gang lng v trong . iu chnh mc to thnh graphit, lng Si trong
cc loi gang thay i trong phm vi t 0,3 0,5% i vi gang trng v t 1 3% i vi
cc loi gang cn li.
Mn l nguyn t ngn cn s to thnh Graphit, Mn qu nhiu d lm gang, ho trng. Tuy
nhin, Mn l nguyn t c li v mt c tnh.
105
* Tc ngui
Tc ngui khi kt tinh lc c gang c nh hng mnh n s to thnh Graphit. Tc
ngui cng chm cng thc y qu trnh to ra Graphit. V vy, c trong khun ct d to
thnh gang xm hn c trong khun kim loi. nh hng tng hp v thnh phn ho hc (%C
+ %Si) v tc ngui n mc to thnh Graphit c biu th nh sau:
I- Gang trng (vng khng c Gr)
II- Gang xm Peclit (vng Gr ho b phn) III- Gang xm Ferit (vng Gr ho hon ton)
* S phn ho ca Xe
Ngoi s to thnh Graphit t trng thi lng v t khi kt tinh, cn c s to thnh
Graphit t Xe trng thi rn. Xe l pha khng hon ton n nh, iu kin nhit nht
nh, n s b phn ho thnh hn hp + Gr hoc F + Gr.
nhit cao hn 727
0
C, lc khi gi nhit lu Xe s phn ho thnh v Gr cn
nhit thp hn 727
0
C, lc Xe s phn ho thnh F v Gr. Qu trnh phn ho Xe trng
thi rn c s dng nhit luyn gang t n mc to thnh lng graphit mong mun.
9.2. T chc t vi v c tnh cc loi gang
9.2.1. T chc t vi v c tnh ca gang xm
9.2.1.1. T chc t vi
Gang xm l loi gang m phn ln hay ton b cacbon ca n nm di dng t do -
Graphit rt t hay khng c cacbon di dng lin kt vi st - Xe (lng cacbon lin kt
106
khong di 1% cacbon trong tng lng cacbon ca gang thng l 3 4%). Do trong t chc
c nhiu Gr, mt gang c mu xm ti.
T chc t vi gm 2 phn: phn nn v graphit
* Phn nn: ph thuc vo mc Gr ho m c cc loi nn khc nhau.
- Nn Peclit - gang xm peclit: C mc to thnh Graphit bnh thng, trong lng
cacbon lin kt khong 0,6 0,8% to nn peclit tng ng vi thp cng tch. Khi , t
chc ca gang gm Graphit tm v nn kim loi Peclit.
- Nn peclit - Ferit - gang xm P-F c mc to thnh Graphit mnh trong lng
cacbon lin kt ch khong 0,1 0,6% to nn nn kim loi F-P, tng ng vi thp trc
cng tch. T chc ca gang gm: Graphit tm v nn kim loi F-P.
- Nn Ferit - gang xm Ferit: c mc to thnh Graphit mnh nht, trong tt c
ccbon u dng t do - Graphit lng cacbon lin kt khng c, tc l khng c Xe. Gang
ch c hai pha Graphit tm v nn kim loi l F.
* Graphit: Graphit trong gang xm c dng tm cong ( l dng t nhin thng gp
trong gang) chia ct ton b nn gang v khng c chuyn bin khi nhit luyn.
Thnh phn ho hc: Thnh phn cc nguyn t trong gang xm phi m bo mc to
thnh Graphit v c tnh theo yu cu.
Cacbon: Cacbon cng nhiu, kh nng to thnh Graphit cng mnh, nhit chy cng
thp, cng d c. Tuy nhin, khng th dng gang vi hm lng cacbon qu cao v lc s
c qu nhiu Graphit lm gim c tnh ca gang. Xu hng l dng gang vi lng cacbon
cng thp cng tt. Thng thng, hm lng cacbon t 2,8 3,5%.
Silic: Silic l nguyn t thc y mnh s to thnh graphit, n l nguyn t quan trng
nht trong gang xm. Theo mc to thnh graphit nn ngi ta khng ch lng silic ca
gang xm trong khong 1,5% 3%. Ngoi ra, trong gang silic ho tan vo F lm tng rt mnh
cng v bn ca pha ny.
Mangan: Mangan l nguyn t cn tr s to thnh graphit tc lm ho trng gang.
m bo yu cu to thnh graphit, gia Mn v Si cn phi c t l tng ng. Thng dng
gang xm vi lng 0,5 1%Mn.
Lu hunh: L nguyn tn cn tr mnh s to thnh graphit ca gang, ngoi ra cn lm
xu tnh c ca gang do lm gim chy lng. Do vy, phi hn ch lng lu hunh trong
mi loi gang.
Photpho: L nguyn t khng nh hng g n s to thnh graphit nhng photpho c
ch trong nhng trng hp sau:
- Lm tng tnh chy lng
- Lm tng tnh chng mi mn do to nn cng tch
9.2.1.2. C tnh
Do nh hng ca graphit dng tm m gang xm c c tnh km hn thp nhiu.
- Chu nn tt.
- Chu ko v un km graphit l pha c bn rt thp nn trong gang n nh nhng
vt rng, nt lm mt s lin tc ca nn kim loi do vy lm gim mnh bn ko.
- C kh nng dp tt dao ng do tc dng hp th ca graphit.
- Tnh c cao do tc dng ca Si nn tnh chy lng cao
Cc yu t nh hng n c tnh ca gang:
* nh hng ca graphit
107
- C tnh ca gang xm ph thuc vo s lng, ln v s phn b ca graphit. Graphit
cng nhiu tc l s vt rng cng nhiu th c tnh ca gang cng km.
- ln hay kch thc ca graphit nh hng ln n c tnh ca gang xm. Graphit tm
cng di tc s chia ct nn kim loi cng ln, c tnh ca gang xm cng thp. nng cao c
tnh ca gang xm phi dng cc bin php lm nh mn graphit lm graphit cng ngn, cng
nh, cong th cng tt.
* Cc bin php nng cao c tnh ca gang xm
- Gim lng cacbon ca gang: Thc hin bin php ny gp kh khn v nng cao nhit
nng chy ca gang.
- Bin tnh: Thng c p dng mt cch rng ri nng cao c tnh. Gang xm bin
tnh c graphit nh mn, phn b u, do vy c c tnh tt hn.
- Hp kim ho: a thm nguyn t hp kim vo gang, ngoi tc dng nng cao c tnh,
ci thin l tnh v mt s tnh cht c bit khc nh tnh chng n mi, chng mi mn...
- Nhit luyn: Ti v ram gang xm, bin nn kim loi thnh cc t chc
Troxtit, Xoocbit, Mactenxit ram.
K hiu:
- Tiu chun ca Vit Nam GX a-b
- Tiu chun ca Nga: C a-b
a: gii hn bn un b: gii hn bn ko
V d: GX14-24, C14-28
9.2.2. T chc t vi v c tnh ca gang do
T chc t vi ca gang do cng ging nh gang xm v gang cu song ch khc ch:
graphit ca n dng hoa bng x x phn b u.
9.2.2.1. Thnh phn ho hc
Trong gang do, graphit c to ra trong qu trnh do thnh phn ho hc ca gang
do phi m bo sao cho qu trnh Graphit ho khng c xy ra bt c b phn no khi
kt tinh m ch c xy ra khi v vy, lng C v Si khng c nhiu qu khng c
Graphit ho khi kt tinh vt c nhng phi xy ra Graphit ho khi .
- Lng ccbon trong gang do cng thp cng tt, v khi lng cacbon thp tnh do ca
gang sau khi cng cao tuy nhin li gy ra kh khn v mt cng ngh.
9.2.2.2. Quy trnh gang trng thnh gang do
Gang em l gang trng trc cng tinh.
- u tin gang trng trc cng tinh vi t chc Pt Le c nung nng ti 1000
0
C, ti
nhit ny, gang trng c t chc 0+Le
108
- Gi lu 1000
0
C t A --> B c qu trnh phn ho ca Xe v qu trnh Gr ho nhit
cao.

Giai on ny c gi l giai on Gr ho ln th nht, trong xy ra qu trnh Gr ho
ca Xe cng tinh.
- Lm ngui chm t 1000C xung 700
0
C t B --> C c qu trnh xy ra l Graphit gi
nguyn, 2,14 P0,8 + Xe6,67
Nu qu trnh dng li C s nhn c gang do P. c gang do F phi tip tc
.
- Gi lu nhit 700
0
C t C E, Xe trong cng tch P b phn ho theo phn ng
Fe
3
C
6,67

0,02
+ G
100
Sau khi Xe cng tch phn ho ht, gang ch c t chc F + G tc l gang do F. (Nu t E
lm ngui nhanh thu c gang do F; nu dng D sau ngui nhanh thu c gang do P -
F).
9.2.2.3. C tnh ca gang do
- Do Gr dng tng i tp trung nn gang do c bn ko cao hn gang xm nhng
km hn gang cu.
- C cng v bn tng i cao gn bng thp
- Tnh c cao hn thp nn c dng sn xut cc chi tit ln, phc tp chu ti trng
cao thay cho thp trong sn xut hng lot.
9.2.2.4. K hiu
- Theo TCVN: GZa-b
- Theo tiu chun Nga: Ka-b
a: ng sut ko (N/mm2)
b: dn di tng i (%)
9.2.3. Gang cu
Gang cu hay cn gi l gang c bn cao vi Gr cu, l loi gang c bn cao nht,
ng thi c th chu c ti trng trong va p.
9.2.3.1. T chc t vi
T chc t vi ca gang cu cng ging gang xm, song ch khc l Gr ca n c dng hnh
cu. Theo t chc t vi ca nn kim loi cng c 3 loi gang cu: F, F+P v P
9.2.3.2. Thnh phn ho hc v cch sn xut vt c gang cu
* Thnh phn ho hc:
- V c bn, thnh phn ho hc ca gang cu ging gang xm song ch khc l Mg v Ce
vi lng rt nh. Qu trnh bin tnh gang lng nhn c gang c Gr cu l qu trnh
tng i phc tp v Mg l nguyn t c i lc mnh vi oxi nn d b chy. Trong khi nu
qu trnh t Mg th cha tc dng cu ho Gr cn nhiu Mg li lm gang ho trng.
- Thnh phn ho hc ca gang cu sau khi bin tnh gm: 3 3,6% C; 2 3% Si; 0,5
1% Mn, gn 2 % Ni; 0,04 0,08 % M cn lng P, S rt nh.
* Cch sn xut vt c gang cu:
Gang cu thu c trc tip t qu trnh c. m bo qu trnh th gang em cu
ho phi p ng c cc yu cu sau:
- Phi c hm lng Si Gr ho
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- Phi c nguyn t cu ho lm thc y to Gr dng cu phn tn (s dng Mg di dng
hp kim Mg - Ni trnh b chy Mg).
9.2.3.3. C tnh gang cu
Gang cu l dng gn nht, t chia ct nn kim loi nht v t tp trung ng sut hn c, do
vy t lm gim c tnh ca nn kim loi. C tnh ca gang cu ph thuc ch yu vo t chc
ca nn kim loi.
- C bn nht nh, cng cao (tng ng vi thp)
- C do dai tng i cao nn c th chu ti trng chu k tt
- Tnh c cao, do c cc tnh cht trn nn gang cu c s dng sn xut cc chi tit
phc tp thay cho thp.
9.2.3.4. K hiu
- Theo TCVN: GCa-b
- Theo TC Nga: Ba-b
a: ng sut ko k [kg/mm2]
b: gin di tng i (%)
9.3. Nhit luyn gang
i vi gang, nhit luyn cng c ngha quan trng. Theo trn, gang do c ch to
bng cch t gang trng, do vy gang do l mt ni dung quan trng ca nhit luyn gang.
Trong phn ny ta ch trnh by cc phng php nhit luyn p dng i vi gang xm v
gang cu.
9.3.1. Nhit luyn gang xm
Khi nhit luyn gang xm ch lm bin i c t chc ca nn kim loi hoc bin i
lp v bin trng thnh gang xm m khng th lm bin i c dng tm ca graphit cng
nh kch thc ca n. i vi gang xm thng p dng cc dng nhit luyn sau:
9.3.1.1. kh ng sut bn trong
Khi kt tinh, do lm ngui v chuyn bin t chc nn trong vt c ng sut nhit v ng
sut t chc, cc ng sut ny thng lm bin dng hoc i khi lm nt vt c. i vi
nhiu chi tit ng sut bn trong nh vy l khng cho php v khng bo m chnh xc
ca my.
lm mt hon ton ng sut bn trong, ngi ta tin hnh nung nng vt c ln ti
500 - 550
0
C gi nhit ri lm ngui chm cng l n 200
0
C sau lm ngui ngoi khng kh.
Khng nn a nhit ln qu 550
0
C hoc gi nhit qu lu v s lm graphit ho gy ra
gim cng, bn ca gang.
9.3.1.2. lm mt lp v bin trng
i vi nhiu vt c gang xm khi lm ngui nhanh, b mt c lp v bng gang trng
cng, rt kh gia cng ct. lm mt lp ny phi tin hnh nhit cao 850 - 880
0
C lc
c qu trnh phn ho ca xmentit thnh graphit v auxtenit, v trong qu trnh ngui tip
theo xmentit II v xmentit cn tinh li phn ho thnh graphit. Kt qu cui cng c lp b
mt l gang xm vi nn kim loi ferit hay ferit - peclit tu theo mc graphit ho nhiu hay
t.
9.3.1.3. thay i nn kim loi
- gim cacbon lin kt:
Lng cacbon lin kt ca nn kim loi c nh hng ln n c tnh. Khi gim lng
cacbon lin kt, v d t 0,6 - 0,8% (nn peclit) xung 0% (nn ferit) tnh do s tng ln. Gim
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lng cacbon lin kt bng cch bin n ra dng t do, tc l thc hin s graphit ho xmentit
theo phn ng.
Fe
3
C F +G
ng nhin nhit phi thp hn A1 xmentit trong cng tch c phn ho ht.
Thng tin hnh khong 700
0
C.
- tng cacbon lin kt:
Gang xm c nn kim loi peclit c c tnh cao nht, nhiu trng hp vt c c t chc
ferit hoc ferit - peclit c th nhit luyn thnh peclit.
c im ca tng cacbon lin kt l phi nung gang ln qu nhit ti hn A1.
Khi nung nng qu nhit A1 v A3 nn kim loi ca gang vi cc t chc ferit, ferit -
peclit chuyn bin thnh auxtenit, cong graphit vn gi nguyn. Gi nhit lu, graphit ho tan
vo auxtenit cho ti gii hn bo ho nhit cho. Nu thi gian gi nhit c tnh ton
thch hp sao cho lng cacbon trong auxtenit ti gii hn c tnh ton thch hp sao cho
lng cacbon trong auxtenit ti gii hn khong 0,6 - 0,8% khi lm ngui vi tc va phi
hn ch s graphit ho th auxtenit ny bin thnh peclit v ta nhn c gang xm peclit.
9.3.1.4. Ti v ram
Mc ch ca ti v ram i vi gang xm cng l tng bn, cng v tnh chng
mi mn, nhng hiu qu khng ln nh i vi thp do khng bin i c graphit.
Khi nung nng ti, nn kim loi ca gang xm chuyn bin theo gin trng thi Fe-C
v nhit ti c chn v tnh ton theo t chc ca gang c t chc auxtenit - graphit, gi
nhit trong thi gian thch hp graphit ho tan vo auxtenit pha ny t ti 0,6-0,8%C.
Ri sau lm ngui nhanh c mactenxit c cng cao - graphit tm.
cng ca gang xm sau khi ti lun lun thp hn thp cng tch sau khi ti 5-10HRC
mc d mactenxit ca gang xm cng chuyn bin ging nh khi ram mactenxit ca thp cn
graphit vn gi nguyn khng chuyn bin.
Ram thp (150 200
0
C) gang xm c t chc mactenxit ram - graphit Ram trung bnh
(300 450
0
C) gang xm c t chc trxtit ram - graphit Ram cao (500 650
0
C) gang xm c
t chc xoocbit ram - graphit
9.3.1.5. Ho bn b mt
i vi gang xm thng ho bn b mt bng cch ti b mt v ho nhit luyn, thng
khng p dng bin php ho bn b mt bng c kh (phun bi, ln p...) Ti b mt gang xm
thng tin hnh bng cch nung nng bi dng in cm ng c tn s cao. Nhit ti
thng p dng l 850 - 950
0
C. Ti cao tn nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn, bn
mi v thi hn lm vic. T chc tt nht ca gang xm em ti b mt l nn kim loi peclit
nh mn v graphit phn tn.
Phng php ho nhit luyn p dng cho gang xm thng l thm nit, thm xyanua.
9.3.2. Nhit luyn gang cu
nng cao hiu qu s dng sau khi c xong vt c gang cu thng c
em nhit luyn.
9.3.2.1.
C nhiu phng php gang cu
kh ng sut tin hnh nhit 500 - 600
0
C. Cch ging nh i vi gang xm,
khng lm bin i t chc t vi.
i vi nhiu vt c gang cu, do Mg c tc dng ho trng nn cc ch thnh mng
thng b bin trng, cng v dn, cn phi tin hnh nhit cao, khong 850 - 880
0
C.
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nhit cao ngoi tc dng graphit ho xmentit cc graphit to thnh c cu ho tip tc do
vy s nng cao thm c tnh.
Ngoi ra, cng c th tin hnh cc phng php c nh cch lin kt, lm gang cu
c nn peclit nng cao bn hoc c nn ferit nng cao. Thng tin hnh ra gang cu vi
nn kim loi l peclit ht c c tnh tng hp tt.
9.3.2.2. Ti v ram
Nguyn tc ti gang cu khng khc g gang xm
c bit i vi gang cu ngi ta nhn thy ti ng nhit nhn c t chc gm
bainit di l ch yu, mt t auxtenit d, mactenxit v graphit to ra c tnh tng hp rt tt,
c bn cao v do, dai nht nh.
9.3.2.3. Ho bn b mt
Thng tin hnh ti cao tn, thm nit, thm xyanua v thm bo
Ti cao tn cho gang cu peclit t chc sau khi ti ram thp t mactenxit kim nh mn v
graphit cu vi cng t ti HRC c tnh chng mi mn cao.
Thm nit v thm xyanua c tc dng rt tt i vi gang cu, nng cao tnh chng mi
mn, chng mi.
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