M U

1. L do chn ti
Trong thi k cng nghip ha, hin i ha ca t nc ta hin nay
vic pht trin lc lng lao ng khoa hc, k thut cht lng cao ang l
vn c quan tm hng u. Hn lc no ht, vic pht hin v bi dng
nhn ti cho t nc c coi l quc sch. Vn ny c th hin qua
cc ngh quyt s 14/NQT (11/1979) v c bit l Hin php nc Cng
ha x hi ch ngha Vit Nam (1992, iu 66, iu 72) trc tip cp
n vic pht trin cc trng o to ti nng, c bit l ti nng tr.
Hi ngh ln IV BCHT ng kha VII (1/1993) ra ngh quyt v
"Tip tc i mi s nghip gio dc v o to", nu r bn quan im ch
o ca ng, trong c quan im th hai trc tip cp n vic "nng
cao dn tr, o to nhn lc v bi dng nhn ti".
Ngh quyt i hi IX ca ng khng nh: "Con ng cng nghip
ha, hin i ha ca nc ta cn v c th rt ngn thi gian so vi cc nc
i trc, va c nhng bc tun t, va c nhng bc nhy vt v khoa hc
v cng ngh, bc nhy vt v dn tr, nhn lc, nhn ti cng vi c s cn
thit, c o to nn bi mt trong nhng yu t quyt nh l gio dc v
o to".
Trong phn hai ca Vn kin hi ngh ln th IX ca BCHT kha IX
c vit: "B chnh tr ra ngh quyt v cng tc quy hoch cn b, trong cn
nhn mnh vic pht trin, tuyn chn, o to, bi dng v s dng ti
nng".
o to nhn ti l mt trong nhng mc tiu quan trng nht ca
ngnh gio dc, m cc trng chuyn l mt trong nhng mi nhn tin
phong trong qu trnh o to nhn ti cho t nc. Qua 42 nm tn ti v
pht trin, cc trng chuyn c nhng ng gp to ln. Tuy nhin, bn
cnh cn c rt nhiu hn ch. C th, chng ta thy hin nay cc trng
chuyn ang i theo con ng "luyn thi", "luyn g chi", nh gi cht
lng nng v thnh tch thi hc sinh gii nn qun i mc tiu lu di, mc
tiu mang tnh cht chin lc, l pht trin v bi dng nng lc ca hc
sinh gip nhng hc sinh nng khiu tr thnh nhng ti nng cho t nc.
Trong h thng cc lp chuyn ton THPT ca nc ta hin nay ang
gp nhiu kh khn, bt cp, trong vic cha c mt b sch gio khoa
dnh ring cho cc lp chuyn ton l mt kh khn khng nh. Ti liu m
cc gio vin ging dy ch yu l do gio vin t bin son da theo khung
hng dn ca B gio dc v thi hc sinh gii cc nm.
Mc d cc lp chuyn ton c ngha v cng to ln trong vic o
to nhn ti cho t nc nhng cha c mt i ng cc chuyn gia nghin
cu v vit sch gio khoa cho hc sinh, ng thi cc gio vin ging dy
cng cha ch trng vn ny.
Mt khc, hng dng ton cao cp soi sng ton s cp xy dng
chuyn dy hc s pht huy c nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh nhng
cha c quan tm nghin cu mt cch y , ton din.
V cc l do trn nn chng ti quyt nh chn ti nghin cu l
"Dng hnh hc cao cp xy dng h thng bi tp hnh hc s cp
nhm bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT" l mt
hng i thch hp, hu ch cho gio vin trong vic ging dy cc lp
chuyn ton THPT hin nay.
2. Mc ch nghin cu
Dng hnh hc cao cp xy dng h thng bi tp v t din trc tm
v bi ton "con bm" gip gio vin bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc
sinh chuyn ton THPT.
3. Nhim v nghin cu
- Nghin cu c s l lun v qu trnh dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng
hnh hc s cp.
- Nghin cu thc trng qu trnh dy hc chuyn ton THPT.
- Xy dng h thng bi tp v t din trc tm v bi ton "con
bm".
- xut mt s bin php nhm gip gio vin bi dng nng lc
gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT.
4. Gi thuyt khoa hc
Nu dng hnh hc cao cp xy dng h thng bi tp v t din trc
tm v bi ton "con bm" gp phn gip gio vin bi dng nng lc gii
ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT hiu qu.
5. Phng php nghin cu
5.1. Nghin cu l lun
- Nghin cu khai thc ti liu v l lun dy hc mn Ton trng
ph thng.
- Nghin cu khai thc ti liu v bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc
sinh kh gii.
- Nghin cu chng trnh hnh hc cao cp bc i hc v hnh hc
s cp dnh cc lp chuyn ton THPT.
5.2. Phng php iu tra quan st
- iu tra thc trng ging dy ca gio vin v hc tp ca hc sinh
trc v sau th nghim.
- Quan st vic hc tp ca hc sinh lin quan n lun vn.
- Thu thp kt qu thc t ca hc sinh lm c s thc tin a ra h
thng bi tp ph hp c tnh kh thi dnh cho i tng hc sinh chuyn
ton khi 11.
- nh gi kt qu th nghim.
5.3. Phng php tng kt kinh nghim
- Thng k s liu sau th nghim ca lp th nghim.
- Ly kin nh gi tham kho ca gio vin trc tip ging dy
iu chnh lun vn cho ph hp vi thc tin dy hc phn chuyn c
xy dng.
6. i tng v khch th nghin cu
- i tng nghin cu: L thuyt v phn n hnh trc tm v cc
tnh cht lin quan, bi ton "con bm" i vi siu mt bc hai.
- Khch th nghin cu: Qu trnh dy hc hnh hc cc lp chuyn
ton THPT.
7. Phm vi nghin cu
Hc sinh v gio vin trng chuyn Lam Sn - Thanh ha.
8. Cu trc lun vn
Phn 1: M u
1. L do chn ti
2. Mc ch nghin cu
3. Nhim v nghin cu
4. Gi thuyt khoa hc
5. Phng php nghin cu
6. i tng v khch th nghin cu
7. Phm vi nghin cu
8. Cu trc lun vn
Phn 2: Ni dung
Chng 1- C s l lun
Chng 2- Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp.
Chng 3- Bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton
THPT, thng qua vic gii bi tp hnh hc. Th nghim s phm.
Phn 3: Kt lun
Chng 1
C S L LUN
1.1. L lun v nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh
1.1.1. Nng lc (ability)
Khi nim nng lc t lu c rt nhiu nh gio dc hc quan
tm, nghin cu v cng c rt nhiu cch quan nim v khi nim ny.
Chng hn nh
Theo T in Ting Vit 1995 NXB Nng
Nng lc:
1) Kh nng, iu kin ch quan hoc t nhin sn c thc hin mt
hot ng no .
2) Phm cht tm l v sinh l to cho con ngi kh nng hon thnh
mt loi hot ng no vi cht lng cao.
Theo T in Gio dc (NXBGD):
Nng lc, kh nng c hnh thnh hoc pht trin, cho php mt con
ngi t thnh cng trong mt hot ng th lc, tr tu hoc ngh nghip.
Nng lc c th hin vo kh nng thi hnh mt hot ng, thc hin
mt nhim v. Nng lc ch c hiu qu khi n c chng minh. Trong
trng hp ngc li n ch l gi nh hoc khng c thc.
Nng lc c th bm sinh hoc do rn luyn m chim lnh c. N
pht trin bi kinh nghim hoc bi vic hc tp ph hp vi tnh ring bit
ca c nhn.
Nng lc c coi nh kh nng ca con ngi khi i mt vi nhng
tnh hung mi, gi li c nhng tin tc v nhng k thut c s
dng trong nhng thc nghim trc y.
Hin nay trn th gii vn cha c mt nh ngha thng nht v nng
lc. PGS.TS Trn Thc Trnh trong cun "T duy v hot ng ton hc"
vit mt s nh ngha v nng lc nh sau:
" Hoa K nh ngha c s dng rng ri nht (theo ngha c nhiu
ti liu cp v nhiu h thng trng hc cng nhn hng dn hnh
ng ca mnh) l nh ngha ca Sidney Marlan: "Tr em c nng khiu v
ti nng l nhng tr em c nhng nng lc ni bt, c kh nng t c
nhng thnh tch cao qua thm nh ca cc nh chuyn mn gii. l
nhng tr em i hi mt chng trnh gio dc chuyn bit hay c gio
dc vi ni dung vt xa chng trnh hc bnh thng, c nhng ng
gp cho bn thn v x hi. Nhng tr em c tim lc cho nhng thnh tch
cao trong mt hay mt s mt sau:
- Nng lc tr tu chung
- Nng khiu hn lm ring bit
- T duy sng to hay pht trin
- Nng lc lnh o
- Ngh thut quan st hay trnh din
- Nng lc tm vn.
A.H.Passow nh ngha ti nng nh l kh nng t c thnh tch
ni bt trong bt k lnh vc x hi no ca con ngi, hn ch lnh vc hn
lm ca ngn ng, khoa hc x hi, khoa hc t nhin v ton hc, lnh vc
ngh thut nh m nhc, hi ha, to hnh,...v lnh vc quan h ngi vi
ngi.
Ni chung nng khiu l phi c thnh phn sng to, l quan im
c nht tr bi Gakkagher v Weiss (1979) hai ng c nhiu c gng
tng kt nhng c trng ca tr em c c sng to: l nhng em b c
nng lc ni bt trong khi qut, nhn nhn, trnh din hay m t t tng
mi, quan im mi hay sn phm mi.
Cc nh trit hc duy vt cho rng:
Con ngi c nhng nng lc khc nhau v c nhng t cht khc
nhau. T cht l c s t nhin ban u ca nng lc, cn cha c pht
trin v ch c bc l ra trong hnh ng, chnh l nhng tnh cht gii
phu sinh l. C. Mc ch ra rng:
"Con ngi l mt thc th t nhin, li l mt thc th t nhin sng,
con ngi mt mt c ph cho nhng sc lc t nhin, nhng sc lc sng,
trong khi vn l mt thc th t nhin hot ng, nhng sc lc y tn ti
trong con ngi dng nhng t cht v nng lc, di dng nhng am
m...Tuy nhin nhng sc lc t nhin y cn c mi trng thun li mi
pht trin c nu khng s b thui cht".
Mun pht trin cc t cht phi kin tr lao ng. "Thin ti l 1%
hng khi v 99% m hi" (Gioocgi Bupphng - Php, th k XVIII)
([36], tr 48)
Nh tm l hc X- vit V.A. Krutecxki cho rng:
- Khi ni n nng lc tc l ni n nng lc trong mt loi hot ng
nht nh ca con ngi. N ch tn ti mt loi hot ng nht nh, v vy
ch trn c s phn tch loi hot ng mi thy c biu hin ca nng
lc.
- Nng lc l mt ci g ng: N khng nhng ch th hin v tn ti
trong hot ng tng ng m n cn c to nn trong hot ng v pht
trin hot ng.
- Trong cc thi k pht trin ring bit xc nh ca con ngi th xut
hin cc iu kin thch hp nht cho vic hnh thnh v pht trin cc loi
nng lc ring bit.
- Kt qu ca hot ng thng ph thuc vo mt lp t hp nng lc.
([15]).
Nghin cu v l thuyt nng lc ca cc tc gi nu trn c th hiu
nng lc, kh nng c hnh thnh v pht trin cho php con ngi t
c thnh cng trong mt hot ng no . Nng lc tim n mi con
ngi nu khng c mi trng thun li n pht trin th nng lc s b
thui cht. Nng lc ca mi con ngi l khc nhau, c ngi nng lc cao
l nhng thin ti hay nhng ngi c nng khiu.
1.1.2. L lun v nng lc ton hc
Nng lc ni chung ch tn ti trong hot ng, ni ring nng lc ton
hc ch tn ti trong hot ng ton hc v ch trn c s phn tch hot ng
ton hc mi thy c biu hin nng lc ton hc. Nng lc ton hc cng
trng thi ng, n hnh thnh v pht trin trong hot ng ton hc theo
tng thi k, c thi k thch hp nht cho vic hnh thnh v pht trin nng
lc ton hc, thng vo la tui 12, 13, 14. Cng thng xy ra cc t hp
nng lc ton hc vi trit hc, ton hc vi ngoi ng....
a) Nng lc ton hc
c hiu theo hai ngha, hai mc :
Mt l, theo ngha nng lc hc tp (ti to) tc l nng lc i vi
vic hc ton, i vi vic nm gio trnh ton hc trng ph thng, nm
mt cch nhanh v tt cc kin thc, k nng, k xo tng ng.
Hai l, theo ngha nng lc sng to (khoa hc) tc l nng lc i
vi hot ng sng to ton hc to ra nhng kt qu mi, khch quan c mt
gi tr ln i vi loi ngi" ([15], tr13).
B c con ngi c thin hng tch t mi trng xung quanh nhng
kch thch loi quan h khng gian, quan h s lng, quan h lgic v c
thin hng lm vic hiu qu vi cc kch thch thuc loi .
Khuynh hng ton hc ca tr tu c trng cho nhng ngi c nng
lc ton hc l thng tri gic nhiu hin tng qua lng knh ca cc quan
h ton hc, thng nhn thc cc hin tng trn phng din ton hc.
b) Theo s khi qut ca cu trc nng lc ton hc la tui hc
sinh
Theo Khinsin th nng lc ton hc th hin nhng nt sau:
- Suy lun theo s lgic
- Khuynh hng i tm con ng ngn nht dn n mc ch
- Phn tch chnh xc k hiu
- C cn c y trong cc lp lun, c bit khng bao gi chp
nhn nhng khi qut khng c suy lun, nhng php tng t khng c c
s ...
Theo Knmgrp th trong thnh phn ca nhng nng lc ton hc
c:
- Nng lc bin i kho lo nhng biu thc ch phc tp, nng lc
tm kim con ng gii phng trnh khng theo quy tc chun, nng lc
tnh ton.
- Tr tng tng hnh hc hay trc gic hnh hc.
- Ngh thut suy lun lgic theo cc bc c phn chia mt cch
ng n k tip nhau, c bit hiu v c k nng vn dng ng n quy
np ton hc l tiu chun ca s trng thnh lgic hon ton cn thit i
vi nh ton hc.
Theo Krutecxki th cu trc ca nng lc ton hc bao gm nhng
thnh phn sau:
- Thu nhn thng tin ton hc: Nng lc tri gic hnh thc ha ti liu
ton hc, nng lc nm cu trc hnh thc ca bi ton.
- Ch bin thng tin ton hc:
+ Nng lc t duy lgic trong lnh vc quan h s lng v khng gian,
h thng k hiu s v du. Nng lc t duy bng k hiu ton hc.
+ Nng lc khi qut ha nhanh v rng cc i tng, quan h ton
hc v cc php tnh, php ton.
+ Nng lc rt gn qu trnh suy lun ton hc v h thng cc php
ton tng ng. Nng lc t duy bng cc cu trc rt gn.
+ Tnh linh hot mm do ca qu trnh t duy trong hot ng ton
hc.
+ Khuynh hng vn ti tnh r rng, n gin, tit kim, hp l ca
li gii.
+ Nng lc nhanh chng v d dng sa li phng hng ca qu
trnh t duy thun sang t duy o (trong suy lun ton hc).
- Lu tr thng tin ton hc: Tr nh ton hc (tr nh khi qut v cc
quan h ton hc c im v loi, s , suy lun v chng minh; phng
php gii ton; nguyn nhn tc ng li gii ton).
- Thnh phn tng hp khi qut ha.
- Khuynh hng ton hc ca tr tu.
Cc thnh phn nu trn quan h bin chng vi nhau hp thnh mt
h thng duy nht, mt cu trc ton vn ca nng lc. Ngoi ra, trong cu
trc nng lc cn c th c cc thnh phn khng bt buc nh:
+ Tc ca qu trnh t duy.
+ Nng lc tnh ton.
+ Tr nh v ch s, s, cng thc.
+ Nng lc tng tng khng gian.
+ Nng lc biu din trc quan cc quan h v ph thuc ton hc tru
tng.
Phn tch s cu trc ca nng lc ton hc ta c th ch rng mt
s yu t xc nh trong c im ca cc mt tri gic, t duy, tr nh ca
hot ng ton hc c mt ngha chung. Chng hn, vic tri gic hnh thc
ha bi ton l mt s tri gic c khi qut ha, tt, linh hot; tr nh
ton hc l mt tr nh v cc h thng khi qut, tt v linh hot. Nu nh
ta ni n vic tri gic hnh thc ha (khi qut) bi ton, th cng c th ni
n vic gii hnh thc ha (khi qut) v n vic ghi nh hnh thc ha
(khi qut). V vy, s trin khai ca cu trc nng lc c th biu th bng
mt cng thc c ng hn: Nng lc ton hc c c trng bi t duy
khi qut, gn, tt v linh hot trong lnh vc cc quan h ton hc, h thng
cc k hiu s, du v bi khuynh hng ton hc ca tr tu.
c im ca t duy ton hc dn n vic tng cng tc ch bin
thng tin ton hc. iu ny lin quan n vic thay th mt khi lng thng
tin ln bi mt khi lng thng tin nh do khi qut ha v suy lun gn, tt
v v vy lin quan n vic tng cng tit kim sc lc ca tr tu.
Cc nng lc nu biu hin vi cc mc khc nhau cc em hc
sinh gii , kh, trung bnh, yu. cc em c nng khiu, cc em gii th cc
mi lin tng khi qut, tt, linh hot, ngc v h thng trn ti liu ton
hc c to thnh ngy tc khc, sau mt s t bi tp. cc em km th
mi lin tng c to thnh mt cch ht sc kh khn. cc em trung
bnh th mun hnh thnh dn dn cc mi lin tng cn phi c c mt
h thng bi tp, cn phi c s rn luyn. Chnh v vy, ngi gio vin cn
nh gi nng lc ton hc ca hc sinh mt cch ng n c th gip
hc sinh hc ton tt hn.
Nhng ch tiu nng lc ton hc c bn ca UNESCO Paris (1973):
- Nng lc pht biu v ti hin nhng nh ngha, k hiu, cc php
ton, cc khi nim.
- Nng lc tinh nhanh v cn thn, s dng ng cc k hiu.
- Nng lc dch chuyn cc d kin thnh k hiu.
- Nng lc biu din cc d kin, n, cc iu kin rng buc gia n
v cc d kin thnh k hiu.
- Nng lc theo di mt hng suy lun hay chng minh.
- Nng lc xy dng mt chng minh.
- Nng lc gii mt bi ton ton hc ha.
- Nng lc gii mt bi ton cha ton hc ha (ton c li vn).
- Nng lc phn tch bi ton v xc nh cc php ton c th p dng
gii.
- Nng lc khi qut ha ton hc.
1.1.3.L lun v nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh
a) Nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh
Nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh l mt biu hin ca nng lc ton hc,
c th hiu:
Nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh l nhng c im tm l c nhn p
ng cao yu cu lnh hi tri thc, c kh nng huy ng cc kin thc, cc k
nng khoa hc, cc th php nhn thc, cc cch gii quyt vn trong hot
ng gii ton, hng n vic to ra cc phm cht t duy c tnh mi m c
gi tr vi bn thn hc sinh.
Hc sinh c nng lc gii ton, tc l khi cho bit bi ton hc sinh
tc th c thu nhn thng tin ton hc ca bi ton, ch bin cc thng tin ,
huy ng tr nh ton hc tm ra phng php gii bi ton ng thi cng
lu tr thng tin sau khi tng hp khi qut ha.
Theo G. Plya hc sinh c nng lc gii ton tc l phi bit gii ton,
khng ch nhng bi ton thng thng m c nhng bi ton i hi t duy
c lp nht nh, c c phn on, tnh c o, sng to.
b) Nng lc gii ton hnh hc ca hc sinh ph thng
Theo ng-ghen "i tng ca ton hc thun ty l nhng hnh dng
khng gian v nhng quan h s lng ca th gii khch quan".
Thc tin cho thy mn hnh hc ni ring v mn ton ni chung
khng ch cung cp cho nhng kin thc m n cn gip hc sinh pht trin
nng lc tr tu chung. Do tnh tru tng cao ca hnh hc nn n c th
gip rt nhiu cho vic rn luyn hc sinh c tru tng. Do tnh chnh xc
cao, lp lun lgic cht ch, hnh hc c kh nng phong ph dy cho hc
sinh t duy hp lgic v t duy bin chng. Vic tm cch chng minh hay
gii mt bi ton hnh hc c tc dng ln trong vic rn luyn cho hc sinh
t duy sng to, rn cho hc sinh phng php khoa hc trong suy ngh, bit
gii quyt vn bng phn tch tng hp, so snh, khi qut ha... T hc
sinh pht trin phm cht t duy linh hot, c lp, sng to.
Vy nng lc gii ton hnh hc ca hc sinh c hiu l: Nng lc
gii ton hnh hc ca hc sinh l nhng c im tm l cc nhn, p ng
yu cao yu cu lnh hi tri thc hnh hc, c kh nng huy ng kin thc, k
nng khoa hc, cc th php nhn thc, cc cch thc gii quyt vn trong
hot ng gii bi ton hnh hc hng n vic to ra sn phm t duy c
tnh mi m c gi tr vi bn thn hc sinh.
C th hiu mt cch gn hn: "Hc sinh c nng lc gii ton hnh
hc tc l c kh nng gii cc bi tp hnh hc theo lc ca G. Plya".
Hc sinh c nng lc gii ton hnh hc khi cho bit bi ton hnh
hc th hin ngay nng lc gii ton. C th v hnh ng, chnh xc, r rng
vi nhng bi cn v hnh, vi nhng bi ton chng minh hnh hc bit r
gi thit v kt lun. Sau c th tm ngay ra cch chng minh bi ton. T
bi ton li c th chng minh hoc lm thm cu hi hoc khi qut ha,
tng t,...Vi cc bi ton qu tch hay dng hnh hc sinh cng c th gii
v lm r cc trng hp c bit, bin lun bi ton.
Hc sinh c nng lc gii ton THPT cng vy, cc em bit tm cch
gii v trnh by li gii bi ton hnh hc r rng sng sa.
Mt vn t ra l khi dy hnh hc THPT, c bit l lp 11, lm
th no bit mt hc sinh c nng lc gii ton hnh hc? Theo chng ti
hc sinh c th
+ Gii nhanh cc bi tp hnh hc.
+ Ngh ra nhiu cch gii khc nhau cho cng mt bi ton hnh hc.
+ Ngh ra nhng kh nng v hnh v trnh by li gii bi ton hnh
hc tt.
+ t mt mi trong nhng gi hc hnh hc, ngc li cn ham m,
hng th.
1.1.4. Cc yu cu rn luyn nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh THPT
a) Mc ch dy hc Ton trong nh trng ph thng
Theo [44] dy hc Ton trong nh trng ph thng nhm gip hc
sinh lnh hi v pht trin mt h thng kin thc, k nng thi quen cn thit
cho:
- Cho cuc sng hng ngy vi nhng i hi a dng ca c nhn, ca
gia nh, trong cng ng.
- Tip tc hc tp, tm hiu Ton hc di bt k hnh thc no ca
gio dc thng xuyn.
- Hnh thnh v pht trin cc phm cht t duy cn thit ca mt con
ngi c hc vn trong x hi hin i (t duy lgic, thut gii, hnh tng)
cng nhng phm cht v thi quen khc nh u c suy l, tnh chnh xc,
- Hnh thnh v pht trin vn ngn ng v nm vng cng c Ton
hc trong vic gii quyt cc vn c yu cu s dng trc tip cc phng
php ton hc.
- Gp phn quan trng trong vic hin thc ha kh nng hnh thnh
thi gian khoa hc qua Ton hc, hiu c bc tranh ton cnh ca khoa hc
cng nh nng lc hnh thnh mt s phm cht khc.
- Hiu r ngun gc thc tin ca Ton hc v vai tr ca n trong qu
trnh hnh thnh v pht trin vn ha, vn minh nhn loi cng vi nhng
tin b ca khoa hc, k thut.
b) Yu cu nhim v mn ton trng ph thng
Xut pht t mc tiu ca nh trng XHCN, t c im v v tr mn
ton, vic dy hc mn ny c nhim v sau ([20], tr 6):
- Truyn th tri thc, k nng ton hc v k nng vn dng ton hc
vo thc tin.
` - Pht trin nng lc tr tu chung.
- Gio dc t tng chnh tr, phm cht o c v thm m.
- m bo cht lng ph cp ng thi ch trng pht hin v bi
dng nng khiu v ton.
c) Mt s nng lc khi gii ton
Kin thc l c s ca nng lc, do ty theo ni dung kin thc
truyn th cho hc sinh m ta c nhng yu cu rn luyn k nng, nng lc
tng ng. Con ng i t ch c kin thc n ch c k nng, nng lc l
con ng luyn tp bng hot ng, ni dung ca s luyn tp hay nhng
hot ng tng ng rt phong ph.
Mt s k nng, nng lc cn thit khi gii ton THPT
- Nng lc tnh ton: Nng lc tnh ton l mt trong nhng nng lc
c bn ca vic hc ton trng ph thng. Trong thc t i sng, trong
sn xut, k thut,.. u cng i hi nng lc tnh ton: tnh nhanh, tnh
ng, tnh hp l...Nn cn rn luyn, pht trin cho hc sinh nng lc tnh
ton.
- Nng lc khm ph v lnh hi nhng quy tc, phng php:
+ Nhng quy tc, phng php c tnh thut ton:
V d: Thut ton gii phng trnh bc hai, h phng trnh bc nht
hai n.
Tuy c nhng quy tc th hin phn no nhng khng hon ton yu
cu cht ch ca khi nim thut ton m ta gi l quy tc mang tnh cht
thut ton.
V d: Quy tc tm gi tr ln nht, gi tr nh nht ca hm s.
+ Nhng quy tc, phng php mang tnh cht phi thut ton
V d: Quy trnh tm giao tuyn ca hai mt phng
1- Tm im chung sn c ca hai mt phng
1.1- Tm im chung trong cc im cho ca hai mt phng,
1.2- Tm im cho ca mt phng ny thuc ng thng ca mt
phng kia,
1.3- Tm im cho ca mt phng ny thuc mt phng kia.
Sau 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 nu tm c hai im chung phn bit th ng
thng i qua hai im phn bit l giao tuyn cn tm. Nu cha c hai
im chung phn bit th thc hin 2.
2- Tm im chung cha c sn ca hai mt phng (P), (Q).
2.1- Tm mt ng thng d thuc (P) v mt ng thng d' thuc
(Q), d v d' cng thuc mt mt phng th ba (R).
Nu tm c d thuc (P) (nh trn) th giao im ca d v d'. Nu c
giao im th l mt im chung ca (P) v (Q),
Nu khng c giao im th giao tuyn (nu c) ca (P) v (Q) song
song vi d.
2.2- Tm mt mt phng (R) ct c (P) ln (Q).
Nu tm c th xc nh hai giao tuyn (ca (P) v (R), ca (Q) v
(R)), ri xc nh giao im ca hai giao tuyn . Nu c giao im th l
mt im chung ca (P) v (Q). Nu khng c giao im th giao tuyn (nu
c) ca (P) v (Q) s song song vi hai giao tuyn .
- Nng lc v hnh v tnh ton trn cc hnh.
- Nng lc vn dng cc kin thc gii bi ton (suy lun, chng
minh, vn dng kin thc ton hc gii quyt vn thch hp trong i
sng) v trnh by li gii r rng v chnh xc.
- Nng lc chuyn t t duy thun sang t duy nghch.
- Nng lc hot ng t duy hm
- Nng lc ton hc ha cc tnh hung thc tin.
- Nng lc t kim tra, t nh gi, trnh by li gii v trnh sai lm
khi gii ton.
1.2. ngha ca bi tp ton trong dy hc mn ton
Dy hc gii bi tp ton c tm quan trng c bit v t lu l mt
trong nhng vn trung tm ca phng php dy hc ton trng ph
thng. i vi hc sinh THPT v c bit l cc lp chuyn ton THPT, c
th coi vic gii bi tp ton l mt hnh thc ch yu ca vic hc ton. Vic
gii bi ton c nhiu ngha:
- l hnh thc tt nht cng c, o su, h thng ha kin thc
v rn luyn k nng. Trong nhiu trng hp, gii bi ton l mt hnh thc
dn dt hc sinh t mnh i n kin thc mi.
- l mt hnh thc vn dng nhng kin thc hc vo nhng vn
c th, vo thc t, vo cc vn mi.
- l mt hnh thc tt nht gio vin kim tra c nng lc hc
sinh v hc sinh t kim tra v nng lc, v mc tip thu v vn dng kin
thc hc.
- Vic gii bi ton c tc dng ln gy hng th hc tp cho hc sinh,
pht trin tr tu v gio dc rn luyn cho con ngi v rt nhiu mt.
Vi ngha quan trng nh trn, trong vic la chn h thng bi tp
ton v hng dn hc sinh gii ton, ngi gio vin cn phi ch y
n tc ng nhiu mt ca bi tp ton ([2])
1.3. Bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT
bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT ngi
gio vin cn s dng ti u cc phng php dy hc trong qu trnh dy
gii ton cho hc sinh. Do vy, y chng ti a ra mt s bin php bi
dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh ph thng chuyn ton.
1.3.1. Mt s bin php bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh
a) C s l lun xy dng cc bin php nhm pht trin nng lc
gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT
* Nhng c s ca tm l hc v gio dc hc:
Qu trnh dy hc c tin hnh bng s phi hp gia hot ng dy
ca thy gio v hot ng hc ca hc sinh, cho nn cc bin php s phm
phi thng qua hot ng dy tc ng vo hot ng hc ca hc sinh, lm
cho hc sinh c "ng c hon thin tri thc". Bn cht ca hot ng hc l
qu trnh t t chc, t iu khin, iu chnh hot ng nhn thc ca mnh,
ng thi ngi ch ng trong hot ng hc. Mt khc, nhn cch ca hc
sinh trong c kt qu tr dc, chnh l cht lng sn phm m nh trng
o to cho x hi. V vy, cn ch n hot ng hc, cc bin php tp
trung vo pht trin cc hot ng hc, cc bin php tp trung vo tng
cng cc hot ng nhm bi dng, nng cao nng lc gii ton cho hc
sinh (nng lc nhn thc, nng lc thc hnh, nng lc t chc hot ng,
nng lc t kim tra, nh gi).
* L lun v phng php dy hc b mn ton:
Theo [2] v [20], phng php dy hc ton trng ph thng phi
lun gn lin vi vic truyn th tri thc, k nng vi vic gio dc rn luyn
con ngi, vi vic bi dng v pht trin nng lc ca hc sinh.
Cn c vo nhim v ca vic dy hc b mn: bn cnh vic truyn
th kin thc, rn luyn k nng thc hnh ton hc, hc sinh cn phi rn
luyn nng lc vn dng ton hc vo thc tin, c th l trau di cho hc
sinh kh nng vn dng nhng hiu bit ton hc vo vic hc tp cc mn
hc khc, vo thc tin cuc sng... Do , cn thit xy dng cc bin php
nhm rn luyn cc k nng gii ton cho hc sinh nhm bi dng, nng cao
nng lc gii ton, gp phn thc hin nhim v dy hc b mn. Cc bin
php ny c da trn quan im hot ng vi 4 t tng ch o
([20],tr73):
- Cho hc sinh thc hin v tp luyn nhng hot ng v hot ng
thnh phn tng thch vi ni dung v mc ch dy hc.
- Gy ng c hc tp v tin hnh hot ng.
- Truyn th tri thc, c bit l nhng tri thc phng php nh
phng tin v kt qu hot ng.
- Phn bc hot ng lm ch da cho vic iu khin qu trnh dy
hc.
b) Ni dung bin php bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn
ton THPT
Theo cc yu cu rn luyn, nng cao nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh
trn c s l lun tm l hc v gio dc hc trnh by trn: Bin php bi
dng nng lc thc hnh cho hc sinh ni chung v bi dng nng lc gii
ton cho hc sinh ni ring phi nhm vo vic bin kin thc v k nng c
bn trong tng phn kin thc mt thnh kin thc v k nng c bn tng
hp, hon chnh chun b cho mi hot ng hc tp, lao ng ngh nghip
cho c cuc sng theo tinh thn gio dc k thut tng hp v hng nghip
dy ngh qua mn ton trng ph thng.
Mt s bin php bi dng nng lc gii ton ch yu c ngh
theo phng chm ch o trn:
* Bin php 1: Trang b y cc kin thc v mn ton.
m bo cho vic hc tp mn ton c tt, trc ht cn m bo
cho hc sinh nm vng v c h thng cc kin thc trong chng trnh. T
ngi thy gio chn lc cc kin thc v k nng t c bn n nng cao,
t n gin n phc tp dy cho hc sinh, sao cho m bo 50% n 75%
thi gian cho luyn tp k nng.
* Bin php 2: Trang b cc tri thc v phng php ton:
- Dy gii bi tp ton c nu gi thit, kt lun, khng tha mn khi
tm c cch gii m phi tm c cch gii ngn gn nht.
- Dy cch gii bi tp ton, cch suy lun, phn tch ra nhng bi ton
nh quen thuc,...Dy tp dt tm ti, pht hin, sng to theo con ng
suy on, suy din.
c bit, i vi nhng bi ton cha c hoc khng c thut gii, gio
vin cn hng hc sinh cch suy ngh, cch tm li gii. Qua trang b cho
hc sinh mt s tri thc v phng php gii ton. Thng qua dy hc mt s
bi ton c th m dn dn truyn th cho hc sinh cch thc kinh nghim
tin ti linh hot trong vic suy ngh, tm ti li gii cc bi ton, hnh thnh
phng php gii mt lp cc bi ton dng quen thuc. Bn gi ca G.
Plya v phng php tm li gii (thng c tm theo 4 bc):
B1: Tm hiu bi ton,
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii,
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii,
B4: Kim tra v nghin cu li gii.
Nh vy, bi dng cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT chng ti cn
dy cho hc sinh gii ton da trn bng hng dn gii ton ca G.Plya
theo hng pht hin v gii quyt vn .
1.3.2. Phng php tm li gii
Theo l lun ca cc nh khoa hc V.M Bradix, Fanghaenel,
Faorekhop, G.Plya, Phm Vn Hon, Trung Hiu,... c th hiu:"Gii
bi ton tc l tm kim mt cch c thc phng tin thch hp t ti
mc ch ca bi ton. l mt qu trnh tm ti, sng to, huy ng kin
thc - k nng - th thut v cc phm cht ca tr tu gii quyt bi ton
cho" ([33]).
Xut pht t c im cc bi ton bc ph thng (tnh va sc, tnh
kt qu, tnh lin thng mn ng b thng nht v tnh pht trin) tin trnh
gii mt bi ton (gi tt l TTGT) c hiu l mt qu trnh lao ng pht
minh ca hc sinh (theo ngha sng to ti to) chim lnh tri thc mi
"ng ha- iu tit thch nghi vi mi trng c dng s phm cng vi
cc tnh hung hc tp l tng c to ra" ([20], tr 225, 226, 227).
Phn tch - tng hp cc quan nim TTGT ca G. Plya: Cc nh khoa
hc GS.TSKH Nguyn B Kim, GS.TSKH Phm Vn Hon, Hong Chng,
Nguyn Thi He ... i n nhn nh chung:
+ C th thit k mt TTGT (mt algrt tng qut) theo cc bc c
bn (tp hp cc thao tc tr tu).
+ TTGT phi tng thch vi h thng gio dc hin hnh: chng
trnh SGK v c th bc hc.
+ TTGT phi pht huy c nng lc sng to - nng lc gii quyt vn
ca hc sinh trong dy hc gii ton.
+ TTGT m bo c tnh kh thi, cht lng v hiu qu ([33]).
Cn c vo tin trnh gii ton gm 4 bc ca G.Plya, nhiu gio
vin t kt qu cao khi dy hc sinh TTGT theo hng pht hin v gii
quyt vn theo cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Tm hiu bi ton,
Bc 2: Xy dng chng trnh gii bi ton,
Bc 3: Thc hin chng trnh gii bi ton,
Bc 4: Kim tra tin trnh gii ton, nghin cu li gii.
a) Tm hiu bi ton
hiu mt bi ton, trc ht phi hiu bi ton v hn na cn
phi c hng th gii bi ton . V vy, iu u tin ngi thy gio cn
ch hng dn hc sinh gii ton l khu gi tr t m lng ham mun gii
ton ca hc sinh, gip hc sinh hiu bi ton phi gii.
Thc cht ca bc "tm hiu bi ton" l tip nhn bi ton, tri gic
vn hay l giai on chun b ca qu trnh sng to.
+ To tm l hng th gii ton, khu gi tr t m, gi m tr sng to,
lng ham mun v kht vng gii bng c bi ton, to mi trng c dng
s phm cng cc tnh hung hc tp l tng.
+ Hiu v phn tch bi ton, nhn bi ton di nhiu gc khc
nhau biu din hnh hc hoc th, biu thc i s, ... i vi tng loi bi
ton. Trnh thi quen khng tt ca mt s hc sinh l i ngay vo cc chi
tit. Cn tch ra nhng yu t chnh ca bi ton, xem xt cc yu t chnh
nhiu ln v nhiu mt. Nu l bi ton v chng minh th yu t chnh l
gi thit v kt lun. Nu bi ton v tm ti th yu t chnh l n (ci cn
tm, ci cha bit), l d kin (nhng ci bit) v iu kin (mi lin h
gia ci cn tm v ci cho) ca bi ton.
+ Chuyn dch ngn ng t nhin trong bi ton sang ngn ng k hiu
ton hc.
C nhng bi lin quan n hnh v th phi v hnh. C nhng bi ton
li cn a vo cc k hiu. iu ny cng gip ta hiu r ton.
* Hnh v:
i vi bi ton hnh hc, ni chung phi v hnh. Hnh v lm hin ln
i tng, cc yu t cng nh cc chi tit cng mi lin h gia ci chi tit
cho trong bi ton. V th, thng sau khi v hnh ng, ton c hiu
r rng c th hn.
Khi v hnh cn ch :
- Hnh v phi mang tnh tng qut, khng nn v hnh trong trng
hp c bit v th d gy nn ng nhn.
Chng hn, i vi bi ton tam gic th khng nn v tam gic c
bit, t din khng nn v t din u, t din vung... khi bi ton khng i
hi.
- Hnh v phi r rng, chnh xc d nhn thy nhng quan h (song
song, ct nhau,..) v tnh cht (ng trung tuyn, trung trc, phn gic,...) m
bi ton cho. C nhng trng hp cn phi kho lo la chn trnh t v
cc i tng hnh hc trong bi ton.
Ngoi ra, lm ni bt vai tr khc nhau ca cc ng, cc tnh
hung trong hnh v, c th bng nt m, nt nht, mu sc khc nhau,...
i vi nhng bi ton khng phi l hnh hc, ta cng c th dng
mt biu din hnh hc, v d dng s ven biu din tp hp. Cm nhn
trc gic trn biu din hnh hc ny c th gip ta d nm bt c ni dung
c bn ca ton, nh G. Plya nu: "Tm mt biu din hnh hc r
rng, sng sa cho nhng bi ton khng phi l bi ton hnh hc c th cho
php tin mt bc r rt ti cch gii" ([27], tr131).
*K hiu: Khi nghin cu ton, nhiu trng hp ta phi chn k
hiu v a k hiu vo mt cch thch hp. Dng cc k hiu ton hc c th
ghi li cc i tng v mi lin quan gia chng trong bi ton mt cch
ngn gn, d nh, d quan st. Cch k hiu thch hp c th nhanh chng
gip ta hiu c ton.
"Thi gian dnh chn k hiu s c tr cng rt hu bi thi gian
tit kim c nh trnh khi mi s do d v ln ln" ([27], tr137).
Khi chn cc k hiu cn phi ch :
- Mi k hiu phi c ni dung v d nh, trnh nhm ln hoc hiu
nc i.
- Th t cc k hiu v quan h gia chng phi gip ta lin tng n
th t v quan h gia cc i lng tng ng.
Khng dng mt k hiu cng ch hai i tng khc nhau. K hiu
cng loi ch ch cc i tng cng loi. Chng hn, vi tam gic ABC:
A, B, C ch cc nh; a, b, c ch cc cnh i din vi cc nh tng ng A,
B, C.
Nh vy, bc "Tm hiu bi ton" theo nh hng pht hin v gii
quyt vn ph hp vi bc "pht hin/ thm nhp vn " ca phng
php dy hc pht hin v gii quyt vn .
- Hc sinh pht hin vn t mt tnh hung gi vn no .
- Pht biu v chnh xc ha tnh hung.
- Pht biu vn v t ra mc ch gii quyt vn .
b) Xy dng chng trnh gii (giai on p ca qu trnh sng to)
Tm ti li gii l mt bc quan trng trong hot ng gii ton. N
quyt nh s thnh cng hay khng thnh cng, i n s thnh cng nhanh
hay chm ca vic gii ton. iu c bn bc ny l bit "nh hng
ng" tm ra c ng i ng.
+ Pht biu cc mi quan h nh hng nh tnh v nh lng ca
bi ton. Huy ng cc lc lng tm l tim thc, vn tri thc, lng thng
tin, k nng v th thut, kinh nghim v gii ton.
+ La chn cch gii
Theo l lun dy hc pht hin v gii quyt vn th "xy dng
chng trnh gii" nm trong bc 2 "gii quyt vn " khi thc hin dy
hc gii quyt vn . Cn:
Phn tch, lm r mi quan h gia ci bit v ci phi tm.
xut v thc hin hng gii quyt, c th iu chnh, thm
ch bc b v chuyn hng khi cn thit. Trong khu ny
thng hay s dng nhng quy tc tm on v chin lc nhn
thc nh sau: Quy l v quen, c bit ha, chuyn qua trng
hp suy bin; xem xt tng t, khi qut ha, xt nhng mi
lin h ph thuc, suy ngc (tin ngc, li ngc) v suy xui.
(Khu ny c th lm nhiu ln cho n khi tm ra hng i
ng) ([20]).
Khng mt thut ton tng qut no gii c mi bi ton c:
"Nhng ngi c kinh nghim gii ton" c li khuyn nh sau:
* S dng bi ton gii
Vic tm ra con ng i ng trong vic gii mt bi ton nhiu khi
kh thun li nu ta nh li c l ta tng tm ra con ng i n cch
gii mt bi ton tng t hoc gn ging vi bi ton cn gii. Thc t kh
m t ra c mt bi ton hon ton mi, khng ging bt hay lin quan
n bi ton c. Mt khc, cng c th c rt nhiu bi ton lin quan n
bi ton ang gii. Cn phi la chn c mt hay mt s bi ton trong
m thc s c li. Hy xt k li ci cha bit hay mt ci cha bit tng t.
Hy nh li mt bi ton c gii v gn ging vi bi ton ang xt. Cn
phi li dng bi ton gii ny v phng php gii, v kt qu, v kinh
nghim gii ton. ([31], tr 6)
Chnh l "quy l v quen", "xem xt tng t" khi gii quyt vn .
* Bin i bi ton:
i n cch gii mt bi ton cn phi huy ng v t chc nhng
kin thc hc t trc. Cn phi nh li v vn dng nhng yu t cn
thit cho vic gii ton. C th dng nh ngha hay nh l bit thay th
iu phi chng minh hay cn tm bng ci tng ng, pht biu bi ton
mt cch khc. Vic bin i bi ton to ra nhng lin h mi, nhng kh
nng mi, gi li trong tr nh nhng g lin quan n bi ton ang xt.
c) Thc hin chng trnh gii
Sau khi tm c cch gii ri tin hnh thc hin chng trnh gii.
Vic tin hnh thc hin ny l cng vic ch yu, l kt qu nh gi hot
ng gii ton. Khi tm thy cch gii ri th vic thc hin gii khng kh
khn nh trc na nhng tnh cht cng vic c khc nhau.
Khi ang tm kim li gii th c th t do m mm d on v khng
ngi g m khng dng mt cch lp lun tm thi. Nhng khi thc hin
chng trnh gii th phi thay i quan nim v ch c tha nhn nhng
l l cht ch, phi kim nghim li tng chi tit. Mt iu quan trng trong
vic trnh by li gii l trnh t cc chi tit nht l i vi cc bi ton phc
tp. Phi trnh by sao cho tng minh s lin h gia cc chi tit trong tng
giai on ca li gii v trong ton b li gii y. Trnh t m ta trnh by
trong li gii c th rt khc vi trnh t m ta theo tm li gii.
Thc hin chng trnh gii: Hc sinh c th ng ha hay iu tit
thc hin k hoch. S dng cc thao tc t duy v cc phng php suy lun
trong dy hc gii ton. La chn t cc phng n c cch gii ti u.
Vic trnh by li gii cng cn phi ht sc ch , trnh t trnh by cc chi
tit trong li gii cn phi gn gng, mch lc, sng sa.
Hin nay, hc sinh cc lp chuyn ton l nhng em c t cht, nng
lc v ton, nhng ngi thy gio cng cn rn luyn cho cc em trong vic
trnh by li gii. Khng nhng n gip hc sinh trnh by li gii ca bi
ton tt hn m n cn gip cc em pht trin v ngn ng rt tt. V vy,
nhn thc r iu ny, ngi thy gio cn c k hoch di hi, nghim tc
trong vic rn luyn hc sinh trong trnh by li gii, yu cu cao, c thi
nghim khc trong mi gi hc i vi mi bi lm ca hc sinh.
d) Kim tra v nghin cu li gii
Hc sinh thng c thi quen khng tt l khi tm c li gii ca
bi ton th tha mn, t i su kim tra li li gii xem c sai lm hay thiu
st g khng, t i su ci tin li gii, khai thc li gii. V vy, cn trnh
nhng thi quen ca hc sinh v cn rn luyn thi quen tt cho hc sinh
chuyn ton, trnh nhng yu im nh nu trn. C my vn cn ch
hng dn hc sinh:
* Kim tra li kt qu, kim tra li suy lun:
Vic ny phi tr thnh mt thi quen i vi hc sinh v gio vin
phi yu cu hc sinh thc hin thng xuyn.
bc tiu hc, hc sinh d c rn luyn tp kim tra kt qua lm
tnh, kim tra php cng bng php tr, kim tra php chia bng php nhn
Ln n trung hc c s, cn quan tm n iu ny mi khi c iu kin,
chng hn khi gii phng trnh, khi tm c nghim ca phng trnh th
cc em thay n tr li xem kt qu ng cha. Cn i vi bc THPT, c
bit l cc hc sinh lp chuyn ton th vic lm ny thng nn to cho cc
em thnh phn x khi gii ton.
* i vi cc bi ton hnh hc tnh ton
Ta cng c th kim tra li kt qu thng thng phi nhn li xem
xt y cc trng hp c th xy ra ca bi ton khng? i vi hc sinh
cc lp chuyn ton th vic lm ny thc s cn thit, v mi ln lm nh vy
th rn cho cc em nhn nhn vn mt cch hon chnh v su sc hn.
* Tm cch gii khc ca bi ton
Mt bi ton thng c nhiu cch gii, hc sinh c nhng cch suy
ngh khc nhau khi ng trc mt bi ton, nhiu khi kh c o v sng
to, c bit l hc sinh khi chuyn ton th kh nng c lp suy ngh, suy
ngh to bo v c nhiu tng gii quyt vn . V th, gio vin phi
thc c iu ny v pht huy tt nhng phm cht ca hc sinh, lun
khuyn khch cc em tm ti sng to, khng nhng lm cho hc sinh chim
lnh c kin thc, k nng cn thit m cn to cho cc em tinh thn hng
phn trong hc tp, lng say m tm hiu, nghin cu ton.
* Tm cch s dng kt qu hay phng php gii ca bi ton ny
cho mt bi ton khc, xut bi ton mi
y chnh l yu cu cn thit v quan trng ca hc sinh chuyn ton
THPT. Gio vin cn chun b nhng phn bi tp, nhng chuyn mang
tnh cht su sc, khai thc y , nhng dng bi tp c tnh cht m v
lun khuyn khch hc sinh tm ti v xy dng bi ton mi mt cch ch
ng. T chng ta tp cho cc em sng to ton hc, nghin cu ton.
e) Bng gi ca G. Plya trong vic gii ton
Bng ny rt c ch cho gio vin trong qu trnh dy hc gii ton cho
hc sinh. Ngi gio vin c kinh nghim v mt ny thng l ngi bit
ra cho hc sinh ng lc kp thi nhng cu hi gi su sc v st vi trnh
hc sinh, nng dn mc no trong s dng thnh tho v linh hot
bng ny. C th:
Bc 1: Hiu r bi ton:
u l n? u l d kin? C th tha mn c iu kin hay
khng? iu kin c xc nh c n hay khng, hay cha ,
hay tha, hay c mu thun?
Hnh v. S dng mt k hiu thch hp.
Phn bit cc thnh phn khc nhau ca iu kin. C th din t cc
iu kin thnh cng thc khng?
Bc 2: Xy dng mt chng trnh gii:
Bn gp bi ton ln no cha? Hay gp bi ton ny mt dng
hi khc?
Bn c bit bi ton no lin quan khng? Mt nh l c th dng c
khng?
Xt k ci cha bit (n) v th nh li mt bi ton quen thuc c
cng n hay n tng t.
y l mt bi ton lin quan m bn c ln gii ri. C th s dng n
khng? C th s dng kt qu ca n khng? Hay s dng phng
php khc? C cn phi da thm mt yu t ph th mi s dng c
n hay khng?
C th pht biu bi ton mt cch khc khng? Mt cch khc na?
Quay v nh ngha.
Nu bn cha gii c bi ton ra, th hy th gii mt bi ton
c lin quan. Bn c th ngh ra mt bi ton c lin quan v d hn
khng? Mt bi ton tng qut hn? Mt trng hp ring? Mt bi
ton tng t? Bn c th gii c mt phn bi ton khng? Hy gi
li mt phn iu kin, b qua phn kia. Khi n c xc nh n
mt chng mc no , n bin i nh th no? Bn c th t cc d
kin rt ra mt yu t c ch khng? C th thay i n hay khc d
kin, hay c hai u cn thit, sao cho n v cc d kin mi c gn
nhau hn khng?
Bn s dng mi d kin hay cha? s dng ton b iu kin hay
cha? n mi khi nim ch yu trong bi ton hay cha?
Bc 3: Thc hin chng trnh gii:
Hy kim tra li tng bc. Bn thy r rng l mi bc u
ng cha? Bn c th chng minh l n ng khng?
Bc 4: Tr li cch gii (Nghin cu cch gii tm ra):
Bn kim tra li kt qu? Bn c th kim tra li ton b qu trnh gii
bi ton khng?
Bn c th s dng kt qu hay phng php cho mi bi ton no
khc khng?
Trong qu trnh gii ton rt nn lm cho hc sinh bit cc ni dung ca
lgic hnh thc mt cch c thc, xem nh vn thng trc quan trng
lm vic vi ton hc cng nh s dng trong qu trnh hc tp lin tc,
thng xuyn. thc hin iu ny, sau khi gii xong mi bi ton cn c
phn nhn li phng php s dng gii. Dn dn nhng hiu bit v
lgic s thm nhp vo thc ca hc sinh.
Rt nn h thng ha cc bi ton lin quan vi mt ch hay m
hnh no y hc sinh thy c nhng tnh cht a dng thng qua cc
ch v m hnh .
1.4. Hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp
1.4.1. Tnh hnh nghin cu ca vn
Cc nh s phm cho rng "C nhiu vn ton hc ph thng ch c
th c hiu chnh xc v ng bn cht nu chng c nhn t nhng vn
ca ton hc hin i". V vy, vic soi sng ton hc s cp bng ton hc
cao cp ni chung v trong lnh vc hnh hc ni ring l cn thit.
i vi gio vin ton trng ph thng vic nm vng mi lin h
gia ton cao cp v ton s cp l cn thit nhm gip hc sinh hiu su sc
cc vn v ton hc ph thng v c th dn dt cho hc sinh tm kim
kin thc mi mt cch hiu qu. Cc cng trnh nghin cu v vn ny
bao gm :
1) Lun n tin s : "Tng cng nh hng s phm trong dy hc i
s i cng thng qua vic xy dng mt s chuyn cho sinh vin ton
CSP" ca tc gi ng Quang Vit (Vin Khoa hc gio dc H Ni, 2001).
2) Lun vn Thc s : "Xy dng mt s chuyn cu ni gia
chng trnh i s Cao ng S phm vi chng trnh i s Trung hc
c s nhm tng cng nh hng cho gio sinh khoa Ton trng Cao ng
S phm" ca tc gi Phan Vn L (Trng i hc S phm H Ni, 2003).
3) Lun vn Thc s : "Tng cng nh hng s phm cho sinh vin Cao
ng S phm trong dy hc L thuyt s v C s s hc" ca tc gi Vng
Hi (Trng i hc S phm H Ni, 2005).
4) Lun vn Thc s : "Xy dng mt s chuyn cu ni gia hnh
hc cao cp Cao ng S phm vi hnh hc ph thng nhm tng cng
nh hng s phm cho gio sinh vin" ca tc gi Nguyn Th Minh Yn
(Trng i hc S phm H Ni, 2006).
Ni chung cc ti c nu trn u nghin cu mi lin h gia
ton cao cp dnh cho sinh vin Cao ng v ton s cp phn kin thc dnh
cho hc sinh THCS, nhm gip cho sinh vin Cao ng nm c mi lin
mi quan h gia phn ton cao cp c hc v phn ton s cp sau ny
dy hc. Cc ti c tnh nh hng ngh nghip tt cho sinh vin sau khi
ra trng.
1.4.2. ngha ca vic hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp
Chng ti cho rng, vic dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp
l mt vic lm cn thit v hu ch, bi cc l do sau:
Th nht, chng ta bit rng hnh hc cao cp ni chung v hnh hc
clit ni ring l trng hp tng qut ca hnh hc phng v hnh hc khng
gian chng trnh ph thng. V vy, vic nhn nhn mt vn ca hnh
hc ph thng di "con mt" ca hnh hc cao cp lm cho vn c
sng t, chnh xc v khoa hc. T gip ngi thy gio c cch nhn khoa
hc v mt vn m ang trc tip ging dy.
Th hai, trong hnh hc cao cp th cng c gii quyt vn nhiu hn,
phong ph hn, gip ngi thy gio c th gii quyt c nhiu vn ,
hoc nhng vn m ch gii hn ca hnh hc ph thng th kh hoc
khng pht hin ra. T , ngi thy gio ch vic c bit ha cc kt qu
ca hnh hc cao cp th s thu c nhng kt qu ca hnh hc s cp mang
tnh chnh xc v khoa hc. y chnh l mt cng c pht hin vn ca
gio vin.
Th ba, t tm cao ngi gio vin c cch nhn tng vn mang tnh
cht h thng, t c th xy dng c ni dung hc tp cho hc sinh
mang tnh "h thng" cao, khng phi l nhng bi ton s cp ri rc, m cc
bi ton thuc chuyn trong mt h thng hon chnh hn.
Th t, i vi hc sinh, cc kt qu ca tng bi ton trong hnh hc
phng v hnh khng gian chnh l ti liu quan trng mang tnh nh
hng gip hc sinh c th khi qut ha c c cc kt qu hnh hc cao
cp sau ny c tip xc vi hnh hc cao cp.
Do chng ti chn ti theo hng t kt qu ca hnh hc cao cp
soi sng kt qu ca hnh hc s cp, xy dng chuyn dy hc cho hc
sinh chuyn ton THPT nhm bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh.
Chng hn nh
Trong hnh hc cao cp ta chng minh c kt qu sau :
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, tm siu cu le cng trng tm
T, trc tm H ca n- n hnh cng nm trn mt ng thng, ta gi l
ng thng le ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, ng thi vi mi s q t
nhin
0 q n 1
gi O
q
l tm siu cu le loi q ca n- n hnh.
Khi
q
n 1
HO HT
2(q 1)
+

+
uuuur uuur
T chng ta c kt qu cho bi ton hnh hc s cp sau:
* i vi tam gic:
Cho tam gic ABC, H, G, O ln lt l trc tm, trng tm, tm ng
trn ngoi tip tam gic. Chng minh rng
GH 2GO
uuur uuur
.
* i vi t din:
Chng minh rng trong t din trc tm, trng tm ca n nm ti trung
im ca on thng ni trc tm vi tm ca mt cu ni tip ca t din.
i vi ngi gio vin bng vn hiu bit v hnh hc cao cp th hai bi
ton trn thu c bng cch c bit ha bi ton tng qut trong khng gian
clit n-chiu vi n=2, n=3. Nhng i vi hc sinh th bi ton i vi n=2
th c bit trong hnh hc phng trung hc c s cn i vi bi ton
trong hnh hc khng gian th l mi. Vy gio vin cn gip hc sinh chim
lnh bi ton ny bng cch hng dn gii theo s gi ca G. Plya:
Bc 1 : Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g ? Yu cu g ?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
- Hc sinh nhc li gi thit v kt
lun ca bi ton.
- V hnh.
- Suy ngh v tm li gii bi ton.
Bc 2 : Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny em c hc cha ?
Hay em c bit mt bi ton tng t
khng ?
- Hy nhc li li gii ca bi ton.
- T li gii ca bi ton tng t c
gi g cho vic gii bi ton ny
khng ?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
- Suy ngh v nh li kin thc
c hc.
- Bi ton tng t (Bi ton trong
hnh hc phng nu trn)
- Nhc li bi ton (nu em no qun
th c th lm li).
- Tm cch p dng cch gii ca bi
ton c trong trng hp mi.
Bc 3 : Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii.
- Sau gio vin c th a li gii cho hc sinh tham kho i
chiu.
Bc 4 : Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii.
- ngh li gii mi.
- Nghin cu s m rng ca bi ton hoc c bit ha bi ton
xem c c bi ton mi khng ?
Vi cch lm nh vy, i vi ngi gio vin sng t c phn kin
thc hnh hc s cp, nu khng th c th cho rng hai bi ton trn l
c lp. Cn nu ngi thy gio hiu bit v hnh hc cao cp th hai bi
ton trn ch l hai trng hp c bit ca mt bi ton tng qut. Cn i
vi hc sinh th qua cch lm ca bi ton ny va c rn luyn cch gii
ton theo s ca G. Plya, va rn luyn c kh nng xem xt bi ton
tng t t hnh hc phng sang hnh hc khng gian. Qua gp phn bi
dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh.
1.4.3. Mi lin h gia hnh hc cao cp v hnh hc s cp
Di y l nhng phn kin thc tng ng gia hnh hc cao cp v
hnh hc s cp
Hnh hc cao cp Hnh hc s cp
- n hnh trc tm.
- Mt s tnh cht c trng ca n
hnh trc tm.
- Cc du hiu nhn bit trc tm ca
n hnh.
- Cc siu cu le trong n hnh
trc tm.
- Siu cu le trong n hnh bt k.
- Cc bt ng thc i vi n hnh
trc tm.
- Bi ton con bm i vi siu
mt bc hai.
- Tam gic, t din trc tm.
- Mt s tnh cht c trng ca t
din trc tm.
- Cc du hiu nhn bit trc tm ca
tam gic, t din trc tm.
- ng trn le trong tam gic, mt
cu le trong t din trc tm.
- Mt cu le trong t din bt k.
- Cc bt ng thc i vi t din
trc tm.
- Bi ton "con bm" i vi ng
trn, i vi cp ng thng, i vi
Elip, i vi Hyperbol, i vi
Parabol, i vi mt cu, i vi cp
ng thng.
phn kin thc ny c mi quan h bao hm, phn kin thc hnh hc
s cp chnh l cc trng hp c bit ca cc phn kin thc hnh cao cp
tng ng.
Mc d mi lin h gia hnh hc cao cp v hnh hc s cp cn rt l
nhiu, nhng trong khun kh lun vn ny chng ti ch lm r mi lin h
gia cc i tng c nu v t xy dng hai chuyn nhm bi
dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT. y chnh l s
khc bit ca ti ny vi cc ti nu trn.
1.5. Thc trng dy hc cc lp chuyn ton THPT
tm hiu thc trng dy hc cc lp chuyn ton THPT hin nay,
chng ti trao i trc tip vi cc gio vin dy ton trng THPT
chuyn Lam Sn Thanh Ha v c bit tnh hnh c th nh sau:
* V nhn thc:
Hu ht gio vin u cho rng, vic bi dng nng lc gii ton cho
hc sinh chuyn ton l vic lm cn thit i vi ngi gio vin ton. y
l vic lm trng tm, xuyn sut qu trnh dy hc ca gio vin.
V vic xy dng ni dung cc chuyn dy hc, y l vn c
quan tm hng u ca gio vin dy chuyn hin nay. Ni chung l hu ht
gio vin cn lng tng hng gii quyt cho vn ny, nhng ngi c
kinh nghim th vic bin son ti liu ging dy thun li hn. Mt s gio
vin mi th vic lm ny gp nhiu kh khn, l cha c mt b sch gio
khoa chnh thng cho hc sinh chuyn, vic nh hng xy dng ni dung
ti liu ging dy cng gp nhiu kh khn, ch yu l ngi i sau hc tp
v rt kinh nghim ca nhng ngi i trc.
* V thi :
Qua trao i vi cc gio vin ton v vic dng hnh hc cao cp soi
sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni dung cc chuyn dy bi dng, th
c hai khuynh hng v vn ny, l: a s gio vin thch hng i ny
c bit l gio vin tr, cn s cn li th h cho rng vic lm khng cn
thit, ch cn siu tm cc ti liu v ton s cp v tp hp thnh ni dung
ca tng chuyn l , v hin ti ti liu v ton s cp rt nhiu v phong
ph.
Vic xy dng chuyn dy hc theo cch hng dn hc sinh gii
bi tp theo s bn bc ca G. Plya, th a s ng h vic lm ny. Cn
mt s th cho rng c nhiu cch lm khc cng hon ton p ng c yu
cu v vic bi dng nng lc gii ton, vic hng dn hc sinh theo s
y th khng thng xuyn lm nn thay i thi quen ny cng rt ngi.
* V hnh vi:
Mc d vic a s gio vin c hi rt thch th vi vic xy dng
ni dung cc chuyn dy bi dng bng con ng dng hnh hc cao
cp soi sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni dung cc chuyn dy hc,
nhng vic ny cha c tin hnh y. Nguyn nhn l ngay t khi hc
i hc th vic tm hiu su v mi quan h gia hnh hc cao cp v hnh
hc s cp cng t , th hai l khi i dy, vic khng thng xuyn tip
cn vi ni dung hnh hc cao cp nn kin thc b mai mt i rt nhiu nn
vic lm ny cng gp khng t kh khn. Theo thi quen t trc n nay th
vic xy dng ni dung cc chuyn dy hc ch yu l tham kho cc ti
liu v ton s cp c sn, ch lm vic vi ton s cp th mt t thi gian
son bi hn.
V vic son gio n ging dy phn bi tp th son theo s gi
ca G. Plya th khng tin hnh, ch yu l son ni dung v ton, cn
hng dn gii cho hc sinh th c bit: khi ln lp, vi kinh nghim ca
bn thn s gi cho hc sinh khi gp tnh hung.
chng trnh hnh hc ca cc lp chuyn Ton th c mt chuyn
dnh dy cho hc sinh v cc t din c bit (Chng trnh hnh hc 11
chuyn ton THPT).
Phn cc t din c bit, bao gm: t din u, t gn u, t din
vung, t din trc tm. Trong , cc ti liu tham kho hu ht khai thc rt
nhiu v t din u, t din gn u, t din vung, cn t din trc tm th
cn rt s si, cha c h thng.
Phn bi ton "con bm", trong hnh hc phng cng c rt nhiu ti
liu cp n, nht l bi ton "con bm" i vi ng trn th cng c
nghin cu kh k, nhng nghin cu mt cch h thng y , gip hc
sinh nhn nhn v bi ton "con bm" mt cch y v h thng th cha
c ti liu no lm c vic ny.
Nh ni trong phn m u, vic dy hc ni chung v vic dy
hnh hc cc lp chuyn ton THPT hin nay vn ang tnh trng qu
tham v kin thc, dy "luyn thi" nn cha ch n vic rn luyn t duy,
bi dng nng lc hc tp cho hc sinh. y chnh l hn ch ln ca cc
lp chuyn ton hin nay ca nc ta. Mc tiu gio dc trng chuyn l
cn gip nhng em hc sinh c nng khiu tr thnh ti nng cho t nc,
nhng ngi c kh nng sng to th cn phi i mi phng php dy hc
trng chuyn hin nay.
V vy, vic chng ti quyt nh nghin cu vn ny cng l mt
hng rt tch cc cho vic nghin cu v xy dng chng trnh hc tp cho
hc sinh lp chuyn ton THPT hin nay.
Kt lun chng 1
Qua nghin cu v qu trnh ging dy ton cc lp chuyn
ton THPT, c th rt ra kt lun sau :
- Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp, xy
dng ni dung cc chuyn ging dy ca gio vin chuyn ton THPT l
mt cch lm thch hp hin nay.
- Nng lc c hnh thnh, pht trin trong hot ng nn pht
trin c nng lc ca mi c nhn th chng ta cn phi c k hoch pht
hin v bi dng cc em cho kp thi. Cc em phi c o to v bi
dng trong hot ng .
- Mun bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh th cn phi cho cc
em hot ng gii ton. Trong lun vn ny chng ti xut con ng bi
dng nng lc gii ton theo hng tp luyn cho hc sinh gii ton theo s
gi ca G. Plya.
Chng 2
HNH HC CAO CP SOI SNG HNH HC S CP
2.1. Chuyn 1: N HNH TRC TM V CC BI TON LIN
QUAN
2.1.1. MT S KHI NIM
2.1.1.1. Cc nh ngha
nh ngha 1
n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
trong J
0
, J
1
,..., J
n
l (n + 1) im c lp afin
trong khng gian clt hu hn chiu E, l bao li ca h im (J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
).
nh ngha 2
Cho n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
trong khng gian clit hu hn chiu E,
mi J
i
(i = 0,1,...,n). Ly (q + 1) nh phn bit (0

n-1) ca n th bao li
ca h (q + 1) im ny gi l mt q-mt bn ca n-n hnh cho, q-mt
bn S v q'-mt bn S' ca n hnh gi l mt i din nn q + q' = n-1 v S,
S' khng c nh chung.
nh ngha 3
Hai phng
,
trong khng gian clit E gi l trc giao nu cc khng
gian vct ch phng tng ng
ur
v
r
trc giao tc l mi vct ca
ur

trc giao vi mi vct ca
r
.
nh ngha 4
n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c gi l n-n hnh trc tm nu cc ng
cao (ng thng qua nh J
i
v trc giao vi siu phng cha (n-1)-mt bn
i din vi J
i
) ng quy.
K hiu
Ta k hiu {0,1,...,n}\{i} bi {0,1,..,
i
,...,n} (i = 0,1,...,n).
2.1.1.2. Trng hp c bit
- Trong E
2
: Tam gic l n hnh trc tm.
- Trong E
3
: T din l n hnh. Mt t din gi l t din trc tm nu bn
ng cao trong t din ng quy.
2.1.2. MT S TNH CHT C TRNG CA N HNH TRC
TM
2.1.2.1. nh l
iu kin cn v n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm l
p i p k
J J .J J
uuuur uuuur
khng i vi mi i

k; i, k

{0,1,2...,n}\{p} trong p c nh
thuc {0,1,...,n}.
Chng minh
1. iu kin cn: Nu
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm. Gi H l trc tm
ca n-n hnh . Chng hn, ta chng minh
0 i 0 k
J J .J J
uuuur uuuur
khng i vi mi i

k; i, k

{1,2...,n}.
Tht vy, vi mi i

k; i, k

{1,2...,n}
s

t; s, t

{1,2...,n}

0 i 0 k
J J .J J
uuuur uuuur
=
0 s 0 t
J J .J J
uuuur uuur

( )
0 i 0 k 0 s 0 t
J H HJ J J (J H HJ )J J + +
uuur uuur uuuur uuur uuur uuur

0 0 k i 0 k 0 0 t s 0 t
J H.J J HJ .J J J H.J J HJ .J J + +
uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuur

0 0 k 0 0 t
J H.J J J H.J J
uuur uuuur uuur uuur
( y i

k, t

s nn
i 0 k
HJ J J
uuur uuuur
,
s 0 t
HJ J J
uuur uuur
)

0 0 k t 0
J H(J J J J +
uuur uuuur uuur
) = 0

0 t k
J H.J J 0
uuur uuuur
iu ny lun ng v
0 t k
J H J J
uuur uuuur
.
Vy
0 i 0 k
J J .J J
uuuur uuuur
khng i vi mi i

k; i, k

{1,2...,n}.
2. iu kin : Nu trong n-n hnh chng hn c
0 i 0 k
J J .J J
uuuur uuuur
= a khng i
i k;
i, k

{1,2...,n}.
Gi
i
U
uur
l php vct ca (n-1)- mt bn i din vi nh J
i
ca n-n
hnh, i {0,1,2...,n}, ng thi tha mn:
i
U
uur
.
0 i
J J 1
uuur
vi mi i {0,1,2...,n}
(iu ny thc hin c v
0 i 0 1 0 i 0 n
J J J J ,..., J J ,..., J J < >
uuur uuur uuur uuuur
m
i
U
uur
b trc giao vi
0 1 0 i 0 n
J J ,..., J J ,..., J J < >
uuur uuur uuuur
nn
i
U
uur
0 i
J J
uuur

i
U
uur
0 i
.J J
uuur
= 0)
Gi H l im c xc nh bi:
0 1 2 n
J H a(U U ... U ) + + +
uuur uur uur uuur
Ta s chng minh:
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm v nhn H l trc
tm.
Ta c
0 1 k 1 2 n 1 0 0 k
J H.J J a(U U ... U )(J J J J ) + + + +
uuur uuur uur uur uuur uuur uuuur
=
1 1 0 2 0 2
U .J J U .J J +
uur uuur uur uuuur
= -a + a
= 0,
k {1,2,...,n}
( y do cch xc nh cc vct
1 2 n
U , U ,..., U
uur uur uuur
nn
k 1 0
U J J
uuur uuur
,
k {1,2,...,n}
,
k 0 2
U J J
uuur uuuur
,
k {1,3,4,...,n}
). (1) Vy
0
J H
uuur
<J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
>
1 0 s 1 0 0 0 s
J H.J J (J J J H).J J +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
=
1 0 0 s 1 2 n
J J .J J a(U U .... U ) + + + +
uuur uuur uur uur uuur
.
0 s
J J
uuur
= -a + a
s 0 s
U .J J
uur uuur
= -a + a
= 0
s {2,3,...,n}
( y rng
k 0 s
U J J
uuur uuur
k s)
Vy
1 0 2 n
J H J , J ,..., J < >
uuur
Hon ton tng t ta cng c
1 0 1 s n
J H J , J ,..., J ,..., J < >
uuur

s {1,2,...n}
(2)
T (1) v (2) ta c iu phi chng minh.
2.1.2.2. H qu
T nh l 2.1.2.1 ta c:
Nu n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm th mi q-mt bn (q

2) u l q-n hnh trc tm.

2.1.2.3. nh l
iu kin cn v n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm
l tn ti duy nht im H sao cho
i k
HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur
khng i vi mi i

k, i,k

{0,1,...,n}.
Chng minh
1. Nu
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm, gi H l trc tm ca n-n hnh

Ta c
i k, s k;i, k, s, t {0,1,...,n}

i k s t
HJ .HJ HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur uuur uuur
m m i k m m s t
(HJ J J ).HJ (HJ J J ).HJ + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
m k m t
HJ .HJ HJ .HJ
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuur
( y ly m k , m
t
, m
{0,1,....,n}
nn
k m i t m s
HJ J J , HJ J J )
uuuur uuuur uuur uuuur
m k t
HJ .(HJ J H) 0 +
uuuur uuuur uuur
m k t
HJ .J J 0
uuuur uuuur
lun ng v theo ng cch chn m th
m k t
HJ J J
uuuur uuuur
Vy
i t
HJ .HJ
uuur uuur
khng i
i k;i, k {0,1,2,...,n}
2.Gi s H l im sao cho
i k
HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur
khng i vi mi
i k;i, k {0,1,2,...,n}

ta s chng minh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm
Tht vy, gi s
i k
HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur
= a khng i
Ta c
0 1 s 0 1 s
HJ .J J HJ (J H HJ ) +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
=
0 1 0 s
HJ .J H HJ .HJ +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
= -a + a
= 0 vi
s {2,3,...,n}
Do
0 1 2 n
HJ J , J ,..., J < >
uuur
Hon ton tng t ta c
s 0 1 s n
HJ J , J ,..., J ,...., J < >
uuur
Vy H l trc tm ca n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
Qua ta thy im H nu c sao cho
k k
HJ .HJ
uuuur uuuur
khng i vi mi
i k;i, k {0,1,2,...,n}
l duy nht.
2.1.2.4. nh l
Cho n-n hnh trc tm v H l trc tm ca n-n hnh . iu kin
cn v
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm l cc (n-1)-mt bn ca hnh
l cc (n-1)-n hnh trc tm. ng cao J
i
H giao vi (n-1)-mt bn i din
tng ng ti A
i
, i
{0,1,2,...,n}
.
Chng minh
Chng hn, ta chng minh A
0
l trc tm ca (n-1)-n hnh
1 2 n
J , J ,..., J . < >
Ta c: J
0
A
0

1 2 n
J , J ,..., J < >
0 0 2 k
A J J J k {3,...,n}
uuuuur uuuur
0 0 2 k
J A .J J 0
uuuuur uuuur
0 2 k
HA .J J 0 k {3,...,n}
uuuur uuuur
(1)
J
1
A
1 0 1 3 n
J , J , J ,..., J < >
1 2
J H.J K 0 k {3,...,n}
uuur uuur
(2)
T suy ra
1 0 2 k
(J H HA ).J J 0 +
uuur uuuur uuuur
1 0 2 k
J A .J J 0 k {3,...,n}
uuuur uuuur
Vy J
1
A
0

0 2 3 n
J , J , J ,..., J < >
Tng t, ta cng c J
k
A
0 1 2 k n
J , J ,..., J ,..., J , k {2,3,...,n} < >
Do cc ng cao ca (n-1)-n hnh [J
1
,...,J
n
] ng quy ti A
0
. Ta
c iu phi chng minh.
2. o li, gi s trong n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
mi (n-1)-mt bn u l (n-
1)-mt bn u l (n-1)-n hnh trc tm ng thi hnh chiu vung gc t
mi nh xung mi (n-1)-mt bn i din l trc tm ca mt .
Gi A
i
l hnh chiu vung gc ca J
i
xung (n-1)-mt bn
<J
0
, J
1
, J
2
,...,
i n
J ,..., J ; i {0,1,...,n}. >
A
i
l trc tm ca (n-1)-n hnh trc tm ng thi hnh chiu vung gc t
mi nh xung mi (n-1)- mt bn i din l trc tm ca mt .
Gi l hnh chiu vung gc ca J
i
xung (n-1)-mt bn <J
0
,J
1
,J
2
,...,
i n
J ,..., J ; i {0,1,...,n}. >
A
i
l trc tm ca (n-1)- n hnh [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
] nn theo phn 1, th J
0
A
1
i qua
trc tm M ca (n-1)-n hnh [J
2
,...,J
n
], A
0
l trc tm ca (n-1)- n hnh
[J
2
,...,J
n
].
Vy J
0
A
1
v J
1
A
0
ct nhau ti M.
(trong trng hp n = 3 khng c trc tm ca 1 - n hnh [J
2
J
3
] song ta cng
thy rng J
0
A
1
v J
1
A
0
ct nhau ti M
2 3
J J
).
Trong tam gic J
0
J
1
M gi H l trc tm. Ta s chng minh H l trc
tm ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
Tht vy,
Trc ht J
0
A
0
<J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
>
J
1
A
1
<J
0
,J
2
,...J
n
>

J
0
H <J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
> (*)
J
1
H <J
0
,J
2
,...,J
n
> (**)
( rng trong tam gic J
0
A
0
M cc ng cao J
0
A
0
, i qua trc tm H ca
tam gic ).
By gi xt k

{2,3,...,n}
A
0
l trc tm ca [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
] nn
k 0 1 i
1 i 0 k
J A J J
J J .A J 0 i {2,3,...,k,...,n} (3)

uuuuur uuur
uuur uuuuur
Mt khc, HA
0
<J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
>
0 1 i
HA J J ; i {2,3,...,k,...,n}
uuuuur uuur
0 1 i
HA .J J 0 i {2,3,...,k,..., n} (4)
uuuur uuur
T (3) v (4) suy ra
1 i 0 0 k
J J .(HA A J ) 0 +
uuur uuuur uuuuur
1 i k
1 i k
k 1 i
J J .HJ 0
J J .HJ 0
HJ J J i {2,3,...,k,...,n} (5)

uuur uuuur
uuur uuuur
uuuur uuur
Ta c J
0
A
0
<J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
>

0 0
J H J M
uuur uuuur
J
1
A
1
<J
0
,J
2
,J
3,
...,J
n
>
0 k
J H J M
uuur uuuur
(Nhc li rng M l trc tm ca (n - 2)-n hnh [J
2
...J
n
] nn M nm trn (n-
2)-phng <J
2
,J
3
,...,J
n
>)
k 0
k 1
J M.J H 0
J M.HJ 0

'

uuuur uuur
uuuur uuur
( )
k 0 1
J M. J H HJ 0 +
uuuur uuur uuur
k 0 1
J M.J J 0 (6)
uuuur uuur
Mt khc, H l trc tm ca tam gic J
0
MJ
1
nn
0 0 1
MH .J J 0 (7)
uuuuur uuur
T (6) v (7) suy ra
( )
k 0 1
J M MH J J 0 +
uuuur uuuur uuur
k 0 1
k 1 0
J H.J J 0
HJ J J (8)


uuur uuur
uuuur uuur
T (5) v (8) suy ra
HJ
k
<J
1
,J
2
,...,
k
J
,...,J
n
>
{ } k 2, 3,..., n
T cng vi (*) v (**) suy ra cc ng cao ca n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )

ng quy ti H.
T ta c iu phi chng minh.
2.1.2.5. nh l
iu kin cn v n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm
l mi cp mt i nhau ca n- n hnh u trc giao vi nhau.
Chng minh
1. Gi s
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm. Chng hn, ta chng minh q-
mt bn <J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
> trc giao vi (n-q-1)-mt bn i din
<J
q + 1
,J
q + 2
,...,J
n
> (q = 1,2,...,n-2)
Xt k bt k thuc {1,2,...,q}
Gi H l trc tm ca n - n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
Khi , J
0
H <J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
>
0 q 1 s
J H.J J 0 s (q+2,...,n} (1)
+

uuur uuuuur
J
k
H <J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J
,...,J
n
>
k q 1 s
HJ .J J 0 s (q+2,...,n} (2)
+

uuuur uuuuur
T (1) & (2) suy ra
0 k q 1 s
(J H HJ )J J 0
+
+
uuur uuuur uuuuur
0 k q 1 s
J J .J J 0 s (q+2,...,n}
+

uuuur uuuuur
0 k q 1 q 2 n
J J J , J ,..., J
+ +
< >
uuuur
vi k ty thuc {1,2,...,n}
Vy <J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
> <J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
> . Ta c iu phi chng minh.
2. Gi s n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c cc cp mt bn i din trc giao vi
nhau. Ta phi chng minh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm.
Gi A
i
l chn ng cao k t nh J
i
ca n hnh. Ta s chng minh
(n-1)- mt bn <J
0
,J
1
,...,
i
J
,...,J
n
> - n hnh trc tm v A
i
l trc tm ca n, i
{ } 0,1,..., n .
Chng hn, ta chng minh cc ng cao ca
(n-1)- n hnh [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
] ng quy ti A
0
.
Tht vy,
J
0
A
0
<J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
>
0 0 2 s
0 0 2 s
J A J J s {3,4,...,n}
J A .J J 0 s {3,4,...,n} (3)


uuuuur uuur
uuuuur uuur
J
1
J
0
trc giao vi (n-1)- mt bn i din <J
2
,J
3
,...,J
n
> nn
1 0 2 s
J J .J J 0 s {3,4,...,n} (4)
uuur uuur
T (3) v (4) suy ra
( )
1 0 0 0 2 s
J J J A J J 0 s {3,4,...,n} +
uuur uuuuur uuur
Do J
1
A
0
<A
2
,A
3
,...,A
n
>.
Vy J
1
A
0
l ng cao ca (n-2)- n hnh [J
2
,J
3
,...,J
n
], tng t J
k
A
0
cng l ng cao ca (n-2)- n hnh [J
1
,J
2
,..,
k
J
,...,J
n
].
Vy (n-1)-n hnh [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
] l (n-1)- n hnh trc tm, c trc tm
l A
k
.
T theo nh l 2.1.2.4 th
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n- n hnh trc tm.
(iu phi chng minh)
2.1.2.6. nh l
Trong n-n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
(n

4) ng thng qua cc
trc tm ca mi cp mt i din (c s chiu

2) trc giao vi hai mt .

Chng minh
Khng gim tnh tng qut, chng hn ta chng minh ng thng ni
trc tm M ca mt [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
] vi trc tm N ca mt [J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
] trc giao
vi c hai mt (2
q n 2
).
Do
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n-n hnh trc tm nn theo h qu 2.1.2.2 th
[J
0
,J
1
,..,J
q+1
] cng l (q+1)- n hnh trc tm, mt khc M l trc tm ca q-
mt [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
] nn theo nh l 2.1.2.4 th J
q+1
M [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
].
q 1 s
J M.MJ 0 s {0,1,...,q},
+

uuuuur uuuur
mt khc theo nh l 2.1.2.5 ta c
<J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
> <J
q+1
,...,J
n
>.
nn
q 1 s
NJ .MJ 0 s {0,1,...,q}.
+

uuuuur uuuur
Do ( )
q 1 q 1 s
NJ J M MJ 0 s {0,1,...,q}
+ +
+
uuuuur uuuuur uuuur
s
0 1 q
MN MJ s {0,1,...,q}
MN <J , J ,..., J

>
uuuur uuuur
Tng t ta cng c MN <J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
> (iu phi chng minh).
2.1.2.7. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
ng vung gc chung ca
mt i din ng quy ti trc tm ca n-n hnh.
Chng minh
Gi H l trc tm ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, chng hn ta chng
minh ng vung gc chung ca cp mt i din <J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
> v
<J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
> i qua H.
Tht vy,
Dng HM [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
] (M

<J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
>).
V H l trc tm ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
nn
0 q 1 s
J H J J s {q+2,...,n}
+

uuur uuuuur
.
0 q 1 s
J H.J J 0 s {q+2,...,n} (1)
+

uuur uuuuur
Mt khc theo nh l 2.1.2.5 th
<J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
> <J
q+1
,...,J
n
>
M

<J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
>
0 q 1 s
MJ J J
+

uuuur uuuuur
0 q 1 s
MJ .J J 0 s {q+2,...,n} (2)
+

uuuur uuuuur
T (1) v (2) suy ra ( )
0 0 q 1 s
MJ J H J J 0
+
+
uuuur uuur uuuuur
q 1 s
q 1 n
MH.J J 0 s {q+2,...,n}
MH J ,..., J
+
+

< >
uuuur uuuuur
T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
2.1.2.8. nh l
iu kin cn v n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm l
tn ti s t nhin q: 0
q n 1
sao cho mi cp q-mt bn v (n-q-1)- mt
bn i din ca n- n hnh trc giao vi nhau, ng thi cc ng vung
gc chung ca cc cp mt i din ng quy ti mt im.
Chng minh
iu kin cn c suy ra t nh l 2.1.2.5 v 2.1.4.7.
By gi ta chng minh iu kin .
Trc ht nu q = 0 hoc q = n -1 th r rng theo nh ngha ta c n-
n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n - n hnh trc tm (cc ng cao ng quy).
Xt trng hp 1
q n 2
:
Gi s cc ng vung gc chung ca cc cp q- mt bn v (n-q-1)-
mt bn i din ca n- n hnh ng quy ti H. Ta chng minh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )

l n- n hnh trc tm v nhn H l trc tm.
Tht vy,
Xt q- mt bn [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
q+1
] v (n-q-1)-mt bn i din [J
0
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
]
chng vung gc vi nhau v ng vung gc chung MN ca chng i qua
H.
(M 1 2 q 1 0 q 2 n
J , J ,..., J , N J , J ,..., J
+ +
< > < >
)
Theo gi thit <J
1
,J
2
,...,J
q+1
> <J
0
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
> m 1
q n 2
;
M 1 2 q 1 0 q 2 n
J , J ,..., J , N J , J ,..., J
+ +
< > < >
nn
0 1 2
J N J J
uuur uuur
0 1 2
J N.J J 0
uuur uuur
Mt khc, H 1 2 q 2
MN J , J ,..., J
+
< >
1 2 1 2
NH J J NH.J J 0
uuur uuur uuur uuur
nn (
0 1 2
J N NH)J J 0 +
uuur uuur uuur
0 1 2
J H.J J 0
uuur uuur
Tng t ta cng c
0 1 s
J H.J J 0 s {1,2,...,n}
uuur uuur
Vy J
0
H
0 1 n
J , J ,..., J < >
Hon ton tng t ta cng c
J
k
H
0 1 k n
J , J ,..., J ,..., J < >
Do
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm. (iu phi chng minh).
2.1.2.9. MT S TNH CHT C TRNG CA T DIN TRC TM
T cc tnh cht ca n hnh trc tm, xt vi n = 3 ta thu c cc
tnh cht ca t din trc tm nh sau:
2.1.2.9.1. Tnh cht 1
iu kin cn v t din ABCD l t din trc tm l
AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
.
2.1.2.9.2. Nhn xt
tnh cht ny chng ta thy tam gic lun tha mn, t gii thch
ti sao trong tam gic lun c ba ng cao ng quy.
2.1.2.9.3. Tnh cht 2
iu kin cn v t din ABCD l t din trc tm l tn ti duy
nht mt im H tha mn
HA.HB HA.HC HA.HD HB.HC HB.HD HC.HD
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
2.1.2.9.4. Tnh cht 3
iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc tm l cc ng
cao i qua trc tm ca mt y.
2.1.2.9.5. Tnh cht 4
iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc tm l cc cp cnh
i vung gc vi nhau.
2.1.2.9.6. Tnh cht 5
Trong t din trc tm th ng vung gc chung ca cc cp cnh
i ng quy ti trc tm ca t din.
2.1.3. CC DU HIU NHN BIT V TR TRC TM CA N
HNH
2.1.3.1. nh l
iu kin n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm
trong n- n hnh l tm O ca siu cu ngoi tip n- n hnh nm trong n
hnh .
Chng minh
Gi G l trng tm ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, ta tm thi cng nhn
rng
2
GH GO
n 1

uuur uuur
m s chng minh kt qu ny trong nh l 2.1.2.4.
Gi V
i
l th tch ca n- n hnh [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
i-1
,O,J
i+1
,...,J
n
] i=0,1,...,n. V l th
tch ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
rng V =
n n
i i i
i 0 i=0
V, V.OJ 0

uuur
Ta c
2
GH .OG
n 1

uuur uuur
( )
n n
i
i i i i
i 0 i 0
n
i i
i 0
n 1 GH 2(GH HO)
(n 1)GH 2HO
(n 1)HG 2HO 0
V
(HJ J G) 2 (HJ J O) 0
V
(V 2V)HJ 0

+
+
+
+ +

uuur uuur uuur

uuur uuur
uuur uuur r
uuur uuur uuur uuur r
uuur r
(1)
Gi A
i
l giao ca J
i
O vi mt i din vi nh J
i
ca n- n hnh
(i=0,1,..,n)
Do O nm trong n- n hnh nn A
i
nm trong(n-1)- mt
0 1 k n
[J , J ,..., J ,..., J ]
ng thi O l tm siu cu ngoi tip n- n hnh nn OA
i
i
R OJ
.
Do V
i

i
1
V V 2V 0 (i=0,1,...,n)
2

Kt hp vi (1) suy ra H nm trong n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
2.1.3.2. Nhn xt
1. n-n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm nm ngoi n hnh khi v
ch khi tn ti t nht mt (n-1)- mt no ca n- n hnh cng c trc tm
nm ngoi (n-1)- mt . T trn cng vi nh l 2.1.2.1 v nh l
2.1.2.4 d dng thy kt qu sau:
i) n- n hnh trc tm c trc tm nm ngoi n- n hnh khi v ch khi
tn ti i
{0,1,...,0}
sao cho
j s j k
J J .J J
uuur uuur
khng i vi mi s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n}
nhn gi tr m.
ii) n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm nm trong n- n hnh khi
v ch khi vi mi
i {0,1,...,n}
th
j s j k
J J .J J
uuur uuur
khng i vi mi
s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n} v nhn gi tr dng.
iii) n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm trng vi mt nh J
i
no
khi v ch khi
j s j k
J J .J J 0
uuur uuur
s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n}
2. Ta cng d dng nhn thy rng
- Nu n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H th cc n- n hnh
0 i n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
cng l n hnh trc tm, ng thi nhn J
i
l trc tm
i {0,1,...,n}
.
- Nu n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm ngoi n- n hnh th
tn ti
i {0,1,...,n}
n- n hnh
0 i n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
(i=0,1,...,n) c trc tm J
i
nm ngoi n- n hnh .
- Nu n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm trong n- n hnh th
tn ti
i {0,1,...,n}
n- n hnh
0 i n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
c trc tm J
i
nm trong n-
n hnh .
Tt nhin rng n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
cng c trc tm J
i
trng vo
nh J
i
th n- n hnh
0 i n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
cng c trc tm J
i
trng nh H.
T cng vi nhn xt (1) v nh l 2.1.2.3 ta c kt qu sau:
a) n- n hnh trc tm c trc tm H nm trong n- n hnh khi v ch
khi:

k i s i
J J . J J khng i vi s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n} v nhn gi tr m.
b) n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm ngoi n- n hnh
khi v ch khi:

k i s i
J J . J J khng i vi mi s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n} v nhn gi tr dng.
c) n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H trng vo nh J
i
ca
n- n hnh khi v ch khi:

k i s i
J J . J J = 0 s k, s,k {0,1,2,..,i,..., n} .
2.1.3.3. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
gi w
i
l th tch ca (n-1) -
mt bn
n 0,1,..., i ] J ,..., J ,..., J , J [
n i 1 0

.
Khi
i) n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H trng vo nh J
i
no ca n- n
hnh khi v ch khi:
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w = w + + + + + +
ii) n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm trong n- n hnh khi v ch
khi vi mi
i {0,1,...,n}
th
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w > w + + + + + +
iii) n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm ngoi n- n hnh khi v ch
khi vi mi
i {0,1,...,n}
th
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w < w + + + + + +
Chng minh
i) Nu n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H trng vo nh no
ca n- n hnh, chng hn H

J
0
Khi J
s
J
0

0 1 s n
J , J ,..., J ,..., J < >
s 1, 2,..., n
Dng J
0
A
0 0 1 n 0 0 1 n
J , J ,..., J (A J , J ,..., J ) < > < >
Theo nh l "con nhm" ta c
n
0 0 s 0
0 s
s 1
0 0 s 0
J A J J
W W 0
J A J J

uuuuur uuur
r
n
s 0 0 0
s 0
i 1
s 0 0 0
J J A J
W W
J J A J

uuur uuuuur
n
2 2 s 0 0 0
s 0
i 1
s 0 0 0
J J A J
( W ) (W )
J J A J

uuur uuuuur
n
2 2 s 0 k 0
s s k 0
i=1 0 k s n
s 0 k 0
J J J J
W WW . . W
J J J J

+

uuur uuuur
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n 0
w w ... w w ... w = w + + + + + +
(
s 0 k 0 s 0 k 0
J J J J J J .J J 0 k s)
uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
(iu phi chng minh)
ii) Nu n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm trong n- n hnh, khi
theo nh l "con nhm" ta c:
n
i
i
i 0
i
HJ
W 0
HJ

uuur
r
n
0 i
i 0
i
i 0
J H HJ
W W
HJ J H

uuur uuur
n
2 2 0 i
i 0
i
i 0
J H HJ
( W ) (W )
HJ J H

uuur uuur
n
2 2 i k
i i k 0
i 1 1 i k n
i k
HJ HJ
W w w . . W
HJ HJ

+

uuur uuuur
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n 0
w w ... w w ... w > w + + + + + +
(Do H nm trong n- n hnh nn theo nhn xt 2.1.3.2 ta c
i k
HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur
khng
i vi mi i k ,
k, i {0,1,...,n}
v nhn gi tr m).
Tng t ta cng c
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w > w (i=0,1,...,n) + + + + + +
(iu phi chng minh)
iii) Nu n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H nm ngoi n- n hnh. Khi
theo nhn xt 2.1.3.2:
s k
HJ .HJ
uuur uuuur
khng i vi
s k, s,k {0,1,...,n}
v nhn
gi tr dng, ng thi tn ti
i {0,1,...,n}
tn ti n- n hnh
0 k n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
c trc tm J
i
nm trong n- n hnh . Khng gim tnh
tng qut chng hn J
0
nm trong n- n hnh
0 k n
[H, J ,..., J ,..., J ]
Khi theo nh l "con nhm" ta c
n
0 i
0 i
s 1
0 i
J H HJ
W W 0
J H HJ

uuur uuur
r
n
0 i
i 0
i 1
i 0
HJ HJ
W W
HJ HJ

uuur uuur
n
2 2 0 i
i 0
i 1
i 0
HJ HJ
( W ) (W )
HJ HJ

uuur uuur
n
2 2 i k
i i k 0
i 1 1 i k n
i k
HJ HJ
W w w . . W
HJ HJ

+

uuur uuuur
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n 0
w w ... w w ... w < w + + + + + +
(Theo nhn xt 2.1.3.2 th
i k
HJ .HJ 0 k i, k,i {0,1,...,n} >
uuur uuuur
)
i vi mt b s W
0
,W
1
,...,W
n
khc 0 bt k th ch c th xy ra mt trong
cc kh nng sau:
+ Th nht hoc tn ti duy nht
i {0,1,...,n}
sao cho
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w = w + + + + + +
+ Th hai hoc vi mi
i {0,1,...,n}
th:
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w > w + + + + + +
+ Th ba hoc tn ti duy nht
i {0,1,...,n}
th
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 i-1 i+1 n i
w w ... w w ... w < w + + + + + +
Do sau khi chng minh ba iu kin cn cc kt lun i), ii), iii) ca nh
l 2.1.3.3 th iu kin cng hon ton c chng minh.
2.1.3.4. CC DU HIU NHN BIT TRC TM CA TAM GIC, T
DIN
T cc du hiu nhn bit trc tm ca t din trc tm, xt vi n = 2,
n=3 thu c cc du hiu nhn bit trc tm ca tam gic v t din nh sau:
2.1.3.4.1. T nh l 2.1.3.1 ta c
* i vi tam gic:
Trong tam gic, trc tm nm trong tam gic khi v ch khi tm ca
ng trn ngoi tip cng nm trong tam gic .
*i vi t din:
iu kin cn v t din trc tm ABCD c trc tm H nm
trong t din l tm O ca mt cu ngoi tip cng nm trong t din.
2.1.3.4.2. T nhn xt 2.1.3.2 ta c
1. T din trc tm ABCD c trc tm H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi c
t nht mt mt no c trc tm nm ngoi tam gic .
2. * i vi tam gic:
Tam gic ABC c trc tm H
a) H nm ngoi tam gic khi v ch khi tn ti mt trong cc tch sau nhn
gi tr m: AB.AC, BA.BC, CA.CB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
b) H nm trong tam gic khi v ch khi
AB.AC 0, BA.BC 0, CA.CB 0 > > >
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
* i vi t din:
T din trc tm A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
c trc tm H
a) H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi tn ti mt nh A
i
(i = 1,2,3,4) sao
cho
i j i k
A A .A A , j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
khng i v nhn gi tr m.
b) H nm trong t din khi v ch khi vi mi i
{1, 2, 3, 4}
sao cho
i j i k
A A .A A , j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
khng i nhn gi tr dng.
c) H trng vi mt nh A
i
no
i j i k
A A .A A 0, j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
3. * i vi tam gic:
Nu tam gic ABC c trc tm H, th cc tam gic HBC, HCA, HAB
ln lt c cc trc tm l A, B, C.
* i vi t din
Nu t din ABCD c trc tm H th HBCD, HACD, HABD, HABC
cng l cc t din trc tm v ln lt nhn cc nh A, B, C, D lm trc
tm.
4. * i vi tam gic:
Tam gic ABC c trc tm H
a) Nu H nm ngoi tam gic khi v ch khi tn ti mt nh sao cho H
cng vi hai nh cn li to thnh cc tam gic c trc tm nm ngoi.
b) H nm trong t din th cc tam gic HAB, HBC, HCA c trc tm nm
ngoi tam gic .
* i vi t din:
T din trc tm A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
c trc tm H
a) Nu H nm ngoi t din th tn ti mt nh A
i
, (i = 1,2,3,4) sao cho H
cng 3 nh cn li to thnh mt t din c trc tm nm ngoi.
b) Nu H nm trong t din th cc t din HA
1
A
2
A
3
, HA
1
A
2
A
4
, HA
1
A
3
A
4
,
HA
2
A
3
A
4
c tm nm ngoi t din.
c) Nu H trng vi mt nh A
i
(i=1,2,3,4) no ca t din th t din
to bi H v 3 nh cn li cng c trc tm trng vi H.
2.1.3.4.6. T nh l 2.1.3.3 ta c
* i vi tam gic:
Cho tam gic ABC, H l trc tm. Chng minh rng
a) H trng vi A khi v ch khi a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
;
b) H nm trong tam gic khi v ch khi bnh phng ca mt cnh bt k
nh hn tng bnh phng ca hai cnh cn li;
c) H nm ngoi tam gic khi v ch khi tn ti mt cnh sao cho bnh
phng ca cnh ln hn tng bnh phng ca hai cnh cn li.
* i vi t din:
Cho t din trc tm ABCD, H l trc tm ca t din. Chng minh
rng
a) Trc tm H trng vi A khi v ch khi

2
ABD
2
ACD
2
ABC
2
BCD
S S S S

+ +

b) Trc tm H nm trong t din khi v ch khi bnh phng din tch
mt mt nh hn tng bnh phng din tch cc mt cn li.
c) Trc tm H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi tn ti mt mt sao cho
bnh phng din tch mt ln hn tng bnh phng din tch cc mt cn
li.
2.1.4. CC SIU CU LE TRONG N HNH TRC TM
2.1.4.1. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, cc im G
0
,G
1
,...,G
n
,
A
0
,A
1
,...,A
n
, M
0
,M
1
,...,M
n
cng nm trn mt n- cu, trong G
k
l trng tm
ca mt <J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
>, A
k
l chn ng cao h t nh J
k
xung mt
<J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
>, M
k
l im chia on ni trc tm H vi nh J
k
theo t l
k
k k
M H 1
k=0,1,...,n
n 1 M J

Ta gi n- cu i qua 3(n+1) im trn siu cu le loi (n-1) ca n- n hnh

0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
Chng minh
Ta s chng minh cc im A
i
, G
i
cng nhn M
0
G
0
di gc vung
i=0,1,...,n
.
Tht vy, theo phn chng minh nh l 2.1.2.4 th J
0
A
1
v J
1
A
0
ct nhau
ti M (M nm trn A
2
A
3
nu n = 3 v M l trc tm ca [A
2
,A
3
,...,A
n
] nu n
4 ).
Ta c
0
0 k
M H 1

n 1 M J

nn
1 0 1 1 0
n 1 1
A M A H A J
n n

+
uuuuuur uuuur uuuur
Gi G
0
l trng tm ca [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
] nn
1 0 1 1 1 2 1 n
1
A G (A J A J ... A J )
n
+ + +
uuuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
Vy

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 n
1 1 1 1 2 2 1 n 1 0 1 1 1 n
2 2
n 1 1 1
A M .A G ( A H A J ) (A J ... A J )
n n n
n-1 1
= A H (A J A J ... A J ) A J (A J ... A J )
n n

+ + +
+ + + + + +
uuuuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
uuuuur uuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 n 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 n 2 2
n-1 1 1
= A H.A J A J .A J A J (A J A J ... A J )
n n n
n-1 1
= A H.A J A J (A J A J ... A J )
n n

+ + + + +
+ + + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 n 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 3 2 2 2
n-1 1
= A H.A J A J (A M M J A M MJ ... A M MJ )
n n
n-1 n 1 1
= A H.A J A J .A M A J (MJ MJ
n n n
+ + + + + + +

+ + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
n
1 1 1 1 0 1 2
... MJ )
n-1
= [A H.A J A J .A M] (1)
n
+ +
+
uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
Xin lu thm rng: V H l trc tm ca
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
nn

1 1 2 1 n 1 0 1 1
A H(A J ... A J ) 0; A J .A J 0 + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
A
1
l trc tm ca [J
0
,J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
] nn
0 1 2 3 n 1 0 2 3 n
J A [J , J ,..., J ] A J (MJ MJ .... MJ ) 0 + + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
y ta ni
2 3
M J J
nu n=3 v M l trc tm ca (n-2)- mt [J
2
,J
3
,...,J
n
] nu n
4 )
By gi trong tam gic J
0
MJ
1
, c trc tm l H, cc ng cao J
1
A
1
,
J
0
A
0
ct nhau ti H.
0 1
A J H
ng dng vi
1 1
J A M
1 1 1 1 0 1
A H.A J A J .A M (2)
Mt khc, nu tam gic J
0
MJ
1
c gc
0
1 0
J J M 90
th
1 1 1
A H.A J 0
uuuur uuuur
cn
1 0 1
A J .A M 0
uuuur uuuur
nu tam gic J
0
MJ
1
c J
1
J
0
M <90
0
th
1 1 1
A H.A J 0 >
uuuur uuuur
cn
1 0 1
A J .A M 0 <
uuuur uuuur
C ngha l
1 1 1
A H.A J
uuuur uuuur
v
1 0 1
A J .A M
uuuur uuuur
lun tri du
Kt hp cng h thc (2) ta c
1 1 1 1 0 1
A H.A J A J .A M 0 +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
T thay vo (1) suy ra
1 0 1 0
A M .A G 0
uuuuuur uuuuur
Hon ton tng t ta cng c
k 0 k 0
A M .A G 0 k {1,2,...,n}
uuuuuur uuuuuur
(3)
By gi do G
0
l trng tm ca mt [J
1
,J
2
,...,J
n
], G
1
l trng tm ca mt
[J
0
,J
2
,J
3
,...,J
n
] nn
0 1 1 0
1
G G J J
n

uuuuur uuur
0 1 0 1
M G M H HG +
uuuuuur uuuuur uuuur

0 0 2 3 n
0 0 0 2 3 n
1
M H (HJ HJ HJ ... HJ )
n
1 1
J H (J H HJ HJ HJ ... HJ )
n n
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +
uuuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
uuur uuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
Do vy,
0 1 0 1
G G .M G
uuuuur uuuuuur
1 0 0 0 2 3 n 2
1 0 2 3 n 2
1
J J (J H HJ HJ HJ ... HJ )
n
1
J J (HJ HJ ... HJ )
n
0
+ + + + +
+ + +

uuur uuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur

uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
(V H l trc tm ca
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
nn
1 0 s
J J J H s 2, 3,..., n
uuur uuur
)
Vy
0 1 0 1
G G .M G 0
uuuuur uuuuuur
Hon ton tng t ta cng c
0 k 0 k
G G .M G 0 k {1,2,...,n} (4)
uuuuuur uuuuuur
Ta c
0 1 0 1
1
M M J J
n

uuuuuur uuur
0 1 0 1
1 2 n 1
G M G H HM
1 1
= (J H J H ... J H) HJ
n n
+
+ + + +
uuuuuur uuuur uuuuur
uuur uuur uuur uuur
Vy
0 1 0 1
M M .G M
uuuuuur uuuuuur
0 1 1 2 n 1 2
1
J J (J H J H ... J H HJ )
n
+ + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur

0 1 2 3 n 2
1
J J (J H J H ... J H)
n
0
+ + +

uuur uuur uuur uuur

Vy
0 1 0 1
M M .G M
uuuuuur uuuuuur
= 0
Hon ton tng t ta cng c
0 k 0 k
M M .G M 0 k=1,2,...,n (5)
uuuuuur uuuuuur
T (3), (4), (5) chng t A
k
, M
k
, G
k
cng nhn M
0
G
0
di mt gc vung, vi
k 1, 2,...., n
. Do cc im G
0
,G
1
,...,G
n
, A
0
,A
1
,...,A
n
, M
0
,M
1
,...,M
n
cng
nm trn mt n- cu ng knh M
0
G
0
(M
k
G
k
cng l ng knh ca n- cu
ny
k 1, 2,...., n
).
2.1.4.2. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, trc tm H, vi mi s t
nhin q sao cho
0 q n 1
ta lun c:
Trng tm ca cc q- mt bn, chn ng vung gc h t H xung
cc q- mt bn , cc im l nh ca cc trng tm cc (n-q-1)- mt i
din (vi cc q- mt trn) qua php v t tm H t l
n q
q 1

+
cng nm trn mt
n- cu, ta tm gi y l siu cu le loi q ca n- n hnh trc tm.
Chng minh
Gi G l trng tm q- mt [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
]
N l hnh chiu vung gc ca H xung q- mt ny
Khi HN l ng vung gc chung ca q- mt [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
] v (n-q-1)- mt
i din [J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
]
Gi K l nh ca trng tm (n-q-1)- mt [J
q+1
,J
q+2
,...,J
n
] qua php v t tm H t
l
n q
q 1

+
, c ngha l
q 1 q 2 n
1
HK (HJ HJ ... HJ )
q 1
+ +
+ + +
+
uuur uuuuur uuuuur uuuur

nh l s c chng minh nu ta xt mt q- mt bt k khc q- mt
trn v chng minh c rng trng tm ca q- mt ny, hnh chiu vung
gc ca H xung q- mt ny, nh ca trng tm ca (n-q-1)- mt i din vi
n qua php v t tm H t l
n q
q 1

+
cng nhn GK di mt gc vung.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, chng hn xt q- mt
[J
q-m+1
J
q-m+2
...J
q
J
q+1
J
q+2
...J
2q-m+1
] (
0 m q
)
Gi G
1
l trng tm ca q- mt ny.
N
1
l hnh chiu vung gc ca H xung q- mt ny
K
1
l im c xc nh bi
1 0 1 q m 2q m 2 2q m 3 n
1
HK (HJ HJ ... HJ HJ HJ ... HJ )
q 1
+ +
+ + + + + + +
+
uuuur uuur uuur uuuuuur uuuuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuuur
Ta c G l trng tm ca q- mt [J
0
,J
1
,...,J
q
], G
1
l trng tm ca q- mt
[J
q-m+1
J
q-m+2
...J
q
J
q+1
J
q+2
...J
2q-m+1
] nn
1 0 q 1 2 q 2 q m 2q m 1
1
GG [J J J J ... J J ]
q 1
+ + +
+ + +
+
uuuur uuuuur uuuuuur uuuuuuuuuuur
1 1
KG KH HG +
uuuur uuur uuuur
q 1 q 2 n q m 1 q m 2 q q 1 2q m 1
1 1
(J H J H ... J H) (HJ HJ ... HJ HJ ... HJ
q 1 q 1
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ +
uuuuur uuuuur uuur uuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuuur uuuuur uuuuuuuur
q m 1 q m 2 q 2q m 2 n
1
(HJ HJ ... HJ J H ... J H)
q 1
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+
uuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuuur uuuuuuuuur uuur
Vy
1 1
0 q 1 2 q 2 q m 2q m 1 q m 1 q m 2 q 2q m 2 n
2
GG .KG
1
[J J J J ... J J ].[HJ HJ ... HJ J H ... J H]=0
(q 1)
+ + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + +
+
uuuur uuuur
uuuuur uuuuuur uuuuuuuuuuur uuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuuur uuuuuuuuur uuur
( y xin lu thm rng H l trc ca n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )

nn
s k i
HJ .J J 0
uuur uuur
nu
k s
v
i s
)
Vy
1 1
GG .KG 0 (1)
uuuur uuuur
Ta c
1 1
0 1 q m 2q m 2 2q m 3 n q 1 q 2 n
0 q 1 1 q 2 q m 2q m
K K (K H HK)
1 1
(J H J H ... J H J H J H ... J H) (HJ HJ ... J H)
q 1 n
1
(J J J J ... J J
q 1
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+
+ + +
+
uuuur uuuur uuur
uuur uuur uuuuuur uuuuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuur uuuuur uuuuur uuur
uuuuur uuuuur
1
1
)
GG
uuuuuuuuuuur
uuuur
1 1
0 1 q m 2q m 2 2q m 3 n 0 1 n
q m 1 q 2q m 2
K G K G HG
1 1
(J H J H ... J H J H J H ... J H) (HJ HJ ... HJ )
q 1 q 1
1
(HJ ... HJ ... J H
q 1
+ +
+ +
+
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+
uuuur uuuur uuur
uuur uuur uuuuuur uuuuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuur uuur uuur uuuur
uuuuuuur uuuur uuuuu r
n
1
J H)
KG
+

uuuu uuur
uuuur
Vy
1 1 1 1
K K.K G GG .KG 0 (2)
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
(Theo (1) th ta chng minh
1 1
GG .KG 0)
uuuur uuuur
T (1) v (2) suy ra trng tm ca cc q- mt cc nh ca cc trng tm
cc (n-q-1)- mt i din vi cc q- mt trn qua php v t tm H t l
n q
q 1

+

cng nm trn mt n- cu.
- Nu q = 0 th mi q- mt ch gm 1 nh ca n- n hnh ng thi
hnh chiu vung gc t trc tm H xung O- mt ny cng l trng tm ca
q- mt cng nm trn n- cu ni trn.
- Nu
q 1
th mi q- mt B ca n- n hnh cng xem l q- mt ca
(q+1)- n hnh no c cc nh ca n- n hnh, theo nh l 2.1.4.1 th
(q+1)- cu i qua cc trng tm ca cc q- mt ca (q+1)- n hnh ny cng
i qua chn cc ng cao h t cc nh ca (q+1)- n hnh xung cc q-
mt bn, trong s chn ng cao ng vi q- mt B cng nm trn (q+1)-
cu le loi q ca (q+1)- n hnh ni trn. Hn na n- cu ni (3) cng
i qua (q+1) trng tm ca cc q- mt bn ca (q+1)- n hnh ny. Nn
(q+1)- cu le ni trn nm trn n- cu ni (3). D hnh chiu vung
gc ca H xung q- mt bn B cng nm trn n- cu ni (3).
Nh vy nh l hon ton c chng minh.
2.1.4.3. Nhn xt
Khi cho q = 0,1,...,n-1; theo cch nhn nhn ca ta i vi mi n- n
hnh trc tm s c n siu cu le.
Trong trng hp q=0 th n- cu le loi 0 i qua cc nh n- n hnh
nn n chnh l n- cu ngoi tip n- n hnh. Tuy nhin theo nh l trn n-
cu ngoi tip ny cng i qua cc im K
0
, K
1
,...,K
n
; trong K
i
c xc
nh sao cho:
i 0 1 i 1 i 1 n
HK HK HK ... HK HK ... HK (i=0,1,...,n)
+
+ + + + + +
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuuuur uuuuuur uuuuur
, hn na n- cu
ngoi tip ny nhn J
i
K
i
l ng knh i=0,1,...,n.
Gi A
i
l chn cc ng cao h t nh J
i
xung (n-1)- mt i din ca n-
n hnh; i=0,1,...,n.
G
i
l trng tm ca (n-1)- mt
0 1 i n
{J , J ,..., J ,..., J } i=0,1,...,n
E
i
l im c xc nh bi
i i
HE nHA ;i 0,1,..., n
uuuur uuuur
.
Khi do
i i
i i
HK nHG
HE nHA

uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur
Suy ra
i i i i
K E nA G i=0,1,...,n
uuuur uuuuur
M

i i i i
A G .J A 0
uuuuur uuuur
hay cng l
i i i i
K E J E i=0,1,...n
uuuur uuuur
Do E
i
cng nm trn n- cu ngoi tip n- n hnh, ni cch cc nh
ca cc chn ng cao ca n- n hnh qua php v t tm H t l
n
1
cng
nm trn n- cu ngoi tip n hnh.
2.1.4.5. NG TRN LE TRONG TAM GIC V MT CU LE
TRONG T DIN TRC TM
Xt vi n=2, n=3 chng ta thu c bi ton ng trn le v mt
cu le sau:
2.1.4.5.1. Tnh cht 1
* i vi tam gic
Cho tam gic ABC bt k, H trc tm, cc ng cao l AA
1
, BB
1
,
CC
1
; M
1
, M
1
, M
3
ln lt l trung im cc cnh BC, AC, AB; I
1
, I
2
, I
3
ln
lt l trung im ca cc on thng HA, HB, HC. Chng minh rng 9 im
M
1
, M
1
, M
3
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, A
1
, B
1
, C
1
cng nm trn mt ng trn (ng trn
le).
* i vi t din:
Chng minh rng trong mt hnh t din trc tm, cc trng tm v
trc tm ca cc mt, cng nh cc im cc on thng ca mi ng cao
ca t din, k t nh ti trc tm ca t din theo t s 2:1 th cng nm trn
mt mt cu (Mt cu le).
2.1.4.5.2. Tnh cht 2
*i vi t din
Trong mt t din trc tm su trung im ca su cnh v su chn
ng vung gc chung ca cc cp cnh i cng nm trn mt mt cu.
2.1.4.5.3. Nhn xt
i i i i
i i i i
K E .J A 0
K E J A


uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur
* i vi tam gic:
Trong tam gic ABC c M
1
, M
2
, M
3
ln lt l trung im ca cc cnh
BC, AC, AB; H
1
, H
2
, H
3
ln lt l chn ng cao h t cc nh A, B, C.
Gi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
ln lt l im i xng ca H qua M
1
, M
2
, M
3
; I
1
, I
2
, I
3
ln
lt l im i xng ca H qua BC, AC, AB. Khi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, I
1
,I
2
, I
3
thuc ng trn ngoi tip tam gic ABC, hn na ng trn ny c cc
ng knh AK
1
, BK
2
, CK
3
.
* i vi t din:
Trong t din trc tm ABCD, H l trc tm, c G
1
, G
2
, G
3
, G
4
ln lt
l trng tm ca cc mt (BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC); H
1
, H
2
, H
3
, H
4
ln
lt l chn ng cao h t nh A, B, C, D.
Gi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
c xc nh

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
HK 3HG ; HK 3HG ; HK 3HG ; HK 3HG
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
ln lt c xc nh
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
HI 3HH ; HI 3HH ; HI 3HH ; HI 3HH
uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
Khi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
nm trn mt cu ngoi tip t din ABCD.
Hn na, mt cu ny nhn AK
1
, BK
2
, CK
3
, DK
4
lm ng knh.
2.1.5. SIU CU LE TRONG N HNH BT K
2.1.5.1. nh l
i vi mi n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
bt k, tn ti duy nht im H
tha mn tnh cht: Trng tm cc (n-1)-mt bn ca n hnh, cc im M
k
chia on HJ
k
theo t l
k
k k
M H 1
(n 1) M J

, cc hnh chiu vung gc ca M

k
xung (n-1)- mt
1 k n
, J ,..., J ,..., J
0
[J ]
cng nm trn mt n- cu. Ta gi y l
siu cu le ca n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
. Trong trng hp
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l
n hnh trc tm th im H l trc tm v siu cu ni trn chnh l siu cu
le loi (n-1) ca n- n hnh.
0 1 n
(M , M ,..., M )
.
Chng minh
Gi G l trng tm n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
, G
k
l trng tm mt
1 k n
, J ,..., J ,..., J
0
[J ]
k=0,1,...,n; O l tm siu cu ngoi tip n hnh.
im H c xc nh bi:
2
GH GO
n 1

uuur uuur
Gi M
k
l im sao cho
k
k k
M H 1
.
n 1 M J

Xt php v t
1
n
H
V
tm H, t l
1
n

1
n
H
V
:J
k

a
M
k
k = 0,1,...,n

1
n
H
V
: (O;R)
a
(O
1
;R
1
)
1
1
R R,
n

trong (O;R) l siu cu tm O, bn knh R ngoi tip n- n hnh

0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
; (O
1
;R) l siu cu tm O
1
bn knh R, ngoi tip n- n hnh
0 1 n
(M , M ,..., M )
.
Ta c 1
1 1 1 2 n 1
HO HO (HG GO) ( GO GO) GO
n n n n 1 n(n 1)
+
+ +

uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
1
n 1
HO GO
n(n 1)
(1)
+

uuuur uuur
Xt php v t
1
n
G
V

tm G, t l
1
n

n 0,1,..., k G J : V
k k G
1
n

, 1 2 2 2 2 G
R R R
n
1
R ); R ; O ( ) R ; O ( : V
1
n

trong (O
2
;R
2
) l siu cu
tm O
2
, bn knh R
2
, ngoi tip n- n hnh
0 1 n
(G , G ,..., G )
.
Ta c
2
1
GO OG
n

uuuur uuur
GO
) 1 n ( n
1 n
GO
n
1
GO
1 n
2
GO HG OH
2 2

+
(2) GO
) 1 n ( n
1 n
HO
2

+

T (1) v (2) suy ra
2 1
O O
.
Vy cc im M
0
,M
1
,...,M
n
, G
0
,G
1
,...,G
n
cng nm trn mt siu cu tm O
1
,
bn knh R
1
.
Hn na,
( )
1 k 1 1 k 1 1 k
1 1 k 1 k
1 0 1 k 1 k 1 n
n 1 1 n 1 1
O M O H O J GO O J
n n n n
n 1 1 1
GO (OG GJ ) GO GJ
n n n
1 n
GO J G J G ... J G J G ... J G
n
+
+
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
uuuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur
uuuur uuur uuur uuuuur uuuuur uuur
( )
1 1 k
1 1 k 1 1 k
1 k k 1
1 1
GO O J
n n
n 1 1 1
GO OG GJ GO G J
n n n
GO G G G O
+
+
+
+ + +
+
uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuuur
uuuur uuuur uuuuur
Vy
1 k 1 k
O M OG k 0,1,...,n.
uuuuur uuuuur
Do M
k
G
k
l cc ng knh ca siu cu (O
1
;R
1
) k=0,1,...,n, nn
hnh chiu vung gc ca M
k
xung (n-1)-mt <J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
> cng nm
trn siu cu ny vi mi k=0,1,...,n.
D dng nhn thy im H tha mn tnh cht ni trn l duy nht,
ng thi khi
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n- n hnh trc tm th biu thc
GO
1 n
2
GH

suy ra H l trc tm ca n- n hnh, siu cu ni trn tr thnh siu cu le
loi (n-1) ca n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
2.1.5.2. nh l
n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
bt k, khi vi mi im M trong khng
gian m hnh chiu vung gc ca n xung cc (n-1)- mt bn ca n- n
hnh cng nm trn mt siu cu. Trong trng hp
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l ng quy
ca cc ng thng qua cc trng tm ca cc (n-1)- mt v vung gc vi
mt th siu cu ni trn tr thnh siu cu le loi (n-1) ca n- n hnh
trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
Chng minh
Gi s M l im bt k v hnh chiu vung gc ca n xung (n-1)-
mt <J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
> l M
k
, k=0,1,...,n.
M
0
,M
2
,...,M
n
khng cng nm trn mt siu phng.
Gi A
k
l im i xng ca M qua siu mt <J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
>, k=0,1,...,0.
Suy ra n. 0,1,..., k MM 2 MA
k k

Ta cng c A
0
,A
1
,...,A
n
khng cng nm trn mt siu phng. Gi (N,R) l
siu cu tm N, bn knh R, ngoi tip n- n hnh (A
0
,A
1
,...,A
n
).
Xt php v t
1
2
M
V tm M, t l
2
1
n. 0,1,2,..., k M A : V
k k M
1
2

Suy ra
( )
2
R
; O R ; N : V
1 M
1
2

,
_

trong (O
1
;
2
R
) l siu cu tm O, bn knh
2
R
, ngoi tip n- n hnh
0 1 n
(M , M ,..., M )
.
O
1
c xc nh bi
. MN
2
1
MO
1

By gi ta cng gi N
k
l hnh chiu vung gc ca N xung siu mt
<J
0
,J
1
,...,
k
J ,
...,J
n
> k=0,1,...,n.
Gi B
k
(k=0,1,n) ln lt l im i xng ca N qua cc mt i din vi
cc nh J
k
(k=0,1,2,,n).
Lc theo tnh cht v i xng ta c:
NA
k
= MB
k
k=0,1,...,n.
M NA
k
= R, k=0,1,..,n

MB
k
= R, k=0,1,...,n
Vy B
0
,B
1
,...,B
n
cng nm trn siu cu (M,R), tm M bn knh R.
Hon ton tng t phn chng minh pha trn ta cng suy ra N
0
,N
1
,...,N
n
cng nm trn mt siu cu tm O
2
, bn knh
2
R
, trong O
2
c xc nh
bi
NM
2
1
NO
2

hay l
NM
2
1
MO
2

vy O
1

O
2
.
Do M
0
,M
1
,...,M
n
,N
0
,N
1
,...,N
n
cng nm trn mt siu cu tm O
1
, bn knh
R
1
.
D dng chng minh c rng vi mi im M tha mn yu cu ca
nh l tn ti duy nht im N tha mn tnh cht nu, ng thi khi
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
l n hnh trc tm v M trng vo trc tm ca n hnh hoc
M trng vo im ng quy ca cc ng vung gc vi cc mt ti trng
tm cc siu mt tng ng th siu cu ni trn chnh l siu cu le loi
(n-1) ca n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
2.1.5.3. MT CU LE I VI T DIN BT K
2.1.5.3.1. Tnh cht 1
Cho t din ABCD bt k, tn ti duy nht mt im H tho mn tnh
cht: Trng tm ca cc mt, cc im I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
ln lt chia cc on HA,
HB, HC, HD theo t s
1
2

tnh t H, cc hnh chiu ca I

1
xung mt (BCD),
I
2
xung (ACD), I
3
xung (ABD), I
4
xung (ABC), hnh chiu vung gc ca
G xung cc mt, cng nm trn mt mt cu.
2.1.5.3.2. Tnh cht 2
Cho t din ABCD, M l mt im trong khng gian m hnh chiu
vung gc ca M xung cc mt ca t din khng ng phng. Tn ti duy
nht im N sao cho cc hnh chiu vung gc ca M v N xung cc mt ca
t din nm trn cng mt mt cu.
2.1.6. MT S BT NG THC TRONG N HNH TRC TM
2.1.6.1. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
c trc tm H trong n- n hnh
cc ng cao J
0
A
0
,J
1
A
1
,...,J
n
A
n
ct cc siu cu ngoi tip ti B
0
,B
1
,...,B
n
(khc J
0
,J
1
,...,J
n
).
Khi
( )
n 2
1 n
B J
A J
2
n
0 s
s s
s s
+

.
Chng minh
Gi R, r ln lt l bn knh siu cu ngoi tip, bn knh siu cu le
li (n-1)- ca n hnh, O v I ln lt l tm ca cc siu cu .
D dng nhn thy
R
n
1
r
Theo nh l 4.4 ta cng c
HO
n
1
HI
Xt phng trnh tch H i vi siu cu (O)

2 2
0 0 ) O /( H
R OH HB . HJ
Do H nm trong n- n hnh nn
HJ
0
.HB
0
= R
2
-OH
2
=n
2
(r
2
-HI
2
).
Xt phng tch ca H i vi siu cu (I):

0 r HI HA . HM
2 2
0 0
<
Do HJ
0
.HB
0
= n
2
HM
0
.HA
0
Mt khc HM
0
=
0
HJ
n
1
nn
n
HA
HB
0
0

Hon ton tng t

{ } n 0,1,..., s n
HA
HB
s
s

(Thc ra c th thy ngay t nhn xt 2.1.4.3)
Suy ra
S s
s
A B
n 1 s 0,1,...,n
HA


( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n 2 1 n 1 n
A J
HA
1 n 1 n
A J
HA 1 n
1
A J
B A
1
A J
B J
n
0 s
s s
s
n
0 s
n
0 s
n
0 s
s s
s
s s
s s
s s
s s
+ + + +

,
_

,
_

( y H nm trong n- n hnh nn
1
A J
AH
n
0 s s s
s

)
Vy

n
0 s s s
s s
n 2
A J
B J
p dng bt ng thc Csi ta c

( )


+
n
0 s
n
0 s
2
s s
s s
s s
s s
1 n
A J
B J
B J
A J
Suy ra
( )
n 2
1 n
B J
A J
2
n
0 s
s s
s s
+

.
2.1.6.2. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
cc ng cao J
s
A
s
(s=0,1,...,n)
ng quy ti H nm trong n- n hnh. Gi a
is
l di cnh J
i
J
s

( ). n s i 0 <
Khi

<

,
_

n s i 0
2
is
2
n
0 s
s
a HJ
.
Chng minh
Ly b 3 nh bt k
3 2 1
n n n
J , J , J
trong s (n+1) nh ca n-n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
.
Xt tam gic
3 2 1
n n n
J J J
, cc ng cao
3 3 2 2 1 1
n n n n n n
N J , N J , N J
ng quy ti K nm
trong tam gic (v H nm trong n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
).
Theo nh l 2.1.2.6 v nh l 2.1.2.7 th HK <
3 2 1
n n n
J , J , J
>
Mt khc, ta cng c
] J ,..., J ,..., J , J [ A J
n n 1 0 n n
1 2 1

1 1 1 1
n n n n
N A A J
.
Do 4 im
1 1
n n
A , N , K , H
nm trn mt ng trn (trong phng 2 chiu
cha
1 1
n n
A J
v
1 1
n n
N J
).
Vy
1 1 1 1 1 1
n n n n n n
N J . K J A J . H J
Hon ton tng t
2 2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
N J . K J A J . H J

3 3 3 3 3 3
n n n n n n
N J . K J A J . H J
Suy ra

3
1 s
n n n
3
1 s
n n n
s s s s s s
N J . K J A J . H J
( y do gi thit H nm trong n- n hnh, K nm trong tam gic
3 2 1
n n n
J J J

nn
0 N J . H J
s s s
n n n
>
,
1,2,3 s ; 0 N J . K J
s s s
n n n
>
)
Mt khc trong tam gic
3 2 1
n n n
J J J
trc tm K nm trong tam gic ta c mt kt
qu s cp quen thuc

2
J J J J J J
N J . K J
2
n n
2
n n
2
n n
3
1 s
n n n
1 3 3 2 2 1
s s s
+ +

Do (1)
2
J J J J J J
A J . H J A J . H J A J . H J
2
n n
2
n n
2
n n
n n n n n n n n n
1 3 3 2 2 1
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 1
+ +
+ +
trong
{ } n ,..., 1 , 0 n , n , n
3 2 1

.
Do
( )

< < < <
+ +
+ +
n n n n 0 n n n n 0
2
n n
2
n n
2
n n
n n n n n n n n
3 2 1 3 2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
2
J J J J J J
A . H J A J . H J A J . H J
S
uy ra
n
2
s s s is
s 0 0 i s n
1
J H.J A a
n <

.
V H nm trong n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
nn
n
S
s 0
s s
HA
1
J A

,
_

n
0 s
n
0 s
s s
s
s s
s
n
A J
H J
A J
H J
1
p dng bt ng thc Bunhia-Cpxki
2
2
n n n n
2 2
0 S
s s s s s s s si si
s 0 s 0 s 0 s 0 0 i s n 0 i s n
s s s s
J H J H 1
J H J H.J A . J H.J A . a .n a .
J A J A n < <
_
_


,
,

Hay l
2
n
0 s
s
H J
,
_

2
si
0 i s n
a
<
.
2.1.6.3. nh l
Trong n- n hnh trc tm
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
gi H, T ln lt l trc tm,
trng tm ca n- n hnh, gi s H nm trong n- n hnh. Khi
( )
2
n
0 s
s
n
0 s
s
HJ ) TJ ( R 1 n
,
_

+


vi R l bn knh n- cu ngoi tip n- n hnh.
Chng minh
Do T l trng tm n- n hnh nn

0 TJ 0 TJ
2
n
0 s
s
n
0 s
s

,
_

0 TJ TJ 2 TJ
n s k 0
k s
n
0 s
2
s
+



( ) 0 J J TJ TJ TJ
n
0 s n s k 0
2
k s
2
k
2
s
2
s
+ +



( ) (1) J J TJ 1 n
n
0 s n s k 0
2
k s
2
s

+
Gi O l tm n- cu ngoi tip n- n hnh
0 1 n
(J , J ,..., J )
. Khi
n 0,1,..., s OJ . TJ OJ . TJ
s s s s

( ) n 0,1,..., s TJ OT TJ OJ . TJ
s s s s
+
n 0,1,...., s OT . TJ TJ R . TJ
s
2
s s
+

(2) TJ TJ R
TJ OT TJ TJ R
n
0 s
n
0 s
s s
n
0 s
n
0 s
n
0 s
s
2
s s





+
T (1) v (2) suy ra
( )


+
n s k 0
2
k s
n
0 s
s
J J TJ R 1 n
Theo nh l 2.1.6.2 ta li c
2
n
0 s
s
n s k 0
2
k s
HJ J J
,
_

Do
( )
2
n
0 s
s
n
0 s
s
HJ TJ R 1 n
,
_

+


(iu phi chng minh).
2.1.6.4. BT NG THC TRONG T DIN TRC TM
2.1.6.4.1. Tnh cht 1
Cho t din trc tm ABCD, c H l trc tm nm trong t din, cc
ng cao AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
, cc ng cao ny ct mt cu ngoi tip t
din ln lt ti cc im A, B, C, D. Chng minh rng
1 1 1 1
AA BB CC DD 8
.
AA' BB' CC' DD' 3
+ + +
2.1.6.4.2. Tnh cht 2
Cho t din trc tm ABCD, c trc tm H nm trong t din. Chng
minh rng
(HA + HB + HC + HD)
2

AB
2
+ AC
2
+ AD
2
+BC
2
+ BD
2
+CD
2
.
2.1.6.4.3. Tnh cht 3
Cho t din trc tm ABCD, H, G ln lt l trc tm v trng tm ca
t din, gi s H nm trong t din. Chng minh rng
4R(GA + GB + GC + GD)

(HA + HB +HC + HD)

2
2.2. Chuyn 2 : BI TON "CON BM"
2.2.1. KHI NIM SIU MT BC HAI
Trong khng gian clit A
n
trn trng s thc chn mc tiu trc chun
{ }
1 2 n
O;e ;e ;...;e
ur uur uur
. Cho phng trnh bc hai
n n
ij i j i i 0
i, j 1 i 1
a x x 2 a x a 0

+ +
(1)
trong cc h s a
ij
, a
i
, a
0
u l s thc cc a
ij
khng ng thi bng 0 v
a
ij
=a
ji
.
Tp hp tt c nhng im X thuc A
n
sao cho ta (x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
) ca n
tha mn phng trnh (1) gi l mt siu mt bc hai xc nh bi phng
trnh .
2.2.2. TRNG HP C BIT
2.2.2.1. Xt trong E
2
: Chng ta c khi nim ng bc hai nh sau
Trong mt phng vi h ta -Cc vung gc Oxy, tp hp tt c
nhng im M(x ;y) tha mn phng trnh f(x,y) = 0, trong f(x,y) l a
thc bc hai vi hai n x v y, l ng bc hai.
Chng ta xt mt s ng bc hai trong mt phng l :
+ ng trn, c phng trnh x
2
+ y
2
+ 2Ax + 2By + C = 0 vi
2 2
A B C 0 + > .
+ ng Elip, c phng trnh chnh tc ( )
2 2
2 2
x y
1 a 0, b 0
a b
+ > > .
+ ng Hyperbol, c phng trnh chnh tc ( )
2 2
2 2
x y
1 a b 0
a b
> >
+ ng Parabol, c phng trnh chnh tc
2
y 2px
+ Cp ng thng
2.2.2.2. Mt bc hai trong khng gian E
3
Trong khng gian vi h ta cac vung gc Oxyz, tp hp nhng
im M(x;y;z) tha mn phng trnh f(x,y,z)=0, trong f(x,y,z) = 0 l a
thc bc hai, l mt bc hai.
Chng ta ch xt trng hp mt bc hai l mt cu v cp mt phng.
Mt cu c phng trnh
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z 2Ax 2By 2Cz D 0, A B C D 0 + + + + + + + + >
2.2.3. BI TON "CON BM"
2.2.3.1. nh l
Trong khng gian clit E
n
, cho (S) l siu mt bc hai, ( )
l mt siu
phng sao cho ( ) ( ) S
. Cho im I, vi mi im ( ) ( ) M S
, gi
M l giao im th hai ca MI vi (S).
a) Khi cc im M thuc mt siu phng ( )
.
b) Mt ng thng ( )
qua I ct (S) ti M v N, ct ( ) ( ) ,
ti P v
Q. Khi I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung im ca PQ.
Chng minh
a) Theo gi thit (S) l siu mt bc hai trong khng gian E
n
, ( )
l
siu phng sao cho ( ) ( ) S
. Ta chng minh <M'> l mt siu phng.
Ta d thy rng dim<M'> n 1 . Ta cn chng minh dim<M'>= n-1.
Gi s dim<M'> = n

<M'>

E
n
. (1)
Ta xt siu phng ( )

qua I sao cho ( ) ( )

S S"
S" l siu mt bc
hai trong ( )

nn M' ch thuc khng gian (n-2) - chiu. (2)

Nhng theo (1) th tp hp cc im M' (2) l khng gian (n-1)-chiu.
T suy ra v l. Vy dim<M'> = n-1.
b) Ta chng minh bng phng php quy np.
Vi n = 2, tnh cht ng (l bi ton "con bm" i vi ng trn,
c chng minh chng 3).
Gi s tnh cht ng n n-1. Ta chng minh tnh cht ng n n.
Ta xt siu phng ( )

cha . Gi (S') = ( ) ( )
S
- l siu phng
trong khng gian (n-1)- chiu, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
' S
l siu phng trong ( )

,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
' S
l siu phng trong ( )

.
( )
M, N S'
, ( ) ( )
P ' , Q = '
.
Vy ta xt bi ton "con bm" cho siu mt bc hai (S') trong khng
gian (n-1)- chiu. Theo gi thit quy np th bi ton ng, tc l I l trung
im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung im ca PQ.
T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
2.2.3.2. Cc trng hp c bit
Bi ton 1: (Bi ton con bm i vi ng trn)
Cho ng trn (O) v mt im I, ng thng ct ng trn ti
hai im A, B. AI, BI ln lt ct ng trn ti giao im th hai l C v D.
ng thng d qua I ct ng trn ti hai im M, N v ct AB, CD ln
lt ti P, Q. Khi I l trung im ca PQ khi v ch khi I l trung im ca
MN.
Bi ton 2: (Bi ton con bm i vi cp ng thng)
Cho tam gic ABC c I l trung im cnh BC. ng thng ( )
i qua I
ct AB, AC ti M, N. ng thng ( ) '
i qua I ct AB, AC ln lt ti P, Q.
Gi s M v P nm v mt pha i vi BC v cc ng thng MP, NQ ln
lt ct BC ti E, F. Chng minh rng IE = IF.
Bi ton 3: (Bi ton con bm i vi Elip)
Cho elip (E) v mt im I, ng thng (d) ct (E) ti hai im A, B. AI,
BI ct (E) ln lt ti C, D.Cc ng thng i qua I ct (E) ti M, N, ct AB,
CD ti P, Q. Khi I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung im ca
PQ.
Bi ton 4: (Bi ton con bm i vi Hyperbol)
Cho Hyperbol (H) v ng thng (d) ct (H) ti A v B; mt im I trong
mt phng. Cc ng thng AI, BI ln lt ct (H) ti im th hai l C, D.
Cc ng thng qua I ct (H) ln lt ti M, N; ct AB, CD ln lt ti P, Q.
Chng minh rng I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung im ca
PQ.
Bi ton 5: (Bi ton con bm i vi Parabol)
Cho Parabol (P), ng thng (d) ct (P) ti A, B v mt im I trong mt
phng. Cc ng thng AI, BI ct (P) ln lt ti C, D. Cc ng thng qua
I ct (P) ln lt ti M, N v ng thi ct cc ng thng AB, CD ln lt
ti P, Q. Chng minh rng I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung
im ca PQ.
Bi ton 6: (Bi ton con bm i vi mt cu)
Trong khng gian, cho mt cu (S), mt phng ( )
sao cho
( ) ( ) S
v mt im I. Vi mi im ( ) ( ) M S
, ng thng MI
ct (S) ti giao im th hai l M.
a) Khi cc im M c xc nh nh trn thuc mt mt phng ( )
.
b) Mt ng thng ( )
qua I ct (S) ln lt ti M, N v ng thi ct
( ) ( ) ,
ln lt ti P, Q. Khi I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l
trung im ca PQ.
Bi ton 7: (Bi ton con bm i vi cp mt phng)
Cho cp mt phng ( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) ( )

v mt phng (P) giao vi cp
mt phng trn khc rng. V mt im I trong khng gian. Mi im
( ) ( ) ( ) M P 1
]
, gi M l giao im th hai ca MI vi cp mt phng
( ) ( ) ,
.
a) Chng minh rng cc im M thuc cng mt mt phng (Q).
b) Mt ng thng ( )
qua I ct cp mt phng ti M, N v ct (P), (Q) ln
lt ti K, L. Chng minh rng I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l
trung im ca KL.
Kt lun chng 2
Trong chng 2, chng ti trnh by c nhng vn sau:
Th nht, chng ti trnh by c h thng chuyn n hnh trc
tm v bi ton con bm i vi siu mt bc hai.
Th hai, t cc kt qu ca hnh hoc cao cp, bng con ng c bit
ha thu c cc kt qu rt tt trong s cp, l h thng bi ton i
vi n hnh trc tm v bi ton con bm.
y chnh l "nguyn liu" quan trng ngi thy gio gia cng v
mt s phm c c ti liu ging dy b ch.
Chng 3
BI DNG NNG LC GII TON CHO HC SINH
CHUYN TON THNG QUA VIC GII BI TP
HNH HC. TH NGHIM S PHM
3.1. Mc ch xy dng chuyn
Cc chuyn m lun vn xut l nhng vn c tnh cht khai
thc tnh nghip v thng qua ging dy mn hnh hc s cp c bin
son nhm:
- Gip hc sinh chuyn ton THPT hiu su hn kin thc v hnh hc
s cp, c th l t din trc tm v bi ton "con bm".
- Cc chuyn ny trang b cho hc sinh gp phn bi nng lc gii
ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT.
- Vic nghin cu chuyn gip cho gio vin c thm cng c pht
hin v gii quyt vn tm cao hn, su sc hn
3.2. Cc nguyn tc xy dng chuyn
Nguyn tc 1: Ni dung ca tng chuyn phi c tnh c lp, tnh
khoa hc, tnh s phm.
Tnh c lp v ni dung ca tng chuyn c th hin theo hai
khuynh hng nh sau:
- Phn chia ti liu thnh ti, coi nhng n v xy dng chuyn
.
- Coi nhng ni dung no ca ti liu p ng c mc tiu dy hc
c th s l n v ca ti liu. Mi n v ny s tng ng vi mt chuyn
.
Theo khuynh hng th hai, c s xc nh cc n v ti liu hc
tp l tng i r rng v c tnh kh thi cao, cho php xc nh cc ch
lm c s xy dng cc chuyn tng ng.
Nguyn tc 2: m bo tnh cht ch v l thuyt, mm do, linh hot
trong h thng bi tp. iu ny to iu kin cho gio vin nm vn mt
cch su sc. Bn cht ca nguyn tc ny l m bo tnh mm do ca vic
xy dng ni dung dy hc gip gio vin c th la chn phng n dy hc
cho chuyn mt cch d dng hn. thc hin c nguyn tc ny cn
ch nhng yu cu sau:
- Thc hin tt nguyn tc tnh c lp ca ni dung dy hc ni
dung tng thnh phn ca tng chuyn c th d dng thay i, b sung.
- Thc hin chun on ban u v tri thc, k nng, thi ca ngi
hc c nhng ch dn nhm c bit ha vic lnh hi ni dung hc tp ca h.
3.3. Yu cu v kin thc, k nng i vi hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11
hc sinh hc tp hai chuyn c xy dng ny th yu cu cn
phi c nhng kin thc, k nng sau:
3.3.1. V kin thc
- Cc kin thc c bn trong hnh hc phng c hc trng THCS.
- Kin thc v vct trong phng v trong khng gian.
- Php bin hnh trong phng v trong khng gian.
- Cc khi nim vung gc trong khng gian: hai ng thng vung
gc, ng thng vung gc, hai mt phng vung gc.
3.3.2. V k nng
- K nng v hnh.
- K nng s dng vct trong chng minh hnh hc.
- K nng lm s dng php bin hnh trong gii ton.
- K nng chng minh hai ng thng vung gc, ng thng vung
gc, hai mt phng vung gc. V cc k nng chng minh hnh hc tng hp
khc.
3.4. Tc dng ca chuyn xy dng dy nhm pht trin nng lc
gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11
Chuyn xy dng c tc dng trong vic dy hc nh sau:
a) Tc dng dy hc
Gip hc sinh cng c tri thc, k nng, k xo trong nhng phn kin
thc c th nhm lm khc su nhng vn l thuyt. c bit h thng bi
tp trong chuyn cn mang tc dng gio dc k thut tng hp th hin
qua vic gip hc sinh:
- Rn luyn k nng t vn mt cch hp l, ngn gn v phng
php t duy.
- Rn luyn k nng chng minh ton hc.
b) Tc dng gio dc
Gip hc sinh hnh thnh th gii quan duy vt bin chng, nim tin v
phm cht o c ca con ngi lao ng mi, rn luyn cho hc sinh c
tnh kin nhn, chnh xc, chu o trong hc tp, tng bc nng cao hng
th hc tp mn ton, pht trin t duy sng to.
c) Tc dng pht trin
Gip hc sinh ngy cng nng cao kh nng c lp suy ngh, rn luyn
cc thao tc t duy nh phn tch, tng hp, suy din, quy np, tng t
thng tho mt s phng php suy lun ton hc, bit pht hin v gii quyt
vn mt cch sng to.
d) Tc dng kim tra
Thng qua h thng bi tp, gio vin c th kim tra, nh gi kt qu
hc tp ca hc sinh trong qu trnh dy hc. Kim tra nh gi nhm cung
cp cho gio vin v hc sinh nhng thng tin v kt qu dy hc, v tri thc,
k nng, nng lc gii ton v hiu qu dy hc ca gio vin.
Trong phm vi ca lun vn, vic p dng dy hc theo hng pht
hin v gii quyt vn cho hc sinh khi dy hc hai chuyn "t din trc
tm v cc bi ton lin quan" v bi ton "con bm" nhm bi dng nng
lc gii ton cho hc sinh lp 11 chuyn ton THPT.
3.5. Dy gii bi tp hnh hc da trn s gi ca G. Plya
3.5.1. Chuyn 1 : T din trc tm v cc bi ton lin quan
3.5.1.1. Mt s bi ton v tnh cht ca t din trc tm
Bi tp 1. iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc tm l cc
cp cnh i vung gc vi nhau.
B 1 : Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton yu cu g ?
- Bi ton cho bit g ?
- Hy thc hin nhng yu cu ca
bi ton.
Nu hc sinh cha xc nh c
cng vic ca mnh th gio vin c
th gi c th hn :
- iu kin cn th ta c bit g v cn
chng minh g ? Hi tng t i vi
iu kin .
B2 : Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny em gp cha ?
- CM : Nu t din trc tm th cc
cp cnh i vung gc vi nhau.
(Bit t din l t din trc tm)
- CM : Nu t din c cc cp cnh
i vung gc vi nhau l t din trc
tm.
(T din c cc cp cnh i vung
gc vi nhau).
- V hnh : Dng t din trc tm
ABCD, c trc tm l H.
- iu kin cn : T din ABCD l t
din trc tm, tc l c 4 ng cao
ng quy ti H, cn chng minh
AB CD, AC BD, AD BC
- iu kin : T din ABCD c
AB CD, AC BD, AD BC
, cn
chng minh 4 ng cao ng quy ti
H.
- Suy ngh v nh li kin thc hc
lin quan.
* Chng minh iu kin cn:
- Em c bit mt nh l no thng
dng chng minh cho hai ng
thng vung gc vi nhau khng?
- nh l c s dng c trong
vic chng minh bi ton ny khng?
- Em bit bi ton no lin quan
khng ?
* Chng minh iu kin :
- Em c bit mt bi ton no lin
quan n bi ton ny khng?
- Ta thng dng cch no gii bi
ton ny?
- Hy p dng bi ton bit gii
bi ton cho.
- nh l 3 ng vung gc.
- Tm cch s dng nh l ny.
- Chng minh 3 ng thng ng
quy.
- C th s dng nh l ba ng
giao tuyn.
B3 :Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii.
- Hc sinh t gii hoc c th tham kho li gii sau :
iu kin cn:
Gi s ABCD l t din trc tm.
Gi H l trc tm. Ta chng minh
AB CD, AC BD, AD BC
.
Ta c 4 ng cao trong t din ABCD
l AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
ng quy ti H.
1
1
AA (BCD)
BB (ACD)

'

1
1
AA CD
BB CD

'

CD (ABH) CD AB
Tng t, ta c
AC BD, AD BC
.
H
A1
B D
C
A
N
M
D1
B1
Hnh 3.1
iu kin :
Gi s t din ABCD c cc cp cnh i din vung gc vi nhau.
Chng minh ABCD l t din trc tm.
Ta c
1
AB CD
AA CD

'

1
CD BA
Tng t,
1
BC DA
1 1
BB (ACD) BB (ABN)
AA
1
, BB
1
ct
nhau.
Tng t, AA
1
, DD
1
ct nhau, BB
1
, DD
1
ct nhau.
Ta c 3 ng thng AA
1
, BB
1
, DD
1
i mt ct nhau v khng ng
phng nn suy ra 3 ng thng ng quy.
L lun tng t, ta c AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
ng quy.
Vy 4 ng thng AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
ng quy.
Vy t din ABCD l t din trc tm.
B4 : Kim tra, nghin cu li gii :
- Hc sinh kim tra li li gii v bnh lun li gii c a ra.
- C th xut mt cch gii ngn gn hn.
- T bi ton trn em c th xy dng bi ton mi khng ?
y qua chng minh trn chng ta c nhn xt l nu t din m c
hai cp cnh i vung gc vi nhau th cp cnh cn li s vung gc. V th
chng ta c th thu hp gi thit m vn c kt lun nh vy.
Bi ton mi : Chng minh rng iu kin cn v mt t din trc tm
l c hai cp cnh i vung gc vi nhau.
Bi tp 2. iu kin cn v t din ABCD l t din trc tm l
AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
.
B1 : Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi tp yu cu g? CM: T din ABCD l t din trc
tm

AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB

uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
- C th chia bi ton thnh nhng
bi ton nh no? Ch ra nhng yu
cu c th ca bi ton.
- C cn thit v i vi bi ton
khng?
- Hy tm cch gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny em gp cha?
- Em c bit bi ton no lin quan
khng?
Nu khng lm c th c th gi :
- Bi ton ny c th chuyn thnh
bi ton no tng ng khng?
Nu tm khng c hng gii quyt
th gi tip:
Bi ton trn c tng ng vi bi
ton sau khng:

AB CD, AC BD, AD BC
AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
- CM: ABCD l t din trc tm

AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB

uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
-CM :
AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur

ABCD l t din trc tm.
- i vi bi ton gii bng phng
php vct th chng ta c th khng
cn v hnh.
- Suy ngh, nh li kin thc lin
quan hc.
- Bi tp 1 c lin quan.
- Chng minh rng t din ABCD c
AB CD, AC BD, AD BC

AB.AC AC.AD AD.AB

uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
B3 : Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii.
- Li gii tham kho:
iu kin cn:
Gi s ABCD l t din trc tm. Gi H l trc tm ca t din.
Gi s c
AB.AC AC.AD
uuur uuur uuur uuur
( ) ( )
AH HB .HC AC. AH HD + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
AH.AC HB.AC AC.AH AC.HD + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
( )
AC. HB HD 0 AC.DB 0
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
iu kin :
Theo chng nhn ca iu kin cn
Nu
AB.AC AC.AD
uuur uuur uuur uuur
AC BD
AB.AD AB.AC
uuur uuur uuur uuur
AB CD
AC.AD AD.AB AD BC
uuur uuur uuur uuur
T din ABCD c 3 cp cnh i vung gc, suy ra ABCD l t din
trc tm.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li kt qu.
- Gp cho li gii.
- xut li gii hay v ngn ngn.
- Hy pht biu bi ton tng ng.
Nhn xt: Trn y chng ti trnh by hng dn gii bi tp theo s 4
bc ca G. Plya, cc tnh cht cn li ca t din trc tm chng ta cng
lm tng t. Sau y chng ti ch trnh by li gii cho cc bi tp .
Bi tp 3. iu kin cn v t din ABCD l t din trc tm l tn ti
duy nht mt im H tha mn

HA.HB HA.HC HA.HD HB.HC HB.HD HC.HD
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur

Li gii
iu kin cn:
Gi s t din ABCD l t din trc tm. Gi H l trc tm.
Gi s
HA.HB HA.HC
uuur uuur uuur uuur
( )
HA. HB HC 0 HA.CB 0
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
Cng thc trn ng, v HA l ng cao trong t din nn HA (BCD)
HA BC .
iu kin :
Gi s
HA.HB HA.HC HA.HD HB.HC HB.HD HC.HD
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
T
HA.HB HA.HC HA.CB 0 HA CB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
T
HA.HB HA.HD HA.DB 0 HA DB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
HA (BCD)
HA l ng cao trong t din
Tng t, ta cng chng minh c HB, HC, HD l cc ng cao
trong t din.
Vy t din ABCD l t din trc tm.
Bi tp 4. iu kin cn v mt t
din l t din trc tm l cc ng cao i
qua trc tm ca mt y.
Li gii
iu kin cn:
Gi s t din ABCD l t din trc tm.
Gi H l trc tm, cc ng cao
l AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
.
Ta chng minh A
1
l trc tm ca
BCD
.
Ta c
1
1
AA (BCD)
BB (ACD)

1
1
AA CD
BB CD

'

CD (ABN) CD BN

BN l ng cao trong
BCD
.
Tng t, DM l ng cao trong

A
1
l trc tm trong
BCD
.
Hon ton tng t, ta cng chng minh c B
1
, C
1
, D
1
ln lt l trc tm
cc tam gic ACD, ABD, ABC.
iu kin :
Gi s A
1
, B
1
, C
1
, D
1
ln lt l trc tm ca cc tam gic ACD, ABD, ABD.
C
D
B
D
1
B
1
A
H
A
1
N
M
Hnh 3.2
V A
1
l trc tm ca BCD nn BN CD
Mt khc, AA
1
(BCD)

AA
1
CD

CD AB
Tng t, ta chng minh c AC BD, AD BC

ABCD l t din trc tm.

Bi ton mi: Trong mt t din nu ng cao h t mt nh no ca t
din i qua trc tm ca mt i din th t din l t din trc tm.
Bi tp 5. Trong t din trc tm th ng
vung gc chung ca cc cp cnh i ng quy
ti trc tm ca t din.
Li gii
Gi MN, PQ, RS ln lt l cc ng
vung gc chung ca cc cp cnh AB v CD,
BC v AD, AC v BD.
Ta s chng minh, MN, PQ, RS ln lt i qua
H (H l trc tm ca t din ABCD).
Tht vy, v ABCD l t din trc tm
nn cc cp cnh i vung gc vi nhau.
Nn AB CD, theo gi thit th MN AB v MN CD

CD (ABN)

BN CD

BN l ng cao trong tam gic BCD.

Gi AA
1
, BB
1
ln lt l cc ng cao trong t din (A
1
, B
1
ln lt l
trc tm ca cc tam gic BCD v ACD)

AA
1
, BB
1
l ng cao trong tam
gic ABN

H l trc tm tam gic ABN

MN i qua H (v MN AB).
Hon ton tng t ta chng cc ng PQ, RS cng i qua H.
Bi tp 6. Chng minh rng iu kin cn
v t din ABCD l t din trc tm
l 3 ng trung bnh bng nhau.
Li gii
A
1
B
1
H
A
B
C
D
M
N
Q
P
R
S
Hnh 3.3
Q
S
R
P
A
B
C
D
Hnh 3.4
Gi s P, Q, R, S l trung im cc cnh AB, CD, BC, AD th ta bit rng
PRQS l mt hnh bnh hnh v PR//AC, RQ//BD. Nu ABCD l t din trc
tm th AD BD nn PR RQ v hnh bnh hnh trn l hnh ch nht. Do ,
PQ = RS.
Chng minh tng t i vi ng
trung bnh th 3.
Ngc li, nu PQ = RS th hnh
bnh hnh PRQS l hnh ch nht, do PR PS v v vy AC BD. Chng
minh tng t cho cc cp cnh cn li. Vy ABCD l t din trc tm.
Bi ton mi : Chng minh iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc
tm l c hai ng trung bnh bng nhau.
Bi tp 7. Chng minh rng nu t din ABCD l t din trc tm th
AB
2
+ CD
2
= BC
2
+ AD
2
= AC
2
+ BD
2
Li gii
V t din ABCD l t din trc tm nn c
AB CD, AC BD, AD BC
Ta c
AB CD AC CB CB BD AC BD +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
AB CD AC BD
AB CD 2.AB.CD AC BD 2.AC.BD

+ +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
uuur uuur uuur uuur
2 2 2 2
AB CD AC BD + + v
AB CD, AC BD
Tng t, ta c AB
2
+ CD
2
= AD
2
+ BC
2
.
Vy AB
2
+ CD
2
= AC
2
+ BD
2
= AD
2
+ BC
2
(pcm).
3.5.1.2. Mt s bi ton lin quan.
Bi tp 1. Chng minh rng trong mt hnh t din trc tm, cc trng
tm v trc tm ca cc mt, cng nh cc im cc on thng ca mi
ng cao ca t din, k t nh ti trc tm ca t din theo t s 2:1 th
cng nm trn mt mt cu (Mt cu le).
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny c ging hoc tng t
mt bi ton no m em bit khng?
- Bi ton ny c gi cho em mt bi
ton no trong hnh hc phng m em
c hc khng?
- Hy nhc li bi ton ng trn
le v cch gii ca bi ton .
- Cho t din trc tm.
- Yu cu chng minh rng cc trng
tm v trc tm ca cc mt, cng
nh cc im cc on thng ca mi
ng cao ca t din, k t nh ti
trc tm ca t din theo t s 2:1 th
cng nm trn mt mt cu.
- V hnh.
- Suy ngh, nh li kin thc c
hc.
- Bi ton ng trn le.
- Bi ton ng trn le:
Cho tam gic ABC bt k, H trc
tm, cc ng cao l AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
;
M
1
, M
1
, M
3
ln lt l trung im cc
cnh BC, AC, AB; I
1
, I
2
, I
3
ln lt l
trung im ca cc on thng HA,
HB, HC. Chng minh rng 9 im
M
1
, M
1
, M
3
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, A
1
, B
1
, C
1
cng
nm trn mt ng trn
Chng minh
Gi G l trng tm ca tam gic ABC
J
A1
C1
B1
H
O
A
B C
A'
B'
C'
G
I1
I2
I3
M1
M2
M3
J
A1
C1
B1
H
O
A
B C
A'
B'
C'
G
I1
I2
I3
M1
M2
M3
A, B, C ln lt l giao ca cc
ng
cao i qua A, B, C.
Ta chng minh qua php v t
1
2
H
V
th
9 im M
1
, M
1
, M
3
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, A
1
, B
1
, C
1
l nh ca cc im thuc ng trn
(O) ngoi tip tam gic ABC.
Gi J
1
, J
2
, J
3
l im i xng ca H
qua M
1
, M
2
, M
3
.

1
BHC BJ C
,
1
2
H
V
:J
1

M
1
(1)
Mt khc, t gic AB
1
HC
1
l t gic
ni tip nn
1 1 1 1
B AC B HC
(2)
T (1)&(2) suy ra
1
BAC BJ C

T gic ABJ
1
C l t gic ni tip
1
J (O)
.
Gi A l im i xng ca H qua
BC
BHC BA"C ,
1
2
H
V
:A

A
1
(3)
T (1)&(3) suy ra t gic ABAC ni
tip

1
2
H
V
: A

A
1

Theo gi thit th
1
2
H
V
: A

I
1
Hon ton tng t ta c
1
2
H
V
: B

I
2
;
1
2
H
V
: B

B
1
;
1
2
H
V
: J
2

M
2
;
1
2
H
V
: C

I
3
;
Hnh 3.5
- Bi ton ny c gi g cho vic gii
bi ton cho?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
1
2
H
V
: C

C
1
;
1
2
H
V
: A

I
1
;
Vy 9 im M
1
, M
2
, M
3
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, A
1
,
B
1
, C
1
thuc ng trn nh ca
ng trn (O) qua php v t
1
2
H
V
.
- Suy ngh v tm cch p dng.
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii.
- Li gii tham kho ca bi ton:
Gi O, G, H ln lt l tm ca mt cu ngoi tip, trng tm, trc tm
ca t din. Ta c
GH GO
uuur uuur
(1)
G
1
, G
2
, G
3
, G
4
ln lt l trng tm ca cc mt i din A, B, C, D.
Theo tnh cht ca trng tm t din, ta c
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
GG GA, GG GB, GG GC, GG GD
3 3 3 3

uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur
Gi O nh ca O qua php v t tm G t s
1
3

1
GO' GO
3

uuuur uuur
(2)

Php v t
1
3
G
V

bin mt cu tm O bn knh R thnh mt cu tm O thnh

mt cu tm O bn knh
R
3
.
1 2 3 4
G , G , G , G
thuc mt cu tm O bn knh
R
3
.
Gi I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
ln lt l cc im chia cc on HA, HB, HC, HD theo t s
2:1 tnh t nh.

1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
HI HA, HI HB, HI HC, HI HD
3 3 3 3

uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
T (1), (2) ta c
1 1 1 4 1
GO' GO GH HO' (GH HO) HO' HO GH HO
3 3 3 3 3
+ +
uuuur uuur uuur uuuur uuur uuur uuuur uuur uuur uuur
T suy ra qua php v t tm H t s
1
3
, bin
1 2 3 4
A I , B I , C I , D I , O O'
Vy I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
thuc mt cu tm O bn knh
R
3
.
Gi H
1
, H
2
, H
3
, H
4
ln lt l trc tm ca cc mt i din vi cc nh A, B,
C, D. Ta chng minh 4 trc tm trn cng thuc mt cu tm O bn knh
R
3
.
Gi O
1
, O
1
ln lt l hnh chiu vung gc ca O v O trn mt phng
(BCD).
Ta d dng chng minh OH
1
=OG
1
=
R
3
.
Vy H
1
thuc mt cu (O;
R
3
)
Tng t ta c H
2
, H
3
, H
4
cng thuc mt cu
(O;
R
3
).
T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii bi ton.
- Nhn xt li gii bi ton.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
Nhn xt: Trong phn bi tp ny, kt qu thu c t hnh hc cao cp u
l hai trng hp cho hnh hc phng v hnh hc khng gian. Cc kt qu
ca hnh hc phng nhn chung hc sinh bit. V vy, y chnh l c hi tt
gio vin c th tp luyn thao tc t duy tng t ha cho hc sinh, xem
xt tng t t hnh hc phng sang hnh hc khng gian,v d trn l mt tnh
H
O
H
O1
H1
O
O1'
G1
Hnh 3.6
hung in hnh. Cc bi tp sau chng ta cng lm tng t, chng ti ch
trnh by li gii cho bi ton m khng trnh by hng dn theo 4 bc ca
G. Plya.
Bi tp 2. iu kin cn v t din trc tm ABCD c trc tm H nm
trong t din l tm O ca mt cu ngoi tip t din nm trong t din.
Li gii
Gi G l trng tm ca t din, ta tha nhn kt qu:
GH GO
uuur uuur
Gi V
A
, V
B
, V
C
, V
D
ln lt l th tch ca cc t din OBCD, OACD,
OABD, OABC, V l th tch ca t din ABCD.
Ta c V = V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
+ V
D
A B C D
V OA V .OB V .OC V .OD 0 + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur r
Ta c
GH GO
uuur uuur
A B C D
V V V V
GA AH GB BH GC CH GD DH -2( + + + ).HO =0
V V V V
+ + + + + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur r

A B
C D
V V
AH BH CH DH 2 (OA AH) 2 (OB BH)
V V
V V
2 (OC CH) 2 (OD DH) 0
V V
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
uuur uuur uuur uuur r

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
A B C D
V 2V AH V 2V BH V 2V CH V 2V DH 0 + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur r

(1)
Gi A
1
, B
1
, C
1
, D
1
ln lt l giao im ca AO, BO, CO, DO vi cc mt i
din.
Do O nm trong t din nn A
1
, B
1
, C
1
, D
1
nm trong cc tam gic mt ca t
din. ng thi O l tm ca mt cu ngoi tip nn
OA
1
R OA , OB
1
R OB , OC
1
R OC , OD
1
R OD
Do , V
A
, V
B
, V
C
, V
D

1
V
2

A B C D
V 2V 0, V 2V 0, V 2V 0, V 2V 0
(2)
GH (GH GO)
4GH 2HO 0
+
+
uuur uuur uuur
uuur uuur r
Kt hp (1) v (2) suy ra H nm trong t din.
Bi tp 3. Cho t din trc tm ABCD, H l trc tm ca t din. Chng
minh rng
a) Trc tm H trng vi A khi v ch khi

2
ABD
2
ACD
2
ABC
2
BCD
S S S S

+ +

b) Trc tm H nm trong t din khi v ch khi bnh phng din tch
mt mt nh hn tng bnh phng din tch cc mt cn li.
c) Trc tm H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi tn ti mt mt sao cho
bnh phng din tch mt ln hn tng bnh phng din tch cc mt cn
li.
Li gii
a) V H trng vi A nn t din ABCD l t din vung, suy ra
2 2 2 2
1
1 1 1 1
AH AB AC AD
+ +
(vi H
1
l chn ng cao h t nh A xung
(BCD))
Nhn c hai v ca ng thc trn vi 9
2
ABCD
V
ta c
2 2 2 2
ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD
2 2 2 2
1
9V 9V 9V 9V
AH AB AC AD
+ +
Ta c AH
1
, AB, AC, AD l cc ng cao ca t din ABCD, nn ta c
2
ABD
2
ACD
2
ABC
2
BCD
S S S S

+ +
b) Nu H nm trong t din, khi theo nh l con nhm ta c
BCD ACD ABD ABC
HA HB HC HD
S . S . S . S . 0
HA HB HC HD
+ + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
r
BCD ACD ABD ABC
AH HB HC HD
S . S . S . S .
AH HB HC HD
+ +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
2 2 2 2
BCD ACD ABD ABC
ACD ABD ACD ABC ABD ABC
S S S S
HB HC HB HD HC HD
2S .S . 2S .S . . 2S .S . .
HB HC HB HD HC HD
+ +
+ + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
V H nm trong t din nn HB.HC, HB.HD, HC.HD
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
khng i v nhn gi
tr m nn suy ra
2 2 2 2
BCD ACD ABD ABC
S S S S < + +
Tng t, ta c
2 2 2 2
ACD BCD ABD ABC
S S S S < + +
2 2 2 2
ABD BCD ACD ABC
S S S S < + +
c) Nu H nm ngoi t din, khi tn ti mt nh sao cho H cng vi 3
nh cn li l t din trc tm c trc tm trng vi nh v nm trong t
din.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s nh A l trc tm ng thi nm trong t
din HBCD. Theo nh l con nhm ta c
BCD ACD ABD ABC
HA HB HC HD
S . S . S . S . 0
HA HB HC HD
+ + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
r
ACD ABD ABC BCD
HB HC HD AH
S . S . S . S .
HB HC HD AH
+ +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
2 2 2 2
BCD ACD ABD ABC
ACD ABD ACD ABC ABD ABC
S S S S
HB HC HB HD HC HD
2S .S . 2S .S . . 2S .S . .
HB HC HB HD HC HD
+ +
+ + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
V H nm trong t din nn HB.HC, HB.HD, HC.HD
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
khng i v nhn gi
tr dng nn suy ra
2 2 2 2
BCD ACD ABD ABC
S S S S > + +
Tng t, ta c
2 2 2 2
ACD BCD ABD ABC
S S S S > + +
2 2 2 2
ABD BCD ACD ABC
S S S S > + +
2 2 2 2
ABC BCD ACD ABD
S S S S > + +
(pcm).
2 2 2 2
ABC BCD ACD ABD
S S S S < + +
Bi tp 4. Cho t din ABCD bt k, tn ti duy nht mt im H tho mn
tnh cht: Trng tm ca cc mt, cc im I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
ln lt chia cc on
HA, HB, HC, HD theo t s
1
2

tnh t H, cc hnh chiu ca I

1
xung mt
(BCD), I
2
xung (ACD), I
3
xung (ABD), I
4
xung (ABC), hnh chiu vung
gc ca G xung cc mt, cng nm trn mt mt cu cc im I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
cng thuc mt mt cu.
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny cc em gp bao gi
cha? C ging hoc tng t vi bi
ton no khng?
- Bi ton mt cu le c gi g cho
em trong vic tm hng gii quyt
bi ton ny khng?
- im H trong bi ton mt cu le
c quan h g vi cc im O v G?
- Nu tn ti H th hy phn on v
tr ca im H.
- T cng vi cch gii ca bi
ton mt cu le c gi g cho cch
gii i vi bi ton?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun ca bi
ton.
- V hnh.
- Yu cu bi ton ny tng t nh
bi mt cu le.
- Da vo li gii ca bi ton mt
cu le phn on s tn ti ca im
H.
-
GH GO
uuur uuur
- Phn on:
GH GO
uuur uuur
- Xem xt p dng bi ton trong
hon cnh mi.
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii
- Li gii tham kho
Li gii
Gi G, O ln lt l trng tm, tm ng trn ngoi tip t din
ABCD. H l im c xc nh
GH GO
uuur uuur
.
Theo gi thit
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 1 1 1
I H I A, I H I B, I H I C, I H I D
2 2 2 2

uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
Xt php v t
1
3
H
V
tm H, t s
1
3
1
3
H
V : 1 2 3 4
A I , B I , C I , D I
( ) ( )
1
3
H 1 1 1
1
V : O; R O , R , R R
3

trong (O;R) l mt cu tm O, bn knh R ngoi tip t din ABCD, mt
cu (O
1
;R
1
) ngoi tip t din I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
.
Ta c
( ) ( )
1
1 1 1 2
HO HO HG GO GO GO GO
3 3 3 3
+ +
uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
Xt php v t
1
3
G
V

tm G, t s
1
3

1
3
G
V :

1 2 3 4
A G , B G , C G , D G
( ) ( )
1
3
G 2 2 2
1
V : O; R O ; R , R R
3

2 1
R R
, trong (O
2
;R
2
) l mt cu tm O
2
, bn knh R
2
ngoi tip t din
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
.
Ta c
2
1
OG GO
3

uuuur uuur
( )
2
2
1
GH HO GH HO
3
4 1 4 2 2
HO GH HO GO GO GO
3 3 3 3 3
+ +

uuur uuuur uuur uuur
uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
1 2 1 2
2
HO HO GO O O
3

uuuur uuuur uuur
.
Vy cc im I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
, G
1
, G
2
, G
3
, G
4
cng nm trn mt cu tm O
1
, bn
knh R
1
.
Mt khc, ta c
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 4 1 4 1 1
O I O H O A GO O A GO OG GA GO GA
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 1 4 1 4 1
= GO BG CG DG GO O A GO OG GA
3 3 3 3 3 3
G
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +

uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur
uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuur
1 1 1 1 1
1
O GA =GO G G G O
3
+ +
uuuur uuur uuuur uuuur uuuuur
Vy
1 1 1 1
O I O G
uuur uuuuur
nn I
1
G
1
l ng knh ca mt cu (O
1
;R
1
).
Tng t, I
2
G
2
, I
3
G
3
, I
4
G
4
cng l ng knh ca mt cu trn.
Do hnh chiu ca I
1
xung mt phng (BCD) l H
1
th H
1
nhn on I
1
G
1
di gc vung nn H
1
thuc mt cu (O
1
;R
1
).
Tng t, ta cng c H
2
, H
3
, H
4
cng thuc mt cu (O
1
;R
1
).
T chng minh trn th chng ta suy ra c H c xc nh nh trn l duy
nht.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii.
- Nhn xt li gii bi ton.
- xut li gii khc cho bi ton.
Nhn xt: Khi qut ha l mt thao tc t duy quan trng m ngi thy
gio cn ch rn luyn hoc hc sinh trong qu trnh gii ton. Nh trn
chng ti trnh by v cch suy ngh v tm ra kt qu khi qut ha ca
mt bi ton, chnh l con ng m ngi thy cn nh hng v tp
luyn cho hc sinh. Bi tp trn l mt v d v vic dy hc sinh tp luyn
thao tc khi qut ha.
Hon ton tng t, chng ta cng c th hng dn hc sinh lm bi tp sau:
Bi tp 5. Cho t din ABCD, M l mt im trong khng gian m hnh
chiu vung gc ca M xung cc mt ca t din khng ng phng. Tn ti
duy nht im N sao cho cc hnh chiu vung gc ca M v N xung cc
mt ca t din nm trn cng mt mt cu.
Li gii
Gi M
1
, M
2
, M
3
, M
4
ln lt l hnh chiu vung gc ca M ln cc mt
phng (BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC).
Gi A
1
, B
1
, C
1
, D
1
ln lt l cc im i xng ca M qua cc mt phng
(BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC).
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
MA 2MM , MB 2MM , MC 2MM , MD 2MM
uuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuuur uuuur uuuuur
Gi (N;R) l mt cu tm N, bn knh R ngoi tip t din A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
.
Xt php v t
1
2
M
V
tm M, t l
1
2
1
2
M 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
V : A M , B M , C M , D M
( )
1
2
M 1
R
V : N; R O ;
2
_


,
trong
1
R
O ;
2
_

,
l mt cu tm O
1
, bn knh
R
2
ngoi tip t din
M
1
M
2
M
3
M
4
, O
1
c xc nh
1
1
MO MN
2

uuuur uuuur
Gi N
1
, N
2
, N
3
, N
4
ln lt l hnh chiu vung gc ca N xung cc mt
phng (BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC).
Gi A
2
, B
2
, C
2
, D
2
ln lt l cc im i xng ca N qua cc mt phng
(BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC).
Theo tnh cht i xng, ta c
MA
2
= NA
1
, MB
2
= NB
1
, NC
2
= NC
1
, MD
2
= ND
1
. ( )
2 2 2 2
A , B , C , D M; R
Tng t,
1 2 3 4 2
R
N , N , N , N O ;
2
_

,
O
2
c xc nh bi
2
1
NO NM
2

uuuur uuuur
, hay
2 1 2
1
MO NM O O
2

uuuuur uuuur
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1
R
M , M , M , M , N , N , N , N O ;
2
_


,
Ta d thy rng vi mi im M nh trn th im N c xc nh duy nht.
Suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Sau y mt s bi tp lin quan m khng trnh by hng dn c th,
ch trnh by li gii:
Bi tp 6. Trong mt t din trc tm su trung im ca su cnh v su
chn ng vung gc chung ca cc cp cnh i cng nm trn mt mt
cu.
Li gii
Gi PQ, RS, MN l ng trung bnh ca t din trc tm ABCD th PQ =
RS = MN. Ngoi ra, cc ng trung bnh ct nhau ti trng tm G ca t
din.
Suy ra 6 im im P, Q, R, S, M, N nm
trn mt cu tm G.
By gi gi s IJ l ng vung gc
chung ca AB v CD th IJ CD, AB
CD nn PJ CD, ni cch khc PJ JQ.
Vy J phi nm trn mt cu ni trn.
Tng t nh vy i vi chn cc
ng i vi chn cc ng vung gc
khc.
Bi tp 7. Cho t din trc tm ABCD,
c H l trc tm nm trong t din, cc ng cao AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
, cc
ng cao ny ct mt cu ngoi tip t din ln lt ti cc im A, B, C,
D. Chng minh rng
1 1 1 1
AA BB CC DD 8
.
AA' BB' CC' DD' 3
+ + +
Li gii
C
D
G
N
M
S
R
P
Q
A
B
J
I
Hnh 3.7
Gi O, R ln lt l tm v bn knh mt cu ngoi tip t din ABCD.
I, r l tm v bn knh ca mt cu le tng ng.
1 1
HI HO, r = R
3 3

uur uuur
.
Xt phng tch ca im H i vi mt cu (O;R)
( )
2 2
H/ O
HA.HA' OH R
uuur uuuur
Do H nm trong t din nn
HA.HA = R
2
OH
2
= 9(r
2
HI
2
)
Xt phng tch ca H i vi mt cu (I;r)
2 2
H/( I) 1 1
HI .HA HI r
uuur uuuur
Do HA.HA=9HI
1
.HA
1
.
Mt khc, HI
1
=
1
HA
3
nn
1
HA'
3
HA

.
Tng t,
1 1 1
HB' HC' HD'
3, 3, 3.
HB HC HD

1 1 1
1 1 1 1
A A' B B' C C' DD'
2
HA HB HC HD

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AA' BB' CC' DD' A A' B B' C C' D D'
1 1 1 1
AA BB CC DD AA BB CC DD
_ _ _ _
+ + + + + + + + + +

, , , ,
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
HA HB HC HD
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
AA BB CC DD
HA HB HC HD
4 2 6
AA BB CC DD
_ _ _ _
+ + + + + + +

, , , ,
_
+ + + +

,
(V H nm trong t din nn suy ra
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
HA HB HC HD
1
AA BB CC DD
+ + +
)
1 1 1 1
AA' BB' CC' DD'
6
AA BB CC DD
+ + +
p dng bt ng thc Csi, ta c
2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
AA BB CC DD AA' BB' CC' DD'
4 16
AA' BB' CC' DD' AA BB CC DD
_
_
+ + + + + +

,
,
1 1 1 1
AA BB CC DD 16 8
.
AA' BB' CC' DD' 6 3
+ + +
(pcm).
Bi tp 8. Cho t din trc tm ABCD, c trc tm H nm trong t din.
Chng minh rng
(HA + HB + HC + HD)
2

AB
2
+ AC
2
+ AD
2
+BC
2
+ BD
2
+CD
2
.
Li gii
Gi cc ng cao trong t din
l AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
, cc ng
cao trong tam gic BCD l BM, CN, DP.
1
A
l trc tm tam gic BCD.
Ta d dng chng minh c kt qu
sau trong tam gic BCD
2 2 2
1 1 1
BC CD DB
BA .BM CA .CN DA .DP
2
+ +
+ + (1)
Hon ton tng t, chng ta cng c kt qu sau
1 1 1 1 1 1
BH.BB BA .BM, CH.CC CA .CN, DH.DD DA .DP
(2)
2 2 2
1 1 1
BC CD DB
BH.BB CH.CC DH.DD
2
+ +
+ + (3)
Tng t, ta cng c kt qu sau
2 2 2
1 1 1
AC CD DA
AH.AA CH.CC DH.DD
2
+ +
+ + , (4)
2 2 2
1 1 1
AB BD DA
AH.AA BH.BB DH.DD
2
+ +
+ + , (5)
H
A
B
D
C
A
1
M
P
N
Hnh 3.8
2 2 2
1 1 1
AB BC CA
AH.AA BH.BB CH.CC
2
+ +
+ + (6)
T (3), (4), (5), (6) suy ra
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
AB AC AD BC BD CD
AH.AA BH.BB CH.CC DH.DD
3
+ + + + +
+ + +
V H nm trong t din nn
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
HA HB HC HD
1
AA BB CC DD
+ + +
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AH BH CH DH HA HB HC HD
1 1 1 1 4 1 3
AA BB CC DD AA BB CC DD
+ + + + + +
( )
( )
( )
2
2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
HA HB HC HD
AH BH CH DH
AH.AA . BH.BB . CH.CC . DH.DD
AA BB CC DD
AH BH CH DH
AH.AA BH.BB CH.CC DH.DD
AA BB CC DD
1
AB AC AD BC BD CD .3
3
+ + +
_
+ + +

,
_
+ + + + + +

,
+ + + + +

iu phi chng minh.

Bi tp 9. Cho t din trc tm ABCD, H, G ln lt l trc tm v trng tm
ca t din, gi s H nm trong t din. Chng minh rng
4R(GA + GB + GC + GD)

(HA + HB +HC + HD)

2
Li gii
Do G l trng tm ca t din nn
GA GB GC GD 0 + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur r
( )
2
GA GB GC GD 0 + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur
2 2 2 2
GA GB GC GD
2GA.GB 2GA.GC 2GA.GD 2GB.GC 2GB.GD 2GC.GD 0
+ + +
+ + + + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
GA GB GC GD GA GB AB GA GC AC GA
GD AD GB GC BC GB GD BD GC GD CD 0
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +

( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 GA GB GC GD AB AC AD BC BD CD + + + + + + + +
(1)
Mt khc,
GA.OA GA.OA
uuur uuur
( )
GA.OA GA. OG GA +
uuur uuur uuur
2
GA.R GA GA.OG +
uuur uuur
Tng t, ta c
2
GB.R GB GB.OG +
uuur uuur
;
2
GC.R GC GC.OG +
uuur uuur
;
2
GD.R GD GD.GO +
uuur uuur
( )
( )
2 2 2 2
R GA GB GC GD GA GB GC GD
GO GA GB GC GD
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
(2)
T (1) v (2) suy ra
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
4R GA GB GC GD AB AC AD BC BD CD + + + + + + + +
M li c AB
2
+ AC
2
+ AD
2
+BC
2
+ BD
2
+CD
2
(HA + HB + HC + HD)
2

( ) ( )
2
4R GA GB GC GD HA HB HC HD + + + + + + (pcm).
Ch : phn trn chng ti trnh by v hng dn hc sinh xem xt
tng t ha t hnh hc phng sang hnh hc khng gian trong qu trnh gii
bi tp. Nhng i vi hc sinh chuyn ton th chng ta c th tp cho hc
sinh bng cch tng t ha cc kt qu bit trong hnh hc phng sang
hnh hc khng gian, hc sinh t tm ra bi ton mi i vi mnh. Sau y
chng ti trnh by mt s kt qu c th dng lm hng dn hc sinh tp
luyn tng t ha tm ra bi ton mi trong hnh hc khng gian.
Bi tp 10. Hy xy dng cc bi tp mi tng t trong hnh hc khng gian
vi cc bi tp trong hnh hc phng:
1) Tam gic ABC c trc tm H
a) H nm ngoi tam gic khi v ch khi tn ti mt trong cc tch sau nhn gi
tr m: AB.AC, BA.BC, CA.CB
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
b) H nm trong tam gic khi v ch khi
AB.AC 0, BA.BC 0, CA.CB 0 > > >
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
c) H vi nh A khi v ch khi
AB.AC 0
uuur uuur
.
Bi tp tng t: T din trc tm A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
c trc tm H
a) H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi tn ti mt nh A
i
(i = 1,2,3,4) sao cho
i j i k
A A .A A , j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
khng i v nhn gi tr m.
b) H nm trong t din khi v ch khi vi mi i
{1, 2, 3, 4}
sao cho
i j i k
A A .A A , j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
khng i nhn gi tr dng.
c) H trng vi mt nh A
i
no
i j i k
A A .A A 0, j k, j,k i, 1 j,k 4
uuuuur uuuuur
2) Nu tam gic ABC c trc tm H, th cc tam gic HBC, HCA, HAB ln
lt c cc trc tm l A, B, C.
Bi tp tng t:
Nu t din ABCD c trc tm H th HBCD, HACD, HABD, HABC
cng l cc t din trc tm v ln lt nhn cc nh A, B, C, D lm trc
tm.
3) Tam gic ABC c trc tm H
a) Nu H nm ngoi tam gic khi v ch khi tn ti mt nh sao cho H cng
vi hai nh cn li to thnh cc tam gic c trc tm nm ngoi.
b) H nm trong t din th cc tam gic HAB, HBC, HCA c trc tm nm
ngoi tam gic .
Bi tp tng t:
T din trc tm A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
c trc tm H
a) Nu H nm ngoi t din th tn ti mt nh A
i
, (i = 1,2,3,4) sao cho H
cng 3 nh cn li to thnh mt t din c trc tm nm ngoi.
b) Nu H nm trong t din th cc t din HA
1
A
2
A
3
, HA
1
A
2
A
4
, HA
1
A
3
A
4
,
HA
2
A
3
A
4
c tm nm ngoi t din.
c) Nu H trng vi mt nh A
i
(i=1,2,3,4) no ca t din th t din to
bi H v 3 nh cn li cng c trc tm trng vi H.
4) Trong tam gic ABC c M
1
, M
2
, M
3
ln lt l trung im ca cc cnh
BC, AC, AB; H
1
, H
2
, H
3
ln lt l chn ng cao h t cc nh A, B, C.
Gi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
ln lt l im i xng ca H qua M
1
, M
2
, M
3
; I
1
, I
2
, I
3
ln
lt l im i xng ca H qua BC, AC, AB. Khi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, I
1
,I
2
, I
3
thuc ng trn ngoi tip tam gic ABC, hn na ng trn ny c cc
ng knh AK
1
, BK
2
, CK
3
.
Bi tp tng t:
Trong t din trc tm ABCD, H l trc tm, c G
1
, G
2
, G
3
, G
4
ln lt
l trng tm ca cc mt (BCD), (ACD), (ABD), (ABC); H
1
, H
2
, H
3
, H
4
ln
lt l chn ng cao h t nh A, B, C, D.
Gi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
c xc nh

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
HK 3HG ; HK 3HG ; HK 3HG ; HK 3HG
uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur uuuur
I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
ln lt c xc nh
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
HI 3HH ; HI 3HH ; HI 3HH ; HI 3HH
uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur uuur uuuur
Khi K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
, I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
nm trn mt cu ngoi tip t din ABCD.
Hn na, mt cu ny nhn AK
1
, BK
2
, CK
3
, DK
4
lm ng knh.
Nhn xt: Trn y l h thng bi tp v t din trc tm. Chng ta bit
rng, t din vung l trng hp c bit ca t din trc tm nn trong qu
trnh dy hc, chng ta c th hng dn hc sinh bng cch c bit ha
thu c cc kt qu ca t din vung.
BI TP
1. Chng minh rng iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc tm l
tch cc cosin ca hai gc nh din i din bng nhau.
2. Chng minh rng iu kin cn v mt t din l t din trc tm l
cc gc gia cc cnh i din bng nhau.
3. Chng minh rng trong mt hnh t din trc tm, cc mt k vi mt nh
th cng nhn hoc cng t.
4. Chng minh rng trong bn mt ca mt t din trc tm th c t nht mt
mt l tam gic c 3 gc u nhn.
5. T din trc tm ABCD c trc tm H nm ngoi t din khi v ch khi c
t nht mt mt no c trc tm nm ngoi tam gic .
6. Chng minh rng trong mt hnh t din trc tm, cc ng trn chn
im ca mi mt nm trn mt mt cu (mt cu 24 im).
7. Chng minh rng trong t din trc tm, ng thng i qua trng tm ca
cc mt y v ng thi vung gc mt ng quy ti mt im.
8. Chng minh mt hnh t din trc tm th h thc sau ng:
OH
2
= 4R
2
3l
2
, vi O l tm, R l bn knh ca hnh cu ngoi tip, l l
khong cch gia trung im ca hai cnh cho nhau trong t din.
9. Gi H l trc tm ca mt hnh t din trc tm, M l trng tm ca mt
mt no v N l mt giao im ca ng thng HM vi hnh cu ngoi
tip t din (M nm gia H v N). Chng minh rng MN = 2HM.
10. Gi G l trng tm ca mt hnh t din trc tm, F l chn ng cao
no . K l mt giao im ca ng thng FG vi hnh cu ngoi tip t
din (G nm gia K v F). Chng minh rng KG = 3FG.
11. Cc cp cnh cho ca t din ABCD l a, b, c, d, e, f. Gi S
1
, S
2
, S
3
ln
lt l din tch thit din ln nht ca t din ln lt ct bi cc mt phng
song song vi cc cp cnh a v d, b v e, c v f. Chng minh rng
a) ( )
1 2 3
1
S S S ad be cf
4
+ + + +
b) Du = xy ra khi v ch khi ABCD l t din trc tm.
12. Cho t din trc tm ABCD. Chng minh rng vi mi M nm trong t
din ta c bt ng thc sau:
BCD ACD ABD ABC
MA.S MB.S MC.S MD.S 9V

+ + +
V l th tch ca t din ABCD.
R l bn knh ca mt cu ngoi tip t din ABCD.
3.5.2. Chuyn 2: Bi ton "con bm"
Bi tp 1. (Bi ton con bm i vi ng trn)
Cho ng trn (O) mt dy cung AB vi I l trung im. Qua I xt hai
dy cung ty MN v PQ sao cho cc dy cung MP v NQ ln lt ct AB
ti E, F. Chng minh rng I l trung im ca EF.
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho bit g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii.
- Bi ton ny em gp ln no
cha? C ging hoc tng t mt
bi ton no m em gii cha?
- Mun chng minh I l trung im
ca EF th thng chng minh nh
th no?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun ca bi
ton.
- V hnh.
- Suy ngh v huy ng nhng bi
ton lin quan m c hc.
- Thng chng minh theo cc cch:
+ Chng minh trc tip IE = IF.
+ Chng minh tam gic OEF cn ti
O v c OI l ng cao.
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii.
- Li gii tham kho:
Gi K, T ln lt l trung im ca
dy MP, NQ. Ta c cc t gic
OIEK, OIFT ni tip. Suy ra
EOI EKI;
FOI ITF.


Mt khc IMP ng dng vi
INQ
V IK, IT ln lt l hai trung tuyn ca
IMP ,
INQ
suy ra EKI ITN .
Do EOI FOI
Vy tam gic OEF c OI va l phn gic va l ng cao nn n l tam
gic cn. Suy ra IE = IF.
F E
T
K
I
O
A
B
M
N
P
Q
Hnh 3.9
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii
- Nhn xt li gii.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
- xut bi ton mi.
y chng ta c th t vn ngc li, tc l iu ngc li ca
bi ton c cn ng hay khng? (Tp cho hc sinh thi quen lt ngc vn
). D kim tra c rng iu ngc li ca bi ton l ng. V vy ta c
bi ton mi tng qut hn nh sau:
Bi ton mi 1. Cho ng trn (O) v mt im I, ng thng ct
ng trn ti hai im A, B. AI, BI ln lt ct ng trn ti giao im th
hai l C v D.
ng thng d qua I ct ng trn ti hai im M, N v ct AB, CD ln lt
ti P, Q. Khi I l trung im ca PQ khi v ch khi I l trung im ca MN.
bi ton ny chng ta c th i vai tr ca hai im B v D cho nhau
th chng ta c bi ton mi sau:
Bi ton mi 2. Cho ng trn (O), mt dy cung AB vi I l trung im.
Qua I xt hai dy cung ty MN v PQ sao cho M, P nm v mt pha ca
AB. Gi s MP, NQ ln lt ct AB ti E, F. Chng minh rng IE = IF.
Li gii
Gi H, K ln lt l hnh chiu
Q
P
O
N
M
I
A
C
B
D
Hnh 3.10
vung gc ca O ln MP, NQ.
Ta c t gic OIFH ni tip
IOF IHF (1)
T gic OILE ni tip

IOE ILM
(2)
Ta c
IMP IQN ILM IHQ : :
ILM IHF (3)
T (1), (2), (3) suy ra
IOE IOF
OEF cn ti O IE IF. (pcm).
By gi chng ta li i vai tr ca hai ng cho thnh hai cnh i
din, cn hai cnh i din thnh hai ng cho, ta c bi ton sau:
Bi ton mi 3. Cho t gic ABCD ni tip trong ng trn (O). Gi I
l giao im ca AB v CD. Qua I k ng thng (d) vung gc vi OI; hai
ng AC v BD ct (d) ti P v Q. Chng minh rng IP=IQ.
Li gii
Ly H, K ln lt l trung im
ca BD v AC

OHIP v OKIQ
l nhng t gic ni tip
IOP IHP v
IOQ IKQ
M IBD IAC IHD IKC : :
IHP IKQ IOP IOQ

Tam gic OPQ c ng cao OI ng

thi l ng phn gic
OPQ
cn ti
O
IP IQ
.
T bi ton mi 2, 3 ta c c bi ton mi sau:
H
L
I
O
A B
P
M
N
F E
Hnh 3.11
C B
K
H
I
O
D
A
P Q
Hnh 3.12
Bi ton mi 4. Cho ng trn (O) v ng thng (d) l ng thng bt k
m khng phi l tip tuyn ca (O). Gi I l hnh chiu vung gc ca O
trn (d). Qua I k hai ct tuyn IAB, ICD ti ng trn (O). Gi P, Q ln
lt l giao im ca AC, BD vi (d). Gi M, N ln lt l giao im ca
AD, BC vi (d). Chng minh rng IP=IQ v IM=IM.
bi ton mi 1, ta ch thay i v tr ca dy cung MN sao cho vn
song song vi v tr c th chng ta c bi ton mi sau:
Bi ton mi 5 (nh l Huraki).
Cho ng trn (O), PQ l mt dy cung ca (O), B, B, C, C l bn
im thuc (O) sao cho cc on thng BC, BD, BC, BD ct on thng ti
bn im ln lt l M, N, M, N. t x = PM, y = MN,
z = NQ, x = PM, y = MN, z= NQ. Chng minh rng
a)
( )
( )
( )
( )
y x' x x y z
z z' y' x' y' z'
+

+
b) xyz = xyz.
Li gii
Gi M
1
, M
2
ln lt l hnh chiu vung gc
ca M trn
BD v BC; N
1
, N
2
ln lt l hnh
chiu vung ca N trn BD v BC.
Do
1 2
NMM NN N' :
Q P
M
N
B
C
I
O
A
D
Hnh 3.13
N2
N1
M2
M1
N'
N
M'
M
O
B
C
D
B'
P
Q
Hnh 3.15
1
2
MM NM
N N NN'

;
2
2 1
1
MM M' M
M' M M M' N N'
N' N M' N'
:
;
1
1 1
1
MM MB
BMM B' N N'
N' N N' B'
:
;
2
2 2
2
MM MC
CM M DN N'
N' N N' D
:
.
T
1 2
2 2
y NM MM x'-x M' M MM
,
z z' NN' N N' y' M' N' N' N

V
( )
( )
1 2 1 2
2 1 1 2
y' x' x
MM MM MM MM MB MC
. . .
z z' y' N N' N' N N' N N N' N' B' N' D

Mt khc
( )
( )
MB.MC MP.MQ x y z
N' B'.N' D N' P.N' Q x' y' z'
+

'
+

Suy ra
( )
( )
( )
( )
y x' x x y z
z z' y x' y' z'
+

+
.
a) Ta c trong
*
,
+

nu
a c
b d

th
a c a b
b d c d
+

+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
x' x' y' xx' xy' x' x x' y' xy' x' x' y' xx'
yz' z z' y z yz z zz' yz' yz z zz'
x' x' y' x x'
. .
z y z z' z
+ + +

+ +
+

+
v ( ) ( ) x' y' x x' y' z' z' x x y z z' x y z z' + + + + + +
xy' z x' yz'
(pcm).
T bi ton mi 5, chng ta c th cho hc sinh gii quyt bi ton sau:
Bi ton bm kp:
Cho ng trn (O), PP l mt dy cung ca (O), A, B, C, D, A, B, C,
D l cc im thuc (O) sao cho cc on thng AC, AD, BC, BD, BD,
BC, AD, AC ct on thng PQ ti tm im, k hiu tun t E, F, G, H,
H, G, F, E v trn PP theo th t . Gi thit rng PF = PF, PG =
PG, PH = PH. Chng minh rng
a)
PE.FP' PG.HP'
EF GH

v
P' E'.F' P P' G'.H' P
E' F' G' H'

b) PE = PE.
Chng minh
T bi ton 2, ta c
xz x' z'
y y'

. p dng
cho bn im A, B, C, D ta c
PE.FP' PG.HP'
EF GH

.
Tng t, p dng cho bn im A, B, C, D ta c
P' E'.F' P P' G'.H' P
E' F' G' H'

.
b) K hiu m = PE, a = PF = PF, b = FG = FG, c = GH = GH,
d = HH, m = PE, s = a + b + c + d.
Nh vy, HP= HP = s.
Theo cu a)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
m b c s a b s
a m c
m' b c s a b s
a m' c
+ + +

'
+ + +

m m'
m m' PE P' E'
a m a m'


(pcm).
Bi tp 2. (Bi ton con bm i vi cp ng thng)
Cho tam gic ABC c I l trung im cnh BC. ng thng ( )
i
qua I ct AB, AC ti M, N. ng thng ( ) '
i qua I ct AB, AC ln lt ti
P, Q. Gi s M v P nm v mt pha i vi BC v cc ng thng MP, NQ
ln lt ct BC ti E, F. Chng minh rng IE = IF.
H
G
F
P
E
D
C
A
B
H
G
F
E
P
D
C
B
A
Hnh 3.16
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny c ging hoc tng t
vi mt bi ton no m em c
gii?
- Yu cu ca bi ton c th pht
biu theo mt cch khc.
Nu hc sinh khng tr li c th
c th gi st hn:
- iu phi chng minh ca bi ton
c tng ng vi chng minh
EB FC
EC FB

khng?
- nh l M-n-lauyt c gi g cho
vic tm li gii ca bi ton khng?
- Hy trnh by li gii bi ton.
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun ca bi
ton.
- V hnh
- Suy ngh v huy ng kin thc c.
- Chng minh:
EB FC
EC FB

.
- Suy ngh tm cch s dng nh l
gii bi ton.
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li
gii
- Li gii tham kho:
p dng nh l M-n-lauyt cho
tam gic ABC vi ct tuyn FND
ta c
I
C
B
M
A
Q
N
F
E
P
Hnh 3.17
EB PC MA
. . 1
EC PA MB

nn ( )
EB PA MB
. 1
EC PC MA

FC QB NA
. . 1
FB QA NC

do
( )
FC NC QA
. 2
FB NA QB

p dng nh l M-n-lauyt cho tam gic ABC vi ct tuyn MIN v QIP ta

c:
MB NC IC
. . 1
MA NA IB

m IB = IC nn ( )
MB NC
3
MA NA

suy ra
( )
PA QA
4
PC QB

T (1), (2), (3), (4) suy ra

EB FC
EC FB

suy ra iu phi chng minh.

B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- T kim tra li gii.
- Nhn xt li gii.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
- xut bi ton mi.
Lt ngc vn : iu ngc li ca bi ton c ng khng? Tc l,
nu I l trung im ca EF th I c l trung im ca BC. iu ny d kim tra
c l ng. V vy, chng ta c bi
ton mi sau:
Bi ton mi 1. Cho cp ng
thng a, b ct nhau ti O v mt im I.
ng thng d bt k ct hai ng
thng a, b ln lt ti cc im A, B;
ng thng AI ct b ti C, ng thng
BI ct a ti D. ng thng i qua I
ct a, b ln lt ti M v N, ct AB, CD
P
C
D
I
O
B
M
N
A
Q
Hnh 3.18
ln lt ti P v Q. Khi I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l trung
im ca PQ.
Nu chng ta xem nh ABCD l mt t gic c lp, b qua ng
thng a, b th chng ta c bi ton mi sau:
Bi ton mi 2. Cho mt t gic ABCD c hai ng cho ct nhau ti
I v mt ng thng qua I ct AB, BC, CD, DA ln lt ti M, N, P, Q.
Chng minh rng I l trung im on MP khi v ch khi I l trung im on
NQ.
Li gii
Gi s t gic ABCD c
AD v BC ct nhau, gi s ti
O.
Khi p dng bi ton
con bm cho cp
ng thng OA, OB ta
suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Nu AD v BC khng ct nhau, m AB v CD ct nhau th tng t trng
hp trn.
Nu ABCD l hnh bnh hnh th kt qu trn hin nhin lun ng.
Nhn xt: i vi gio vin thy ngay kt qu ca bi ton "con bm" i
vi elip, hyperbol v parabol t chng 2. Nhng i vi hc sinh th chng ta
c th t cu hi gi tnh "t m", s suy din tng t i n kt qu ca bi
ton "con bm" cho elip. Nhng trc ht mun gii quyt c bi ton
"con bm" cho elip th chng ta cn b sung cho hc sinh cc b c
trnh by sau:
B 1. Cho elip (E):
2 2
2 2
x y
1
a b
+ v M(x
0
;y
0
). Khi tp hp nhng im N
lin hp vi M i vi (E) l ng thng c phng trnh
0 0
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
.
N
Q
P
I
D
C
M A B
Hnh 3.19
Chng minh
Gi N(x;y) v MN ct (E) ti X, Y trong
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
X x t x x ; y t y y , Y x s x x ; y s y y t,s + + + +
MX t
t t 1
s MY
: 1 t s 2ts
s s 1
NX t 1
NY s 1

+
'

V X, Y
( ) E
nn t, s tha mn
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 0 0
2 2
x X x x y X y y
1
a b
+ + 1 1
] ]
+
(X l n)
( ) ( ) 0
2 2
2
2 2 2
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y x x y y x x y y x x y
X 2 X 1 0
a b a b a b a b
1
1

+ + + + + 1
1
1 1
]
]
Theo nh l Vi-et, ta c t+s = 2ts
0 0
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
B 2. Cho elip (E) v
( ) J E
. Mt dy cung bt k MN ca (E) song song
vi tip tuyn (d') ct ng thng OJ ti I. Chng minh rng IM =IN.
Chng minh
Gi (E): ( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 2 2
x y
1, J x ; y E
a b
+ .
Phng trnh (d'):
0 0
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
.
( )
0 0
2 2
x x y y
MN: m m
a b
+
V I

OJ
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0
I x t; y t MN OJ I x m; y m
.
Honh giao im ca M, N l nghim
ca phng trnh:
2 2 2 2
0
2 2 2 2 2
0 0
2mx b b x mb
1 0
a y a y y
+
Gi honh ca M, N l x
1
, x
2
th theo Vi-et ta c
N
M
I
J
d
'
J
Hnh 3.20
1 2 0
1 2 0
x x 2mx
y y 2my
+

'
+

Vy I l trung im ca MN.
B 3. Trong hnh t nh ton phn, hai im cho nm trn hai ng
cho chia iu ha cp giao im ca ng cho vi cp cnh i qua
im cho th 3.
Bi tp 3. Cho elip (E) v mt ng thng (d) ty , gi (d') l ng thng
song song vi (d) v l tip tuyn ca (E). Gi J l tip im ca (d') v (E).
Gi I l giao im ca (d) v ng thng ni J v tm O ca elip. Qua I k
hai ct tuyn IAB v ICD vi (E). Gi P, Q ln lt l giao im th hai ca
ng thng BC, AD vi ng thng (d). Chng minh rng IP = IQ.

B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton cho c ging hoc tng
t nh mt bi ton no m em bit
khng?
- Li gii ca bi ton c th p
dng gii bi ton ny hay khng?
- Kt qu ca b 1 v b 3 c
gi g cho em trong vic gii quyt
bi ton khng?
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun ca bi
ton.
- V hnh.
- Suy ngh tm hng gii bi ton.
- Bi ton "con bm" i vi ng
trn c kt qu tng t.
- Khng p dng c.
- Theo b 3 ta c
[IXBA]=[IYDC]=-1.
- Theo b 1: I lin hp vi X, Y
i vi (E)
0 0
2 2
x x y y
KL: 1
a b
+
- Em c bit php chiu xuyn tm c
tc dng g trong bi ton ny khng?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
- Phn on: chng minh
IP
1
IQ

B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii
- Li gii tham kho:
Chn h trc ta sao cho (E)
c phng trnh
2 2
2 2
x y
1
a b
+ .
Gi I(x
0
;y
0
). Theo b 3
ta c [IXBA]=[IYDC]=-1.

I lin hp vi X, Y i vi (E) (theo b 1).

0 0
2 2
x x y y
KL: 1
a b
+
(1)
V J OI (O l gc ta ) nn ( )
0 0
J x ; y , 0
.
Gi (d) l tip tuyn i vi (E) ti J
( )
0 0
2 2
x x y y
d' : 1
a b

+
(2)
T (1), (2) suy ra (d)//KL ( ) d // KL
Xt php chiu xuyn tm, tm chiu l K. T ng thng AB ln ng
thng (d) th
I I; B Q; A P; X
Vy theo php chiu xuyn tm ta c
-1=[IXBA]=[I

QP]=[PQI]=
IP
IQ
.
Vy I l trung im ca PQ.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii.
- Nhn xt li gii.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
X
K
L
B
D
J
I
A
C
Q
P
Y
Hnh 3.21
- xut bi ton mi.
T b 2 v bi tp 3 ta suy ra bi ton mi:
Bi ton mi 1.
Cho elip (E) v mt dy cung MN,I l trung im ca MN, k hai dy
cung AB, CD qua I. Gi P, Q l ln lt l giao im ca AD, BC vi
MN.Chng minh I l trung im ca PQ.
T y ta cho hc sinh lt ngc li vn , tc l nu I l trung im
ca PQ th c chng minh c I l trung im ca MN? iu ny cng suy ra
t bi tp 3 v b 2. Vy ta c bi ton "con bm" tng qut i vi elip:
Bi ton mi 2
Cho elip (E) v mt im I, ng thng (d) ct (E) ti hai im
A, B. AI, BI ct (E) ln lt ti C, D.Cc ng thng i qua I ct (E) ti M,
N, ct AB, CD ti P, Q. Khi I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi I l
trung im ca PQ.
Trong trng hp bi tp 3, ta xt c bit A trng vi B, C trng vi D
ta c bi ton mi sau:
Bi ton mi 3
Cho elip (E), mt im M nm ngoi (E). T I k hai tip tuyn vi (E)
ti P, Q. Gi I l giao im ca PQ vi OI (O l tm ca (E)). Chng minh
rng I l trung im ca PQ.
i vi trng hp c bit ny chng
ta cng c cch gii n gin hn sau:
Li gii
Chn h ta Oxy sao cho
Elip c phng trnh
2 2
2 2
x y
1
a b
+ (a >b >0)
M(x
0
;y
0
), P(x
1
;y
1
), Q(x
2
;y
2
).
Khi cc tip tuyn MP, MQ c phng trnh l
I
J
N
M
Hnh 3.22
O
MP:
1 1
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
MQ:
2 1
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
V M MP nn (1)
Tng t
M MQ
nn
0 2 0 2
2 2
x x y y
1
a b
+
(2)
T (1), (2) thy (x
1
;y
1
) v (x
2
;y
2
) l hai nghim ca phng trnh

0 0
2 2
x y
x y 1
a b
+
(3)
R rng
2 2
0 0
2 2
x y
0
a b
_ _
+

, ,
Phng trnh PQ:
0 0
2 2
x y
x y 1
a b
+

vct ch phng ca PQ l
0 0
2 2
y x
u ;
b a
_


,
r
, vct ch phng ca ng
thng MO l ( )
0 0
v x ; y
r
.
Ta c
0
0
0 2
2
0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
x
y
y
x y x y
b
b
1.
a b a b a b
_

,
+
Tc phng
u
r
lin hp vi phng
v
r
i vi elip. Vy OM l ng knh
OM phi qua trung im I ca PQ.
C th gi cho hc sinh rng c th xem xt tng t hyperbol,
parabol i vi cc bi ton i vi elip th ta c bi ton mi no?
Bi ton mi 4
Cho hyeperbol (H) v ng thng (d) ty . Mt tip tuyn song song
vi (d) tip xc vi (H) ti J. ng thng ni tm i xng O ca (H) ct (d)
ti I. Qua I k hai ng thng phn bit ln lt ct (H) ti cc im A, B, C,
D. Ni AD, BC ct (d) ln lt ti P v Q. Chng minh rng IP = IQ.
Bi ton mi 5 (Bi ton "con bm" i vi hyperbol)
Cho hyperbol (H) v hai im M, N thuc (H). Qua trung im I ca
MN k hai ng thng phn bit ct (H) ln lt ti P, Q. Chng minh
IP=IQ.
Bi ton mi 6 (Bi ton "con bm" cho parabol)
Cho parabol (P) v hai im M, N phn bit thuc (P). Qua trung im
I ca MN k hai ng thng phn bit ct (P) ln lt ti A, B, C, D. Ni
AD, BC ln lt ct MN ti P, Q. Chng mnh rng IP = IQ.
Nh chuyn 1, chng ta lm quen vi vic xt tng t ha t
bi ton trong hnh hc phng sang hnh hc khng gian. V vy trong trng
hp ny chng ta cng s i xy dng bi ton "con bm" trong hnh hc
khng gian.
Bi tp 4 (Bi ton "con bm" i vi mt cu)
Trong khng gian, cho mt cu (S), mt phng v mt im I. Qua I k
ba ng thng i mt phn bit ct mt cu ln lt ti M
1
, N
1
, M
2
, N
2
, M
3
,
N
3
; qua M
1
, M
2
, M
3
xc nh mt phng ( )
; qua N
1
, N
2
, N
3
xc nh mt
phng ( )

. Mt ng thng ( )
qua I ct mt cu ti M v N, ct hai mt
phng ( )
, ( )

ln lt ti P v Q. Chng minh rng I l trung im ca MN

khi v ch khi I l trung im ca PQ.
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho bit g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng chng trnh
gii
- Bi ton ny c ging hoc tng t
bi ton no m em bit khng?
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun bi
ton.
- V hnh.
-Kt bi ton tng t bi ton "con
bm" i vi ng trn.
- Bi ton "con bm" i vi ng
trn c gi g cho em trong vic
gii bi ton ny khng?
- Hy trnh by li gii cho bi ton.
- C th s dng kt qu ca bi ton
"con bm" trong ng trn
chng minh bi ton ny.
Bc 3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh trnh by li gii.
- Li gii tham kho:
Xt mt phng ( ) O,
, mt phng ny
ct mt cu theo giao tuyn l ng
(C), ct ( ) ( ) ,
theo hai giao tuyn l
d
1
, d
2
.
d
1
ct (C) ti A, B; d
2
ct (C) ti C, D.

P l giao im ca v AB, Q
l giao im ca v CD.
Theo cu a) suy ra AD ct BC ti I.
p dng bi ton con bm i vi
ng trn ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii.
- Nhn xt li gii.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
Bi tp 5 (Bi ton "con bm" i vi cp mt phng)
Cho cp mt phng ( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) ( )

v mt phng (P) giao vi
cp mt phng trn khc rng. V mt im I trong khng gian. Mi im
( ) ( ) ( ) M P 1
]
, gi M l giao im th hai ca MI vi cp mt
phng( ) ( ) ,
.
a) Chng minh rng cc im M thuc cng mt mt phng (Q).
( )

( )

I
O
M
N
P
Q
Hnh 3.23
b) Mt ng thng ( )
qua I ct cp mt phng ti M, N v ct (P),
(Q) ln lt ti K, L. Chng minh rng I l trung im ca MN khi v ch khi
I l trung im ca KL.
B1: Tm hiu bi ton
- Bi ton cho g? Yu cu g?
- Hy v hnh.
- Hy tm li gii cho bi ton.
B2: Xy dng chng trnh gii
- Bi ton ny c ging hoc tng t
nh mt bi ton no m em bit
khng?
- cu a), mun chng minh cho cc
im M' cng thuc mt mt phng
th ta s c cch no chng minh?
- nh l ba ng giao tuyn c tc
dng g trong vic gii quyt bi ton
ny khng?
- cu b), trong li gii ca bi ton
"con bm" i vi cp ng thng
c gi g cho em trong vic gii bi
ton ny khng?
- Nhc li gi thit v kt lun ca bi
ton.
- V hnh.
- Tng t nh bi ton "con bm"
i vi cp ng thng.
- V qu tch cc im M' l hai
ng thng nn mun chng minh
cho cc im M' ng phng th
chng ta s chng minh cho hai
ng thng ny ng phng.
- C th chng minh cho hai ng
thng ny song song hoc ct nhau.
- Suy ngh v tm cch ng dng nh
l vo gii bi ton.
- C th p dng kt qu ca bi ton
"con bm" gii bi ton ny.
B3: Thc hin chng trnh gii
- Hc sinh t trnh by li gii
- Li gii tham kho:
I
()
()
d2
d1
d4
d3
D
C
P
B
A
Q
M
N
Hnh 3.24
a) Gi s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
P d , P d
.
Gi ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 2 4
I, d d , I,d d .
iu phi chng minh tng ng
vi chng minh d
3
, d
4
ng phng.
Xt 3 mt phng ( ) ( ) ( )
1
P , , I, d

i mt ct nhau theo 3 giao tuyn
d
1
, d
2
, d
4
; 3 mt phng ( ) ( ) ( )
2
P , , I, d
i mt ct nhau theo 3 giao tuyn
d
2
, d
3
, d
4
.
Theo nh l 3 ng giao tuyn
th hoc 4 giao tuyn d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4

ng quy, hoc d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4
song
song vi nhau.
Vy c hai trng hp trn th d
3
, d
4

lun ng phng.
b) ng thng ct ( ) ( ) ,
ln lt ti M, N. Ly mt im A
1
d
, mt
phng ( ) A,
ct d
2
, d
3
, d
4
ln lt ti B, C, D. Khi P, Q ln lt l giao
im ca AB, CD vi .
p dng bi ton con bm i vi cp ng thng AD v BD ta c
iu phi chng minh.
B4: Kim tra, nghin cu li gii
- Hc sinh t kim tra li gii.
- Nhn xt li gii.
- xut li gii mi cho bi ton.
BI TP
1. Cho tam gic nhn ABC, CB > CA. Gi O, H ln lt l tm ng trn
ngoi tip, trc tm ca tam gic. CF l ng cao xut pht t C. ng
thng qua F vung gc vi OF ct AC ti P. Chng minh rng
FHP CAB .
2. Cho tam gic nhn ABC c trc tm H. Gi O l trung im ca BC.
ng thng qua H ct AB, AC ln lt ti M, N. Chng minh rng
HM=HN khi v ch khi OM=ON.
3. Cho t gic ABCD c hai ng cho ct nhau ti O. Mt ng thng qua
O ct ng trn ngoi tip tam gic OAB, OBC, OCD, ODA ln lt ti M,
N, P, Q khc O. Chng minh rng O l trung im ca on MP khi v ch
khi n l trung im ca on NQ.
4. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O), c AB + AC = 2BC. Gi B,
C ln lt l im chnh gia ca cung AC (cung khng cha B) v cung AB
(cung khng cha C). Gi I l tm ng trn ni tip tam gic ABC, M,N ln
lt l giao ca AI vi BC, BC. Chng minh IM = IN.
5. Cho t gic ABCD c hai ng cho ct nhau ti O. Bit rng tn ti bn
im A, B, C, D ln lt thuc cc cnh AB, BC, CD, DA sao cho
ABCD l hnh bnh hnh vi tm O. Chng minh rng ABCD cng l hnh
bnh hnh.
6. Cho tam gic nhn A
1
BC v A
2
BC cng ni tip trong ng trn (O); c
trc tm ln lt l H
1
, H
2
. Gi M, N ln lt l giao im ca H
1
H
2
vi A
2
B
v A
2
C. Bit
0
1 2 1
A H H 90
. Chng minh rng A
1
M = A
1
N.
7. Cho t gic ABCD c
0
BAD BCD 90 . Gi E l giao ca hai ng
cho AC v BD. Chng minh rng trung im ca on ni tm cc ng
trn ngoi tip cc tam gic ABE, CDE thuc ng thng BD.
8. Hy trnh by chi tit li gii cho cc bi ton "con bm" i vi
hyperbol, parabol nu trn.
3.6. xut mt s bin php
Vi vic xy dng cc chuyn dy hc theo con ng "Dng hnh
hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp t xy dng ni dung cc chuyn
nhm bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT" c hiu
qu chng ti xin c xut mt s bin php nhm gip gio vin thc
hin cng vic c tt sau:
- V vic xy dng ni dung cc chuyn :
+ Tm hiu hnh hc cao cp.
+ Tm hiu chng trnh hnh hc trng THPT.
+ Tm hiu mi quan h gia chng.
+ T cc ni dung ca hnh hc cao cp c th chng ta c bit ha thu
c cc kt qu ca hnh hc s cp. Nu ni dung hon chnh, h thng th
chng ta gi nguyn. Nu khng chng ta c th bng con ng xem xt
tng t, khi qut ha, c bit ha c c h thng bi tp mang tnh
hon chnh.
+ Cn c vo kt qu thu c trn, chnh l ngun ti liu qu
gio vin gia cng v mt s phm dy hc cho hc sinh c hiu qu.
- V mt dy hc:
vic dy hc cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT c hiu qu chng
ti xin xut cc phng n t chc dy hc sau:
+ Tng cng dy hc cha bi tp cho hc sinh theo hng tng cng
tp luyn cho hc sinh gii bi tp theo s 4 bc ca Plya.
+ Tng cng t chc chia nhm hc tp i vi hc sinh. y chnh l
hnh thc t chc hc tp hiu qu cho hc sinh ph hp vi phng n dy
hc theo s 4 bc ca G. Plya. c bit, hiu qu i vi bc xy dng
chng trnh gii v bc nghin cu li gii.
+ Tng cng lp luyn cc thao tc t duy cho hc sinh nh xem xt
tng t, khi qut ha, c bit ha trong qu trnh gii bi tp hay trong qu
trnh tm bi ton mi.
3.7. Th nghim s phm
3.7.1. Mc ch th nghim
Mc ch th nghim s phm l kim tra kh nng vn dng v tnh
kh thi ca vic dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp xy dng
ni dung chuyn dy hc cho cc chuyn ton THPT.
3.7.2. Ni dung th nghim
- Th nghim dy hc mt s tit dy bi dng theo chuyn cho
hc sinh chuyn ton lp 11.
- Ni dung th nghim cc tit bi tp c bin son thnh gio n ln
lp da trn cc chuyn c trnh by chng III ca lun vn.
3.7.3. T chc th nghim
3.7.3.1. Chn lp th nghim
V i tng th nghim l hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11 nn chng ti
chn lp 11 chuyn ton trng chuyn Lam Sn - Thanh Ha.
3.7.3.2. Tin hnh th nghim
Qu trnh th nghim c sp xp vo mt s bui hc chuyn bi
dng ca hc sinh lp chuyn.
3.7.3.3. nh gi kt qu th nghim
a) V ni dung th nghim : Thc hin th nghim 4 tit, phn kin
thc l chuyn 1 trnh by u chng 3. Chng ti hng dn hc sinh
gii bi tp theo cc bc nh trong chng 3 trnh by.
b) V phng php
Chng ti vn dng phng php gii quyt vn - dy hc theo
nh hng pht hin v gii quyt vn nhm thc hin vai tr ngi t
chc v iu khin hot ng nhn thc ca hc sinh. C th qu trnh ln lp
t chc hc tp trn lp c tin hnh theo trnh by chuyn 1.
c) V lnh hi ca hc sinh
kim tra tnh hiu qu ca vic ging dy chuyn 1, chng ti
pht phiu thm d i vi hc sinh sau khi c hc chuyn ny. Kt qu
thu c nh sau:
- Sau khi dy chuyn 1, kh nng tip thu bi ca cc em l rt tt,
c th hin qua kt qu sau:
Bng 1.
STT Ni dung kin ca hc sinh
C Khng Khng kin
1 Sau khi hc em c hiu bi. 98% 2% 2%
2 Em t tm li gii cho bi ton khi
c gio vin hng dn.
72% 22% 6%
- Dy hc theo s gii ton ca Plya cc em cm thy hng th
trong gi hc, vic dy hc theo quy trnh ny gip cc em hnh thnh cch
suy ngh khi ng trc mt bi ton khc hoc mt vn khc khi gp,
c th hin qua kt qu sau:
Bng 2.
STT Ni dung kin ca hc sinh
C Khng Khng kin
1 Gio vin dy theo phng php
ny em thy hng th hc hn.
78% 12% 10%
2 Em c hng dn theo quy trnh
ny lm cho em d nh hng
hn khi gp mt bi ton khc.
82% 6% 12%
3 Vi cch t duy gip em hc
tt cc mn hc khc.
62% 18% 20%
4 Cch ny gip ch ng hn trong
vic hc tp.
68% 8% 24%
Nhn xt: Qua kt qu thm d ca hc sinh vi ni dung nh trn, cho thy
rng vic dy ni dung chuyn 1 theo phng php pht hin v gii quyt
theo s gi ca Plya thu c kt qu tt trong dy hc. Bc u
khng nh c s hiu qu trong dy hc chuyn 1.
d) nh gi ca gio vin
Trong t th nghim, chng ti cho ly kin thm d ca 6 gio vin
trong t Ton, trng THPT chuyn Lam Sn (6 gio vin c mi d bui
dy th nghim ca chng ti, c c phn ni dung m c trnh by
trong lun vn). Vi ni dung v kt qu thu c th hin trong bng 3.
Bng 3.
kin thm d gio vin ng Khng ng

Khng c
kin
Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng
hnh hc s cp l hng i thch
hp.
66,6% 0% 33,4%
Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng
hnh hc s cp nhm xy dng
ni dung cc chuyn dy hc
tp cho hc sinh chuyn ton l
iu cn thit cho vic ging dy
cc lp chuyn ton THPT.
66,6% 16,7% 16,7%
Bi dng nng lc gii ton cho
hc sinh bng cch hng dn hc
sinh gii bi tp bng s gi
ca Plya l vic lm hiu qu.
83,3% 0% 16,7%
Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng
hnh hc s cp xy dng ni
dung dy hoc cho hc sinh chuyn
ton l vic lm kh thi, hiu qu.
66,6% 16,7% 16,7%
Nhn xt: Qua thm d kin ca 6 gio vin trn cho thy rng:
- Vic dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni
dung dy hc cho gio vin chuyn ton THPT c s ng tnh ng h ca
a s gio vin c hi. Cn s t khng ng vi con ng ny, h cho
rng vic lm l kh thc hin, v lu ngy khng tip xc vi hnh hc
cao cp nn kin thc cng b mai mt nhiu, v th lm theo quy trnh trn l
mt iu qu kh i vi h, ngc li h vn c nhiu con ng lm
vic ny. Nhng s ng h ca a s nh th, chng ti thy vic lm ny c
tnh kh thi.
- V vic dy hc: a s gio vin cng ng h vic dy hc theo s
gi nh lun vn trnh by. Cn mt s t khng ng tnh, v h cho
rng lm nh th th mt qu nhiu thi gian trn lp, kin thc dy cho hc
sinh s c t hn v qu trnh son bi th mt qu nhiu thi gian. Nhng
vi a s gio vin ng , h u cho rng vic lm ny l cn thit, v
kt qu dy hc l mt qu trnh lu di, quan trng hn pht trin t duy v
hnh thnh nhn cch mt con ngi, mi l kt qu quan trng ca vic
dy hc.
Kt lun chng 3
Trong chng 3, lun vn trnh by ni dung ca hai chuyn trnh
by theo hng s dng s gi ca G. Plya, trong trnh by mt s v
d c th, cn li trnh by li gii cho tng bi ton v c phn bi tp thc
hnh cho hc sinh sau mi chuyn , gip gio vin bi dng nng lc gii
ton ca hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11, mi chuyn c thi lng dy l 4
tit.
Trong chng chng ti cng trnh by kt qu th nghim ca ti v
thu c kt qu bc u khng nh gi thuyt ca ti l ng n.
KT LUN
1. Kt lun
Qua nghin cu l lun v thc tin qu trnh xy dng ti liu dy hc
v qu trnh dy hc lp chuyn ton THPT. Lun vn cp c
nhng vn sau:
1) Trnh by h thng l lun v vic bi dng nng lc gii ton cho
hc sinh chuyn ton.
2) Lm r u im v nhc im ca vic dng hnh hc cao cp soi
sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni dung cc chuyn bi dng hc sinh
chuyn ton THPT.
3) Trnh by c h thng chuyn n hnh trc tm v bi ton con
bm i vi siu mt bc hai. T bng cch c bit ha thu c kt qu
h thng cc bi ton s cp lm ti liu xy dng cc chuyn dy hc
cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT.
4) Xy dng c hai chuyn "T din trc tm v cc bi ton lin
quan" v " Bi ton con bm", c trnh by theo s hng dn ca G.
Plya nhm bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT.
5) Chng ti tin hnh th nghim ti ti lp 11 chuyn ton
trng THPT chuyn Lam Sn- Thanh Ha. Kt qu thu c bc u
khng nh c tnh kh thi ca ti.
2. ngh
Qua nghin cu ti v qu trnh thc nghim, vic xy dng ti
liu cho gio vin bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh hiu qu, chng
ti xin c mt s ngh sau:
1) Dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni
dung cc chuyn phc v cho ging dy. ng thi vi cch lm ny
chng ta c th lm c vi cc mn i s v Gii tch.
2) Cc trng chuyn nn thng xuyn t chc cc hi tho v hc
tp v trao i nghim v bin son ti liu ging dy.
3) B Gio dc v o to c ti tm v vic t chc li h thng
trng chuyn v xy dng b sch gio khoa cho hc sinh chuyn.
4) B Gio dc v o to trch ngun kinh ph h tr gio vin
cc trng chuyn yn tm u t thi gian vo vic xy dng ni dung
ging dy.
3. Hng pht trin ca ti
Nu c iu kin nghin tip, tc gi s tip tc nghin cu ti theo
hng dng hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp xy dng ni dung
cc chuyn "Vct trong hnh hc phng v hnh hc khng gian" v "Cc
php bin hnh" nhm bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton
THPT.
TI LIU THAM KHO
1. Phan c Chnh, Phm Tn Dng, L nh Thnh (1978), Tuyn tp
nhng bi ton s cp (tp III), NXB i hc v trung hc chuyn nghip.
2. Hong Chng (1997), Phng php dy hc ton trng THCS, NXB
GD.
3. Vn Nh Cng (1994), T din v hnh hp, NXB GD.
4. Vn Nh Cng, T Mn (1998), Hnh hc Afin v hnh hc Clit, NXB
HQG H Ni.
5. Phm Gia c, Nguyn Mnh Cng, Bi Huy Ngc, V Dng Thy
(1998), Phng php dy hc mn Ton. NXB GD.
6. Phm Gia c Vin KHGD (6/2002), Mt s v d v hot ng hnh hc
thng gp trong cc tnh hung nh hnh. Tp ch Gio dc, s 33.
7. -Phi-Mp (1962), Hnh hc cao cp (phn th nht), NXB GD.
8. Trn B H (ch bin) (2006), Hnh hc khng gian. NXB i hc S
phm.
9. Trn Vn Ho (ch bin) (2006), Chuyn luyn thi vo i hc Hnh
hc khng gian, NXB GD.
10. Phm Vn Hon (ch bin), Nguyn Gia Cc, Trn Thc Trnh (1998),
Gio dc hc mn Ton, NXB GD.
11. Nguyn Thi He (2001), Rn luyn t duy qua vic gii bi tp ton.
NXB GD.
12. Vng Hi (2005), Tng cng nh hng s phm cho sinh vin Cao
ng S phm trong dy hc L thuyt s v C s s hc. Lun vn Thc s
khoa hc gio dc, Trng HSP H Ni.
13. Nguyn Mng Hy (1999), Hnh hc cao cp, NXB GD.
14. Phan Huy Khi (2000), Ton nng cao Hnh hc (tp II), NXB GD.
15. Krutecxki V.A (1973), Tm l nng lc ton hc ca hc sinh, NXB GD.
16. Nguyn B Kim, Vng Dng Minh, Nguyn S c (1998), Tnh gii
quyt vn trong ton b qu trnh dy hc, Tp ch KHGD H Ni s 66.
17. Nguyn B Kim, Vng Dng Minh, Tn Thn (1998), Khuyn khch
mt s hot ng tr tu ca hc sinh qua mn ton trng THCS, NXB GD.
18. Nguyn B Kim, V Dng Thy (2000), Phng php dy hc mn
ton, NXB GD.
19. Nguyn B Kim (1999), Hc tp trong hot ng v bng hot ng, NXB
GD.
20. Nguyn B Kim (2006), Phng php dy hc mn ton, NXB GD.
21. Nguyn Ph Lc Khoa S phm i hc Cn Th (2001), Dy hc
khm ph mt phng php dy hc nng cao tnh tch cc ca hc sinh trong
dy hc ton. Tp ch Gio dc, s 19.
22. Phan Vn L (2003), Xy dng mt s chuyn "cu ni" gia chng
trnh i s Cao ng s phm vi chng trnh ton i s Trung hc c
s nhm gp phn tng cng nh hng s phm cho gio sinh khoa Ton
trng Cao ng S phm, Lun vn thc s khoa hc gio dc, Trng
HSP H Ni.
23. Monier J.M (2001), Gio trnh ton (tp 7) Hnh hc, NXB GD.
24. L Th Cm Nhung (2002), Pht trin nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh lp
7 trng THCS, Lun vn thc s khoa hc gio dc, i hc S phm Thi
Nguyn.
25. Plya G (1975), Sng to ton hc, NXB GD.
26. Plya G (1976), Ton hc v nhng suy lun c l, NXB GD.
27. Plya G (1977), Gii mt bi ton nh th no. NXB GD.
28. Sharygin I.F (1988), Tuyn tp 340 bi ton hnh hc khng gian, NXB
Tng hp Ngha Bnh.
29. o Tam (2005), Phng php dy hnh hc trng trung hc ph
thng, NXB i hc S phm.
30. Trn Vn Tn v nhm gio vin chuyn ton i hc S phm H Ni
(2005), Chuyn hnh hc bi dng hc sinh gii trung hc c s, NXB
GD.
31. V Dng Thy (ch bin), Phm Gia c, Hong Ngc Hng, ng
nh Lng (1998), Thc hnh gii ton, NXB GD.
32. Nguyn Cnh Ton (1998), Tp cho hc sinh gii ton lm quen dn vi
nghin cu ton hc, NXB GD.
33. Nguyn Th Hng Trang (4/2001), Tin trnh gii mt bi tp ton theo
hng sng to, pht hin v gii quyt vn trong mn Ton THPT. Tp ch
Gio dc, s 1.
34. Nguyn Th Hng Trang (12/2001), Nhng nh hng m rng bi ton
ban u trong tin trnh gii ton ph thng. Tp ch gio dc, s 19.
35. Nguyn Th Hng Trang (5/ 2002), Hnh thnh nng lc gii ton theo
nh hng sng to, pht hin v gii quyt vn cho hc sinh trong dy
hc gii ton. Tp ch Gio dc, s 29.
36. Trn Thc Trnh (1998), T duy trong hot ng hc ton, Ti liu cho
hc vin cao hc. Vin KHGD.
37. Nguyn Huy T (2005), Ti nng Quan nim, nhn dng v o to.
NXB GD.
38. Trn Anh Tun, L L Bnh Trng Cao ng S phm Ngh An
(4/2002), Pht huy tnh tch cc, sng to ca hc sinh thng qua vic khai
thc bi ton. Tp ch Gio dc, s 27.
39. Nguyn Thanh Tng Trng i hc Duy Tn Nng (4/2001), Dy
hc qua vic tm li gii ca bi ton tng qut. Tp ch Gio dc, s 2.
40. Phm Hng Tung (ch bin) (2005), Kho lc v kinh nghim pht hin,
o to v s dng nhn ti trong lch s Vit Nam, NXB HQG H Ni.
41. Thi Duy Tuyn (1997), Nhng vn c bn ca gio dc hin i, NXB
GD.
42. ng Quang Vit (2001), Tng cng nh hng s phm trong dy hc
i s i cng thng qua vic xy dng mt s chuyn cho sinh vin ton
CSP, Lun n tin s, Vin khoa hc Gio dc H Ni.
43. Nguyn Th Minh Yn (2006), Xy dng mt s chuyn "cu ni" gia
hnh hc cao cp trng Cao ng S phm vi hnh hc ph thng nhm
tng cng nh hng s phm cho sinh vin, Lun vn thc s khoa hc gio
dc, Trng HSP H Ni.
44. Ti liu phng php dy hc THPT Mn Ton, ti liu lu hnh ni b,
khoa Ton, trng i hc S phm Thi Nguyn.
PH LC
Hng dn gii bi tp
Chuyn 1:
1. S dng 2 nh l
- nh l sin: Mt hnh t din cho trc, tch cc chiu di ca hai cnh i
din chia cho tch cc sin ca hai gc nh din tng ng vi cc cnh ny l
hng s.
- nh l Breischneider: Gi a, b l chiu di ca hai cnh cho nhau ca mt
hnh t din.
,
l s o ca hai gc nh din tng ng. Khi
2 2
a b 2abcot g .cot g + +
khng ph thuc vo cch chn cc cnh ca t
din.
T suy ra bi ton tng ng vi tnh cht: Trong t din trc tm th
tng bnh phng ca cc cnh i din bng nhau.
2. Gi a v a
1
, b v b
1
, c v c
1
l chiu di ca cc cp cnh i din ca t
din,

l gc gia chng.
S dng tnh cht sau:
- Gi a v a
1
, b v b
1
, c v c
1
l chiu di ca cc cp cnh i din ca t din
v
, ,
ln lt l cc gc gia chng (
, ,
khng vt qu 90
0
). Khi
mt trong ba s aa
1
cos

, bb
1
cos

, cc
1
cos

bng tng hai s kia.

- Trong mt hnh t din bt k th tn ti mt tam gic m mi cnh c s o
bng tch ca mi cp cnh i din ca t din.
T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
3. Nu t din ABCD l t din trc tm th
2 2 2 2
AB CD AD BC + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
AB AC BC AD AC CD + +
Tc l cc gc
BAC, DAC
cng nhn hoc cng t.
4. T bi tp 3 ta suy ra c hai kh nng sau xy ra:
1) Nu tt c cc gc phng ca t din u nh th mt mt bt k ca t din
l tam gic nhn.
2) Nu c mt trong cc gc phng ( gi s ti nh A) khng nhn th c 3
gc phng cn li u khng nhn. Do cc gc phng cn li ca t din
phi nhn (v mt bt k ca t din phi c t nht hai gc nhn). Trong
trng hp ny tam gic ACD l tam gic nhn.
5. iu kin cn:
Gi s t din trc tm ABCD c trc tm H nm ngoi t din, suy ra c
t nht mt ng cao trong 4 ng AH, BH, CH, DH phi nm ngoi t din.
Khng mt tnh tng qut ta gi s AH nm ngoi t din, suy ra hnh
chiu vung gc A
1
ca A xung mt phng (BCD) nm ngoi tam gic y.
V ABCD l t din trc tm nn A
1
l trc tm ca tam gic BCD, A
1
nm
ngoi tam gic BCD.
iu kin :
Ngc li, nu c mt mt c trc tm nm ngoi tam gic . Ta gi s
A
1
l trc tm v nm ngoi tam gic BCD. Suy ra, AA
1
nm ngoi t din.
H
1
AA
H nm ngoi t din ABCD.
6. Thit din ca t din trc tm to bi mt phng bt k song song vi cc
cnh ny l mt hnh ch nht c cc ng cho di bng khong cch gia
cc trung im ca cnh i din. T suy ra trung im ca cc cnh ca
t din trc tm nm trn mt cu c tm trng vi trng tm ca t din
cho v ng knh di bng khong cch gia hai cnh i din ca t din.
Do bn ng trn chn im nm trn mt cu ny.
7. Gi t din ABCD l t din trc tm. Bn mt ln lt c trng tm l
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
. Bn ng thng i qua cc trng tm v vung gc vi mt
tng ng l d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4
.
Ta d dng chng minh c t din G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
cng l t din trc tm v c
cc ng cao l l d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4
. Suy ra l d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4
ng quy.
8. Gi ABCD l t din trc tm. B sung vo t din mt hnh hp bng
cch dng cc mt phng cha cc cnh v song song vi cnh i din. Suy
ra cc canh ca hnh hp bng nhau.
Gi A
1
B
1
l ng cho ca hnh hp song song vi cnh AB, O l tm ca
mt cu ngoi tip, H l trc tm, M l trng tm ca t din ABCD.
K, L ln lt l trung im ca AB v A
1
B
1
. Suy ra KOLH l hnh bnh hnh.
Do
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
AB DC
OH 2OK 2OL 2 R 2 R l
4 4
1
4R AB CD 4R 3l .
2
_ _
+ +

, ,
+
9. T bi ton mt cu le ta c, suy ra trng tm ca cc mt ca t din
nm trn mt cu nh ca mt cu ngoi tip t din qua php v t tm M t
s
1
3
. T suy ra kt qu bi ton.
10. Chn ng cao ca t din nm trn mt cu nh ca mt cu ngoi tip
t din qua php v t tm G t s
1
3

. T suy ra kt qu bi ton.
11. a) D dng thy mi thit din ca t din ct bi cc mt phng song
song vi cc cp cnh i din l hnh bnh hnh. C din tch ln nht khi n
i qua cc trung im ca cc cn li.
( )
1 2 3
1
S S S adsin besin +cfsin
4
+ + + (trong
, ,
ln lt l gc
gia cc cp cnh i din a v d, b v d, c v f).
( )
1 2 3
1
S S S ad be+cf
4
+ + + .
b) Du = xy ra khi v ch khi
sin sin sin 1
AB CD
AC BD
AD BC

'

t din ABCD l t din trc tm.

12.Gi cc ng cao ca t din ln lt l AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
, DD
1
; A
2
l hnh
chiu vung gc ca M ln mt phng (BCD).
Ta c
2 2 1
AM MA AA AA +
1 2
AM AA MA
(1)
Du = xy ra khi M thuc ng cao AA
1

BCD 1 BCD 2 BCD MBCD

AM.S AA .S MA .S 3V 3V

Tng t, ta c
ACD MACD
BM.S 3V 3V
(2),
du = xy ra khi M thuc ng cao BB
1
ABD MABD
CM.S 3V 3V
(3)
Du = xy ra khi M thuc ng cao CC
1
ABC MABC
DM.S 3V 3V
(4)
Du = xy ra khi M thuc ng cao DD
1
T (1), (2), (3), (4) ta c
( )
BCD ACD ABD ABC MBCD MACD MABD MABC
MA.S MB.S MC.S MD.S 12V 3 V V V V + + + + + +
BCD ACD ABD ABC
MA.S MB.S MC.S MD.S 9V + + +
(V ( )
MBCD MACD MABD MABC
V V V V V + + +
)
Du = xy ra khi M trng vi trc tm H
ca t din.
Chuyn 2:
1. Gi T l im i xng ca H qua AB

T thuc ng trn ngoi tip

tam gic ABC.
Gi Q l giao ca PF vi BT.
Theo kt qu bi ton con bm
ta c FP = FQ, mt khc FH=FT.
Vy PH//TQ suy ra
FHP FTB BAC.
2. Gi BB, CC l ng cao trong
Q
H
P
O
B
C
A
T
Hnh 3.25
N
M
H
D'
C'
O
A
B
C
Hnh 3.26
tam gic ABC. Ta c BCCB
l t gic ni tip ng trn
(O) ng knh BC.
Theo bi ton con bm ta c
HM HN OH OM ON .
3. Ta s dng b sau:
Cho hai ng trn (O
1
) v (O
2
)
ct nhau ti A, B.
Gi I l trung im ca O
1
O
2
.
ng thng qua A ct (O
1
), (O
2
)
ln lt ti cc im E, F
(A thuc on EF).
Khi AE=AF AI .
Gi O
1
, O
2
, O
3
, O
4
ln lt l tm
ca cc ng trn ngoi tip cc
tam gic OAB, OBC, OCD, ODA.
Ta c O
1
O
2
//O
3
O
4
(v cng vung gc vi BD),
O
1
O
4
//O
2
O
3
(v cng vung gc vi AC).
Do t gic O
1
O
2
O
3
O
4
l hnh bnh hnh.
Gi I l tm ca hnh bnh hnh . Suy ra I l trung im ca O
1
O
3
ng
thi cng l trung im ca O
2
O
4
.
Theo b trn ta c
O l trung im ca PM

OI

O l trung im ca NQ.
Suy ra iu phi chng minh.
4. Ta c DB = DC = DI.
p dng nh l Ptlm vo t gic ABDC
Ta c AB.DC + DB.AC = AD.BC
N
M
P
Q
O
A
D
B
C
Hnh 3.27
N
M
I
O
A
B
C
D
B'
C'
Hnh 3.28
AD AB AC
2
DI BC
AD 2AI OI AD
+


p dng bi ton con bm ta suy ra IM = IN (pcm).
5.
+ Nu ABCD l hnh thang th t gi thit bi ton d dng suy ra n l hnh
bnh hnh.
+ Nu ABCD khng l hnh thang, gi P, Q ln lt l giao ca BD vi AB,
CD. p dng bi ton con bm i cp ng thng AD v BC. Do
OB=OD nn OP=OQ mt khc OA=OC nn AP//CQ nn suy ra /CD
(mu thun).
6. Gi I l trung im. H cc ng
vung cao BB, CC ca tam gic A
2
BC.
T
0
1 2 1
A H H 90
ta chng minh
A
1
, H
2
, I thng hng.
Tht vy, ta c
1 1
1 1
A H // IO
A H 2OI

'

v
2 2
2 2
A H // OI
A H 2OI

'

t gic A
1
A
2
H
2
H
1
l hnh bnh hnh
V
0
1 2 1
A H H 90
nn suy ra
0
2 1 2
A A H 90
1 2 1 2
A A A H
(1)
D'
B'
O
A
D
B
C
Q
A'
C'
Hnh 3.29
Q
B
N
M
H2
H1
A2
I
O
A1
C
C'
B'
Hnh 3.30
Gi Q l giao im ca OA
2
vi ng trn (O)
2
H , I, Q
thng hng (2)
V
0
2 1
A A Q 90
1 1 2
A Q A A
(3)
T (1), (3) suy ra A
1
, H
2
, Q thng hng (4)
T (2), (4) suy ra A
1
, H
2
, I, Q thng hng. Hay A
1
, H
2
, I thng hng.
p dng bi ton con bm i vi ng trn ng knh BC ta c
H
2
M=H
2
N

A
1
M=A
1
N.
7. Qua E k dy cung PQ vung gc vi BD.
Gi s PQ ct BC, AD ti M, N.
p dng bi ton con bm ta suy ra
EM=EN.
Gi O
1
, O
2
ln lt l tm ca cc ng
trn ngoi tip cc tam gic ABE, CDE.
D thy N ( ) ( )
1 2
O , M O
. Gi I l trung
im ca O
1
O
2
.
V EM=EN nn IE MN I BD (pcm).
E
M
N
P
Q
O
C
B
D
A
Hnh 3.31
MC LC
Trang
M U ........................................................................................................... 1
1. L do chn ti ........................................................................................ 1
2. Mc ch nghin cu ................................................................................. 2
3. Nhim v nghin cu ................................................................................ 2
4. Gi thuyt khoa hc ................................................................................... 3
5. Phng php nghin cu ........................................................................... 3
5.1. Nghin cu l lun .............................................................................. 3
5.2. Phng php iu tra quan st ........................................................... 3
5.3. Phng php tng kt kinh nghim .................................................... 3
6. i tng v khch th nghin cu ........................................................... 4
7. Phm vi nghin cu ................................................................................... 4
8. Cu trc lun vn ....................................................................................... 4
Chng 1 .......................................................................................................... 5
C S L LUN .............................................................................................. 5
1.1. L lun v nng lc gii ton ca hc sinh ............................................. 5
1.2. ngha ca bi tp ton trong dy hc mn ton ................................ 16
1.3. Bi dng nng lc gii ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton THPT ........... 17
1.4. Hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp .......................................... 29
1.4.1. Tnh hnh nghin cu ca vn .................................................. 29
1.4.2. ngha ca vic hnh hc cao cp soi sng hnh hc s cp ........ 30
1.4.3. Mi lin h gia hnh hc cao cp v hnh hc s cp .................. 33
1.5. Thc trng dy hc cc lp chuyn ton THPT ................................ 34
Kt lun chng 1 ....................................................................................... 36
Chng 2 ......................................................................................................... 38
HNH HC CAO CP SOI SNG HNH HC S CP ............................. 38
2.1. Chuyn 1: N HNH TRC TM V CC BI TON LIN
QUAN ......................................................................................................... 38
2.1.1. MT S KHI NIM .................................................................. 38
2.1.2. MT S TNH CHT C TRNG CA N HNH TRC
TM ........................................................................................................ 39
2.1.3. CC DU HIU NHN BIT V TR TRC TM CA N
HNH ....................................................................................................... 50
2.1.4. CC SIU CU LE TRONG N HNH TRC TM ......... 57
2.1.5. SIU CU LE TRONG N HNH BT K ......................... 65
2.1.6. MT S BT NG THC TRONG N HNH TRC TM
................................................................................................................. 69
2.2. Chuyn 2 : BI TON "CON BM" ......................................... 74
2.2.1. KHI NIM SIU MT BC HAI ............................................. 74
2.2.2. TRNG HP C BIT .......................................................... 75
2.2.3. BI TON "CON BM" .......................................................... 75
Kt lun chng 2 ....................................................................................... 78
Chng 3 ........................................................................................................ 79
BI DNG NNG LC GII TON CHO HC SINH CHUYN TON
THNG QUA VIC GII BI TP HNH HC. TH NGHIM S
PHM ............................................................................................................. 79
3.1. Mc ch xy dng chuyn .............................................................. 79
3.2. Cc nguyn tc xy dng chuyn ................................................... 79
3.3. Yu cu v kin thc, k nng i vi hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11 . 80
3.3.1. V kin thc .................................................................................. 80
3.3.2. V k nng .................................................................................... 80
3.4. Tc dng ca chuyn xy dng dy nhm pht trin nng lc gii
ton cho hc sinh chuyn ton khi 11 ....................................................... 80
3.5. Dy gii bi tp hnh hc da trn s gi ca G. Plya ............... 82
3.5.1. Chuyn 1 : T din trc tm v cc bi ton lin quan ............ 82
BI TP .................................................................................................... 107
3.5.2. Chuyn 2: Bi ton "con bm" ............................................. 108
BI TP .................................................................................................... 127
3.6. xut mt s bin php ................................................................... 128
3.7. Th nghim s phm .......................................................................... 129
3.7.1. Mc ch th nghim ....................................................................... 129
3.7.2. Ni dung th nghim ....................................................................... 129
3.7.3. T chc th nghim ......................................................................... 129
Kt lun chng 3 ..................................................................................... 132
KT LUN ................................................................................................... 133
TI LIU THAM KHO ............................................................................. 135
PH LC ...................................................................................................... 140