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SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.1 PROBLEM:

Determining Quantum Numbers from Orbital Diagrams

Write a set of quantum numbers for the third electron and a set for the eighth electron of the F atom.

PLAN: Use the orbital diagram to find the third and eighth electrons.
9F

1s

2s

2p

SOLUTION: The third electron is in the 2s orbital. Its quantum numbers are: n= 2 l= 0 ml = 0 ms= + or 1 2 The eighth electron is in a 2p orbital. Its quantum numbers are: n= 2 l= 1 ml = -1, 0, or +1 ms= + or 1 2

Note that for Stable Electronic Configurations!

Have complete s & p subshells unreactive

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SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
Most elements: Electron configuration not stable. Atomic # Electron configuration Element 1 Hydrogen 1s 1 2 Helium 1s 2 (stable) 3 Lithium 1s 22s 1 4 Beryllium 1s 22s 2 5 Adapted from Table 2.2, 1s 22s 22p 1 Boron Callister 6e. 6 1s 22s 22p 2 Carbon ... ... 10 Neon (stable) 1s 22s 22p 6 11 1s 22s 22p 63s 1 Sodium 1s 22s 22p 63s 2 Magnesium 12 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1 13 Aluminum ... ... 18 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 (stable) Argon ... ... ... 36 Krypton 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 10 4s 24 6 (stable) Why?

Valence (outer) shell usually not filled completely.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

give up 1e give up 2e give up 3e accept 2e accept 1e inert gases
He O S F Ne
Adapted from Fig. 2.6,

Columns:

Similar Valence Structure

Metal Nonmetal Intermediate

Li Be

Na Mg

Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Rb Sr Cs Ba Fr Ra Y

Se Br Kr Te I Xe

Callister 6e.

Po At Rn

Electropositive elements: Readily give up electrons to become + ions.

Electronegative elements: Readily acquire electrons to become - ions.

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ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0, Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
H 2.1 Li 1.0 Na 0.9 K 0.8 Rb 0.8 Cs 0.7 Fr 0.7 Be 1.5 Mg 1.2 Ca 1.0 Sr 1.0 Ba 0.9 Ra 0.9 Ti 1.5 Cr 1.6 Fe 1.8 Ni 1.8 Zn 1.8 As 2.0 F 4.0 Cl 3.0 Br 2.8 I 2.5 At 2.2 He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn -

Smaller electronegativity

Larger electronegativity

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

IONIC BONDING
Occurs between + and - ions. Requires electron transfer. Large difference in electronegativity required. Example: NaCl

Na (metal) unstable electron Na (cation) stable

Cl (nonmetal) unstable

Coulombic Attraction

Cl (anion) stable

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EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING

Predominant bonding in Ceramics

H 2.1 Li 1.0 Na 0.9 K 0.8 Rb 0.8 Cs 0.7 Fr 0.7 Be 1.5 Mg 1.2 Ca 1.0 Sr 1.0 Ba 0.9 Ra 0.9 Ti 1.5 Cr 1.6

NaCl MgO CaF2 CsCl

Fe 1.8 Ni 1.8 Zn 1.8 As 2.0

He O F 3.5 4.0 Cl 3.0 Br 2.8 I 2.5 At 2.2 Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn -

Give up electrons

Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

COVALENT BONDING
Requires shared electrons Example: CH4

C: has 4 valence e, needs 4 more H: has 1 valence e, needs 1 more Electronegativities are comparable.

CH4
H C

shared electrons from carbon atom

H shared electrons from hydrogen atoms

Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 6e.

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EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING

H2
H 2.1 Li 1.0 Na 0.9 K 0.8 Rb 0.8 Cs 0.7 Fr 0.7

column IVA

H2O C(diamond)

F2
He O 2.0 F 4.0 Cl 3.0 Br 2.8 I 2.5 At 2.2 Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn -

Be 1.5 Mg 1.2 Ca 1.0 Sr 1.0 Ba 0.9 Ra 0.9

SiC
Ti 1.5 Fe 1.8 Ga 1.6

Cr 1.6

Ni 1.8

Zn 1.8

C 2.5 Si 1.8 Ge 1.8 Sn 1.8 Pb 1.8

Cl2

As 2.0

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

GaAs

Molecules with nonmetals Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table) Compound solids (about column IVA)

Practice Exercises
1. 2. 3. 4.

Write the complete electron configuration of bismuth, element # 83. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for this element. How many unpaired electrons does each atom of bismuth passes Use the periodical table to write the electron configurations for the following atoms by giving the appropriate noble-gas inner core plus the electrons beyond it:
a) b)

Co(atomic number 27) Te(atomic number 52)

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Practice Exercises
5.

6. 7.

What is the characteristic outer-shell electron configuration of the group 7A elements, the halogens? What family of elements is characterized by having an ns2np2 outer-electron configuration? The sodium atom has 11 electrons. 2 occupy a 1s orbital, 2 occupy a 2s orbital, and one occupies a 3s orbital. Which of these s electrons experiences the smallest effective nuclear charge?

METALLIC BONDING
Force of attraction between metals Result of delocalization (or sharing) of electrons of each metal atom with other atoms. Arises from a sea of donated valence electrons (1, 2, or 3 from each atom). Atoms of metals can move to a certain extent Allow them to shift from one position to another while remaining in contact with the other atoms & electrons. their interaction remaining the same while the external shape changes Reason for: Malleability & ductility Free movement of electrons accounts for high thermal & electric conductivity of metals strong metallic bonds due to network of electron & atoms of metals reason for: high melting & boiling point.

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

Adapted from Fig. 2.11, Callister 6e.

Primary bond for metals and their alloys

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SECONDARY BONDING
Arises from interaction between dipoles Fluctuating dipoles

asymmetric electron clouds

ex: liquid H2 H2 H2

- secondary +
bonding

H H

Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 6e.

secondary bonding

H H

Permanent dipoles-molecule induced

-general case: -ex: liquid HCl -ex: polymer

secondary bonding secondary bonding

bond ing

Adapted from Fig. 2.14,

Callister 6e.

H Cl
se c o n dary

H Cl

Adapted from Fig. 2.14,

Callister 6e.

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PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: TM

Bond length, r
F

Melting Temperature, Tm
F

r
Bond energy, Eo

Energy (r)

Energy (r) ro
unstretched length

ro r smaller Tm
r

Eo= bond energy

larger Tm
Tm is larger if Eo is larger.

- Measure of bond strength in a chemical bond - Heat is required to break molecules into their individual atoms.

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PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E

Elastic modulus, E

length, Lo

cross sectional area Ao L

Elastic modulus
F L =E Ao Lo
- Maximum force applied to deform a material

undeformed deformed
E ~ curvature at ro

Energy ro
unstretched length

r smaller Elastic Modulus larger Elastic Modulus

E is larger if Eo is larger.

PROPERTIES FROM BONDING:

Coefficient of thermal expansion,

length, Lo

coeff. thermal expansion

unheated, T1

heated, T2
~ symmetry at ro

L Lo

= (T2-T1)

Energy ro larger smaller

is larger if Eo is smaller.

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SUMMARY: PRIMARY BONDS

Ceramics Large bond energy

(Ionic & covalent bonding):

large Tm large E small

Variable bond energy

Metals

(Metallic bonding):

moderate Tm moderate E moderate

Directional Properties

Polymers

(Covalent & Secondary):

se c o n dary bond ing

Secondary bonding dominates small T small E large

SUMMARY: BONDING
Type
Ionic

Bond Energy
Large! Variable

Comments
Nondirectional (ceramics) Directional semiconductors, ceramics polymer chains)

Covalent

large-Diamond small-Bismuth Variable

Metallic

large-Tungsten small-Mercury

Nondirectional (metals) Directional inter-chain (polymer) inter-molecular

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Secondary

smallest

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Reading Assignment:
Try to answer exercises of Chapter 2 Read on Chapter 3: Crystal Structures and Crystal Geometry

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