NASA

CR 61231

CLASSROOM

TRAINING

HANDBOOK

- RADIOGRAPHIC

TESTING

Prepared

under

Contract

NAS 8-20185

by

Convair General San

Division Corporation Calif.

Dynamics Diego,

for NATIONAL

George

C.

Marshall

Space

Flight

Center

AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE

ADMINISTRATION

_N 68 - 20 79 3
(ACCESSION NUtVIBER) (PAOES)

CTHRU)

{C/ObE)

/5(_ CR OR TMX OR AD NUMBER) (CATEGORY)

GPO CFSTI

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$ $

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ff 653 July 65

(M F)

PREFACE

_._s_oom training

Training handbooks

Handbook-designed for

Radiographic Testing use in the Classroom

(5330.19) is one of a series of and practical exercise portions be used in the Instruction instruction Handboot_ _-

of/t_ondestructive of those persons

Testing. who have

It is intended that this handbook successfully completed_I_z_grammed

Although contains NASA's

formal material programs

classroom that

training

is not

scheduled

at the

present

time,

this

handbook

is beneficial tightly

to personnel scheduled equipment, The failure

eng_aged

infl_ondestructive/T_sting. of only small quantities of

involve

procurement

space vehicles and ground support the first as well as later models. failure. approach A major with sonnel. or reject room for This requirement for to _l_ondestructive share These each error of the are ?]_esting.

requiring the of one article necessitates

extreme in reliability for could result in mission a thoroughly disciplined

complete

reliability

responsibility people

for agencies,

assuring or

such monitor

high the

levels tests

of reliability T_sting that ultimately

lies perconfirm

NASA,

other

Government the

and contractor_l_ondestructive to its decision

who conduct

piece of hardware -- no chance for -the first time.

before it is committed reexamination. The

mission. There is no must be right --

unquestionably General technical

questions

concerning Center,

this

publication Quality

should

be referred Assurance

to the Laboratory,

George C. Huntsville, The recipient and comments

Marshall Alabama

Space Flight 35812.

and Reliability

of this handbook for correction Quality 35812.

is encouraged to submit recommendations for updating of errors in this initial compilation to George C. Marshall and Reliability Assurance Laboratory (R-QUAL-OT),

Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This under

handbook NASA

was Contract

prepared

by the

Convair Assistance provided

Division in the by a great this

of General form many

Dynamics data, and

Corporation technical individuals. our

NAS8-20185. advice was

of process companies

reviews, The

and technical listing the high

following for

is an attempt degree who,

to acknowledge exhibited gave

assistance firms,

and to express their time representaiiw's,

gratitude and other

of interest In many cases,

by the considerable

individuals

and effort

to the

project. Aerojet-General Automation Wilcox Division; Kodak Grumman Aircraft Phillips L.S.U. Cancer Technical Corp. Industries, Electric Aircraft Radiography Lockheed H. F. ; Agfa-Geveart Inc., Sperry Corp. Co., Co. of America, Division; Company; Inc. ; Aircraft Avco The Corporation; Budd Co., X-Ray Co. ; Babcock Instruments Inc. ; Eastm:_n Corp. ;
L

Products Boeing

&

Co. ; Balto Douglas Company, Aircraft; Corp. ; C.

; The Inc.

; E.

I. DuPont

De Nemours Analine

& Co., & Film

Markets Aircraft Gmbh, Picker

Division; Corp. ; The

General Martin

Coo (Denver); American tlarry Southern

McDonnell Aviation, Richarcison, California Inc. : l_c.

Muller

Rontgenwerk; X-Ray Corp.

North ; Professor

Electronic ; Rohr Center;

Instruments;

Corporation; Southwest Inc.

Richard Research ; Uresco,

Setfert Institute; Inc.

& Co. St.

Rontgenwerk; Louis Testing Corp.

Laboratories,

Operations,

; X-Ray

Products

ii

CLASSROOM

TRAINING

HANDBOOK. TESTING

RADIOGRAPHIC

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7

....................................... ......................................... ......................................... .............................................. ............................................ ............................ ............. COMPARISON AND SPECIALIZED SELECTION

INTRODUCTION PRINCIPLE EQUIPME S NT FILM SAFETY APPLICATIONS PROCESSES

OF NDT

iii

CHAPTER TABLE

1: OF

INTRODUCTION CONTENTS

Paragraph I00 i01 102 GENERAL PURPOSE 1. 2. 103 104 105 BASIC 1. 2. 106 1. 2. 107 108 109 ii0 III 112 DESCRIPTION ...................................... ........... OF ............................ CONTENTS .........................

Page 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 ............ TESTING.. 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-5 TESTING ........... 1-5 1-5 ...................... 1-5 1-6 1-6 1- 6 1-6 1-6 ........................... 1-7 ....................... OF RADIOGRAPHIC

Arrangement ................................. Locators .................................... APPLICATIONS AND OF RADIOGRAPHY RADIOGRAPHIC Advantages Limitations General TESTING LIMITATIONS

INDUSTRIAL ADVANTAGES

.................................. .................................. AND NONDESTRUCTIVE Test Methods .................................... .............................. ................................

DESTRUCTIVE

Nondestructive PHILOSOPHY CRITERIA

TESTING PERSONNE TE STING TEST

L ..................................... DURE S ................................

TE ST PROCE SAFETY

OBJECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS

p_C_DING

PAGB BLANY-- NOT, I:II..I_D_. 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER
100 The GENERAL complexity that and expense of space without effective

programs de stroying) methods

dictate and

fabrieation associated s many

and

inspection

test s.

procedures Nonde structive Radiography with i01 The

insure te sting

reliability (te sting most this

of space

vehicles

ground testing,

equipment. and it is

provide

of the se procedure

is one

of the

of nondestructive

radiography PURPOSE purpose test

that

handbook

is concerned.

of this technique, finished either of any

handbook assurance product; retest

is to provide and test interpret, test; and

the

fundamental to enable and those

knowledge them to. used

of radiography ascertain to assure decision test that the as to results the

required proper quality the that 102 1. The

by quality of the

personnel of techniques, evaluate, recognize

or combination

is being make areas and

a sound evaluation.

results require

radiographic

of doubtful

or assistance

in interpretation

DESCRIPTION ARRANGE material MENT

OF CONTENTS

contained

in this

handbook

is presented

in a logical

sequence

and

consists

of: a. b. c. Chapter Chapter Chapter 1: 2: 3; Introduction Radiographic Radiographic ment, d. Chapter 4: gamma and testing philosophy. description industrial and of Xand gamma ray rays. equip-

principles, equipment, ray film, equipment. sources,

X- and gamma equipment of film, description. film

Radiographic required

characteristics

processing

and

e. f.

Chapter Chapter

5: 6:

Safety

considerations, applications,

X-ray,

gamma

ray,

and

electrical. physical ray equipment, radiographs.

Specialized arrangements and a listing

exposure and causes X-

calculations, or gamma of unsatisfactory processes.

of specimens of possible and selection

g.

Chapter

7:

Comparison

of NDT

1-3

2.

LOCATORS page of each chapter consists of a table of contents for the figures and tables are listed in each table of contents. APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY capabilities fabrications. of Xproducts, Since and gamma and it is capable in a variety nondestructive radiation, products of revealing of distest chapter. Major

The first paragraphs, 103 Because radiography such

INDUSTRIAL of the

penetration to test castings,

and absorption a variety forgings, and

is used

of non-metallic

metallic

as welds,

discontinuities (variations in material composition, or density) similar materials, radiographic testing is one of the primary methods 104 in use BASIC today. TESTING requires the exposing exposed film film,

RADIOGRAPHIC testing a specimen, There are is dependent usually

Radiographic penetrated radiograph. of any test

to X- or gamma and interpreting

rays the

that

have

processing

resultant completion Details of are

many variables in these upon understanding and variables concerned

procedures and successful control of the variables. with, radiographic

the requirements discussed in this 105 1. ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

for, and the handbook. AND

testing

LIMITATIONS

OF RADIOGRAPHIC

TESTING

V
of radiographic testing as a quality assurance procedure

Some of the advantages are as follows: a. b. Can be used

with

most

materials. visual image record of the test specimen on film

Provides a permanent when desired. Reveals Discloses action. Reveals the internal

c. d.

nature errors

of material. and often indicates necessary corrective

fabrication

e.

structural

discontinuities

and

assembly

errors.

1-4

2. There

LIMITA are both

TIONS physical of complex and economic make limitations When itself of little testing. source, must and the discontinuity gamma regulations, space expensive to inspect expensive energy ray proper to the use of radiographic radiographic of radiation is of little accessibility by material small discontinuities discontinuities film must The beam. rays. use. cannot density are, are greatest Safety testing, testing. of simple thick testing. testing source, Similarly, be indifferthat therefore, suspected to dimension conis time RadioIt is most geometry specimens with

Geometric on specimens specimen, any ences are often present of the tion. graphic economical high that 106 i. rates require siderations consuming specimen spected

exposure and by this film which specimen,

requirements geometry. cannot does

it impracticable radiographic readily are value

to use testing

orientation to two-side patterned

be obtained, not lend Since radiographs

method. to the the

in the not parallel undetected the

they lines

are

in detecting type type to the also

discontinuities

of radiation.

Laminar If laminar specimen, density use must

by radiographic radiation possible by Xwith requires

in a specimen, suspected Compliance and testing when

and the radiation

be oriented

greatest imposed

discontinuity safety costly

be parallel

to the

be considered practices.

as a limita-

mandatory means

in radiographic

utilization easily potential.

and construction of nondestructive material it is used handled

is a relatively it is used It becomes of high

of test. equipment

when

to examine

DESTRUCTIVE GENERAL tested or broken testing that the however, testing

AND NONDESTRUCTIVE

TESTING

Specimens chipped destructive be assumed testing, mitting 2. Five cle;

by destructive during can the test only the and TEST

test testing, are

methods and equal are

usually worthless

become for articles

bent, further tested.

twisted, use.

notched, Consequently, and it, it must per-

a certain quality materials METHODS testing are

portion in quality that

of the

fabricated destroying

remainder

to those

Nondestructive

determines of all articles

of a specimen are

without to be used.

NONDESTRUCTIVE methods liquid of nondestructive eddy and test, will

currently and it for the results.

in common radiographic. specific test uses. specimen In many

use: Each

magnetic method determine more In each and

partihas instance than

penetrant; capabilities

current; limitations obtain

ultrasonic; qualifying to analyze desired the

peculiar which one test

of nondestructive method may method

it is necessary best

instances

be required.

107
The cated of the

TESTING PHILOSOPHY
basic space of many reason vehicle. articles for nondestructive Since that the are this readily whether task, testing vehicle tested standards (NDT) is to assure ground test been maximum equipment it is the results set and insure test reliability are task the results fabriof rerequired must

%J

and associated radiographic have

by radiography,

sponsible reliability. come 108

personnel

to determine standards. L that personnel a technical the test To make keep

To accomplish

up to these PERSONNE

It is imperative highly test tests for 109 When tested building before before and tem equally qualified (specimen), qualified. must

responsible understanding procedures. optimum abreast use of new

for

radiographic of the test assurance

testing equipment,

be trained the item must

and under be

with and

Quality

personnel NDT personnel There

of radiography, developments.

conducting

continually

is no substitute

knowledge. TESTING required using block they are CRITERIA by appropriate applicable test philosophy to perform documentation, Testing dictates which every that each vehicle item Using possible and The must are this time, support criteria be tested tested approach, resulting article is part must of a be

Nondestructive

techniques. which

individually individually unsatisfactory in higher sys-

it is required

in sub-assemblies in assemblies. at the earliest

In turn

required

to perform

faulty articles are discovered reliability and reduced cost.

Ii0

TEST

PROCEuU_ES procedures review available conducting and that for of past radiographic history, similar testing experience specimen are formulated or test similar defects. from It is the procedures Procedures analysis of the and test inof

Approved specimen, formation personnel performed,

on like

specimens, responsibility

concerning

or checking a test to insure that the test objective is accomplished. be brought to the attention into revised procedures.

are adequately found to be insupervision for

correct or inadequate must correction and incorporation 111 TEST OBJECTIVE

of responsible

1. The objective of radiographic liability by providing a means of:

a,

nondestructive

testing

is to insure

product

re-

Obtaining Disclosing

a visual

image

of the interior without

of materials. impairing usefulness of the material.

b.

the nature

of material

1-6

c. d. e.

Separatingacceptable andunacceptable material in accordancewith predetermined standards. Evidencing errors in manufacturing processes. Revealing structural discontinuities, mechanical failures, and assembly errors.

2. No test is successfully completed until an evaluation of the test results is made. Evaluation of test procedures and results requires understanding of the test objective. 112
Because safety and damage sonnel must TAKE SAFETY radiation regulations gamma to, are ray CONSIDERATIONS cannot sources be detected generating of, protected. aware of the the by any great cells radiation of the five senses, strict require compliance the use can that with of Xcause per-

is required.

Radiographic

NDT processes amounts of radiation. tissue, test and and quality

Radiation assurance of safety

or destruction adequately

of living hazard

so it is essential cognizant

RadiograpMc

personnel regulations.

be continually NO CHANCES.

1-7

CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph 200 201 202 GENERAL PENETRATION GEOMETRIC 1. 2. 3. 203 1. 2. 3. 4. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table Table Table 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-7 2-8 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-1 2-2 2-3 General Film Film General Radiant X-rays Gamma Basic Image Image Effect Image Basic Diagram Effect Intensity Effect Ionization Internal Side Back Dated Effects Gamma ...................................... AND DIFFERENTIAL PRINCIPLE_ ABSORPTION ................... .......... EXPOSURE

Page 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 . ........... 2-5 2-5 2-7 2-7 .................... 2-7 2-8 2-17 ....................... Shadow ................. .............. 2-3 2-4 Penumbral Size on Image 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-9 Law on the Current .................. Quality and 2-11 Beam ..... 2-12 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-19 2-12 2-13
! g a

.................................... Image Image Sharpness Distortion RADIATION ............... ........................... ..........................

X- AND

GAMMA

.................................... Energy Rays Characteristics ................................. Process ....................................

Radiographic Enlargement Sharpness, of Source Distortion X-ray of the

Sharpness

.............................. Inverse Square Beam in Tube

Tube .............................. Voltage

2-10

of Increasing of an X-ray of a Change

....................... on an X-ray ...............

by Electromagnetic Radiation Scatter ............................... .................................. ................................. Curve ............................. MA ........................... ..........................

Scatter Scatter Decay

of KV and Ray Energy

Fundamental

Particles

2-20

2-1

pREEED|RG'PAGE

13,LAHK NOT

FILMED.

CHAPTER
200 This the nature, 201 X- and are The GENERAL chapter use provides a general in industry. review

2:

PRINCIPLES

of the

radiant material of the

energy radiographer.

phenomena and

that academic

permits in

of radiography

Much

of the

is basic

but an understanding PENETRATION gamma rays AND possess

of it is required DIFFERENTIAL the at any capability through point

ABSORPTION of penetrating matter, some upon materials, of these the rays emerging usually consists thickness even are and those absorbed. density from the on film, a of using the that

opaque amount

to light.

In passing

of absorption at that point; When this within the

is dependent

of the matter means

matter varies.

therefore, variation material

the intensity of the rays is detected and recorded, is available. Radiography

of seeing for

penetration material teristics

and differential absorption internal discontinuities. as used in the

characteristics of radiant Figure 2-1 illustrates the radiographic process. The

energy to examine absorption characspecimen absorbs

of radiation

RADIATION

SOURCE

C
// II I! / I I / I l I I I / I / / / // //1 // /

// //
// !1 !1

//

I I

\
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

\
\ \ \ \ \\ \\ \\\ .....

SPECIMEN

Z z 1 / V01D\ /// // ......... _. / //

FILM

I
/ / / DARKER (WHEN AREAS / L .t
_v

\ #

_"-"_L_.___.___

PROCESSED)

Figure
F

2-1.

Basic

Radiographic

Process 2-3

,radiation but, where it is thin or where there is a void, less absorption

The the Since latent specimen, more image produced becomes radiation areas passes of the in the a shadow film film, picture the are darker. as the result of the radiation when the and of the specimen specimen film void

takes place. through the is processed.

passing areas,

through

in the thin

corresponding 202 1.

GEOMETRIC GENERAL

EXPOSURE

PRINCIPLES

To produce amined, geometric (specimen), lationships ment ratio of the of the and

a radiograph film. and the are caused image specimen Figure film relationships

there 2-2 between upon

must the which

be a source radiation the film rays

of radiation, source, image the in contact diameter obeying the

a specimen exposure object laws with under of light. the

to be exshowing examination These The to the reenlargeThe ratio the to For close basic

is a diagram

of a radiographic

specimen not being image

is recorded.

by X- and diameter

gamma (Do) to the

is caused

by the

specimen.

(Df) is equal

of the source-to-specimen distance radiographic image to be the same the specimen and the radiation

(do) to the size as the is placed

source-to-film specimen, the as far from

distance (df). film is placed the film

source

as is practical.

SOURCE

S//'/"_

/ /

\ \

/
SPECIMEN 0 /_

IMAGE "__1 FILM _

__

Df

Figure 2-4

2-2.

Image

Enlargement kJ

2.
the film

FILM

IMAGE in Figure source

SHARPNESS 2-3, the sharpness ratio of the a small A shows of the film image is determined distance unsharpness by the and size when of

As shown radiation

and the

source-to-specimen geometrical

specimen-to-

distance.

Diagram

(penumbra)

F I A Figure the film when tion and specimen distance the source the "0" is close when the is increased. Optimum is small, from in geometrical FILM IMAGE causes and distortion the the the 2-3. to the Image film B Sharpness, "F", Diagram remains a much of the source a decrease Penumbral A

C Shadow much greater but the source-to-film when illustrates the is relatively 2-4 size. geometrical specimen-tounsharpness distance radiagreat, the

B shows smaller image

unsharpness,

source-to-film Diagram distance geometrial distance specimen unsharpness

distance C shows is the sharpness from the with to the film same

unchanged

geometrical is obtained

specimen-to-film

as in A but the to the

is increased. distance

specimen Figure

is small.

decrease 3.

in source

DISTORTION of film plane of the image of the beam film distortion film are not are shown in Figure image to the are 2-5. plane If the will of the otherwise, plane result, film. limitaof

Two possible the specimen as it will Whenever tions, an incorrect

parallel, perpendicular

distortion

if the

radiation

is not directed image that all parts

is unavoidable, of the may

as a result image be made.

of physical

it must

be remembered interpretation

distorted;

of the

radiograph

2-5

I I
II

SOURCE

I11 I

It V A SPECIMEN

Ill IIII Illl II11 II I1 II II 1 I ii

,I !,

Ii
II II

ii
II II TRUE IMAGE

! !
I1__ II

r_l-I--I-

II

II....... ',
PEN UM BRA

Effect

of Source

Size

on Image

Sharpness V

\\
POINT SOURCE \ \\

.AXIS

NORMAL PLANE

TO FILM

\ \ \ \ \ \\

SPECIMEN

"

\ k \ \ .\.
FILM

\ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ ............................ i_ __:;. ...............

:>.:::#.:::::::_ !:'_ _:i ._{:'"i::'::_ :-"- ..*.'_-_,_" _:'-'-'<::::_._: _'.

FILM

IN TILTED

PLANE

Figure

2-5.

Image

Distortion

2-6

203 i. As and

X-

AND GAMMA

RADIATION

GENERAL shown gamma in Figure of the rays have have 2-6, the Xand gamma rays comprise and Xthe high Throughout and gamma energy, the rays short spectrum, of the waveXsame

length

portion

electromagnetic same properties.

wave characteristics,

spectrum.

wavelength 2.

identical ENERGY

RADIANT

CHARACTERISTICS testing is based on the following characteristics of Xand

Radiographic gamma a. rays.

nondestructive

They

are

electromagnetic

with

energy

indirectly

proportional

to their

wavelength. b. c. They They have travel no electrical in straight charge lines and no mass. at the velocity of light.

HIGHER FREQUENCY

SHORTERWAVELENGTH

X-RAYS

VISIBLE

ELECTRIC WAVES

RADIO WAVES

INFRARED

GAMMA

,I
i0 -I0

I
10-8

I
10 -6

I
10-4

I
10-2

I
1O

ULTRAVIOLET

II
10 4

RAYS

I
10 6

t
I0 I0

10 2

10 8

PHOTON

ENERGY,

ELECTRON

VOLTS

Figure

2-6.

The

Electromagnetic

Spectrum 2-7

d.
e.

They can
energy They to ray are

penetrate of the rays. absorbed

matter,

the

depth

of penetration

being

dependent

upon

the

by matter, density

the and

percentage thickness,

of absorption and indirectly

being

directly

proportional energy. are

to matter

proportional

f.

They tional

scattered

by matter, density, matter. film and

the

amount

of scatter

being to ray

directly energy.

propor-

to matter can can can are ionize expose produce invisible

indirectly

proportional

g. h. i. J. 3. X-rays

They They They They

by ionization. in certain of detection materials. by any of the senses.

fluorescence and incapable

X-RAYS and electromagnetic electrons waves interact electron because atom. energy of lower matter. of an atom, its energy When electrons (continuous spectrum energy When are generated when rapidly moving energy

(high-energy)

with

an electron

of sufficient

interacts with an orbital It is called characteristic position nuclei upon continuous the generation to strike,
a.

a characteristic is determined of sufficient X-rays) are the and

X-ray may be generated. by the characteristic comenergy generated. is not conditions interact They entirely required the with are the called V for the

of the of atoms,

disturbed their atoms'

bremsstrahlung

because disturbed

is continuous To create

dependent electrons

characteristics.

of X-rays, and a means Electron particles its electrons These free an X-ray wire emitter. current (the

there must of speeding

be a source of electrons, a target for the electrons in the desired direction. is composed When a suitable in part of negatively is heated,

Source. called become electrons tube When flow the filament) heats

All matter electrons.

charged some electrons. cloud. A coil as the resultant of In of

material

agitated and will surround is contained

escape the material as free the material as an electron is known cathode the across as the and filament, cathode. the functions

source

of electrons in the is applied

electron

a voItage

it to electron X-rays are

emission generated whether indicates the of the

temperatures. whenever it be solid, its greater material density, the the high velocity the higher electrons Since atomic number the the

Do

Electron collide the number generation. atomic

Target. with any number

form

of matter, target the

liquid, efficiency

or gas.

of an element greater

of the

chosen The

material density

of X-ray

greater

2-8

of X-ray tion, the (See target. Figure

generating material

collisions. of high tube, the

In practical atomic number, target

applications usually

of X-ray tungsten, tube

generais used anode. for

a solid

In an X-ray 2-7. )

is a portion

of the

CAT.00E %(
, =2

r0CUS.G

........................... "...................

..ss

/
I Figure 2-7. The charged. repelled objects. a negative tubes, cathode
I

/
BEAM

\,\.,.oo.
'_ X-Ray emitted the charged a positive on the All X-ray equipment Tube at the fundamental objects charge free tubes and cathode laws and of an X-ray of electrical attracted anode basic circuits, of repelling and acceleratare to of

Basic electrons Following

Co

Electron tube are behavior positively an X-ray speeded principle. are the

Acceleration. negatively they tube, from X-ray are and the charged

by negatively By placing charge anode. to the

on the use this

cathode,

electrons

and associated

electrical

designed electrons

in many different from the cathode, path. number the will though of X-rays

forms determined attracting them

by the need to the anode,

ing them
do

in their The upon

Intensity. one measure dependent If all other tube more applied the the filament

created of the X-ray

by electrons beam. available at the in the

striking Intensity X-ray current X-ray positive because to, and

the tube

target cathode. the of

is

of the factors

"intensity" amount remain increase

is therefore through beam. voltage more directly of with, collide

of electrons constant, the cathode degree, increase cathode of the increase

an increase temperature, the the will intensity beam an increase

cause of the in the intensity beam

emission

electrons, to the tube

and

thereby will at the the

Similarly, electrons target.

to a lesser anode

available Because

be attracted

intensity

generated

is almost

2-9

proportional to the flow of electrons an X-ray macMne is often expressed same stants
eo

through the tube, in milliamperes tube current as one

the output of current of the

rating flow.

of This con-

direct

proportion

establishes

exposure

of an X-ray Square of the diverge as the in Figure rays, areas

radiography. The upon distance 2-8, intensity from emission from is known the 1 I D1 2 inverse D2 the the of an X-ray radiation from their source as the beam source. source increases. Inverse Square exposures varies X-rays, and cover This Law. and inversely like with visible

Inverse the light large major cedures. square

Law.

distance

increasingly relationship, It is a safety proas follows:

illustrated

consideration

in computing

radiographic square

Mathematically I

law is expressed

where

I and

I 1 are

the

intensities

at distances

D and

D 1 respectively.

..

D1

_1

ii_iiiii
"_D tI _

i.':...".-'_ii::i!i_ii_ii_ _jii:i_ ::-_!_!!!!i!::_i_i_i_..'-:_:_ _$_:@'.._:_i_ _,:_

I
Figure 2-10

i::i iii::i i::iii@ ::!::Ji:ii

11

"Z
Diagram

2-8.

of the

Inverse

Square

Law

f.

X-ray tic rays by the The

Quality are target

Characteristics. characteristic energy The are of small material. rays

RAYS

Radiation and and higher use content spectrum

from continuous specific energy

an X-ray rays. wavelengths rays content.

tube consists The covers (See the characteris-

of the

previously

mentioned

as determined a wide Figure wavelength band 2-9. )

of continuous in radiography.

of wavelengths continuous

and is of generally of most

Since

CHARACTERISTIC

CONTINUOUS RAY SPECTRUM

ENERGY

Figure

2-9.

X-Ray

Spectrum

of any electron plied Figure

one voltage 2-10

X-ray will

is partially collision produce the with

determined the target X-rays effect

by the caused

energy the ray,

(velocity) an increase (more voltage

of the in apenergy). on the X-ray

whose

of shorter of a change

wavelength in applied

illustrates

/
>pZ W F-

.WAVELENGTHS

--APPLIED

VOLTAGE-----"-

Figure

2-10.

Effect

of Increasing

Voltage

on the

Quality

and

Intensity

of an X-Ray

Beam 2-11

beam. X-rays) generation energy (longer Figure beam.

An increase as shown, of the (short wavelength) 2-11 illustrates

in applied but of more higher X-rays the energy

voltage rays are known

increases to the greater with

the

intensity

(quantity Is the power. and

of High

importance known

radtographer penetrating X-rays,

wavelength)

X-rays are effect

as hard X-rays. in tube intensity

low energy

as soft

of a change varies the

current

on an X-ray but the

Variation

in tube

current

of the beam,

HIGH

MILLIAMPS / LOW MPS

_APPLIED

VOLTAGE...._.-,,--

Figure spectrum applied

2-11.

Effect

of a Change produced

in Tube remains

Current

on anX-Ray Table in tube

Beam 2-1 current shows and the

of wavelengths voltage. Table

unchanged. to variations

intensity/hard/soft/X-ray

relationships

2-1.

Effects

of KV and

MA

LOW MA

HIGH MA

LOW KV

LOW INTENSITY SOFT X-RAYS

HIGHINTENSITY SOFT X-RAYS

HIGH KV

LOW INTENSITY HARD X-RAYS

HIGHINTENSITY HARD X-RAYS

2-12

gw

Interaction matter interaction atoms. ments, pounds. particles and

With

Matter.

To appreciate to consider Matter the ts composed wholly two

the

interaction of numerous atoms elements smallest particles. in Table Particles

of X-rays that tiny are are particle 2-2. particles known known

with make the called as eleas com-

it is necessary possible. Substances substances atom, The

properties of identical or more to be the tinier

of matter

composed containing once

considered

of matter,

is now considered of interest

to be composed in radiography Table 2-2.

of even are

The fundamental

shown

Fundamental

PARTICLE

DESCRIPTION

PROTON

A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE. ITS MASS IS APPROXIMATELY ONE ATOMIC MASS UNIT. A PARTICLE, ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL, THE SAME MASSAS THE PROTON. A PARTICLE HAVING APPROXIMATELY CHARGE.

NEUTRON

ELECTRON

CARRYING A UNIT NEGATIVE ELECTRICAL ATOMIC MASS UNIT.

ITS MASS IS 1/1840 POSITRON

A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT POSITIVE ELECTRICAL AND HAVING THE SAME MASS AS AN ELECTRON.

CHARGE

_A

THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU) IS 1/12 IT IS AN ARBITRARILY CHOSEN UNIT.

THE MASS OF THE CARBON-12

ATOM.

(i)

Nuclear atom portion volume neutrons)

Atomic as consisting about

Concept. which

The

nuclear relatively revolve nucleus electrons;

atomic heavy is very

concept nucleus The large

conceives (protons volume the compared

the and of that to the

of a small electrons the outside

in orbit. therefore,

of an atom

of the nucleus,

or of the

greatest

part of any atom is empty space. elements is the number of protons number Electrically, in the nucleus of electrons the atom being in the equal orbital to the is normally

The difference and neutrons shells, number the in balance,

in atoms of different in the nucleus, the difference number in orbit. balance and free of an atom (not part of in weight. of protons the

and the of electrons electrical Atoms

(2)

Ionization. and produces

Any action ions

which

disrupts ionization,.

is termed particles, ions. Free positive matter

any atom) subatomic charge, are called particles X-rays atoms carrying passing through

with either a positive electrons are negative (e. g. alter protons) the of the ray are may will electrical

or negative ions and free positive balance dislodge ions. of an

charges The

through ionization.

energy

2-13

electron from an atom and the temporarily free electron attach itself to another atom. The first atom positively charged, and the second atom negatively charged are respectively positive and negative ions, an ion pair. In this manner X-rays causeionization in all material in their path. X-rays have no mass or weight and may be considered as photons (bundlesof energy) traveling an electromagnetic path at at the speedof light. In passing through matter, X-rays lose energy to atoms by ionization processes known as photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering andpair production.
(3) Photoelectric relatively transferred ejecting to the usually this (4) the electron. takes place process effect Absorption (Figure low energy pass through to an orbital electron This from with that (Figure electron. its low orbit transfer energy all or absorption. energy absorbs makes 2-12). 2-12). i When X-rays (photons) of matter, the photon energy may be This Part and phenomena of the the is the photons of the radiography When energy remainder photoelectric of 0.5 mev. of the possible. higher energy photons, occurs. electrons of the imparting continues pro0.1 This when photon V is known imparts effect or less. photon. It is as in and The velocity is expended

photoeiectriceffect

photoelectric absorption

energy

Compton

Scattering

to 3.0 mev., pass through matter, Compton is the term for the interaction of the photon all of the energy velocity onward gressively effect (5) Pair photon the photon to it, energy and the is not lost remainder, original photon, the the is expended at an angle weakening completely Production. of 1.02 approaches mass at the subject Radiation. scattering, in dislodging to the absorbs Pair mev. the an orbital as a lower photon

scattering with orbital Part and electron energy This until

to an electron.

photon, process, photoelectric

path.

is repeated

photon. occurs At these of an atom only wtth energy it changes a positive short to emit very from high when charge, lived. two 0.51 effect. absorption, electrons that are that energy the to have They mev

production or more. nucleus

photons

levels

energy

an electron-positron same combine photons (6) Scatter Compton end

pair. as electrons, of their to Compton The three

Positrons and path are with

carry extremely electrons

scattering processes, production,

and photoelectric photoelectric all liberate

and pair

move with different generated whenever X-rays in passing

velocities in various direction. Since X-rays free electrons collide with matter, it follows through matter cause the generation of secondary

ELECTROMAGNETIC LOW-ENERGY RADIATION

EJECTED

ELECTRON

NIZATION

HIGH ATOMIC ABSORBERS

WEIGHT OF

PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION MEDIUM-ENERGY

-.. ._,% c;_,_ r "o_"_o'C, R

ABSORBERS oF ANY ATOMIC WEIGHT J_ _' WAVE LENGTH LIBERATED

COMPTON EFFECT i i HIGH-ENERGY

_,,__oE

CT RON IONIZATION

EJECTED oSITRON IONIZATION

PA,R PRODUCT,ON __
_0

Figure _-

2-12.

Ionization

by Electromagnetic

Radiation 2-15

X-rays. known scatter

These as scatter is the

secondary radiation, low-energy

X-rays rays

are

a minor The

component major

of what of weakened

is in the

or scatter. represented

component

by photons

Compton scatter process. Scatter radiation energy content and of random direction. (a) Internal in the sonably Scatter. specimen uniform Internal being throughout scatter

is of uniformly

low-level-

is the

scattering 2-13). of one

that

occurs but

radiographed a specimen

(Figure

It is rea-

thickness,

,
I

,1'11

I, 'l,.ll

IP_ MARY BEAM I'1

,
FI LM

II ._

;I,II
I i)idt II

I \l i_I

I;I;
I
SPECIMEN
t

'_i.)/:{'(_/_ ) --

i,4'#I\4 _

/,'l

7 ,t V;' " 7",_-':{/,4"' ,"_" t ""

2-13. definition shown and the through as buildup. Side scatter of the rays scatter that 2-14). Just causes Internal Scatter the 2-13 due

Figure affects radiation specimen passing is known

by blurring in Figure hole matter through

image obscures The

outline. the increase in the edges

The

scatter

of the direction

it. to scatter

in radiation

forward

(b)

Side Jects

Scatter.

is the specimen,

scattering or from the sides

from

walls,

or obof the

in the vicinity

portions of the the

specimen, (Figure outline

to enter side scatter does.

specimen image

As shown,

obscures

as internal

2-16

FILM

Figure

2-14. Back also

Side scatter

Scatter is the the scattering the specimen image. of rays from sur2-15).

(c)

Back faces Back

Scatter. or objects scatter

beneath obscures

or behind

(Figure

specimen

l I I I P_,MAR BEAM I II I t_ll Jttlll

'1
li
FLOOR OR WALL

tt

lit1

.,r_

SPECIMEN

I I I I

ttl

\
4. Gamma because having number elements, GAMMA rays different of protons there are RAYS are produced basic atomic of their in their more

I tl.i I ,!,i ,It

I I_ .! ! # I I. t " ' \ tl 'I\ _I II tl

IIII

I
I _ FI LM
i

L kv;/:, ! '.I: i/!; ;.

t

Figure

2-15.

Back

Scatter

by the nuclei weights. nuclei than A parent

of isotopes are element of which

which and number its

are of the

undergoing same all

disintegration chemical have Among the element an identical known

instability.

Isotopes

varieties

isotopes than

but a different 800 isotopes

of neutrons. 500 are

more

radioactive.

_.,

2-17

The wavelength and intensity of gammawaves are determined by the source isotope characteristics, and cannotbe controlled or changed. a.
Natural than source products (1) instability. Isotope Sources. that the Every best in the element whose disintegrate and most substances. form of: electromagnetic radiation of used, Radium atomic number natural and is greater of its inherent radioactive its daughter 82 has a nucleus Radium, is typical release Gamma nuclear (2) Alpha neutrons, (3) will probably known, because

%$

of all radioactive energy

Rays. origin. Particles. with

Short

wavelength

Helium a double

nuclei, positive

consisting charge.

of two protons

and

two

Beta Particles. equal in magnitude NOTE: The use

Negatively to those

charged particles of the electron. of alpha it is the and gamma

having

mass

and

charge

penetrating to the There Atomic production

power

beta

particles that are

is of

relatively

negligible, radiographer. are reactor two

rays

b.

Artificial 235 results

Sources. in the

sources different

of man-made involving isotopes the

radioactive fission usable

isotopes

(radioisotopes).

operation

of Uranium as radiation

of many

sources. Cesium 137, one of the radioisotopes tained as a by-product of nuclear fission. The means of creating radioisotopes is by bombarding neutrons. the capture Commonly Cobalt each the 60, of these parent The nuclei of the bombarded element of neutrons, and thereby may become used radioisotopes 170, and emit and other gamma that denotes obtained Iridium its mass isotopes rays, natural ray by neutron 192. of the alpha The number Thulium isotopes isotope, isotopes the Ray same Intensity.

used in radiography, is obsecond, and most common, certain elements with are changed, usually by unstable or radioactive. bombardment numerical and element. and do. in roentgens per distinguishes beta are, of it from particles designator Artificially

same particles,

produced in exactly c. Gamma

manner

isotopes

Gamma

intensity

is measured

hour at one foot (rhf), a measure of time at a fixed distance. The of a gamma ray source determines activity of artificial radioisotope of the neutron bombardment that activity is the curie (3.7 x 1010

of radiation emission over a given period activity (amount of radioactive material} the sources created intensity of its radiation. The is determined the isotopes. per by the effectiveness The measure of

disintegrations

second).

2-1s

d.

Specific in terms sources ent

Activity. of curies of the same activities specific specific (See The

Specific material per gram will activity activity Figure

activity

is defined ray per

as the source.

degree

of concentration expressed differwith radiographic since Two isotope having For

of radioactive

within material have

a gamma or curies with will different

It is usually (curies)

cubic

centimeter.

the same

activity

specific

dimensions. measure the

The source of radioisotopes, sharpness

the greater purposes, the film e. Half decay smaller image. Life.

be the smaller the greater

of the two.

is an important source 2-4.) required of its is a basic of a given is used similar

the radioactive

of the resultant

length

of time

for the activity initial element. to that strength characteristic,

of a radioisotope is termed "half and is dependent the half in relation 2-16, are

to life."

(disintegrate)

to one-half isotope ray decay source curves

The half life life time, supplied

of a radioisotope

upon the particular of a gamma and dated with

In radiography, of activity in Figure shown

as a measure

to

radioisotopes

upon procurement.

60 40 30 2O
IRIDIUM DECAY CURVE

SOURCE NO. 50.0 CURIES CALIBRATED

IR-1094 7-6-65

iO 8

75

DAYS

8/1
7/6 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1

1/1

Figure

2-16.

Dated

Decay

Curve 2-19

f.

Inverse

Square

Law. because

Gamma they

rays both

and X-rays conform

have laws

identical of light. varies 2-8). a gamma have 2-3 emissions.

propagation Just inversely as it

characteristics

to the

does with X-rays the intensity with the square of the distance g. Gamma consists of the due used Ray source. radioisotopes Quality Each fixed Characteristics.

of gamma from the

ray emission source (Figure from

Radiation (energy} used characteristics. of their Ray gamma Energy are

ray specific lists

source nature uses most the

of rays

whose gamma and Table

wavelengths of the the commonly energy energy

determined Table ray

by the

radioisotopes

to their

2-3.

Gamma

ISOTOPE

GAMMA RAY ENERGY MEV

COBALT 6O

1.33,

1.17

IRIDIUM

192

0.31,

0.47,

0.60

THULIUM

170

0.084,

0.0.52

CESIUM 137

0.66

ht

Gamma Ray Interaction With Matter. and pair production caused by gamma tical with those of X-rays.

The ionization, ray interaction

absorption, with matter

scattering, are iden-

2-20

CHAPTER TABLE

3: OF

EQUIPMENT CONTENTS

Paragraph 300 301 GENERAL

i i * J

Page 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3

o

X RAY EQUIPMENT 1 General 2 3 4 5 6 7. 8.

X-ray Heat

Tube Dissipation Shielding Panel

3-11 3-11 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-13 3-14 3-14 3-14 3-17 3-4 3-5

Equipment Tubeheads Control Protective Equipment

Electrical Protective EQUIPMENT Ray Sources

Circuits Devices

..................... .....................

302

GAMMA RAY 1 General 2 3 Gamma Isotope X ray X ray Effective X ray Basic Resonant Diagram Betatron X ray
--

Cameras Equipment Tubes vs Actual Beam High Voltage Transformer of Electrostatic Accelerator Tubeheads of Typical of Typical Cameras 60 Decay Rate ........................... ..........................
o o

Figure Figure
i

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-1 3-2

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table Table

Focal Circuit

Spot

.....................

3-6 3-7 3-8 .............. 3-9 3-9 3-10

Configuration ........................ Equipment Generator .................. X-ray

3-12 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-15 3-16

Diagram Operation Isotope Cobalt Isotope

Isotope Isotope

Camera Camera

.................. .................

Characteristics

i
B

J i

3-1

pRE_SEDING 'p_GE "BEAN KI_OT CHAPTER

300 GENERAL equipment

t lLt B
EQUIPMENT

3:

Radiographic equipment covered

as discussed in this chapter is limited to radiation source radiation. Additional equipment reis

that generates either X- or gamma

quired to produce

a radiograph or other visual representation of a test specimen

in later chapters. EQUIPMENT (Figure 3-1)

J
!

301 1. In the listed: sired modern

X-RAY GENERAL previous a source direction; X-ray

chapter

the

three

basic

requirements

for the

generation rapidly The

of X-rays

were

of free electrons;'., a means of moving the and a suitable material for the electrons equipment is a result of refinements in the

electrons to strike. methods

in the dedesign of these

of satisfying

requirements. 2. The X-RAY productive machine The TUBE portion are tube of X-ray designed basically equipment to support consists is the the tube. The remaining the components safety and the of

an X-ray requirements.

function

of the tube, type glass. and the

or to meet cathode

of two electrodes, of pyrex electrons, the free tube

W.2

anode, of the which filament; removes and

enclosed in a high vacuum envelope cathode functions as a source of free the electrons speeds the heat and area size strike. controls from and generated Associated the by the unwanted shape The because has interior. circuitry through Through electrical envelope by the use and to the ways. used the resultant X-ray with

The filament portion anode as the target upon which path 3-2 shields heats to the the there the anode; are many equipment

is equipment in a beam and in Figure process;

electrons As shown

generation tubes.

surrounding in the Tube melting ally, high

radiation.

variations a.

of X-ray tube

Envelope. point the envelope

envelope extreme shape

is constructed heat generated to resist and the tube's able strength tube, to the material

of glass at the the desired electrodes to withstand to the

that anode.

has

a high Structurof the

of the The

sufficient with the envelope insulation forces itself. of metal

implosive tube are process, use.

force by the

vacuum

of the envelope

is determined

electrical connections of two

Electrical in either

made

the temperature, or by conare and eleof thermal envelope

pressure nection expansion becomes accomplished

of the

X-ray that

generating connections have

Electrical alloys

a coefficient

similar to that of the glass. part of the envelope. A high

The alloy is fused vacuum environment

with the glass for the tube

3-3

!
V

.3

__

:_

Figure

3-1.

X-Ray

Equipment

3-4

COURTESYAGFA-GEVAERT, INC.

Figure ments is necessary Prevent Permit to."

3-2.

X-Ray

Tubes

(1) (2) (3)

b.

oxidation ready

of the

electrode

materials. beam without ionization

passage the tube.

of the electron

of gas within Provide

electrical The cathode Usually

insulation of the X-ray constructed

between

the

electrodes. a focusing and nickel, cup and the focusing the elecof the

Cathode. the filament.

tube incorporates of very pure iron

cup functions as an electrostatic lens whose purpose is to direct trons in a beam toward the anode. The electron emitting portion cathode by the is the flow wire filament, since The area Heating. of current electron which current tungsten placement determine emission electrical the filament Any change is brought through has of the the to the it. filament dimensions target. The required filament electrical within the of the high

temperature a coil cup, beam and

of electrical

is usually and thermal focusing electron

of tungsten characteristics. and the the

Co

the desired

shape

of the cup, of X-ray

resultant

at the

Filament small which flow

Due to the through emission.

characteristics suffices in the to heat voltage

of tungsten, applied

a to the

it to temperatures

cause

filament A change electron trol the

dt

varies in the flow

the

filament through is obtained across the

current

and the emitted

number changes

of electrons correspondingly X-ray machines, transformer

emitted. the conaction,

number

of electrons

(current)

the tube. by regulating, filament. tube

On most

of tube voltage The

current applied anode the anode a high

through

Anode. directly latter most material assure the heat target.

of the X-ray cathode function materials melting number with being

is a metallic it is made gold, copper

electrode with or platinum. and the

of high that

electrical

and tl_ermal materials common with

conductivity. that

Usually as the

of copper Copper has target the

portion are the dense to the

facing

tungsten, target. because

It is these electrical

tungsten

necessary

and thermal

characteristics

and tungsten point. a high of collisions, melting

is an economically material electron when point

feasible, is required beam

A dense

a maximum Material of X-ray Spot. electron

strikes

is necessary

to withstand

generation. As previously determined beam in most shown, by the X-ray the size tubes by the sharpness of the beam. is focused of a radiographic radiation Usually source the anode (focal target so that film spot). is

eo

Focal image The area

is partly of the target

a rectangular area, This V the limits size in the

is bombarded

set at an angle (Figure 3-3) as viewed from.the specimen, projected the optimum the to which target heat area of the tube focal point spot electron would

and the projected size is smaller than the beam is the effective focal a pinpoint spot the

of the bombarded actual focal spot. focal by the beyond spot. heat In practice, generated certain

In theory,

contain If the focal

spot.

can be reduced destroys

is limited is reduced target.

bombardment. at the

of impact

ACTUAL

FOCAL

SPOT

EFFECTIVE

FOCAL

SPOT

Figure 3-6

3-3.

Effective

vs Actual

Focal

Spot V

f.

X-ray

Beam

Configuration.

X-rays

are

radiated

in all directions

from

the The at the

tube target and once created direction of useful X-radiation tube anode, ed positioning any beam
4

cannot be focused or otherwise is determined by the target of lead shielding about and variations in shielding See

directed. positioning With

and the placement of the target,

the tube. placement, Figure 3-4.

select-

almost

configuration
t

desired

can be obtained.

/
/
4 _

\
7
m_

I""
i !

HEMISPHERICAL BEAM

ANNULAR_

LATERAL CONICAL BEAM

Figure
ge

3-4.

X-Ray

Beam

Configuration voltage applied (difference to an X-ray 2-10. and the from ) (Figure velocity, is obtained in electrical tube deterIn short, shorter the to generthe

Accelerating potential mines higher

Potential. between

The operating and anode) effect

the cathode the greater of great

the penetrating the voltage waves

of X-radiation. the electron X-rays. accelerators. The majority uses iron core self A typical power

wavelengths ate short electrostatic (1)

of the generated generators or

The high voltage

necessary

penetrating

transformers,

Iron Core industrial quired high

Transformers. radiography voltages.

of X-ray transformers

equipment to produce

used recircuit

in

rectifying

high voltage

for X-ray equipment factors to iron core core in self transformers rectified rectifiers, transformers

is shown in Figure 3-5. The basic limiting transformer use are their size and weight. are used to produce they X-ray doublers, voltages are and often constant up to 400 kvp, used are with half either potential however, in modern

Iron usually and mount-

circuits;

full wave Iron core

voltage

circuits.

equipment or are

ed in tubehead

tank units

with the tube,

separately

housed.

FILAMENT

_i

ANSFORMER

HT

TRANSFORMER

A v

A v

AUTO TRANSFORMER

CTOR

TO AUTOTRANSFORMER

23O VOLT LINE

WITCH
m v

1
Figure (2) Resonant transformer 3-5. Basic High In the 3-6) Voltage 250-to Circuit 4000-kvp employed. range the resonant to iron V

Transformers. (Figure

ts effectively

Similar

core transformers, a low voltage input, to a compact central axis (3) Electrostatic Is designed Two trons the the the the from corona corona filament. along generator

resonant but the

transformers use of a resonant The X-ray

produce high voltage from secondary lends itself tube is mounted in the

lightweight design. of the transformer. Generators. to operate the cap cap the charging at the serves The length in the point corona pulleys

Electrostatic 500pass point. plates tube. drive

generator range. and

X-ray (See are charging high high chamber.

equipment Figure belt. voltage emitted voltage leakage 3-7.) Electo at by

to 6000-kvp a non-conducting to the belt, The the beam distribute To minimize

motor-driven

transferred

accumulated the high

to accelerate of the

of electrons

equlpotential

evenly

voltage

is enclosed

in a pressurized

gasttght

3-S

I L1
FILAMENT

SECONDARY WINDING

PRIMARY WINDING MAGNETIC FOCUSING COfL --

J_ _

=r"

_//_/

X-RAY TUBE

LEAD COLLAR

"

--

_--"

_-_!s2-: / __s_i
X-RAYS

,U,'GSTEN ANODE OR O,. G

Figure

3-6.

Resonant

Transformer

X-Ray

Equipment

1_

FILAMENT

+___/ CHARGING POINT

" J_ , _ _FOCUSING I _"_

COIL X" RAY TUBE

_'_

ANOOE

Figure _r,,.j

3-7.

Diagram

of

Electrostatic

Generator

3-9

(4)

Linear energy directly radio known toward field.

Accelerators. in a tuned related frequency. frequency, the target Theoretically, the speed wave to the

Linear guide length

accelerators to produce of the wave of wave injected of the may by this

utilize an Induced guide guide lengths,

radio field, and are

frequency which and the use of a accelerated induced generation the is

sections,

By selection electrons by the action

into the guide constantly be accelerated means, with

changing resultant

electrons of light

to velocities In practice, velocities six feet.

approaching

of extremely short wavelength, high length of linear accelerator required equivalent to those Accelerators. path upon to the magnetic by magnetic transformer primary field in the this used in industrial The betatron

energy, X-rays. to obtain electron radiography accelerates (Figure since 3-8.)

is about electrons Its a strong shaped from magnetic a hot

(5)

Betatron cular based plied the magnets to increase

in a ciris apin The starts

induction. principles (excitation) core magnetic electrons

operation current variation secondary. field

an alternating

coil of the

produces doughnut injected As the

strengthen

field. are

in strength,

cathode

/_

A.

B. C. D.

CUT THROUGH MAGNET AND ACCE LERATOR TUBE. 1. MAGNET 2. EXCITATION COIL 3. ACCELERATOR TUBE INJECTION (AND REPLENISHING OF TUBE) OF ELECTRONS. CONCENTRATION OF CHARGES ON A NARROW TRACK. PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS.

Figure 3-10

3-8.

Betatron

Accelerator

injection gun into the "doughnut." The voltage induced by the increasing field causes the electrons to accelerate. The electrons will circle within the doughnutthousands of times in one cycle of applied voltage, increasing their energy with each rotation. At the moment the magnetic field is at its peak and is aboutto decrease, a pulse of current is applied to an auxiliary coil which distorts the magnetic field, and ejects the electrons from their circular path. The high energy electrons strike the target andproduce X-rays of extremely short wavelength and great penetration power. 3.
The electron HEAT process beam DISSIPATION of X-ray in the anode, thermal this generation tube heat must with through is very inefficient production Heat and use anode and most of heat. dissipation of the energy of the destruction and low about

is expended

in the

To avoid in medium finned

of the tube power its is in good surfaces.

be dissipated. through anode, makes the

equipment

is usually connection power Higher

accomplished equipment

an external is cooled of injection of the tube.

radiator, The the

which coolant, duty cycle by of

by a flow cooling. Since

of oil or gas

oil or water,

is circulated

the hollow

(percentage of exposure time versus total time) of X-ray equipment the rate of anode cooling, the efficiency of equipment cannot exceed its 4. X-rays contained, spread. to absorb target cooling system. SHIE LDING or otherwise X-ray plates by lead of this of the the directed tubes, or sleeves varies that spot of coverage focal with and, or the once created, unwanted but in the beam

is determined the efficiency

EQUIPMENT cannot are The that

be focused shielded design portion equipment, the geometry

X-radiatlon they cases are radiation

can

be controlled

only by shielding.

tubeheads

in which in all desired port

to prevent equipment,

shielding radiation angle of the

it serves of the as

is not traveling of the X-ray position,

direction. size

In any X-ray angle, determined 5.

is a function

and the X-ray

by shielding

placement.

TUBEHEADS (Figure shell with 3-9), used with port, insulating X-ray are housed portable and usually equipment X-ray equipment, the all unit. X-ray and lead consist tube, shielding. foregoing of an outer high items voltage used except Tubeheads

Tubeheads metallic and with the filament

an X-ray installed which

contain contain

transformers,

oil or gas, in a separate

permanently transformers,

of the

Figure 6. The the panel ment. CONTROL control generation also Dependent panel provides PANEL of an X-ray protective upon panel the will

3-9.

X-Ray

Tubeheads

machine electrical

is designed can circuits of the

to permit simply prevent that

the

operator and rapidly.

to control The equipcontrols circuitry

of X-rays

so that

exposures

be made

damage electrical of the

to the following

complexity

equipment by some,

and the or all,

design, the control and indicators: a. Line line b. c. Line Line

be comprised

Voltage voltages Voltage Voltage

Selector such as

Switch. 110 volts Permits A voltmeter line voltage Permits

Permits AC,

equipment AC, of llne the

operation etc. voltage voltage,

with

various

220 volts

Control. Meter. with the Control.

adjustment indicating control. adjustment

to exact used

values. in

line

conjunction d. High Voltage the tube. High Voltage

of the

voltage

applied

across

e.

Meter. with

A voltmeter, voltage

usually control.

calibrated

in kilovolts,

used

in

conjunction

the high

3-12

f. g.

Tube Tube

Current Current

Control. Meter. with tube

Permits An ammeter, current

adjustment usually control. timing the device

of tube calibrated

current

to exact

values. used

in milliamperes,

in conjunction h. i. Exposure Power usually J. Power energized. k. High Voltage tube anode. High Voltage Time. ON-OFF applies

A synchronous Switch. power Controls to the tube Lamp. Visual

used

to time

exposures. to the equipment;

application only. that

of power

filament indication

ON Indicator

the

equipment

is

ON-OFF

Switch.

Controls

the

application

of power

to the

1.

ON Indicator energized

Lamp.

Visual are being

indication generated. that

that

the

equipment

is

completely m. Cooling functioning. n. Focal mits 7.

v

and X-rays Lamp.

ON Indicator

Visual

indication

the

cooling

system

is

Spot selection

Selector

Control. size

Used focal

with spot.

tubes

having

two

focal

spots,

per-

of desired

PROTECTIVE the control

ELECTRICAL panel Circuit power failure. Protection supply. contains Breaker. when the

CIRCUITS protective Provides equipment electrical protection becomes circuits for the such as: by reof

Internally, a.

Overload moving component

equipment as a result

overheated

b.

Overvoltage the line

Circuit.

Bleeds

off excess

voltage

due

to surges

in

voltage

c.

Overcurrent controlling

Rela_r. the filament

Prevents voltage.

excess

current

flow

through

the

tube

by

8. The

EQUIPMENT electrical

PROTECTIVE devices

DEVICES of the control panel serve to protect the equipment excess

protective

against electrical heat or insulation a.

malfunctions. failure, by:

Additional

protection

is provided

against

Overtemperature move power from

Thermostat. the equipment

Installed when

in the excess

tubehead,

functions

to re-

heat

is present.

b,

Pressurestats. tion, function is below safe

Installed to remove values. Installed means. system

in the power

tubehead from the

of equipment equipment

using when the

gas gas

for insulapressure

Co

Flow cooled when

Switches. by these the RAY cooling

in the They fails.

oil and water

circulators power

of equipment from the unit

function

by removing

302 i.

GAMMA GENERAL from

EQUIPMENT

Radiation safe Energy for trol. directly 2. the cedures

radioactive or controlled. and remote and handling for with

material Gamma handling and

producing ray

gamma

rays source.

cannot The

be shut to provide United safety Similar

off nor radiationStates safety USAEC safety

can

it be directed storage, storage are Chapter

equipment state use

is designed prescribe control. which will

of a radioisotope various and under

Atomic proconfactors chapter.

Commission required

(USAEC) the gamma

agencies their of radium information, design

standards

of radioisotopes storage ray radiographic safety equipment

is not under those

5 contains

and only

concerned GAMMA RAY

be mentioned

in this

SOURCES the material as viewed of a gamma are shape from of film right the permits image the effective focal from the the spot gamma specimen. be as of any are using whose use in X-radiography rays, For small surface the this focal reason is the spot X-ray is the genersince surface

As previously ating all area that used equal. surfaces, maximum inders, the plane a. portion of the the of the

explained, of the material target

as viewed from ray cylinders

specimen.

In gamma-radiography, it is desirable Most are spot, isotopes since approximately

radioactive dimensions This source

is producing source the when

as possible. and length as the equal that of the focal are

in radiography as viewed sharpness it is necessary of the Radium. approximately its ray slow

diameter approximately isotope surface

all cylto

specimen,

in area. source

To assure parallel

sources area

not right

to place

smallest

specimen. Radium is a natural years. itself and radioactive In practical is considered does other prodhees and the radon, radioactive other daughter substance applications, to have not produce a constant useful daughter products, having radium, rate gamma gas products. that in a gastight is reached a half-life because of gamma rays with but, It is the causes the capsule, whereby a half-life of of

1600

disintegration, Radium four days, decomposition, than of radon,

emission.

through of less emission preventing the

a radioactive

disintegration

of useful gamma rays. the escape of radon, of radon lost through

By placing radium a state of equilibrium disintegration

amount

is equal

to the amount

3-14

produced state radium consist sules. dustrial

b.

by decomposition causes Pure sulfate of its low source. of radium Because radiography. 60. Cobalt

of the a constant radium packaged specific

radium. rate

For of gamma

practical ray

purposes, emission and from most used

this a sources capin in-

of balance

is not used in either activity,

in radiography spherical radium

or cylindrical is little

Cobalt ment rate gamma content plied metals radiation, dling

60 is an artificial a half-life during consists of a 2 mev intervals one

isotope of 5.3 years. half-life and and copper, shielding,

created Table cycle. mev The and

by neutron 3-1 shows similar Cobalt rays radioisotope

bombardtts decay 60 primary in energy is supsizes. weight penetrating and han-

of cobalt, at six month ray in the to the for its

having

emission output form

of 1.33 X-ray pellet from thick

1.17 may

machine. brass with

of a capsuled ranging requires

be obtained other Because resultant

in different medium of its weight

It is used

radiography use

of steel,

of thicknesses difficulty. Table

1 to 8 inches.

3-1.

Cobalt

60 Decay

Rate

0.SYr.

1.0Yr.

1.5Yr.

2.0Yr.

2.SYr.

3.0Yr.

3.5Yr.

4.0Yr.

4.5Yr.

5.0Yr.

5.3Yr.

% ACTIVITY

93.3

89.0

82.9

77.0

71.0

68.0

63.3

59.6

55.5

52.0

50.0

Co

Iridium specific parable dustrially, thicknesses tion strong isotope and

192. actvtty

Iridium has and

192, a half-life emits for 0.25 power

another gamma radiography and 3.0 activity

artificial rays of 0.31,

isotope 0.47 and

produced It has 0.60 metals and

by neutron high mev, of radiashielded, The radiocomIn-

bombardment,

of approximately to those

75 days. X-ray similar

in penetrating it is used between its high

of a 600-kvp of steel Its size

machine. low energy

inches. combine physical

relatively (focal pellet.

specific source

to make

it an easily spot).

radiation

of small in the form

is obtainable 170. 84-key equipment Thulium and

of a capsuled by neutron The soft rays, 50-

dl

Thulium has produces of X-ray

170 obtained 52-key gamma in the

bombardment disintegration rays similar range.

of thulium of the to the It is the isotope radiation best

a half-life

of approximately operating

130 days.

to 100-kvp

isotope known for radiography of thin metals since it is capable of producing good radiographs of steel specimens less than one-half inch thick. One of

3-15

the major advantagesof the use of thulium

which ability, pure permits since metal its containment only a small is difficult the 137. oxide Cesium to obtain, Tm203 137, in small amount the

170 is its

soft

wave

radiation, portthe Because V

equipment

units is required.

of extreme supplied

of shielding isotope form.

is usually

in capsules

containing e. Cesium life

in powder a by-product gamma rays

of the fission of 0.66 mev,

process, equivalent

has

a half-

of 30 years.

It emits

in energy

to the radiation of a one mev X-ray of steel of thicknesses between one superior to other isotopes of similar decay. Cesium a soluble powder ommends stainless f. Other useful another double steel.

machine. It is used and two-and-one-half capability only

in the radiography inches. It is slow rate of

in its

137 is usually handled in the form of the chloride CsC1, requiring special safety precautions. The USAEC recencapsulation in/containers constructed of silver-brazed

Radioisotopes. Many other radioisotopes that are radiographically are not considered here because in practical applications one or of the four discussed four is superior. most-used Table 3-2 is a summary of the of the isotopes.

characteristics

Table

3-2.

Isotope

Characteristics

ISOTOPE

COBALT-60

IRIDIUM-192

THULIUM-170

CESIUM-137

HALF-LIFE

5.3

Yr.

75 Days

130 Days

30 Yr.

CHEMICAL

FORM

Co

Tm203

CsCl

GAMMAS MEV.

1.33,

1.17

0.31, 0.47,

0.60

0.084,

0.052

0.66

14.4

5.9

0.032*

4.2

PRACTICAL

SOURCES

CURIES

20

5O

50

75

RHM

27

27

0.1

3O

APPROX DIAMETER

film.

mm.

3 film.

i0 ram.

*VARIES

WIDELY BECAUSE

OF HIGH SELF-ABSORPTION

3-16

3.
Because extreme use. with

ISOTOPE of the care, Equipment a source,

CAMERAS ever-present and stored to accomplish Is called radiation and locked safe a camera. hazard, handling Figure isotope and 3-10 storage shows sources mustbe containers of isotope a typical camera handled when sources, wlth together of:

in adequately

shielded

not in

consisting

REEL ASSEMBLY

_illmilml'I

i_i

WIRE TO SWITCHES M CONTROL BOX

......

_ N _F'_>i

IN ARMOURED CABLE TUBES

_ f

nl

tl

,/
SHIELD SOURCE MICROSWITCHES "STORED" FOR _1 CASE ASSEMBLY _ _

\_
I

SHIELD PIG

AND "OPEN"

<_

SOURCE TUBE ASSEMBLY WIRE TO

N" SWITCH

Figure a. Shield Case or Uranium Microswitches indicate source trol cable-to-crank source b. position

3-10.

Diagram

of Typical

Isotope

Camera

Assembl 7. 238 (storage within the

A heavy gage steel pig) which shields case energize the

case containing a block of lead the source when not in use. stored and open lights which confor the extended

positions. One end of the case has a connector extension and the other a connector for the cable. The reel assembly is comprised steel cables, a crank to extend housing source: and three "ON" control (fully lights. (safely extended). "STORED"

Reel Assembly. flexible armored and a light panel of the positions (partially

of a storage reel and draw back the The three within lights the pig),

for the source, "OPEN"

indicate

shielded

extended),

3-17

e_

Source position functions extended

Switch cable,

Assembly. the source the extended

Located switch position. "ON"

at the extreme assembly The light houses assembly when

end the the

of the extended source source capsule is in the a switch

source when which fully

it is in the

fully

contains

to energize position. Capsule steel

control

d.

Source stainless to the (1)

Assembly. container cable 3-11 on the shows

A short attached other. operation

length to one

of cable end and

with

the

source, for

in a

a connector

attachment

control Figure

of a typical

camera.

SHIELD PIG "STORED" SOURCE STORED IN SHIELDED PIG.

"OPEN" SOURCE CRANKED PARTLY OUT. SOURCE NO LONGER SHIELDED.

SOURCE ALL THE WAY OUT TO EXPOSURE POSITION. "oN" SWITCH IN TIP IS ACTIVATED.

Figure

3-11.

Operation a direct source basic

of Typical reading position, design.

Isotope

Camera of cable exthat replace units, however, are other

(2)

Cameras that use tended to indicate manual crank with modifications

of the length and cameras drive are, There

the only

pneumatic

or electrical

of the

types of cameras (Figure 3-12) that do not require removal of the source from the storage pig. These cameras permit exposure by removal of part of the source shielding. The required physical

3-18

,v'

movement either

to expose manually with

the long

source poles,

is or

initiated by electric

from

remote drive units.

positions,

CONTOL OOf
LEAD SHIELD f_ _''_'_'''_'3 SOURCE (SHIELDED POSITION) /

XTENO E
PANORAMICSHOTS) FOR CONTROL ROD

LEAD CYLINDERS S

Figure

3-12.

Isotope

Cameras

_-

3-19

CHAPTER TABLE OF

4:

FILM

CONTENTS

Paragraph 400 401 402 403 GENERAL

, o

Page 4-3 4-3 4-3 4-3

DESCRIPTION RADIOGRAPH RADIOGRAPHIC 1 2. 3. 4.

USEFULNESS CONTRAST
g

.......................... ..........................

General

4-3 4-3 4-5 4-5 4-9 4-9 4-9

Subject Contrast Film Contrast H & D Curves SELECTION PROCESSING General Processing Tank Tank

............................... ................................ ................................ FACTORS ..........................

404 405

FILM FILM 1. 2. 3o 4. 5.

.................................... Precautions Procedures Processing

......................... ...................... .......................

4-9 4-9 4-10 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-16

Processing Processing Film FACILITIES

..............................

Automatic General Safelights Protection Walls, Automatic General Processing

406
r E

DARKROOM 1 2 3. 4. 5.

Against Ceiling and Processing EQUIPMENT Tanks

Outside Floor

Light

.................... ....................

4-16 4-16 4-16

a

.........................

Darkroom
0

407

DARKROOM 1. 2.

.................................... ..............................
, o u o o

4-16 4-16 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-10 4-15

408 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7

3 Drying C LEANLINE

Cabinets SS

Typical Radiograph Radiographic Contrast ........................... Film Characteristic Curve ........................ Relative Film Speed ............................ Film Grain Manual ............................... Unit ...................... ......................... Typical Tank Processing Film Processing

PRECEDI Q

I OTJ
CHAPTER 4: FILM

400 This

GENERAL chapter provides of the film information upon which on the behavior images are characteristics by the and processing radiographic process. re-

quirements 401

produced

DESCRIPTION film consists of a thin, When converts image radiation concerned of the processed USEFULNESS radiograph of light {areas of light difference image contrast upon is measured passing density is known and (Figure through to relatively (areas between by its the impact the on the details film, amounts to less areas human (Figure of radiation) radiation) is known by the eye. will eye. specimen 4-1). will appear of When image transparent to X-, makes to black the those plastic gamma, them and the film metallic specimen, film sheet coated on one light In short, conditions point, that rays, to the makes the or both very fine silver chemical the

Radiographic sides grains bromide process to radiation image sure density 402 The
_j4

with

an emulsion bromide. undergo crystals

of gelatin, a reaction

approximately exposed that them source, with

0. 001 inch more chemical

thick,

containing

of silver

or visible susceptible silver. and the

(developing) creates Since the sharpness visible. determine and

that the amount

exposure of expofix the

a latent

on the film, reaching film

processing

of radiation

at any given

radiographer

is primarily

characteristics in the finished

image

radiograph.

RADIOGRAPH usefulness radiographer of the of high dark gray. sharpness radiograph of any amount density gray; The

the

interprets

a radiograph exposed

he is seeing large exposed

of the

in terms Areas appear light The any 403 1.

processed

areas density film

any two film as definition.

as contrast.

of the relies

Successful

interpretation

definition 4-2)

detectable

RADIOGRAPHIC GENERAL contrast film. specimen, film

CONTRAST

Radiographic developed particular film use 2. Subject portions subject

r

is defined depends processing;

as the upon: exposure and

difference

of the contrast energy

various and film

densities contrast intensity (penetrating

apparent and, and for time); quality);

on any

It is a combination characteristics;

of subject radiation (the scattered

applied of radiation

contrast of screens; SUBJECT contrast contrast.

product

radiation.

CONTRAST is the Those ratio of radiation thickness intensities specimens variation passing of little usually through thickness have any high two selected have low subject contrast. 4-3

of a specimen.

Homogeneous of large

variation

LONGITUDINAl_

CRACKS

LACK

OF FUSION

ELONGATED

VOIDS

POROSITY

Figure 4-4

4-1.

Typical

Radiographs

LIGHT INTENSITY RADIATION II /I II // I / / I I / I I I I I I I I I I I I I // J I I I SPECIMEN I I I I I I I I I I I I \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ILLUMINATOR EMITTING DIFFUSED WHITE LIGHT SOURCE , /.

Io

RADIOGRAPH

-'- LOW DENSITY LARGER AMOUNTS OF LIGHT

/
I

HIGH DENSITY SMALLER AMOUNTS OF LIGHT

\
\ \ \ \
=-

I /'
I Bt

, !

1
I I

p LOW DENSITY LARGER AMOUNTS OF LIGHT

\\\\

I
i I 1 I _ I I llllllllllll Iltll

Jlllllll

EA

EB RADIOGRAPH

Figure Subject energy subject lost 3. The contrast applied. contrast is determined Normally, is increased. dark

4-2.

Radiographic density of the of the contrast

Contrast and thickness, radiation and except the radiation the detail is

by specimen as the High energy subject areas

applied radiograph.

is lowered, when

is desirable

in the FILM ability

extremely CONTRAST of film which The

and light

to detect film give film contrast. different contrast film

and record film values exposure

different and

radiation film other

exposures with are properties film

as differences a variety expressed relationship of and such as speed

in

density emulsions graininess.

is called

Radiographic contrasts and the

is fabricated

of any particular resulting curves.

usually The

as

a relationship is expressed 4.

between in the form

film

density.

of film

characteristic

H & D CURVES is defined radiation to the current, tube

(Figure

4-3) of the The intensity of the radiation directly that reaching is directly proportional M the exposure, X-ray or 4-5 permits the film

Exposure and the tional product. tube

M.J

as the product time. and time; E = Mt, exposure kilovoltage,

exposure current

output

of X-ray it is also

equipment

proporto their M the

therefore, where

Mathematically, and t the at a given

E is the It is this

exposure,

time.

relationship in terms

exposure,

to be specified

of milliampere-minutes

milliampere-seconds without stating specific

larly, strength, gamma ray exposure exposure without units, the of the what paper the scale. second to the suitable exposures. H & D curve. of any would axis light other relative and is stated time. stating and t the Thus, specific For exposure, exposure actual

values ray

of tube

current may

or time.

Simisource in are to

as E = Mt where gamma values and gamma this reason means, producing itself is used, scale. is laid film of the the

E is the exposures

exposure, or time.

M the be expressed

millicurie-hours no convenient express axis pressed the compresses semilog density, linear ically, in plotting in terms logarithm radiographic

of source radiation relative any

strength exposure

There as one is ex-

to all X-

conditions, given scale. the use results curves, incident Expressed

in which is used a film For

By this

exposure since

a relative Similar out on the ratio of light

convenience, logarithm if Film side of

of the are

otherwise used common

be a long exposure logarithm through

obtained scale.

is used It is the

logarithmic

in plotting

characteristic radiograph.

is laid upon

out on a one

a radiograph

transmitted I
O

mathemat-

D = lOgl0- _where D is the the transmitted film density, light. for I o the intensity of the incident light, and I the intensity of

It is difficult

the

human

eye

to distinguish

between

small

density

differ-

wmmm_l

I 2.5

I
I I l I I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I

2.0
>I-z w e_

1.5

1.0

./
__'E B

EA-_ I E2
1.5 EXPOSURE

0.s

1.0
LOG RELATIVE

I"--2.0

EB

2.5

Figure 4-6

4-3.

Film

Characteristic

Ctirve

ences, The

and

there overall

is a lower for film Referring than must most

limit films

of contrast make increases 4-2 in terms and,

that

the

eye

cannot that

detect. as exposure film that the For confilm two a low the of

H & D curves increases. the radiograph

it readily and 4-3

apparent more

J
!

increases, trast that exposure

density

importantly, it is obvious between density.

to Figures E B and that make clear

EA is less

it is the

difference of film

exposure El, the difference in density between E A and E B is relatively small, and will probably not be discernible by the eye. By increasing exposure
i

to the value

represented but the

by E 2, not density

only

is the

overall

density

the

radiograph

increased,

difference

(radiographic

contrast}

between detectable contrast for

E A and E B is greatly increased. The resulting by the eye. Selection of a correct exposure characteristics to amplify the subject contrast, In industrial of at least intensity is measured High-speed more exposure film 1.5. available by the needs to attain for three radiography, The for highest reading films desirable should

contrast is easily has used the film's resulting in a usealways be exposed only is limited

ful radiograph. a density light speed by the

b.

density

the radiograph. required exposure film speed to obtain while density. films. a desired slow-speed Figure The 4-4 shape of film film

Film density. requires

exposure only low the same different

illustrates

H & D curves

/
i 0 i [] 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 LOG RELATIVE 1.8 2.1 EXPOSURE 2.4 2.7 3.0

Figure

4-4.

Relative

Film

Speed 4-7

each

curve

and

its

position film. factor

on the

log relative

exposure

axis

is determined

by the design of the since time is a cost considerations, used.

Co

Film speed is a consideration in any industrial operation. graininess, permit

of importance Whenever other fast film may be

such

as acceptable

Graininess silver affects (See (1) (2) film Figure The The crease fine

is the visible (grains) contrast 4-5.) The

evidence that degree grain radiation form

of the the definition,

grouping and all

into film

clumps

of the film.

minute It

particles

image

on radiographic of any film film film

and image

is subject is dependent

to it. upon:

of graininess structure to which quality of the the

or coarse of the

emulsion. Is exposed, will cause since an in-

quality

in the

penetrating

of the radiation

an increase

in graininess. (3) Film ment processing, process. because Under time graininess conditions is directly by an increase cause increased related to the develop-

normal

of development

any increase graininess. with

in development (4) The use

is accompanied screens energy. which

in film

of fluorescent in radiation

graininess

increase

COARSE GRAIN

FINE GRAIN

&

EXPOSED

UNEXPOSED

EXPOSED

UNEXPOSED

Figure

4-5.

Film

Grain

4-8

404 The

FILM selection

SELECTION of film and fast fine that of various and have

FACTORS by the radiographer quality. have as short good usually and is based Film large resolution. in the each are reliable. grains on the need speed, and poor the use Film for for and though radiographs graininess of a are whereas film is limited have Their

certain interrelated slow by the created

contrast films

definition films grain

contrast, Therefore, radiograph. designed

resolution, of fast

it is economically

advantageous graininess films

to make

exposures

as possible,

can be tolerated characteristics, usage

manufacturers purpose.

a specific

recommendations 405 1. Once latent volved otherwise upon 2. the FILM

as to film PROCESSING

GENERAL a radiographic image produced in making step exposure by the radiograph it and a radiograph has are been made becomes Each those the since film visible. step must be processed All of the errors processing in film can so that make the inan

radiation useless. in turn

procedures

important affects

processing following.

worthwhile preceding

is dependent

PROCESSING consistently

PRECAUTIONS good results, the film: solution temperatures, and processing following general precautions must be ob-

To obtain
V

served a.

in processing Maintain times b. Use action c. Equip fogging d. Maintain

radiographic chemical

concentrations, limits. trays, holders

within equipment, of the the

prescribed tanks, processing with

etc.,

that

withstand the

the

chemical

solutions suitable

without safeguards

contaminating and lighting

solutions. to avoid

darkroom

controls

film. scrupulous cleanliness.

3. In tank deep under corners placed removed

TANK

PROCESSING (Figure the film bending, to fit the film holder the 4-6), the processing used during film holds solutions Prior This film while firmly and wash water are the edges in tanks film or is

processing so that from darkroom to avoid

enough

is suspended to avoid

vertically. exposure. fog. the The film

to processing removal by its The of its Once four

is accomplished film is then corners, in the

conditions holder

is grasped handling. by each tanks.

wrinkling, that dimensions

or crimping of the

in a processing

and is designed

processing

placed

4-9

V
V E[
H 0 R :

STOP " BATH

:
FIXER ..

"
CASCADE

WASH T

"2"

:,_. , _:..:
".;. . .'.,;

.-

.:._..

. ...._,

"_,.,,: .: I_ / / /

.... .".: " : : [.:""" : i" " "..:. / / / / / DRAIN "/////// / WATER INLET _

Ijr_f / / / / - LJ WATER INLET

DRAIN

Figure

4-6.

Typical

Tank

Processing

Unit

processing essing a. b. are:

holder

the

film

is

ready

for

processing.

The

advantages

of tank

proc-

The

solutions

readily control controls handling space are the

reach of the

all water

portions in which

of both the

sides processing

of the

film. tanks are

Temperature immersed

temperature during

of the

solutions.

C.

Easy Time

film and

is permitted saved.

processing.

d.

4. There washing,

TANK are

PROCESSING five separate drying.

PROCEDURES steps in proper tank processing developing, stop bath, fixing,

and a.

Developing. particles This amount strength strength through film process

Developing in the exposed

is

the

chemical of the film is is

process film placed emulsion

of reducing to metallic

silver

bromide

portion when changed of the the

silver. solution. The

commences bromide

in the

developer and that the the

of silver and

a function

of time

chemical chemical created the

temperature constant,

solution. density is

Assuming of the

remains the

radiographic to the proportional the temperature by length

image of time

developing in the To

process solution,

proportional inversely results, time is

remains

and

to the

solution is kept within film desired of 68F

temperature. narrow being limits processed.

obtain the

consistent development

and

determined the contrast

the

type density

In practical radiographs is

applications obtained with

and temperature

in industrial

a solution

V
4-10

(20 C),

and

a development

time

between and left result

five

and

eight

minutes. charts beyond are

(i) Manufacturers
consulted To avoid time mences, limits. since fogging,

recommendations whenever Solution cold doubt film exists is never temperature solutions

time-temperature developing before in the solution

as to proper is checked of the tending or

procedures. recommended com(insufficient and Warm solucan soften developing

in underdevelopment chemical reaction. to fog the image, off.

film density) tions cause the emulsion

due to retardation overdevelopment, so that it wrinkles

sloughs

(2) During
reaction than ment film the the film

the development at the surface solution, areas film they is tapped until and flow pass.

process, the waste products of the film, having a higher downward, For When the and this thus first retarding placed the reason, to obtain in the the side film of air from

of the specific uniform solution is

chemical gravity of developtank Each the minute

development

the

is agitated. to rid development

hanger

emulsion moved

bubbles. to side

thereafter, vertically seconds.

is completed,

shaken for a few

horizontally,

(3) In use,
weaker the The the silver rate rate

the

chemical bromide

strength grains

of developer of the active and the buildup

solution chemicals of waste intervals,

grows reaction to the

progressively with and by products. number

because of this of the

of expenditure chemical the

in reaction

depletion activity

is proportional (development

density is tested.

films

developed. acceptable is tested

At periodic standards, by processing

determined of the is replenished. to X-rays

of depletion, If below activity

ability) solution

solution

the

(4) Developer

a film the same after

exposed

through a stepped those of a standard in a fresh by cutting tainlng developed maining volume activity, processing. solution. the

wedge, and comparing film exposed in the Similar film of all of the and require density into strips processed steps

densities manner, results exposure, One

obtained with and developed are each strip When obtained strip and the the conreis then

comparison of the activity wedge. as the test frequent

standard

exposures in fresh strips of work are

solution used not practice

standard, films. testing

as solution

does

more each

of developer film

it is good

to test

day before

commencing

(5) Developers
The solution developer, powder,

are

commercially more

available the

in both developer

powder with

and

liquid than

form. Liquid

is formed though

by combining expensive, used.

water.

is much In preparing

easier

to prepare

and is normally

or replenishing

developer 4-11

solution,
b,

the

manufacturer's is removed within the to remove

directions from the emulsion, The residual and this

are

followed

in detail.

V
Stop Bath. When film of the solution remains continue acid film, and and until water, prevents the serves developing solution, and the developing stop film bath, developer streaking. a solution solution The permitting a quantity action will of acetic from stop the the acid bath

solution uneven

is removed. development

also neutralizes the in the fixer solution

alkaline remnants to function in the

of the developer, desired manner.

(i) After
and the

development is complete the film is removed from the developer allowed to drain for a second or two. The film is then doused in stop bath and which then water is maintained The removed film for film for after at the is agitated transfer same to the temperature for fixer solution. to placing as the 30 to 60 If no in the in uncontami-

developer seconds, stop nated fixer (2) Stop glacial with acid each mixing glacial (never (3) Stop poor bath

solution. is available,

in the bath

development two minutes

is rinsed prior

running solution. bath water, is used, gallon stop acid the bath

at least

is mixed acid; the bath, solution. water becomes viewed to a blue solution equivalent unexposed of the upon

from most

commercially commonly to each are of acid

available from gallon

28% acetic which ounces must slowly and preparation

acid When

or glacial to in

acetic

the former

is mixed of acid of a to water

16 ounces of solution.

of solution.

proportions particularly Glacial acid) after safelight, to the spent under purple,

four-and-one-half directions acid stirring use bath dark is added constantly.

Manufacturers acetic while

be followed

in the handling

repeated stop

and is replaced solution clear. under of stop When bath the

to avoid in color color illumina-

quality

radiographs.

A fresh which

is yellow safelight

and when changes tion, treat

C.

is almost appears Five gallons

the the If the

is replaced.

will normally

of one hundred silver developer bromide, and and

14" by 17" films. remaining bath ruin the air in the film emulsion Fixer, from first of the processes the amount of disof the portion. When the a the It also

Fixing. after it will mildly unexposed hardens placed solution fixer are still

completion darken acid the in the of the solution, going

stop and

processes, the radiograph. silver the clouded

is not removed bromide

exposure dissolves of the solution, bromide. film The clears, total film gelatin

to light, without permitting the film

solution, portions emulsion fixer silver the on.

removes affecting warm becomes

exposed drying. upon

as a result strength

In time, but the time required

dependent dissolution for

and hardening fixing is twice

4-12

time
L . 5

necessary fixing of the and Fixer of the is taken or slough intervals loss

to clear time, film

the

film.

It should

not exceed

more

than long

15 minutes. drying

Longer swelling times, (1)

indicative emulsion, film

of a weak improper densities.

solution, hardening,

can cause overly

abnormal

of lesser

solution developer to avoid off.

is maintained and high When stop first until bath,

at a temperature between which in the is completed, through and cause

in the the and the

same

range

as that care

65 and solution,

70 F.

Particular at two minute is agitated. stop bath some however, The

temperatures placed fixing depleted films, may

emulsion

to wrinkle

thereafter solution water salts. and

film by the

(2)

Fixer rinse silver solution limit

becomes carried The replacing effectiveness the solution

dilution by the fixer. and and by the solution

or of the a

on the

accumulation by removing There after replaced. length to the is,

of dissolved

be replenished

it with undiluted of replenishment, is discarded solution

to the

two or three frequency by required of films

replenishments of replenishment the for acidity film of the fixation.

and replacement solution It is directly

of fixer proportional

is determined of time number

as evidenced

processed. (3) Fixers are commercially available in both powder and liquid form and

the fixer solution is formed by combining the fixer with water. Liquid fixer is easier to handle and is most commonly used. In preparing or replenishing fixer followed in detail.
d.

solution,

the

manufacturer's

directions

are

to be

Washing. fixer from water changing films and time. each moved film (1)

After fixing, the emulsion. all of the The flow film through Each the water.

films undergo a washing The film is thoroughly emulsion wash tank developing for are drain surface is large enough four and

process to remove the immersed in running with constantly the without times the and that the the equal to twice then last number volume the of of fixing cycle, any crowding, to handle eight through tank,

so that going

is in contact processes of time of the

and fixing a period proceeding end

the hourly When film toward receives Temperature.

of water is washed

is between

the tank.

a number placed intake. the

of films in the This

processing wash

is first

progressively

procedure

insures

is with

fresh The

water. of the water in the wash tank is an

temperature

important factor of the with a water temperature tures tures

m r

wash efficiency. Best results between 65 and 70F since damaging solutions. effects as those At low temperatures

are obtained higher temperaof high very temperalittle 4-13

can

cause

the

same

in the

processing

washing

action When cling water

takes film

place.

V (2) Wetting.
water cause sibility is removed or streaks mark damage, from on the film the wash tank, film. small these drops drops the agent of will posand to the marks emulsion. If permitted to remain

finished is immersed

To lessen in a wetting

of water

then drained commercially evenly

e.

for one or two minutes before available aerosol solutions, the film. step of film processing

drying. Wetting cause the water

agents, to drain

from The final

Drying.

is drying,

usually

accomplished to If no of the

by hanging the film in a drying cabinet. Drying cabinets permit flow of heated and filtered air to reach both sides drying where manual 5. AUTOMATIC film cabinet air film is available freely. cycle. processing film may be air-drled 4-7 circulates Figure is a graphic

are designed of the film.

by hanging

in a position

representation

FILM

PROCESSING machines They and the are accomplish are use same are a processing wherever the film. for tank all required as those than chemicals; high and higher operated, system the processing Though This processing, high agitation film those built around of work and the the speed film, makes them steps

Automatic chemicals, economical. operation used processing is made maintenance heated air. consistently manually. 406 1.

processing The machines unit by the properly

and mechanics. necessary cycle possible When produce is loading is completed

used

volume

only manual entire processing film; jets of units with

unloading

the processing

in an automatic

in less of special at relatively maintained

15 minutes. continual temperatures;

of the

of all solutions

and drying than

automatic

processing processed

radiographs

of much

quality

DARKROOM GENERAL facilities are The type

FACILITIES

Darkroom processing activity. ume signed with film and

may

consist size, and

of a single or of a series design The of film for

room

where

all each are

steps

of film for the cycle. it must without from

handling a specific the

and vol-

accomplished, location, of work the must

of rooms facilities

designed dependent within

of the location

upon facility

to be done. logical flow

of equipment the

is de-

to facilitate safelight by exposure

through processing

processing operations

Two be lighted endangering sources.

requirements

be satisfied

in the construction sufficient be protected

of a darkroom; against light

of an intensity to light;

and it must

outside

4-14

FILM ACIDIC. CONTINUES DISSOLVES ALLOWING HARDENS 5 TO 15 TWICE

FIXING 68" NEUTRALIZATION. UNEXPOSED SILVER THEM (TANS) MINUTES. CLEARING TIME. TO FALL THE FILM. FROM SALTS FILM.

SILVER COATING.

SALTS

SUSPENDED

IN AN GELATIN

EMULSION.

PROTECTIVE

1
EXPOSURE CLEAN THE SILVER SALTS ARE ACTED BY RADIATION. THE INTENSITY THE REACTION IN THE EMULSION TO THE RECEIVED. 10 TO .30 MINUTES. TWICE FIXING DIRECTLY AMOUNT PROPORTIONAL OF RADIATION UPON OF IS RUNNING HOURLY FLOW TANK VOLUME. REMOVES ALL

L
WASHING WATER. 4 TO 8 TIMES CHEMICALS. 68" TIME.

l
DEVELOPER WETTING ALKALINE. CHANGES TO BLACK THE EXPOSED SILVER METALLIC SILVER. 68" SALTS AEROSOL ELIMINATES STREAKS. 0.5 SOLUTION. MOST WATER SPOTS AND 5 TO 8 MINUTES. TO 1 MINUTE.

1
STOP BATH DRYING ACIDIC. NEUTRALIZES STOPS THE THE DEVELOPER DEVELOPING PROCESS. .:30 TO 45 1 TO 2 MINUTES. MINUTES. 68 AND WARM, DRIES FILTERED, THE FILM. CIRCULATING AIR

Figure

4-7.

Manual

Film

Processing

4-15

2. The

SAFELIGHTS placement adequate of safelights light but less in the areas protection darkroom where in the is determined unexposed developing film and by the need is handled fixing areas; for (the maximum loading properly areas. test film for is the equivaif there film,

protection bench); safelight filtered Safelight safelights lent protected light 3.

against

in the

and normal

(white) in washing and at the correct installations is exposure encountered difference by opaque can

and drying areas. distance from the be determined to the during the light the during normal

Safelights of correct wattage, film, can be used in all of these only time by test. and distance A portion standard portions The simplest conditions of the test processing, of the

as safe under film exposure; and

of film material between

to those

handling. after protected

is no density is safe.

exposed

PROTECTION of darkroom of proper made with ventilators

AGAINST spaces

OUTSIDE against through

LIGHT outside the use light penetrating locked through from entrances the inside; a is

Protection a matter light lock Light-tight ing system. 4. The areas room proof 5. When chine, room end 407 1. The are

safeguarding

of a door

double or revolving doors; are used to prevent light

or a labryinth entry through

(maze) entrance. the darkroom ventilat-

WALLS, walls where floors material. and light

CEILING ceiling color chemicals are usually

AND FLOOR of the darkroom splatter with are are usually amount protected painted with with ceramic semi-gloss The tile walls and paint of a Darkslip-

pleasing

that

reflects may covered

a maximum

of safelight.

in the

or glass.

a chemical-resistant,

waterproof

AUTOMATIC automatic the the only is within

PROCESSING processing machine. Usually

DARKROOM is used, film and darkroom film not yet through area. facilities takes place a wall processed, are designed the the madarkloading requires so that to

equipment Since of unexposed the and machine the all

accommodate conditions.

of the processing is installed

within

handling

a darkroom

remainder

in an open

DARKROOM GENERAL loading standard bench. bench, holders The

EQUIPMENT

film and

storage equipment. loading

cabinets of processing for

and bins, hangers holders

processing are all

tanks, film, and

and film and

driers unloadfilm

darkroom

Handling

of unprocessed and hangers,

loading light-tight

ing of film loading 4-16

accomplished

at the

storage

facilities

storage k..j activities distance separated 2. The are

bins from,

are

located handling the

in the take

loading place, tanks. water

bench should The

area. "dry" and

This "wet" damage

area, accessible areas

in which to, of the

all but

"dry" at some are

of film

be readily

processing inadvertent TANKS used

darkroom

to prevent

or chemical

to film.

PROCESSING processing located tanks in the The per hour. as large,

in the sizes

developing, darkroom. tanks bath of the

stop fixes tanks four

bath, tanks times should times the

fixing, are amount

and washing aligned of work same in the that size,

processes order of can be done. fixer

"wet" relative

area tank

of the

The

processing. A five-gallon 40 films tanks 3. Film iently 408 twice

developer

at normal and stop tanks

development at least

can handle be the as large.

approximately

Developer and wash

DRYING drying located

CABINETS cabinets for ease should Since in film have a filtered is the last air intake, film step, racks, the drier exhaust may fan, and

a heating

element.

drying

processing

be conven-

handling.

CLEANLINESS is of great with and or nicked importance care, and of film only during white the entire used radiographic during loading Film Images and clean, of the damp and process. holders, of dirt, ruin lead on the Film of and result film, chips, film

Cleanliness

should film screens scratched

be handled holders, should

gloves

and unloading

mounting screens,

in processing crimps, chemical immaculately contamination chemicals preferably electricity electricity,

hangers. scratches stains

be handled radiograph.

in clean handling

surroundings.

and nicks streaks and area

in a worthless

Similarly,

a radiograph.

The film processing area must be kept those who work in the area. Chemical ruin used. humidity other radiographer. of film, Floors assists fabrics, so it is advisable must which be kept in preventing encourage to store clean and static static

access limited to can result in the area until dust. by the they High Nylon and are

in a separate to hold static marks

down

on film.

should

be avoided

k.i

2. _

CHAPTER TABLE OF

5:

SAFETY

CONTENTS

Par

agr aph GENERAL UNITS 1. MAXIMUM General 2. Banking PROTECTION 1. 2. 3. 4. General Allowable Working Shielding ....................................... DOSE MEASUREMENT ......................... ............... PERMISSIBLE DOSE

Page 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-4 ..................... 5-5 5-5 5-5 .......................... 5-6 5-8 5-9 5-12 5-14 5-14 in Restricted Areas Areas ..... ...... 5-14 5-15 5-15 5-18 ................... Storage Containers ........... INSTRUMENTS ................ . . . ...... Requirements 5-18 5-18 5-19 5-19 5-20 5- 20 Chambers 5-20 5-22 ..................... 5-22 5-23 5- 24 5- 24 5-24 5-5 5-13 ....... ......... 5-16 5-17 5-19 5-21

500 501 502

OF RADIATION

...................................... Concept ................................ AGAINST RADIATION ...................................... Working Distance Time ...............................

503

.....................................

5O4

5. Gamma Ray Requirements .......................... USAEC RULES AND REGULATIONS ......................

General Exposure Exposure Permissible Personnel Caution Radiation Radiation General Pocket Film Radiographic

...................................... of Individuals of Minors Levels Monitoring Signs, Survey Surveys DETECTION Dosimeters Badges Labels, Exposure to Radiation .............................. of Radiation in Unrestricted ............................. and Signals Devices and

2. 3. 4.
m

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 505 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 506 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 5-1 5- 2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6

Instrumentation ...............................

RADIATION

AND MEASUREMENT and Pocket

. .................................... ...................................

Survey Meters ................................. Ionization Chamber Instruments Geiger Area Counters Alarm SAFETY ................................ Systems

............................. ..............................

ELECTRICAL Banking Radiation Current

Concept ................................ Protection Constructions External Radiation External ............ ............................... Occupational

.................... Exposure History... Exposure

Occupational

Radiation

Radiation Symbol Pocket Dosimeter

...................

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

Paragraph Figure 5-7 Figure 5-8 Table 5-1 Table 5-2 Table 5-3 Table 5-4 Table 5-5 Table 5-6 Table 5-7
Pocket Film RBE Changer Badge Values and Charger ........................ .................................... ................................... Dose Dose X-ray Gamma Limits Limits Rates Rates Half Ray ........................... vs Distance Value Half Layers and Areas Areas Tenth .................. ................. Value Layers ...... .................. ................

5-22 5-23 5-4 5-6 5-9 5-10 5-10 5-14 5-15

Radioisotope Radioisotope Approximate Approximate Exposure Exposure

in Restricted in Unrestricted

5-2

CHAPTER

5:

SAFETY

5OO This

GENERAL chapter is designed devices, nor to keep of radiation are based cannot and and himself on the be detected shielding. safety enforce The exposure emphasis practices regulations. it to be. DOSE MEASUREMENT body of radiation or who it permit safety pertinent with UNITS various to safe regulations Commission, safety states levels, have to present detection aware human some equipment. of the body latest are and of the personal The United covering the regulations material. and practices the of the basic radiographic safety safety and guide. safety The procedures, of government radiographer Most Since effects detection do safety is of the

protection regulations cautioned effects practices radiation not become devices (USAEC) The States active limit This and
j

It is not an interpretation effective known human States the Civil similar regulations.

is it to be considered

as a complete

predictable. and its

Radiation of radiation. damaging upon

on these

effects, by any

characteristics senses, Atomic handling Aeronautics the regulations protection the The have but protection

immediately adequate enforces

apparent,

is dependent Energy and use Board,

Commission of radioisotopes. and use, are for the general nature who of, as safe and the United of radiohandling, to public. of sure comply designed

Interstate Coast material. radiation government certain USAEC all

Commerce Guard

covering All of these to afford indicates areas. must is safe,

transportation covering

and transportation

of radioactive

regulations mandatory' knowledge it is only

on safety in all

radiation

radiographer

is a licensee as those

of the with, working 501

is employed

by a licensee Radiography

OF RADIATION

For radiation safety purposes, exposure is of primary

the cumulative effect upon the human Since the damaging

concern.

effects of radiation to living cells

are dependent upon both the type and the energy of the radiation to which they are exposed, it is impractical only to measure exposure is first measured radiation quantitatively. For this reason, in physical terms; then, a factor allowing for the relative

biological effectiveness of different types and energies of radiation is applied. i. The units used to measure a. Roentgen. radiation exposure are defined as follows: of X- or gamma radiation

The roentgen (r) is the unit measure

in air. It is defined as the quantity of radiation that will produce one electrostatic unit (esu) of charge in one cubic centimeter of air at standard pressure and temperature. One roentgen of radiation represents the ab83 ergs of radiation energy per gram sorption by ionization of approximately

of air. In practical application, the milliroentgen (mr), one thousandth of a roentgen, is often used. The roentgen is a physical measurement of X- and gamma k_i 5-3 radiation quantity.

b,

Rem. equivalent on man. biological

The

roentgen man) It represents effectiveness tad per

is a measurement unit used to define

in air the

only and biological

the rem effect

{roentgen of radiation V relative

is the

the absorbed dose in fads of the radiation absorbed. absorbed dose) material, gamma rays; is the

multiplied

by the

Co

Rad. radiation

The

(radiation gram

unit

of measurement place of exposure. to any

of The type

absorption only

by humans. of irradiated to Xand

It represents the

an absorption at the rad applies

of 100 ergs

of energy

roentgen applies of radiation.

do

Rbe,

The

value effect

assigned Practically,

to various body, the dose

types in rem

of radiation, rbe is the National

determined biological of the tad on

by the and

radiatton's effectiveness}.

on the human

is called

(relative product

rbe. Rbe values have been calculated by the Radiation Protection as shown in Table 5-1. Table 5-1. RBE Values

Committee

RADIATION

RBE 1

X-RAY

GAMMA RAY

BETA PARTICLES

THERMAL

NEUTRONS

FAST NEUTRONS

10

ALPHA PARTICLES

20

2. of rem dose one.

Radiation dose is equivalent

safety of X-

levels tad

are dose,

established and dose (2) the thus

in terms rbe

of rem

dose.

The (1) the

calcuIating roentgen radiation dose. is

and gamma to the

radiation

is simplified becomes

by two facts, of both a measurement

X- and gamma

A measurement

of roentgen

of rein

502 1.

MAXIMUM GENERAL

PERMISSIBLE

DOSE

It is impossible posure as, "...the dose

and impractical Permissible of ionizing

to safeguard dose radiation that,

radiographic by the light in the

personnel National of present

from Bureau knowledge,

some

ex-

to radiation.

is defined

of Standards is not

V
5-4

expected lifetime." missible Currently regulations in any limited

to cause

appreciable permissible

bodily

injury

to a person numerical of exposure, experience, Radiation.

at any value

time of the

during highest

his per-

Maximum

dose

is the

dose, under prescribed conditions accepted mpd, established through on Standards for Protection

stated in units of time. is contained in USAEC Maximum radiation dose,

Against

period of one calendar quarter, to an individual in a restricted area, is normally to 1-1/4 rem. Maximum permissible dose per year must not average over 5 each year past dose levels. bodies, the age 18. An average weekly dose Under certain circumstances defined up to 3 rem per calendar quarter of 100 mrem by cognizant may is within government

rem for tolerance regulatory

exposures

be permitted.

Applicable the National

radiation safety publications are issued by the National Committee on Radiation Protection, the USAEC, and

Bureau of Standards, state authorities.

The radtographer should be cognizant of the information in the "AEC Licensing Guide for Industrial Radiography", which is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. 2. BANKING CONCEPT

The foregoing permdsslble radiation exposure rates are based on the banking concept of radiation exposure. This concept considers that an individual should not be subFor each year of llfeafter 18 the Exposure _n ,_y one year should not exceed Jected to radiation exposure prior to the age of 18. individual is given a credit of 5 rem. 12 rem. %,., Figure 150 5-1 illustrates the banking c,ncept.

[
5 REMS PER YEAR EACH YEAR AFTER DEPOSITED AGE 18.

1
FOR

_, o i
n,, w a.

50
RADIATION BANK ACCOUNT

15

20

25

30 AGE IN YEARS

35

40

45

Figure 5-1. 503 1. Three PROTECTION GENERAL cardinal principles govern safety AGAINST RADIATION

Banking

Concept

practices

for

controlling

body

exposure

to 5-5

radiation; graphic 2. The

time, installations

distance, are

and

shielding.

Safe

radiographic these principles.

techniques

and

radio-

designed

by applying TIME by the human

ALLOWABLE amount

WORKING absorbed

of radiation

body

is directly

proportional

to the in

time the body is exposed. A person receiving a radiation field would receive 10 mr in five calculated by measuring working radiation time intensity

2 mr in one minute minutes. Allowable and substituting rate in the

at a given point working time is following equation.

Allowable 3. The The from WORKING greater inverse a source. the

in hr/wk

= permissible exposure

exposure in mr/wk in mr/hr

DISTANCE distance law The from is used a radiation to calculate law square source, radiation (Figure 2-8) the lower intensities is expressed the exposure at various as: received. distances

square

inverse

I1 I

D2 D 2 1 The following examples in terms of dose rate. referred to in the examples.

where I illustrate 5-2 lists

and I are methods dose rates

intensities at D_ and D respectively. used to calculable radiation intensities of commonly used radioisotopes

Table

Table

5-2.

Radioisotope

Dose

Rates

RADIOI SOTOPE

DOSE RATE R/HR/CURIE EMt SSIV|TY

AT 1 FOOT

COBALT-60

14.5

IRIDIUM-192

5.9

CESIUM-1.37

4.2

THULIUM-17O

0.03

V
5-6

Example

1:

Given

a 12 curie

Cesium

137 source,

what

is the emission

at 3 feet ? Step 1: From Table at one foot; foot Step 2: I= D D1 Step 3: 5-2, thus, the, dose the dose or 50.4 rate rate of Cesium 137 is 4.2 r/hr/c of a 12 curie source at one

is 12 x 4.2 50.4r/hr = 1 foot = 3 feet

r/hr.

Substituting I1 50.4 12 32

in the

inverse

square

law equation

Step

4:

Solving 11

for I 1 12 1 50.4x..-_-= 5.6r/hr

=50.4x--=

32

Example

2:

A 35 curie feet from

source

of Iridium What dose dose

192 Is used dose rate

at distance he receive 192 Is 5.9 source

of 20 ? r/hr/c at one

a workman. 5-1, thus, the the

will

Step

1:

From at one foot

Table foot;

rate rate r/hr.

of Iridium of a 35 curie

is 35 x 5.9 = 206.5 = 1 foot = 20 feet

or 206.5

Step

2:

I D D1

r/hr

Step 3:

Substituting

in the

inverse

square

law

equation

11 206.5 Step 4: Solving I1

12 202 for 11 12 = 206.5 x_ = 202 206.5x_ 1 400 .51625 r/hr

Example 3:
Step 1:

In example workman I I1 D

2,

at what

distance only

from 3 mr/hr mr/hr

the ?

source

should

the

be to receive r/hr,

= 206.5 = 3 mr/hr = 1 foot

or 206,500

Step 2:

Substituting 3
m

in the 12 D 2 1

inverse

square

law

equation

206,500

Step

3.

Solving 2 D1 D1 =

for

D1 x 12 = = 262+ 68,833 feet list the dose rates at various square distances law.

206,500 3

= 6_r_,833 as Table are 5-3, derived

ae

Tables from

such

which

a source, Given what

by application of Cobalt at 2, 4,

of the 60 as 14.5 8, etc.

inverse r/hr/c

Example:

the dose is the dose = 14.5 = 1 foot = 2 feet

rate rate

at one foot,

feet?

Step 1:

I D D1

r/hr/c

Step 2:

Substituting I1 12

in the

inverse

square

law

equation

Step

3-

Solving

for

I1 12 1 14.5 x 4 3.6 r/hr/c in similar fashion.

I1 Step 4: Solve

= for

14.5 dose

x 22 rates

at other

distances

5-8

Table 5-3. Radioisotope Dose Rates vs Distance

DOSE RATE IN REMS PER HOUR PER CURIE CESIUM-137 THULIUM-170

DISTANCE

COBALT-60

IRIDIUM-192

1 FOOT

14.5

5.9

4.2 1.1

0.03

2 FEET

3.6

1.5

0.007

4 FEET

0.9

0.4

0.26

0.002

8 FEET

0.23

0.09

0.07

0.0004

I0 FEET

0.145

O. 059

O. 042

0.00027

b.

All of the same measure and then settings X-radiation.

foregoing for

examples calculating

are

based rate

on gamma or radiation intensities with Any change and on the (scatter) and

radiation; intensity ma

however, hold for to

the

principles intensity apply requires and dose

dose X-radiation distance law.

In determining at a known inverse a new rate the

it is necessary in X-ray recalculation. square law machine

predetermined

and kv settings,

square intensity calculations

measurement based

/P

c.

Intensity never the primary

inverse radiation

should sum of

be accepted radiation

as exact. and the

Radiation secondary of no scatter,

intensity

at any point in a complete

is the at that vacuum,

point. are

Only under calculated

ideal conditions intensities exact.

4. Lead,

SHIELDING steel, iron, exposure. shielding, The of a given layers. of the layers of any layer The half-value and concrete Since layer intensity. A tenth-value radiation are, in all cases, should shielding. rely The are materials energy amount commonly shielding shielding is that intensity. determined only following on actual See used as shielding radiation in terms will stop which and and the 5-5. actual ts often 5-4 cannot half will Halfto reduce be stopof the in stop and the of of half-value measured

personnel ped by layers. radiation tenth-value nine-tenths tenth-value ment. half-value effectiveness

all of the is that

of X- or gamma efficiency which efficiency Tables measurement of shielding amount

it is practical

to measure Similarly, layer

of shielding

of a given

by experiment examples illustrate

measure-

radtographer

to determine application

information.

Example

1:

A 200-kvp radiation shielding, acceptable reduce the

X-ray the safe dose

machine toward rate dose limit. rate

must in the

be located adjacent

so that occupied room wall to a safe dose rate

the room.

primary Without the to ? of

is directed

an adjacent

is 500 times is required value

How thick in the layer 1 or-22 ; three adjacent

a concrete room

Step

1:

Since 1

one half-value

(I-1VL) reduces HVL

by a factor

1 1 two I-IVL by _-_2x_-

1 1 1 1 by _--2 x -_ x_ or-- 3 ; 2 by a factor i of--_ 2 safe 1 or 51---2

etc.,

then

9 HVL

will

reduce

dose

rate

and Table

9 HVL will 5-4.

reduce

the

dose

rate Half

to an aoeeptable Value Layers

limit.

Approximate

X-ray

HALF-VALUELAYER SHIELDING MATERIAL 50 kvp 70 kvp

I

FOR TUBE POTENTIAL

OF

100 kvp
I i

125 kvp

150k_

200k_

250k_

300 kvp

LEAD (m)

0.05

0.18

0.24

0.27

0.3

0.5

0.8

1.5

CONCRETE (t_.)

0.2

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

Table

5-5.

Approximate

Gamma

Ray

Half

and

Tenth

Value

Layers

RADIOISOTOPE SHIELDING MATERIAL ININCHES 1/10

SOURCE

COBALT-60

IRIDIUM-192

CESIUM-137

1/2

1/10

1/2

1/10

1/2

LEAD

1.62

0.49

0,64

0.19

0.84

0.25

STEEL CONCRETE OR ALUMINUM

2.90

0.87

2.0

0.61

2.25

0.68

8.6

2.6

6.2

1.9

7.1

2.1

5-10

Step 2:

From Table Is one inch. duce the dose

5-3 the concrete Thus, 9 inches rate

half-value of concrete safe

layer for shielding value.

200-kvp radiation is required to re-

to an acceptable

Example

2:

In a previous 20 feet from the workman is required

example it was found that the a 35 curie Iridium 192 source must remain the at his dose location, to reduce dose rate rate

dose rate for a workman was 516.25 mr/hr. If how much ? the original dose rate lead shielding

to 3 mr/hr therefore or

Step 1:

The

desired

of 516.25 Step 2: Seven

must

is 3/mr/hr; 516.25 be reduced 3 dose rate

HVL reduces

172 times. 1 by a factor ofor 128 times, 27 1 2 or 256 but times. Thus, 7 HVL

but

HVL not Step 3:

reduces provide

it by a factor the 5-4, inch. required

of-_ shielding

will

8 HVL will. for Iridium 1.52 inches 192 radiaof lead safe

From Table tion is 0.19 shielding value.

the lead half-value layer Therefore, 8 x 0.19 or to reduce the dose

is required

rate

to an acceptable

a.

Exposure

Area.

Wherever

practicable,

exposure

areas

should

consist

of a

room completely the construction be housed specimens the exposure occupied permit. shielding film shielded be taken determined, the radiation and grapher, practiced effective safe
be

lined with lead of such a room shielded X-ray To reduce the safely exposure nor encloses It is not area. the three When safety Safe Sufficient who must a designated consideration from the radiation a room

of sufficient thickness for protection. If is not feasible, then the equipment should cabinet, machine the area large controls should enough should of excessive be as isolated any the equipment, to bring must distance, or ropes be placed vicinity. area All personnel to also house the outside in of the this must be radiois most at a to the under must the

in a suitably under area. spaces, If neither that test.

be located radiation

possibility

as conditions combination and specimen shielding) specimen,

a cabinet the radiation

is available,

is acceptable. exposure into

always factors

practical (time, guard in the rails

radiography

be accomplished and to exposure, placed to protect When the simplest, must

circumstance,

account. area. others

distances, marked remain shielded is distance. source. shielding

in relation must

and adequately

to enclose

radiography be kept

outside safety

exposure

distance

X-ray Tube Shielding. Theoretically, effectively shields, to safe levels,

all

the lead primary

housing radiation

around an X-ray tube except the useful

_._

5-11

beam. the

Practically,

this

is not always tube

the

case,

and the

only

way

to assure about be should

safeness

of an X-ray

is to measure the area tubehead. The It is easily measurements care must must most

leakage

(unwanted)

radiation

it. To limit the unwanted radiation, fixed by a cone or diaphragm at the

Co

of primary

radiation

%J

Radiation tect against in cost. of lead shielding.

Protective radiation Shielding thickness. Adjacent

Construction. is lead. protective Particular sheets

common and usually are

material expressed to assure and lead. area nails

used

to prolow

available be exercised be overlapped,

comparatively leakproof

in terms or screws

of lead

that pass through the and air ducts passing pletely shielded. practices.

lead, must also be covered with through the walls of the shielded 5-2 illustrates good lead

Pipes, conduits, must be comconstruction

Figure

shielding

(1)

The thickness the radiation rounding area are and floor areas.

of lead requiring If the

shield employed is dependent upon shielding and the use (occupancy) spaces, above, of the If the below, and about

the energy of of the surthe exposure

all occupied, then all -- must be shielded.

exposure area -- wall, ceiling room is on the top floor of the ceiling, similarly need be shielded. 5-2 partial and apply also the the shielding scattering into if the The to V

building it is not necessary room is on the bottom floor methods partial of partial shielding floor of a ceiling. escaping

to shield all of the not all of the floor shown In either above case,

shielding

in Figure wall

prevents radiation an adjacent area. (2)

or below

Though lead is the most efficient of the easily available materials, other structural materials such as concrete often to the because used. walls. of its At voltages would At these relative greater higher than potentials, 400 kv, the thickness shielding be so great as to make it difficult concrete

shielding and brick of lead the lead

are

to fasten is used

as shielding Simplicity.

effectiveness

and its

construction

5. Special

GAMMA gamma

RAY REQUIREMENTS radiation protection requirements are based on two factors: Gamma

radiation is very thick and heavy. must be provided

a.

penetrating, and (See Table 5-5.) at all times. capability

the required protective shielding is excessiveiy Gamma radiation cannot be shut off, and protection

The

penetrating

of gamma

radiation

makes

it impractical

to rely

on shielding for protection during gamma distance and shielding is usually employed. roped off and clearly marked with

radiography; a combination of The radiation danger zone is signs, and only those

conspicuous

5-12

F//AI

EAD

LEAD WALL ,,,/

\
I

I
PIPE OR CONDUIT
.11/_ r111_ rlll_w r11/,J ,1111

1 LEAD BAFFLES

/
!
DUCT WAL L_/r LEAD

_/_
i.,// / i//. " ,- ,,,//.
" ,'/i/./

METHODS OF SEALING NAIL OR SCREW HOLES IN LEAD PROTECTION A - LEAD-HEADED NAIL B-LEAD STRIP FOLDED OVER NAIL HEADS

WALL
I///./.

"

PY4 _Y4
l/ill

",.IF//>Iw,_

"////j_

_///,

o
METHODS OF HANDLING PROTECTION AT FLOOR LEVEL WHEN PROTECTION IS NOT NEEDED OVER ENTIRE FLOOR

DUCT.,/" 1:7/'_'
METHODS OF SHIELDING WHEN PIPES, DUCTS, OR CONDUITS MUST PASS THROUGH WALLS OF AN X-RAY ROOM

Figure

5-2.

Radiation

Protection

Constructions 5-13

persons the danger by the possible are

Do

making zone effects source

the strength.

radiograph

are

permitted the are area

in the of the

zone. danger the

The

extent the

of

is based of scatter by intensity gamma

on calculations In calculating radiation measurements. from

of safe considered

distance and

as determined zone, calculations

confirmed continuous

The

radiation sources. lead vaults

radiosotopes When not in use depleted taken

necessitates they uranium that leakage are the 238.

strict stored source in After

ac-

countability conspicuously every safely 504 1. The USAEC use, housed, RULES

of radioactive labelled, intensity and AND

and/or are

measurements the storage

to insure

is

pig is not permitting

radiation.

REGULATIONS

GENERAL previously and use in the three discussed Code parts safety precautions is regulated Regulations, Code subject are also to change are non specific 10, Chapter in the AEC presented in nature. The I, parts Licensing for Handling, are 30 and Guide. 20,

storage, published 31. The These

of radioisotopes of Federal of the are

by the USAEC. Title published and are

regulations

following

regulations

familiarization

purposes. 2. EXPOSURE OF INDIVIDUALS dosage are TO RADIATION specified IN RESTRICTED 5-6. AREAS
V

Limitations

on individual

in Table

Table

5-6.

Exposure

Limits

in Restricted

Areas

REMS PER CALENDAR QUARTER

WHOLE BODY, HEAD AND TRUNK; ACTIVE BLOOD-FORMING ORGANS; LENS OF EYES; OR GONADS

1-1/4

HANDS AND FOREARMS; FEET AND ANKLES

18-5/4

SKIN OF WHOLE BODY

7-1/2

5-14

ao

Doses during rems; "N"

greater any (2) the equals the

than dose dose

specified quarter to the whole to the whole

in the the dose body, body,

table

may

be permitted body to the does

provided: not exceed rems and accumulated

(1) 3

calendar

to the when does dose

whole added not last

occupational individual's AEC-4

Do

exceed been has Radiation quarterly

5 (N-18} birthday; recorded signed

where

individual's 5-3)__and Current This recorded the

age

in years

at his has individual

(3) the

accumulated

occupational concerned

on Form the form. is shown source of

(Figure AEC-5, 5-4.

Form the

Occupational form must on Form

External be completed AEC-4

Exposure, and is the

in Figure

information

(Figure

5-3}.

3.

EXPOSURE damage allowed under specified

OF MINORS becomes to work 18 years in Table LEVELS circumstances, Exposure limits comparatively in restricted 5-6. OF RADIATION a limited IN UNRESTRICTED of radiation areas are AREAS is permitted listed present in Table in the in unre5-7. area and These areas. less severe Regulations to receive as an individual to protect dosages ages. minors exceeding Minors specify that 10% of

Radiation are not no individual the limits 4. Under stricted

of age is permitted

PERMISSIBLE approved areas.

amount

in unrestricted

dosage limits thus represent

are based maximum

on an individual radiation levels

being continually permitted.

Table

5-7.

Exposure

Limits

in Unrestricted

Areas

TIME

MILLIREMS

1 HOUR

7 CONSECUTIVE

DAYS

i00

1 CALENDAR

YEAR

500

r(_il

At'C -'4 Form Bureau Expirmt}on Approved of Budget Dnte: No. Jun_ 38 30. Rt19 19_]

U,S. ATOMIC

ENERGY

COMMISSION

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNALRADIATION EXPOSUREHISTORY

See [rl#tructJon8 on file Back IDENTIFICATION I N4MT (PWIkT---_.AST, FIRST, ANO MIDDL) 2 SOCIAL 5TCURITY NO

DATE

OF BIRTH

(MO'KTH,

DAY,

Y_R)

|.

AGE

IN

yI[ARS

(H)

OCCUPATIONAL

EXPOSUR["-pIIIEVIOU$

HISTORY E_(v_s D05[ HrSTORY

S_ PI_IOUS SLI_-LIST

[Idlq.OTMl[_ffS NAME AND

INVOCYING ADDRESS C_

RAD4AT)O_ EI4PLOYE'_

EXPO-

i |.

DAT[5

OF [MPtOYI4ENT 7, I'[RIOOS OF EX_:_HE $ WF,IO(. _y (gEN)

(FROM--TO)

ULA1TD

OCCI_ATIONAL

(X_--TOTAL

tl.

CALL'tA_TION_--PIE"fllII5S_IE

DO'J_

I1,

CLrRTInCAnON AND

I CEgTI_( TO THE

THAT

THE

EXPOSURE

H STORy AND

USTED gELIEr

1N COLUNNS

$. _. AND

7 IS

EORREC

COMPLETE

BEST OF MY

KNOWLEDGE

WHOU[

IIOOy

(A}

_UVSSTIN.E

ACCtn4b'_LA'rE_D

--

_.(e_-,I)

__

RTM

[M (|) TOTXL ExPO_ TO DAEE (Fl_OId ITE_I 14) -RTM

PLOYET'S

SIG N ATLIRE

DATT

11 rc) mmrssllcE _ . . ,. __ gEM

NAME

OF LICENSEE

Figure

5-3.

Occupational

External

Radiation

Exposure

History

(Typical)

5-16

U.S.

ATOMIC

ENERGY

COMMISSION

Current Occupational
YiCC

External Radiation Exposure

o_z the Back IDENTIFICATION

ItlHr_srtionS

I.

NAME

(PRINT--Last.

first,

end

middle)

2.

SOCIAL

SECURITY

NO

3.

DATE

OF

gIRTH

[Month.

day.

year)

AGE

IN

FULL

YEARS

(N)

OCCUPATTONAL S. DOSE at whole RECORDED body; ar FOR hands (Specify: Wholl feet body_ and skln of anklet.) 6, PERk_ISSIBLE OF PERIOD DOSE COVERED

EXPOSURE AT BEGINNING SHEET [ 7 METHOD Pocket DE MONITC_RING (e g, Film B_dqo--FB;

end forearms,

BY THIS

Chamber--PC.

CalculaHons_Calc

$.

PERIOD OF (From--to)

EXPOSURE

DOSE

FOR

THE

PERIOD

(r,m)

13

RUNNING CALENDAR

9.

GAMMA

I0.

IIETA

II.

NEUTRON

12,

TOTAL

(Pc,,)

TOTAL FOR QUARTER

LIFETIME ACCUMULATEDDOSE
14. PREVIOUS TOTAL rein 19. NAME OF L/CENSEE I IS. TOTAL ED ON DOSE THIS RECORDSHEET rim 16. TOTAL DOSE ACCUMULATED rein 17. PERM. II_ ACC, = DOSE rgm I IS. PERMISSIBLE DOSE rein

SEN --

Figure 5-4.

Current

Occupational

External

Radiation

Exposure

(Typical)

5,

PERSONNEL
al

MONITORING monitoring equipment restricted quarter 5-6. of age dosage value entering in any restricted calendar 5-6. areas quarter who in excess must be used areas by: or may receive,

Personnel (1)

Individuals dosage value

entering calendar

who receive,

in any specified

in excess

of 25% of the

applicable

in Table 18 years receive,

(2)

Individuals receive, of 5% of the

under or may

applicable who enter

specified

in Table areas. and

(3)
b,

Individuals radiographic film badges

high radiation radiographers pocket shall shall

During wear dosimeters recorded. the film

operations, and either They chamber individual AND in Figure in all exposure

their

assistants chambers. doses from doses beyond

shall Pocket zero shall its be range,

dosimeters be read daily

or pocket of measuring and is discharged

and chambers If a pocket badge of the LABELS, is shown places are sign use.

be capable or dosimeter shall

to 200 milliroentgens.

indicated

be processed

immediately.

6. The placed

CAUTION radiation

SIGNS, symbol

SIGNALS 5-5. stored, appear. bear such and the and Authorities in, the Area," containers words the phrase, If Found, an exposure Signs areas, bearing and Other phrases, this symbol sign required the Area," Containers with Material(s)." be attached to must word is deter"High of signs be

in conspicuous materials or the word specific Area, bearing tags sources bearing materials the

on all wording

containers

in which

radioactive "Caution," mined Radiation radioactive or labels Special sealed 7. Specific posure sources a. Material-Do by

transported, " must signs housing symbol Civil symbol Area

or used.

On each

"Danger,

'_Radiation must

" or "Airborne and areas radiation the radiation Notify to,

Radioactivity

as appropriate. "Radioactive " must device.

be marked

"Danger-Radioactive

Not Handle. not fastened

or contained DEVICES for

RADIOGRAPHIC regulations devices. when they

EXPOSURE provide standards standards

AND STORAGE isotope position cameras to protect are less

CONTAINERS and other isotope from ex-

Protective are in the

designed

personnel as follows: than surface four per

sealed

off (shielded} devices position in excess of the

Radiographic sealed have from source

exposure storage level

measuring to any device.

inches hour

from

the shall

exterior

of the

device

no radiation any exterior

of 50 milliroentgens

at six inches

surface

5-18

60

I I I

CROSS-HATCHED BACKGROUND

AREA-

MAGENTA OR PURPLE YELLOW

Figure
b,

5-5. devices for any

Radiation measuring to any level sealed

Symbol a minimum exterior or for of four radiographic inches from

Radiographic the and hour sealed all storage shall

exposure source have storage containers from

position

surface

of the

device, exposure per

sources in excess surface.

devices,

no radiation

of 200 milliroentgens

at one

meter

exterior

8, For that

RADIATION radiographic instruments milIiroentgens necessary RADIATION regulations a. two

SURVEY operations, (meters) per any that

INSTRUMENTATION it is required be available. hour through one meter that The

REQUIREMENTS calibrated meters used per and hour the operable have entire can radiation a range required such It range.

survey is not 9. Specific

shall

roentgen

be measured.

one

be capable

of measuring

SURVEYS for required operation exposures radiation are survey surveys shall are as follows: unless calibrated at each and operable site where

No radiographic radiation radiographic survey

be conducted is available

instrumentation made. shall

and used

b.

A physical

be made

after

each

radiographic

exposure 5-19

during
its
Cm

operation to determine shielded condition. radiation and survey storage

that the

sealed

source

has been

returned

to

A physical source posure

shall

be made prior

to determine the

that

each

sealed ex-

is in its device

shielded

condition container.

to securing

radiographic

505 1. Various are tection radiation

RADIATION GENERAL techniques, methods used and are for dose pocket intensity), are known

DETECTION

AND MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTS

based used, radiation rate,

on the and as well

characteristic as methods In radiography, and

effects devices. which

of radiant Chemical the the rely

energy and excitation

on matter, deof effect most proof logically as pocket dose rate instruin terms such

employed

in detection

measurement

photographic

measure

on certain in a gas

materials.

however, of radiation for and detection total

instruments on the ionization

commonly duced total fall dose into

detection Since the the instruments

measurement used

by radiation.

hazard that

is calculated and dose exposure, that counters.

measurement measure These

two categories: such as survey

instruments chambers, and meters. as ionization

measure badges;

dosimeters, (radiation ments

film

instruments

chambers

and Geiger

2, The

POCKET pocket pen. repel of the electrode source gains portion repellent,

DOSIMETERS (Figure other; are section cylinder charge elctrode each that, appears indicator and the

AND POCKET 5-6) is based metal form and the is a small

CHAMBERS device approximately (1) like ionization metal-coated the transparent When and the the or similar The fiber (from the they scale the movable for use. takes electrode electrode and movable portion fixed place and scale, cylinder, since quartz a potential size of a electrical essential electrode and the electhe are and the portion is properly lens. an ex-

dosimeter each dosimeter of a fixed and the of voltage) a positive of the

fountain charges parts The ternal trode movable mutually lens of the charged, are consisting

Its operation

on two principles: causes the section, the from charge. scale. cylinder,

(2) radiation

in a gas.

and a movable between cylinder away

an electroscope. electrode a negative the

is applied

charge. portion transparent the When lens, the The

SimultaneousIy,

moves the scale

fixed

carrying when as the

a positive indicator

so placed the

is viewed on the scale

through

electrode

dosimeter

will

be at zero is placed chamber. cylinder. the The

and the

dosimeter

is ready ionization to the on the fixed the

a.

When in the positive becomes portions

a dosimeter cylinder ions to the

in an area Negative As the repellent movable ions

of radiation, are attracted charge the positive

neutralized, decreases.

force portion

between moves

toward

s-20

.T

POCKET

CLIP_

COLLECTING

ELECTRODE.

V/l

/ L L l_"

ll

/ / / } / / / / / / _)wl l l J_'ZJ_J_;Z

l_;_-/_'J--LZ_Z-ZJ_1

Figure

5-6.

Pocket

Dosimeter

(Typical)

in an amount ionization the movable Pocket scaled

b.

proportional portion from are are central of the are

to the by the designed

ionization quantity with

action. of radiation,

Since the that measure

the

quantity

of of to be

is determined dosimeters in doses that but the wail supply, applied

displacement of radiation. them

electrode

is a direct a sensitivity

permits

0 to 200 milliroentgens. not more direct rugged. and is placed charging reading serve the They across device. (Figure same are 5-7) purpose designed wall center The the are called as direct on the acting electrode pocket reading plates the a the the condenser as the and contains

Dosimeters chambers. dosimeters principle, chamber power charge chamber scale of a condenser.

Pocket

chambers electrode

the chamber

A charge by a separate

charger

a calibrated scale, a lens system, a means of varying to the chamber, and a movable fiber. Prior to use, until position. the movable When the fiber chamber has moved is exposed across the to radiation,

is charged to the zero

calibrated

ionization in the and the chamber exposure, (operating moves between the the the across on the the center must

chamber decreases the wall in direct proportion is inserted electrostat to a position and the be read causing in the same scale

charge between to the degree charger as the wail, in the same charger and by the thus

the center electrode of ionization. After the movable fiber of a dosimeter) remaining indicating error, the To avoid to charge directly used

chamber

principle chamber

electrode charge

determined

electrode always

quantity

of radiation

ionization on the

chamber.

the chamber chamber.

5-21

INDICATOR

POLYSTYRENE IN SULATOR

POCKET CLIP /

CHARGING DIAPHRAGM

\
BAKELITE ELECTRODE (COATED WITH GRAPHITE) CHARGING AND MEASURING CAVITY

/
POLYSTYRENE INSULATOR

Figure 5-7. 3. Thc worn After ard ceived. of control FILM film BADGES: (Figure in which of time, The 5-8) when density

Pocket _lmmber

and Charger

(Typical)

badge filters,

consists in radiation of the this

of a small special areas, the X-ray

film and film film

holder

equipped The badge and

with

thin lead exposed.

or

cadium

is inserted usually

film.

is designed developed to the to that

to be by standrereof a set

by an individual a period techniques. By use films.

is not to be otherwise is removed is proportional is compared of the amount

two weeks, processed the density

radiation

of a densitometer Through

of the film an estimate

comparison, the badge, and serve

of radiation dosimeters

ceived by the individual, who wore each record total radiation received

is made. Film badges and as a check on each other.

,i. Because

SURVEY of the

METERS number of instruments that would be required, and the excessive amount

of time necessary used for radiation

for their use, area surveys.

dosimeters and pocket Such surveys require

chambers cannot be readily an instrument capable of obintensity. and the Two such Geiger

taining andj)resenting an instantaneous instruments are in common use, the counter. 5-22

measurement of radiation ionization chamber instrument

TYPICAL

FILM BADGE

x._M

FRONT FRONT BETA WINDOW (OPEN) CLIP

METAL OR PLASTIC

CASE

/___ REAR

(SERVES

AS BETA SHIELD)

____7__

REAR BETA WINDOW (OPEN)

FILM PACK IDENTIFICATION

Figure

5-8.

Film

Badge

(Typical)

5.

IONIZATION chamber and

CHAMBER instruments supply,

INSTRUMENTS basically usually ionization of opposite a charge the ions in series consist a battery, with takes place potential, the The (dosage is measured meter rate) of an ionization which the power supply. chamber across When the containing the elecinstru-

Ionization trodes;

two electrodes;

a power an ammeter

is connected

connected

ment is exposed to radiation, are attracted to the electrode become battery in terms terms tion. ber In areas indicate radiation neutral required because In this instruments of low accurately intensity by removing to neutralize the manner, attain intensity on the are flow

in the chamber. and upon reaching The may flow by the to the meter,

Individual ions the electrode from the is calibrated in radiographic by the radiachamareas. to of low Ionization intensity in areas

from

battery.

of current which caused

of milliroentgens

or roentgens. of current radiation an accuracy radiation, meter. made usually intensity

be calibrated

is proportional of + 15% except sufficient Radiation with

ionization is measured. radiation current

in low

ionization intensity counters.

is not generated

measurements

Geiger

5-23

6.

GEIGER

COUNTERS utilize detecting gas many producing The resultant deflect a Geiger-Muller device. The the tube such events. in the amplified a meter, or many, tube as an ionization chamber in a high sensivoltage difference between the tube anode and an environment secondary ionization event. wherein are This energy any ionizing event of a an to usenot The first pulse light ionizations caused by the as gas to cause accurate extremely but are intensity, a false zero chamber in-

Geiger counters tivity radiation cathode, action single audible and of the the is multiplied ionization indication, the

within

create

into

electrons

produced

phenomenon is used are are

in a fraction

of a millisecond, of electrical a lamp. are Geiger calibrated. contamination

is known counters They

multiplication.

+ 15% for intended Geiger reading. struments 7. Area bers, audible

quality

of radiation measurers a tendency

to which

they for

ful as detection

instruments

particularly

gross

surveys,

to be accurate counters have

of dose rate. In areas of high radiation to block out, and the meter will indicate of suspected high radiation intensity,

For this reason, should be used. ALARM systems output

in areas

AREA alarm whose alarm

SYSTEMS consist of one or a visual are exceeded. or more alarm indication Area sensing meter. alarm elements, The meter (lighted are usually is preset lamp), often ionization so that when used perin gamma chaman

is fed to a central levels

is sounded,

is given

missible radiation radiography.

systems

506 1. with nently tices requires

ELECTRICAL The X-ray will radiographer equipment. X-ray encounter certain X-ray to both

SAFETY must Modern facilities little electrical equipment permanent power grounding check power power electrical precautions. is being and operated or serviced, installations, for exposure complied of wear. is ON. the should following precautions, comply X-ray are with designed hazard; safe electrical use so that however, procedures trained X-ray when circuits. working Permain safe equipment prac-

machines

high voltage personnel portable

installed

Whenever applicable a. b. c. d.

portable setup

be observed:

Do not turn Insure Regularly Avoid that

on until

is completed. with. Replace when necessary.

instructions cables cables for when

are signs

handling

power

5-24

e.

If power as rubber

cables gloves,

must

be handled mats, are

with and

power insulated

ON,

use

safety

equipment sticks. checking any

such

rubber

high-voltage before

f.

Insure electrical

that

condensers circuit.

completely

discharged

If common use of X-ray

sense

precautions

are

observed

there

is little

electrical

hazard

in the

equipment.

5-25

CUAPTER

6:

SPECIALIZED OF

APPLICATIONS

C
Paragraph 600 601 GENERAL SELECTION ACCESSORY
lJ

TABLE

CONTENTS

Page ......................................... OF EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT ....................................... and Cones .................... ............................ .............................. 6-5 6-5 6-6 6-6 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-10 6-10 6-13 .......................... Devices .................. ................... 6-13 6-14 6-14 6-14 6-15 6-15 6-15 6-18 6-18 6-21 6-21 6-22 6-22 6-24 6-25 6-25 6-26 ................... 6-26 6-27 6-27 Time and ................... Time ................ ............... 6-27 6-28 6-28

i
|

602

General

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Diaphragms, Collimators, Filters ........................................ Screens ........................................

Masking Material ................................. Penetrameters ................................... Shim Film Linear Stock Holders and ..................................... and Angular Cassettes Measuring

Positioning Identification

Devices ............................... and Orientation Markers

Area Shielding Equipment ............................ Densitometer .................................... X-Ray Gamma Exposure Ray Charts ............................. Charts ......................... Exposure

i
z

15. 16. 17. 18. 603 i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Dated Decay Curves Film Characteristic

............................... Curves .......................... .....................

Radiographic Equivalence Factors EXPOSURE VARIABLES ............................... General Movement Source Physical Film Screens Scatter Size Source-to-Film Contrast, ....................................... ...................................... ..................................... Distance Speed,

............................ .............................. and Graininess

Arrangement

....................................... Radiation ................................. Milliamperage, Source Absorption and and Strength, Specimen

Kilovoltage, Source Specimen Energy,

Contrast

|
6-1

TABLE Paragraph 604 EXPOSURE 1. 2. 605 General Double

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

CALCULATIONS ................................... Film Exposures Slide Rules APPLICATIONS ................................... Factors

......................... ......................... ........................ ......................

6-28 6-28 6-40 6-42 6-43 6-43 6-44 Flat T-Joints Corner Plates Joints Zones Tubing Tubing ........ ....... ........ ......... ........ 6-44 6-45 6-47 6-48 6-49 6-50 6-53 6-55 6-56 ..... 6-57 6-57 ......... ...... . . . 6-59 6-59 6-60 6-64 6-68 6-70 6-70 6-70 6-71 6-71 6-72 ........... 6-72 6-73 6-73 (Parallax) ...... 6-74 6-74 6-75 6-75 6-76 ..........

3. Radiographic RADIOGRAPHIC
1.

General Related Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 606 607

.............................. Applications Application Application Application Application Application Application Application Multiple Application Panoramic Application Techniques Application Application on Welded on Welded on Welded on Heat on Single on Double on Closed on Closed

Affected Wail Wall

Spheres Tanks Application ................ Pipe

........... ........... ......... Sections

Radiographlcal Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic Radiographic

Combination Application on Large

on Hemispherical

Welds

of Discontinuity on Brazed/Bonded on Semiconductors .....................

Location ...........

Honeycomb

UNSATISFACTORY

RADIOGRAPHS

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ............................ 1. General ................................... 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Fluoroscopy Use Image Amplifier ................................ ........................... ............................. ......................... .................. of Fluoroscopy Radiography

Television Exposure Transfer

Xeroradiography

.................................. Process ............................ and Double Exposure ...................... ............................ (Parallax) ............................ .........................

Stereoradiography Stereoradiography Double Flash In-Motion Exposure Radiography

Radiography

6-2

TABLE
r

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

v Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
r v

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-15 6-16 6-17 6-18 6-19 6-20 6-21 6-22 6-23 6-24 6-25 6-26 6-27 6-28 6-29 6-30 6-31 6-32 6-33 6-34 6-35 6-36

Diaphragm, Collimator and Filter ..................................... Lead Masking Technique Masking Standard Use X-ray Gamma Gamma Dated X-ray X-ray Iridium Film Film Iridium Energy with Metallic Penetrameter Shot for

Cone

...................

6-8 6-8 6-11 6-11 6-12 6-14 6-16 6-19

......................... ....................... 1" Material ...............

of Shim Ray Ray Decay

Stock .............................. Chart .......................... Chart Chart ...................... {Modified} ............... ........... Equipment)... HI) C) ......... ......... Exposure Exposure Curve Chart Chart Curve

Exposure

6-20 6-21 6-29 6-30 6-31 6-32 6-33 6-34 6-35 6-39 6-45 6-45

............................ (Portable (Permanently ......................... (Types {Types I, II and A, B and Curves Curves Chart Ranges Equipment} Installed

Exposure Exposure 192 Decay Characteristic Characteristic

192 Exposure vs. Thickness

...................... ......................

Steel Specimens ............................... Common ButtweId ............................. V-Groove Correct Incorrect Correct Correct Correct Placement Correct Buttweld Angle Angle Angle Angle for for for for ............................ T-Joint T-Joint T-Joint Corner (100% Corner {100% Corner (100% Standing Joint and but and Correct Incorrect Correct Penetration) Penetration) Leg Penetration) Detail Detail Placement ...... ..... . .

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

6-46 6-46 6-46 6-47 6-47

Angle for Corner Joint .................................. Angle for Corner Joint

Detail 6-48 6-48 6-50 Inch 6-51 1-1/4 Inch 6-52 6-54 6-55 6-56 6-57 ............. ............. 6-58 6-58 1 1/4 Than

Placement {100% Penetration) ...................... Heat Affected Zones of Weldments .................. Circumferential Double Inside Double Inside Sphere Closed Multiple Panoramic Panoramic Single Wail Application Size Size ............... Area Less Wall Application with Tube Diameter ............................... Wall Application with Tube Diameter ............................... Weldment Tank Application Application Large Similar Application Section Application, Application,

...................... ................... Pipe Weld

......................... .......................... Articles

Combination

Hemispherical

6-3

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

6-37 6-38 6-39 6-40 6-41 6-42 6-43 6-44 6-45 6-46 6-47 6-48 6-49 6-50 6-51 6-52

Large Double Single Edge

Pipe

Welds and Flaw

............................ Alignment .................... ...................... ...................... ....................... ......................... Defects .................... Fixture .................... .................... Resistor and Capacitor ....... ................ .................. ....................

6-59 6-60 6-61 6-62 6-63 6-64 6-65 6-66 6-67 6-67 6-70 6-71 6-72 6-73 6-74 6-76 6-12 6-13 ................. ................. on Desired Radiograph 6-23 6-68 6-22 6-22

Angulation

Surface Surface Member Tie

Application Application Application

Vertical Transistor Suggested Suggested Schematic Schematic Typical Sample Parallax Standard Quality Applications

Exposure and Divide Holding

Semiconductor Views Views

of Transistor of Diode,

Diagram Vidicon X-ray

of a Fluoroscope Amplifier Section

of an Image Xeroradiograph Radiography Technique Penetrameter Levels of Industrial Equivalence

......................... ....................... ............................ Sizes .....................

Stereoscopic

Table 6-1 Table 6-2 Table 6-3 Table 6-4 Table 6-5 Table 6-6

............................... Radiation Factors Variables

Radiographic Effect Quality

of Radiographic ....................................

Unsatisfactory

Radiographs

.....................

6-4

CHAPTER

6:

SPECIALIZED

APPLICATIONS

600

GENERAL radiograph density techniques will where any that large meet have minimum distortion, is controlled. Any technique is a good requirements application. to produce in radiography can be treated Others This that The process, devise assure graphs. sharp These that The definition, four fulfills one high contrast, influence of them, need only

A quality and all of the

adequate

exposure other, these

requirements or more radiographs. been discussed

of radiography.

without follow 1. previous of the proven variables knowledge charts or to the

compromising procedures Most of the

radiographer quality have

number

of variables and

in charts, of of the the the

chapters. information known shop for and and the

Many contained constants laboratory majority available

of the variables in charts of specific exposure of the to him, specimens. as described exposure processed. of the film

as constants can chapter presents reasonable

by application to the control with a basic to use for information

be related

equipment. techniques tasks. readily radiographic can

of radiographic

radiographer and effective the

and understanding graphs of different film film

ability

procedures

radiography 2. graph all 601 Proper if the

processing is improperly handling OF

in Chapter technique The during

4 is an essential can result techniques

part that

of good radioare

radiographic based

practice. on correct

An ideal

in a worthless follow

exposure processing.

SELECTION

EQUIPMENT for a particular test consists of the following related

1. Selection decisions. a. b. c. 2.

of equipment

Selection Selection Selection

of radiography of Xor gamma

as a test

method.

radiography. ray equipment. nondestructive for a task results. This test it must methods first be

of specific stated, Before

X- or gamma radiography

As previously use. that

is but the

one of the equipment desired test analyzed. for the for

in common determined cannot 3. cally, ment

_m

selecting will task has

radiographic produce been thoroughly selection

radiography until there the

determination

be made Ideally, most lends the

is a best

equipment adaptations X-ray

any radiographic equipment a variety choice of tasks. cameras

test.

PractiThe equipand in 6-5

radiography itself any particular capabilities

is accomplished equipment of individual

by using and,

available. For

to numerous

by knowledgeable and isotope

of film this overlap

exposure, reason

can be used

machines

many areas of test. Except in large production installations, or in a test laboratory, it is impractical to have multiple radiographic equipment. Therefore, it is the responsibility of radiographic test and quality assurance personnel to insure that the equipment and techniques selected are capable of performing the required task. 4. Because of its flexibility, ease of operation, and fewer radiation hazards, X-radiography is preferred to gamma radiography. Gamma radiography is usually selected for industrial applications that involve: a. b. c. d. e. f. 5.
rapher for tion 602 1. siderations among Prior must the test,

High radiation energy requirements. I ow testing rates. Simultaneous exposure of many specimens. Confined areas where X-ray cannot be used. Field inspections in areas where electrical power is difficult to obtain. Tasks where time is not a consideration.
to the and selection the number equipment EQUIPMENT of specific of the or frequency selection. is the radiographic job. Available Since each of similar equipment equipment, specimen task of the tests for a test, the are time the major radiogcon-

consider influencing available

all aspects equipment

allocated the selec-

is different,

responsibility

radiographer.

ACCESSORY GENERAL

To create To create equipment, a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

a radiograph, a useful the working

only tools

a radiation of quality,

source, additional

a specimen, equipment includes.

and

film

are

needed. This

radiograph

is required.

of a radiographer, and cones.

Diaphragms, Filters. Screens Masking

collimators

material.

Penetrameters. Shim stock.

Step wedges. Film Linear holders and and angular cassettes. measuring devices.

IW"

j. k. 1. m. n. o. p. q. r.

Positioning Identification Shielding Densitometer. X-ray Gamma Dated Film Table

devices. and material. orientation markers.

exposure ray decay

charts. charts.

exposure curves.

characteristic of radiographic

(H & D) curves. equivalence factors.

2.

DIAPHRAGMS, collimators,

COLLIMATORS, and cones

AND are

CONES of lead, ray area. the beam decrease fitted the Many to the and amount X-ray tubeto of scatter machines distance

Diaphragms, head limit of X-ray the area

thicknesses a gamma They specimen so that 6-1.)

equipment, of radiation.

or built (See diaphragms size area.

to contain Figure desired designed

source,

designed

radiation

by limiting

the beam

to the

have built-in adjustable covers a standard film 3. Filters lead, FILTERS are placed sheets in the

at a fixed

of high X-ray

atomic beam

number

metal,

usually (See

brass, Figure

copper, 6-2.)

steel,

or the

at the tubehead.

By absorbing

"soft" radiation of the beam, filters;accomplish contrast permitting a wide range of specimen posure; useful and they eliminate scatter caused with in radiography
a

two purposes: they reduce subject thicknesses to be recorded with one exby soft radiation. thick and Filters thin are particularly sections. range of thicknesses thicknesses have been are obtained be

of specimens and thickness the filter action however,

adjacent

The

material

of the required.

specimen, steel,

and its good

determine available; by using filters, exercised takenly 4. When the SCREENS an Xor gamma energy

No tables

of filter results

in radiographing

lead filters, 3% of the maximum specimen 20% of the maximum specimen thickness. in the use interpreted of lead filters since defects. defects as specimen

thickness; Particular in the filter

or copper care must may be mis-

ray available

beam

comes

in contact by the

with film

film,

less

than

one percent through

of

radiation

is absorbed

in producing

an image

_FOCAL ANODES'/ ! ! ! / ! I ! ! ! / / ! I / / ! / / / / I \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

SPOT

RADIATION

SOURCE

CONE OR COLLIMATOR

\ \ SPECIMEN & HOLDER

CROSS SECTION

Figure photographic film, two types

ao

6-1.

Diaphragm, the unused screens are

Collimator energy used: screens bonded into

and a form

Cone that and can lead. fluorescent base. be absorbed by

effect.

To convert

of radiographic Screens. usually

fluorescent consist

Fluorescent material,

Fluorescent calcium tungstate,

AN ODE?_

of powdered

to a plastic
FOCAL SPOT

or cardboard

/
/
FILTER j

\
\
\ '_ / ..- .,1 ',,, DIAPHRAGM

_--- ,,- / __/,(///_,rv

FILM AND FILM HOLDER

Figure

6-2.

Filter

When activated by radiation, the fluorescent material emits light in proportion to the amount of radiation available for absorption. The screens are used in pairs with the film placed betweenthem in a clamp type film holder. During exposure, the photographic effect on the film is the additive result of the radiation, and the light emitted by the screens, impinging on the film. Since the emitted light is diffused, image definition is less sharp when the screens are used. Close contact betweenthe screens and the film must be maintained or the diffused light will cause a blurred, worthless, radiograph.
(1) The which factor. reductions only poor image ratio of an exposure in films in exposure of using definition applications. when permits screens a short Fluorescent advantage without of similar screens of the have screens density, a high screens. fluorescent their is required, to reduce film is restricted use and graininess to an exposure is called intensification of 95%. This, screens is limited the scattered when Because the with factor however, of their are used conto radiascreens, permitting is the inherent only

results

intensification

magnitude

fluorescent characteristic, Practically, exposure

in special occasions formation Fluorescent

to those radiation. exposed

specimen

extensive cause thus

masking excessive their use

high energy radiation, tion applications. (2) To prevent emitted collecting also only when light misleading during free between absolutely strictly Lead that screens are used the from

to low energy

shadows exposure, screen stain. necessary

in the dirt Their and, and and film

radiograph dust must surfaces. if cleaning with the

caused The surfaces manufacturer's

by blocking from must screens must

of

be prevented

be kept

sensitive

be touched it must directions. and pure contact be

is required,

accomplished
Do

in accordance are usually and

Lead and lead. with, the thick are tion film. trons from

Screens. lead the screens and (soft The from the alloy film. may back The screens

constructed more wear side and The are Front commonly ability is a result by high absorbed of, the front

of an antimony resistant and energy screen used. screens than in close

is stiffer,

harder, in pairs, upon the the back

on each specimen screen.

Depending than

of radiation, in most 0. 005 inch Lead scattered effect release radiation. emulsion, screens radiaon the of elecEnergy and

be of varying

thicknesses. thick of their to increasing effect acted upon

applications particularly

is thinner screens efficient

0. 010 inch because in addition photographic atoms when

to absorb of the energy

radiation) increased the released film lead

the photographic

electrons response. factor

is readily

by the film

intensifies (1) The

intensification screens.

of lead

screens

is much to low energy

lower

than

that it is

of

fluorescent

Under

exposure

radiation

6-9

possible

for the

front

screen

absorption

effect

to be of such

magnitude However, radiation image, in almost

that requiredexposure due to their capability and the resultant better

is greater for reducing contrast

than that without screens. the effects of scattered and definition practicable. They are used

of the radiographic

lead screens are used wherever all gamma ray applications.

(2)

To insure free from

the dirt,

intensification grease, qualities screens. and, The and

action lint

of lead these

screens materials

they

must have

be kept high elec-

since

tron absorption emitted by the tetrachloride wool may with steel wrinkles, will 5. Masking highly in the MASKING is the absorbent masked cause

and can absorb the "intensifying" The screens may be cleaned with thorough abrasion cleaning marks is desired, caused fine

electrons carbon fine steel rubbing gouges, surface

if a more

be used.

by gently

wool will have or depressions poor radiographic

no harmful that affect results.

effects. Deep scratches, the flatness of the screen

MATERIAL practice material areas, of covering, during eliminating or surrounding, exposure. much scatter. Masking portions reduces Commonly of the the used specimen with exposure materials

specimen masking

are lead, (Figure is used as a mask the erate scattered primary 6. The clay noticeable radiation beam.

6-3), barium clay, material, it should greater In any by reducing than scatter.

and metallic shot (Figure 6-4). be thick enough so that radiation that of the of, or specimen; the about, sole the otherwise, purpose specimen

When barium clay absorption of the clay will genis to limit to the

is appreciably

circumstance, the area

of masking exposed

PENETRAMETERS penetrameter quality of metal is a device level acceptance with whose limits, three image on a radiograph It is not intended of discontinuities. drilled by a lead the holes similar, number penetrameter standard of set to the The diameter. material which is used for use standard being gives used. to determine in judging the size, of penetrameter radiographed. the (See maximum Figure 6-5.) de(2T), and and hole are

radiographic is a rectangle material Each thickness a.

(sensitivity).

or in establishing identical, of material The

It is composed

or radiographically is identified for which

penetrameter

(ID No.) is normally

thickness

(T) of the

penetrameter

is 2% of the

thickness

noted by the IDNo., and the hole diameters are 4 x T (4T). The standard 1.0 inch penetrameter diameters as shown listed in Table 6-1. in Figure 6-5. Standard

lx T (1T), 2xT has a 1.0 ID No. sizes

penetrameter

6-10

!
t

MASKS

PRE-CUT

LEAD

SHEET

MASKS

Figure
b.

6-3.

Lead

Masking

Technique

The penetrameter being radiographed. (usually the ability 2% of Tm) of the and

is normally placed source side on top of the specimen Thus, it is a built-in defect of known thickness and known used (the hole diameters. contrast hole images). The (the penetrameter thickness measures of the technique definition to show

penetrameter)

SHOT

SPECIMEN

__

FILM

Figure _'_

6-4.

Masking

with

Metallic

Shot 6-11

4T .O80"D

1T .O2O"D

2T .O4O"D

1 :...,.,,-..-,..._ . _ ...... _.-,_'_:,:._, ........... :-- ..,. ,.-,.,....-.,. ..,..-.

:*.

-..:,:.,;...%q

.... " "_.,-:_--.':._ ""

f.v,_'*_ a _

,:.,-.w.',., """';"" ' 1_;-'4_':'.%_

l_;"._" -_ ;-'_

\-%x,

:_t..._ _:.,...
.; ,C?.. - .e ,':

... ; -, ,- .... __---':'

I .'_-..._'-'_,'_ "-."

....... -.. :V._, .-,..,_}_-..._. : ; ;'.. w;;; _y" ., _-.'._ k

, .-,,_
F_%-;., ,'-].-J ,;

.-,._ .,.,- _ *_ ....... _.,

IO NO.

Tb-.O2O"

Figure

6-5. Table

Standard 6-1.

Penetrameter Penetrameter

for

1" Material Sizes

Standard

APPLIES TO DESIGN MATERIAL THICKNESS** (T m) UP TO AND INCLUDING (INCHES) 1/4" 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8 1-1/4 1-1/2 0.25" 0.375 0.5 O .625 O. 75 0.875 1.O 1.125 1.25 1.5

ID NO.

;iT ii

1T HOLE DIA.

2T HOLE OIA.

4T HOLE DIA.

25 37 50 62 75 87 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5

.005" .DO8 .OlD .013 .015 .018 .020 .023 .025 .030

.010" .010" .OlD .013 .015 .018 .O2O .023 .025 .O3O AND THEN IN 1/2"

.020" .020" .020 .025 .030 .035 .040 .045 .050 .060 INCREMENTS

.040" .040* .040 .O5O .O6O .070 .080 .090 .iOO .120

AND SO ON FOR EACH 1/4 INCH UP TO 2-1/2" UP TO 8", AND THEN IN 1" INCREMENTS.

* MINIMUM HOLE SIZES REQUIRED BY THE STANDARD, DO NOT BEAR CORRECT RELATIONSHIP TO ID NO. OR THICKNESS OF THE PENETRAMETER. ** DEFINED AS THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL (Tm) UPON WHICH THE THICKNESS OF THE PENETRAMETER IS BASED. FOR WELDS, THE MATERIAL THICKNESS SHALL BE THE THICKNESS OF THE STRENGTH MEMBER.

C,

Standard whose Other

2% sensitivity

requires

the

technique

to image

the

penetrameter (penny). specimen

thickness sensitivities

is 2% of T m, and the 2T hole of the penetrameter (quality levels) are shown in Table 6-2. For

6-12

Table

6-2.

Quality

Levels
PENNY "T" AS % OF T m PERCEPT I BLE HOLE DIA. 1T

_J
SENSITIVITY

QUALITY LEVEL I-IT

.7%
!

1%
1%

1.0%

1-2T

2T

1.4%
2.0% 2.8%

2-1T

2%
2% 2%

IT

2-2T 2-4T

2T 4T

4.0%

4-2T

4%

2T

thicknesses be used.
d.

that

are

between

penny

sizes

the

smaller

penny

must

always

Penetrameters as the ponents. radiographic wire

of different penetrameters

types used

have in the

been

devised

for

special

uses,

such comthe

radiography

of small

electronic

In all cases, quality

however, level, usually

the penny referred

is designed

to determine

to as sensitivity.

7. Shim are the

SHIM stock used

STOCK is defined as thin pieces the 6-6). of material such specimen the thickness The and width shim(s) the identical as welds, thickness. added is placed equal shim(s) to specimen wherein Shims to the the are area material. of interest so that peneof the area than (by the weld) the the image in the be greater selected They

in radiography is thicker of the of interest (between the

of specimens, than shim(s) (Figure equals

radiographically thickness area in the trameter penny the 8. Film They are holding usually Cassettes screens of interest. similar FILM holders are flexible made and

specimen way always

underneath In this thickness

penetrameter a thickness length of the AND and penny.

specimen).

is projected In use,

through the

of material of the

to the should

dimensions HOLDERS are

CASSETTES to shield film film from to the light, contours and to protect of the it from damage. The holders thereby designed, action holds together.

designed permit hinged, when together,

from

a variety molding

of materials the film firmly

including

rubber Cassettes

and plastic. specimen, are their specially clamping tightly

specimen-to-film two-piece are and film of use

distance rigid and flexibility

at a minimum. holders that is not required in place.

spring-clamp since

6-13

I I
I

i I
1

I I
I

RADIATION I I
I

BEAM I I
1

i I
I

I I

,-P = PENNY
,I

/S

= SHIM

FILM IF Tm = 1" AND REINFORCEMENT BOTH ROOT AND FACE IS 1/16", THE SHIM WOULD BE 1/8" OR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN T m AND Ts.

Figure 9. Correct for LINEAR AND ANGULAR distance setup. For

6-6.

Use

of Shim DEVICES

Stock

MEASURING and these knowledge

source-to-film

of specimen

thicknesses requires a plumb

are

required scale

any radiographic

measurements, of the angular

a six-inch When a task specimen, setup.

machinist's

and a tape measure are tools of the radiographer. at an angle other than that normal to the plane tractor 10. For the may be used t_o determine
1

radiography bob and pro-

the

correct

POSITIONING quality floor, ray radiography, and the a table, designed

I_EVICES the should any stable (usually support position remain surface, of the tripods) of the fixed source during may specimen are suffice used (either exposure. to support with safety to position with X-ray or gamma X-ray the that specimen. of X-ray, ray), equipment, With and that the

specimen, gamma specially the does 11. source.

film or

With

equipment, holders

is identical

the cable

containing

Any positioning excess scatter

arrangement, radiation

complying is acceptable. MARKERS

considerations,

not cause

IDENTIFICATION correct must radiograph. to, with with marked the a marking masking specimen

AND ORIENTATION of the that the finished

To permit radiograph with the adjacent fashion attached with the

interpretation be so marked This specimen pen, tape, during appear

radiograph, and its lead the numbers of wrong

the orientation

specimen can

and

the to, or are

specimen and The

be identified in identical which

is accomplished exposure, on the or by scribing. eliminates

by affixing marking lead

numbers specimen

or letters

or letters, of the identification.

radiograph.

Comparison

radiograph

any possibility

6-14

12. The Areas and are plished

AREA control back not

SHIELDING of scatter

EQUIPMENT radiation 2-14 is effected takes and rooms are place 2-15). uses be covered only by proper must be adequately In permanent lead with screens The lead. use of shielding this techniques. both side is accominstallations so that beneath, areas or

in which scatter by use available, by the the film

radiography (Figures of lead the primary should shielded

protected installations, When

against

or compartments. shielded. area

permanent them

radiographer radiation always

and places

reached behind, 13. The visual eter similar 14. X-ray a certain certain
a.

immediately

DENSITOMETER densitometer and electronic, will characteristic conditions, X-RAY exposure and X-ray processing Exposure form are specimen identical. material arbitrarily machine
b.

is an instrument are but more give

that

measures available.

density. Accuracy

Two types A good

of densitometers, densitomunder

commerically important similar

is a desirable densitometer,

is consistency. readings each time

used.

EXPOSURE charts exposure. machine;

CHARTS (Figure 6-7) show the relationship only upon distance; which the between a certain chart material set type is based. of specimens when radiographing by manufacturers machines charts, for based used; each are on the and an X-ray of unia thickness, of film;

kilovoltage,

Each a certain and are

chart the

applies density

to a specific

of conditions:

target-to-film

conditions; charts of wide For most in use.

adequate

to determine be used variations. +- 10% since X-ray the film distance only

exposures as a guide Charts furnished

thickness, accurate,

but should thickness within but only quality often

no two X-ray exposure most are prepared

radiography, radiographed;

commonly

chosen

target-to-film

To prepare wedge several number routine mitted required to locate appears, ness the exists. correct of the

an exposure selected different exposures

chart, specimen The

a series material. resultant

of radiographs The film wedge

are at each

taken

of a step at with

is radiographed of a selected in accordance the desired uses the wedge X-rays trans-

(milliampere-minutes) Each radiograph to the the will intensity the radiographer At each does density Choosing

of kilovoltages. work through that procedures. densities the density When material in routine wedge work

is processed image of the

as a series (density density thick-

of different

corresponding thicknesses. radiographs)

density desired wedge

a densitometer

on each the desired

radiograph. of kilovoltage, density for that

point

a corresponding

value thickness

exposure, not appear is determined

and

on a radiography, by interpola-

6-15

100M BOM ...... J

/
_ ........ l

7oM
50M 40M

o,, o, o,
_1]_ ,ol

//;/ / i ..............
oo/ _/ ...... // "

o,

J / / o,

// //
//

/I

(/) Z 0 _._ _J

IOM 9M

U3 r_

5M 4M oM7MBM --i 3M i ...../

<c
.-I .J

=f
L_ rr Ur) 0 n X IM

2M

1,_/,d,J/ .oo.oo.oo 600 500 X-RAY MACHINE SERIAL 0.005 0.010 1234 4O0 LEAD SCREEN FR(INT LEAD SCREEN BACK 2.0 36" TYPE II 5 MINUTES AT 68" F. DENSITY TFD (TARGET TO FILM DISTANCE) FILM DEVELOPMENT 100 ////l 0.5 1.O THICKNESS 2.0 STEEL INCHES

I 3.

Figure

6-7.

X-ray

Exposure

Chart

tion. density wise the The the c.

The overly

kilovoltage, are long then scale, scale. chart X-ray will

exposure, plotted the Material be similar used. machine exposure

and

material paper.

thickness

for

each is laid linear

of the off on scale. for

points

on semilog thickness

To compress off on the and will

an other-

(milliampere-minutes) is laid 6-7, to Figure

logarithmic resultant particular

be accurate

A second calculations step nesses which the and film wedge

method

of preparing fewer is made. on each given the curve. plotted in the

an exposure exposures. The densities density resultant previous

chart

requires selected of the

more wedge

arithmetical one thickby use thickness, film is shown of

but requires exposure have are curve

At each of each Then, under

kilovoltage is determined, step, of the chart

is measured would kilovoltage following characteristic

radiograph. desired The as in the preparation

an exposure each wedge Use exposure

values method.

of exposure,

characteristic in the Example:

of an X-ray

example. a 300 milliampere-second a density what section a log a density the give of 1.6 should of the relative of 27 log relative 300 (the the exposure exposures exposure for 2.0 is . 11. for 1.6 density, The density) or 300 under the wedge, exposure the exposure when exposure of a steel section a 2.0 for film be for the of 1.80 step of the density a density

At 240 kv, wedge wedge. under istic of 1.6 the curve and

produced 1" thick

1" thick

At 240 kv, indicates 1.91 for

character-

Step

1:

The

difference

between will

antilog multiplied x 1.28 d. Exposure fined charts

of . 11 is 1.28. by 1.28 = 384 can

Thus,

milliampere-seconds. also be prepared to show film latitude, which is dewith

as the

variation

in material

thickness

which

can be radiographed

one exposure, These limits able of the the each in the highest

while maintaining film density within acceptable are fixed by the lowest and highest densities that finished acceptable density. radiograph. described are densities For capable on the To prepare followed, are plotted. the lowest, exposure satisfactorily horizontal such except The and and an exposure that result the both other the

limits. are acceptchart, lowest highest, range the of in a single either and for

procedures kilovoltage, thickness is shown

is two curves the the between

one representing any given of being chart

acceptable material exposure two curves.

kilovoltage, radiographed difference

as the

6-17

15.

GAMMA RAY EXPOSURECHARTS

A typical gamma ray exposure chart is shown in Figure 6-8. The variables in gamma radiography are the source strength, andthe source-to-film distance. These are related on the chart to each of three different speedfilms. By selecting a film, the radiographer can determine exposure time for desired image density. Similar to X-ray exposure charts, gamma ray exposure charts are adequateto determine exposures of specimens of uniform thickness, but shouldbe used only as a guide when radiographing a specimen of wide thickness variation. Charts similar to that shown are available from film manufacturers and are accurate whenused with film processed in compliance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The exposure factor shown in the figure is a logarithmic scale layout of the set of values derived by dividing the product of source strength (gammaray intensity) andtime, by the square of the sourceto-film distance (inverse square law}. The density correction factors listed were obtained from the film characteristic curves.
ao

Gamma a given existing original tion for the

ray chart curve

exposure to reflect

charts highest The equal

are

easily acceptable curve

modified density,

to show

latitude. parallel

To modify to the the correccurve in and 2.5 V of the of 1.5 above The 6-9, 1.5 edge

a curve the chart.

is drawn. exposure

new

is displaced by applying edge in the is used density the enters curve. left

vertically

by a distance to the lowest the 2.0 acceptable

to that factor

obtained at the is drawn

density

factor the original.

of the same

density of this for curve of 6. 1.5 for continues curve given

manner, in Figure the left the for edge

but below

An example density The new curve the

procedure "A" for The density 2.5 film 2.0

is shown

which density chart is . 71. 4.26 curve.

to develop enters factor left

curves. The

at an exposure exposure Similarly, above that 1.5 the 1.5 and factor,

factor for and curve

correction enters

a density 2.0

at 6 x . 71 or density and of material or 7.8

below density 2.0

and parallel

to the The

at 6 x 1.3 and result

continues thickness between between 16. Dated curve, must the When prepared DATED decay the

and parallel 2.5 is shown 2.5

to the

density 6-9

range

can be radiographed and the density

in one curves.

exposure as the

in densities difference

in Figure

horizontal

DECAY curves

CURVES (Figure 6-10) may are supplied can with radioisotopes. Since the decay prior one shown the resultant By use the source to source are curve curve of the strength eliminates use. on readily

source

strength

be determined calculations measurement, decay curves 3-2) (Table

at any time. be made, or calculation, similar to the and plotting

be known necessity source

before of source strength

exposure strength is known, values

by using

half-life paper.

semi-logarithmic

IOO_
8 7 6 -

I
COBALT 60 EXPOSURE

I
FACTORS

EF X D2 T = S

5 4 -

T -TIME (MINUTES) FOR DENSITY 2.0" EF-EXPOSURE FACTOR D -SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (FEET) S -SOURCE STRENGTH (CURIES)

I00 9 8 7 6

,?
laJ v

0 ILL I..iJ
n.

0 X ILl

10 9 8

*DENSITIES OTHER THAN 2.0 CAN BE OBTAINED BY APPLYING THE FACTORS GIVEN -BELOW. MULTIPLY THE EXPOSURE CALCULATED FROM THE FORMULA BY THE CORRECTION FACTOR INDICATED FOR THE DESIRED DENSITY. DENSITY CORRECTION FACTOR 1.0 0.43 1.5 0.71 2:0 2.5 3.0

1.0 1.30 1.62

I
1 2 3 4 INCHES OF STEEL

I
5 6 7

Figure

6-8.

Gamma

Ray

Exposure

Chart 6-19

1,000

I
COBALT 60 EXPOSURE EF X D2
T =

i
FACTORS S

I
V

T -TIME (MINUTES) FOR DENSITY 2.0" EF-EXPOSURE FACTOR D -SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (FEET) S -SOURCE STRENGTH (CURIES)

100

I,LI v ev" 0 Fm, bJ (3C O O. X UJ

10

*DENSITIES OTHER THAN 2.0 CAN BE OBTAINED BY APPLYING THE FACTORS GIVEN BELOW. MULTIPLY THE EXPOSURE CALCULATED FROM THE FORMULA BY THE CORRECTION FACTOR INDICATED FOR THE DESIRED DENSITY. DENSITY "CORRECTION" FACTOR 1.0 0.43 1.5 0.71 2.0 1.0 2.5 1.30 3.0 1.62

1
1 2 3 4 INCHES OF STEEL

I
5

L
6

Figure

6-9.

Gamma

Ray

Exposure

Chart

(Modified)

_-20

lOO 80 COBALT 60 DECAY CURVE SOURCE NO. CO 7711 30.0 CURIES CALIBRATED 7/1/65

60

40

2O 15-

I0 8 6 7/1/65

711/66

711/67

7/1/68

7/i/69

7/1/70

7/1/71

7/1/72

Figure

6-10.

Dated

Decay

Curve

17. Film tions the

FILM curves of this film, and

CHARACTERISTIC were chapter. can be discussed The used in curves without

CURVES Chapter furnished change. 4 and by will be further discussed are in later pordescribe

manufacturers

accurate,

18. Most

RADIOGRAPHIC applications as

EQUIVALENCE of radiation sources 6-3. in Table

FACTORS are expressed in terms equivalence The values shown used and shown with to as of aluminum for or other steel comIn metal The at thickequiv-

thicknesses monly used

shown are

in Table shown tables, steel is at

Radiographic 6-4.

factors are the

metals

approximate. standard rays. approximate

radiographic 100 ness alent kv and

equivalence below, specimen metal and

aluminum the higher by the

is usually voltages, factor

gamma an

of the standard

multiplied

obtain

thickness.

6-21

Table
X-RAY KV OR ISOTOPE

6-3.

Applications

of Industrial

Radiation

V
SCREENS APPROXIMATE PRACTICAL THICKNESS LIMITS
iiiii ii iii

50

NONE *

WOODS, PLASTICS, SECTIONS 2-INCH l-INCH 2-INCH 3-INCH 5-INCH 9-INCH ALUMINUM STEEL,

THIN LIGHT METAL

100 150 25O 400 1000 2000 THULIUM-170

NONE LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL NONE

4-1/2-INCH

ALUMINUM

STEEL OR EQUIVALENT STEEL OR EQUIVALENT STEEL OR EQUIVALENT STEEL OR EQUIVALENT

WOODS, PLASTICS, LIGHT ALLOYS, 1/2-INCH STEEL OR EQUIVALENT 2-1/2-INCH 3-1/2-INCH 7-1/2-INCH STEEL OR EQUIVALENT STEEL OR EQUIVALENT STEEL OR EQUIVALENT

IRIDIUM-192 CESIUM-137 COBALT-60

LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL LEAD FOIL

* BACKUP SCREENS ARE RECOMMENDED IN ALL APPLICATIONS. LEAD FOIL SCREENS AS THIN AS 0.001 INCH ARE AVAILABLE WITH SPECIAL VACUUM PACK ARRANGEMENTS THAT PERMIT SCREEN USE WITH LOW ENERGY RADIATION.

Table

6-4.

Radiographic

Equivalence

Factors

V
X-RAYS KV 50 MAGNESIUM ALUMINUM TITANIUM STEEL COPPER ZINC BRASS LEAD 0.6 1.0 IO0 0.6 1.0 8.0 12.0 18.0 150 0.05 O. 12 0.63 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 14.0 220 0.08 O. 18 0.71 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 12.0 0.71 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 5.0 0.9 1.0 i.i 1.0 1.2 2.5 400 1000
iii

GAMMA RAYS 2000 Ir 192 0.22 0.34 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 4.0 CE-137 0.22 0.34 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 3.2 C0-60 0.22 0.34 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 2.3

603 1. Table variables 6-22

EXPOSURE GENERAL 6-5

VARIABLES

is a listing radiograph. as they affect

of exposure The practical

variables radiography

and

their

effect

on the and

four

requirements each of the

of a quality

following

paragraphs

review

discuss

techniques. v_i

Table

6-5.

Effect

of Radiographic

Variables

on Desired
QUALITY

Radiograph

Quality

DESIRED RADIOGRAPH
i

RADIOGRAPHIC VARIABLE MOVEMENT

MINIMUM DISTORTION

SHARP DEFINITION MOVEMENT OF EITHER SOURCE, SPECIMEN, OR FILM DURING EXPOSURE BLURS AND DISTORTS FILM IMAGE. SEE FIGURES 2-3 AND 2-4. FOR OPTIMUM SHARPNESS, SOURCETO-FILM DISTANCE GREAT AND SPECIMENTO-FILM DISTANCE MINIMUM.

HIGH CONTRAST

ADEQUATE DENSITY

SOURCE SIZE, SOURCETO-FILM DISTANCE (SFD), SPECIMEN-TO-FILM DISTANCE

SFD IS AN EXPOSURE !FACTOR(INVERSE SQUARE LAW). SEE IMA AND SOURCE :STRENGTH.

SFD IS AN EXPOSURE FACTOR(INVERSE SQUARE LAW). SEE MA AND SOURCE STRENGTH.

SOURCE POSITION, SPECIMEN POSITION, FILM POSITION

SEE FIGURE 2-5. RELATIVE POSITIONS OF SOURCE, SPECIMEN, AND FILM DETERMINE DISTORTION. DISTORTION IS NOT ACCEPTABLE IF IT INTERFERES WITH FILM INTERPRETATION. BY REGULATING EX-

FILM CONTRAST

LIL _

POSURE, THE SAME DEGREE OF CONTRAST CAN BE ATTAINED WITH MOST FILM REGARDLESS OF FILM SPEED. SEE FIGURE 4-3. FILM SPEED FILM SPEED AND EXPOSURE DETERMINE DENSITY. WITH FAST FILM LESS EXPOSURE IS REQUIRED. FAST FILM IS COARSE GRAINED, SLOW FILM IS FINE GRAINED. THE QUALITY DESIREDIN THE RADIOGRAPH DETERMINES THE ACCEPTABLE GRAININESS. THE FINER THE GRAIN THE BETTER THE DEFINITION. LESSEN SCATTER EFFECT IMPROVING DEFINITION. USED WITH LOW ENERGY RADIATION, FRONT SCREEN MAY CAUSE DECREASE IN DENSITY. WITH HIGHER ENERGY RADIATION, INTENSIFICATION CAUSES INCREASE IN DEN SITY. ITENSIFICATION FACTOR IS HIGH. GREATINCREASE IN DENSITY WHEN USED WITH LOW ENERGY RADIATION. ABSORB SOFT RADIATION, DECREASE SCATTER.

FILM

GRAININESS

LEAD SCREENS

CALCIUM TUNGSTATE SCREENS

DIFFUSED LIGHT REDUCES SHARPNESS. CANNOT BE USED WITH HIGH ENERGY RADIATION RADIATION. ABSORB SOFT RADIATION DECREASE SCATTER.

FILTERS

6-23

t
Table 6-5. Effect of Radiographic Variables on Desired Radiograph Quality (Cont)

DESIRED RADIOGRAPH QUALITY RADIOGRAPHIC VARIABLE COLLIMATORS, CONES, AND DIAPHRAGMS

MINIMUM DISTORTION LIMIT

SHARP DEFINITION AREA EXPOSED

HIGH CONTRAST LIMIT AREA EXPOSED TO RADIATION, DECREASE SCATTER. LIMIT AREA OF SPECIMEN EXPOSED, DECREASE SCATTER. ABSORB UNWANTED RADIATION, DECREASE SCATTER. ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS KV IS DECREASED, CONTRASTINCREASES. KV SELECTION IS DEPENDENT UPON SPECIMEN AND DESIRED SENSITIVITY. AT A GIVEN SFD WITH A GIVEN KV, THE PRODUCT OF MA AND TtMEIS EXPOSURE. SEE FILM CONTRAST. SEE MAAND STRENGTH. SOURCE

ADEQUATE DENSITY

TO RADIATION, DECREASE SCATTER. LIMIT AREA OF SPECIMEN EXPOSED, DECREASE SCATTER. ABSORB UNWANTED RADIATION, SCATTER. DECREASE

MASKS

AREA SHIELDS

KVP (X-RAY

ONLY)

ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS KV IS INCREASED, DEFINITION IMPROVES BECAUSE OF DECREASED SCATTER.

ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS KV IS INCREASED, DEN SITY INCREASES. KV SELECTION iS DEPENDENT UPON SPECIMEN AND DESIRED SENSITIVITY.
l

MA (X-RAY

ONLY)

AT A GIVEN SFD WITH A GIVEN KV, THE PRODUCT OF MA AND TIME IS EXPOSURE. SEE F!LM SPEED. SEE MAAND STRENGTH, SOURCE

TIME

SOURCE STRENGTH (GAMMA ONLY)

AT A GIVEN SFD, THE PRODUCT OF SOURCE STRENGTH AND TIME tS EXPOSURE. SEE FILM CONTRAST. ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS SOURCE ENERGY IS INCREASE_ DEFINITION IMPROVES BECAUSE OF DECREASED SCATTER. ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS SOURCE ENERGY IS DECREASED, CONTRAST INCREASES. SOURCE . ENERGY SELECTION IS DEPENDENT UPON SPECIMEN AND DESIRED SENSITIVITY.

AT A GIVEN SFD, THE PRODUCT OF SOURCE STRENGTH AND TIME IS EXPOSURE. SEE FILM SPEED. ALL OTHER FACTORS REMAINING CONSTANT, AS SOURCE ENERGY IS INCREASED, DENSITY INCREASES. SOURCE ENERGY SELECTION IS DEPENDENT UPON SPECIMEN AND DESIRED DENSITY. DETERMINES EXPOSURE AND EITHER KV OR SOURCE ENERGY SELECTION.

SOURCE ENERGY (GAMMA ONLY)

SPECIMEN

ABSORPTION

SPECIMEN

CONTRAST

DETERMINES EXPOSURE AND EITHER KV OR SOURCE ENERGY SELECTION.

2.

MOVEMENT of source, set with position, radiography, clamps, to its tape, weight, specimen, permanently and portable the source wire, shape, etc. and the or film installed equipment switch The during exposure is not usually to remain so that holder) case, it does is firmly and the a problem. in the not move. posiis

Movement chosen tioned according 6-24

In X-radiography, In gamma

equipment is easily assembly specimen, angle desired

is designed placed (source in either of exposure,

is positioned film

taped , _..J long 3. Source

to the

specimen of holding not SIZE

when source, create

it is not held specimen, radiation scatter

in position and film problems.

by the weight firmly in place

of the specimen. is acceptable as

Any means

as it does SOURCE size down same

is a factor X-ray the to fractions X-ray

in every

radiograph ray

and and

is a primary X-ray of the Generally of most good within radiograph after all consideration

consideration focal spots of the under the with radiographic the radiography acceptable vary

in purchasfrom re8 mm overall

ing either square The quirements, determine available and the Selection equipment, 4.

equipment

or gamma of a millimeter, best

sources.

equipment and of a gamma ray to make (focal

meeting of the source.

requirements

is purchased. consideration, has applications, available. available with

requirements, the purchase X-ray and gamma is how source

the half-life ray equipment

radioisotopes

radiographer equipment

capable permits is usually

problem of correct since

an acceptable distance spot) size

source-to--film

dimensions.

SOURCE-TO-FILM distance distance are considered source on the on the The of the are due Since source and the selected The the

DISTANCE (SFD) is usually with synonymous. specimen the resultant The difference is at an appreciably densities on the penumbral the specimen in radiation (inverse of the the to the source film sharpness from specimen acceptable (penumbral 0.02 is used used X-ray thickness, radiograph radiograph effect with reference to gamma In the an SFD, distance will have also will is caused intensity square image to the is small; following three from a large by the angles. at different law effect) specimen it follows is obtained ray factors distance. the source than effect differon the the the that penumbral rays The from when then, from points equipment, discussion must

Source-to-film and the target-to-film two terms any other the points point point specimen

(TFD)

equipment. In selecting and greater

be considered: When any with ent

size, film film, image

specimen-to-film

(unsharpness).

not be in agreement erroneous

thickness. source to the optimum is small, distance must maximum from by the

penetrating difference the

at different

densities specimen, source. radiation great, the SFD

a,

caused

in distance distance the

geometrical

is relatively

not be below unsharpness

limits. effect) inch. that Based cannot on this a minimum be recognized capability acceptable by of the

human

eye

is approximately

eye, the following equation source-to-film distance.

to determine

E I

6-25

Dwhere

txd 0. 020

+t distance. upper when surface the film (focal of the specimen to the adjacent film (speci-

D = Source-to-film t = Distance men specimen). d = Diameter of the from

thickness

is immediately spot) in inches.

to the

source

bo

A second used rule eight little lected exposure used determining use that

means of determining minimum of thumb, "The source-to-film times thin are are the specimen SFD specimens enough 36" for constructed (one yard) are all thickness. acceptable are anticipated minimum when charts is long

SFD is stated in the commonly distance should not be less than " for Either most specimen of that (approximately of these radiography, Usually, distance. one exposures, methods but and Commonly meter). an SFD of are of is se-

to ten

radiographed. on the basis and 40"

distances

5. The affects

PHYSICAL physical the

ARRANGEMENT (setup) of the govern: contrast contrast in specimen in specimen area area of suspected that is under discontinuities. stress during of the finished source, radiograph. specimen, and film during exposure, setup,

arrangement useful quality considerations Best Best radiographic radiographic

In making

an exposure

the following a. b.

operation. c. d. e. Shortest Need Need for exposure more than time one compatible exposure, with or for quality double radiography. film technique. technique. paragraphs.) (Various

for beam,

panoramic, are

or other discussed

special

exposure

exposure 6. Film the since Thus, of film secondary FILM

arrangements SPEED, detailed

in subsequent

CONTRAST, were of contrast

AND GRAININESS in Chapter different 4. With most films in the industrially speed are of the similar used film films selected, the speed is

characteristics same the the that degree degree to the characteristic

is obtainable of the (sharpness) The time-saved, Fast

regardless speed economic, film required

of the

curves

in shape. fixes of fast film

of resolution desired

radiograph used.

is acceptable.

consideration

resolution.

is seldom

6-26

7. Lead They special mens. loss

SCREENS screens are vacuum Exposure of sharpness only are universally in a wide pack that in special film charts used range holders should accompanies low-energy because are of their scatter and used use calcium applications. absorption thin in radiography screens. tungstate screens capability. lead screens speciof the be in of thin Because should

available

of thicknesses, successfully on the use,

extremely

be based their

of lead

employed 8. Scatter amount ters "soft" required Lead to the duced clay, as that collimators, area

radiation

SCATTER radiation of scatter placed rays screens

RADIATION can never the beam, both be eliminated and by further source and are and the usually because scatter reduce generated specimen the filters many but its limiting specimen used of the (front side by the exposed material specimen. are of the rays that Shields in positions immediately radiography control designed higher might usually of most below, are The with high and effects the absorb X-ray energy back can scatter many be lessened reaching of the by limiting the They ray scatter film. are (back the Filnot screen); is rebarium same whereas to or It is leadis of the is the rays, serve

created,

between of the in gamma absorb cones, of interest. the shot,

scatter-producing emissions. the beam

equipment. of gamma and back (internal beam. to shield only strike of lead reduction the usually by area scatter

radiography internal Scatter, area of the or other surrounding except soft rays that and

screen) specimen to the used

and diaphragms

by limiting scatter), Masks

by limiting metallic or areas of filtering, absorb scatter that the would handling

of lead,

absorbent

portions "soft" Shields walls, sheets, film

specimen,

principle to absorb energy consist scatter rays. otherwise

of masking

masks limit objects

radiation

by absorbing scatter. placed areas Permanent form, that

floors, in some be shielded

generate

convenient particularly to absorb lined required. 9. rooms,

benefit. include shielding

important back scatter.

or behind,

installations of scatter

but in all other

applications,

KILOVOLTAGE, milliamperage, charts contained chart. chart in correct (Figure

MILLIAMPERAGE, and 6-7) of the in a table time are the

AND TIME exposure correct contained for different various X-ray law factors value in X-radiography. for 6-4) other chart distances. film characteristic milliamperage Since certain and results than that chart the in shown X-ray applicain-

Kilovoltage, exposure tions. formation determination on the results exposure results

|

describe information values inverse for for

of each (Table

A combination of proper Application

in an exposure of material to exposure from films.

of radiographic square

equivalents

exposure of the values with values

information Combining curves and

in correct

exposure information exposure

source-to-film obtained speed

information

6-27 l
=

time are reciprocal functions and milliamperage required exposure time is usually determined i0. Source Gamma certain the tion SOURCE energy, ray conditions. radioisotope and time by the values most are source material ray ENERGY, source SOURCE strength, charts Source source and energy must STRENGTH, and time 6-8) are

is limited by equipment

capability,

by the equipment used. AND TIME exposure the of the Source time length 6-4) chart. for factors proper emitted strength of exposure. of exposure chart in gamma value waves) of each radiography. under of funcis

exposure

(Figure

describe

(wavelength constant. be known functions, Gamma (Table on the allows

is a function Since time source

radioisotope of the

and remains reciprocal strength. equivalents

is a time-decay required

at the the ray

strength determined with

exposure results The

information formula

combined of correct accomsquare

a table

of radiographic for gamma

in determination exposure of the inverse selection

exposure panying

not shown charts

exposure

application permits

law, and the remainder to-film distance most ii. SPECIMEN absorption that cannot

of the information on the chart suited for the immediate task. AND SPECIMEN contrast or controlled are

of a source-

ABSORPTION and control, specimen

CONTRAST the only variables variables of the They encountered radiographic determine in the making

Specimen process

be changed

by the radiographer.

the radiographers of a radiograph. 604 I. The film sists and EXPOSURE GENERAL following information for ease of a portable installed an isotope 6-13. curves for 6-15. 6-16. for types

or setting,

of the other

CALCULATIONS

examples available X-ray

of exposure to the the machine containing used I, II, in the and and C film, details will

calculations radiographer. examples. whose whose examples types when the range A, are chart maximum 2% sensitivity of material used The

illustrate The equipment are

the

use

of equipment are in the examples

and cona in 6-12,

referenced used

figures shown are decay types: of another. 6-14;

located 6-11, is shown I, II and

together permanently Figure istic curves Figure Figure material details obtain

in following X-ray film

characteristics characteristics 192 source is of six B, and with for shown

in Figure curve types

machine

shown

in Figure

camera The

an iridium

whose different

III typical

of one

manufacturer types A, B, and

C typical in Figure gamma A,

Characterare shown is shown specified It also that will in in

HI film

characteristic C film for

radiation, B, and finished voltage

An iridium Figure 6-17 that

192 exposure obtain

types

permissible in the for gamma

thicknesses the permissible 2% sensitivity.

radiograph. radiography

thickness

6-28

10,000 9000 8000 7000 6000

ii_iL/:i i _:_

/
/
/

50OO

4000

3000

2000

1ooo
O X

m w

900 800 70( 6O(

/ //,
/ ! l /

//// /,
i

/
I

/
/
/
0.005 0.010

'

,oo
4OO

oo
i00 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 THICKNESS

I
__ PORTABLE X-RAY MACHINE SERIAL 5678 LEAD SCREEN FRONT LEAD SCREEN BACK 2.0 DEN SlTY TFD (TARGET TO FILM DISTANCE) FILM DEVELOPMENT
! I

.36" TYPE II 5 MINUTES AT 68"F.

I

2,5 ALUMINUM

3.0 IN.

:3.5

4.0

4.5

5.o

Figure _.z

6-11.

X-ray

Exposure

Chart

(Portable

Equipment) 6-29

lOOM 80M

,o. ,/_/ N
--

_'MI !

I !

J_

/ /

/
j

I
/

/
/

x
//

//

6Ml _i _/ _/ '_ ::__1 _1_ _/_ .o.tl!!1

_/ .

II///
1
!

g
f.3 1.1,,I 0'3 LU L_J t_

""'//
eM_
7M

6MII

--J .-/ m W ev" 0 X LIJ

_,[Jl

,/
)
SERIAL

//

/,

_" i i / /i//

1MJ
900 700 I ]

!I
I I I l l / X-RAY MACHINE 1234 LEAD SCREEN FRONT LEAD SCREEN BACK 2.0 36" TYPE II 5 MINUTES AT 68"F, I 3.0

8oo l l l / J

.,1111/

,ooi11I/

.o,_111 6c 11 l/ I

;If

0.005 0.010

,o,1111//
100 0.5 1.0

DENSITY TFD (TARGET TO FILM DISTANCE) FI LM DEVELOPMENT I 2.0

J/,////Y
THICKNESS 6-12. X-ray Exposure Chart

STEEL INCHES

Figure

(Permanently

Installed

Equipment)

6-30

I00 90 80 70 60 50

4O

3O

20

10

75 DAY! j DAYS

8/1

9/1

i0/1

ii/i

12/1

1/1

Figure

6-13.

Iridium

192

Decay

Curve

4.0

3.5 5 MIN. DEVELOPMENT AT 68F.

3.0

r,.

2.5

n Z

2.0

r_

V
1.5

/
/
I

1.0

0.5 j"

0.5

1.0

1.5 LOGRELATIVE EXPOSURE

2.0

2.5

3.0

Figure 6-32

6-14.

Film

Characteristic

Curves

(Types

I,

H and

II1) V

3.5

CHARACTERISTICS

3.0

'1111 II llll
CURVES
]

FOR HIGH ENERGY RADIATION* (IRIDIUM, CESIUM, COBALT, 1-.31 MEV)

2.5

2.0
i, aj

/
-/ /
/

./
S/l

>,. i-

bJ

1.5

/
1.0

/
/

/
/
0.5
J I

/
J J ,/

J J

0.1

1.0

10

EXPOSURE IN ROENTGENS *WITH LEAD INTENSIFYING SCREENS

Figure

6-15.

Film

Characteristic

Curves

(Types

A,

B and

C) 6-33

1000 9 8 7 EFX T '= -S IRIDIUM 192 EXPOSURE

!
FACTORS FOR

D2

T -TIME (MINUTES) FOR DENSITY 2.0* EF-EXPOSURE FACTOR D -SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (FEET) S -SOURCE STRENGTH (CURIES)

loo
8 7 6 iJ. bJ
v iv,

u. LU t_ 0
a.

x
LLJ

10 9 8 7 6

*DENSITIES OTHER THAN 2.0 CAN'BE ORTAINED BY APPLYING THE FACTORS GIVEN BELOW. MULTIPLY THE EXPOSURE CALCULATED FROM THE FORMULA BY THE CORRECTION FACTOR INDICATED FOR THE DESIRED DENSITY. DENSITY
J J l

1.0 0.43,

1.5 0.7111

2.0

2.5

3,0

--

CORRECTION FACTOR

O 1.30 "

1.62

I
1/4 1/2 1 1-1/2 2 INCHES OF STEEL

I
2-1/2

I
3

Figure

6-16.

Iridium

192

Exposure

Chart

e-s4

F bJ

o. o o
m

Co60

1
_/////////////////////////_ 7///A
PERMISSIBLE

I
THICKNESS RANGE

_ Cs Fo _

137

FOR ISOTOPE INSPECTION (TWO PERCENT SENSITIVITY)

_/I////////////////////////_
Ir 192

Tm 170 0

W//-///_,
1 2 3 SPECIMEN 4 THICKNESS, 5 STEEL 6 EQUIVALENT 7 (INCHES) 10

2000

1000 90O 800 7OO

6OO
UJ

/
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VOLTAGE

i.J 0

500

o ..I 400 (TWO

!

/
ACCEPTABLE REGION
f

PERCENT

SENSITIVITY_

x <
bJ a.

300

250 f f 2OO
f d @

PRACTICAL 125
J

MINIMUM

///t"
100 .1

.2

.3

.4 SPECIMEN

.5 THICKNESS,

.6 STEEL

.7 EQUIVALENT

.8 (INCHES)

,9

1.0

1.5

| !
|

Figure

6-17.

Energy

vs.

Thickness

Ranges 6-35

Example

1:

A two-inch-thick portable X-ray a sensitivity

specimen equipment of 2% and 6-11.

of aluminum (Figure 6-11) of 3.3,

is to be X-rayed. determine with type may the II film. be X-rayed

Using exposure

the for

a density inches

Step

1:

From

Figure

Two

of aluminum distance of 36"

with of 2.0

type H film as follows:

at a target-to-film

for a density

At 100 kv - 2300 mas 120kv800mas 140kv160kvStep 2: From alent Step 3: From tivity consult lection Table to 0.24 Figure with Figure 6-4. inch 6-17. 0.24 inch 6-11 400 mas 225 mas The Thus of steel The and

(milliampere-seconds)

radiographic at 150 kv, (2 x 0.12). maximum select between

equivalence two inches

factor

for aluminum is equiv-

at 150 kv is 0.12.

of aluminum

permissible Since

voltage this is the exposure.

for

2% sensiseof less at

of steel

is 170 kv. the

maximum, This

140 kv for the economic

is a compromise

consideration available

exposure time lower kv. Step 4: From a 2.0 tween is 1.83. exposure Step 5: From Thus Step Figure density the

at 160 kv and

the greater

sensitivity

6-14. is 1.91,

The and

log for

relative 3.3 the

exposure density 2.18. The for

with The 3.3

type

II film

for be-

difference density, the

log relative Therefore, for 1. 2.0 The

exposures to obtain

is 0.27. exposure

antilogarithm

of 0.27

density

is multiplied for and 2.0 3.3

by 1.83. density density. required exposure with for The with type type 3.3 The antilog HI film. density difference of 0.68 the is exwith at 140 kv is 400 mas. will result in a

exposure

at 140 kv an exposure of 2% sensitivity 1 determine 6-14. is 2.18, The the

of 732 mas

(400 x 1.83)

radiograph Example Step 2: 1: In Example From type 4.78. posure Step 2: From between Figure II film the for

exposure

log relative type the exposures

and with to obtain

III film 2.76. is 0.68.

log relative type II film 1. of 3500 The mas

Therefore,

exposure

III film

is multiplied exposure density with

by 4.78. for type will type II film result HI film. is 732 mas. in a radiograph Thus of

Example

an exposure 2% sensitivity

(732 x 4.78)

and 3.3

6-36

Example

3-

In Examples distance thickness film Determine target-to-film target-to-film

1 and

2, the The rule

exposure of thumb notbe Based because for (TFD) states for that should

was

based less than rule, and II and intensity the possible

on a target-to-film given states that the the 8 to 10 times a 20" target-tosaving 3.3 density HI film. varies of the inversely at a 20" exposure TFD at a in time. at this

of 36". of the the

previously on this of the types the

distance specimen. exposure distance square law and is selected

distance

2% sensitivity

Step

1:

The with for 36"

inverse the TFD

square for

of the

distance. 3.3 density and exposure

Thus, 3.3 for

exposure

2% sensitivity

is 202/362 density. type

2% sensitivity 1. The

Step

2:

From

Example

II film

at a 36"

TFD

is

732 mas. Step 3: Thus, TFD Step 4: From 3500 Step %.J 5: Thus, an exposure of 20". Example mas. an exposure of 1080 mas and (3500 3.3 x 202/362) density with will type result in a at a 2. The exposure for type HI film at a 36" TFD is of 226 mas (732 x 202/362) 3.3 density will with result in a at a

radiograph

of 2% sensitivity

and

type

II film

radiograph of 2% sensitivity TFD of 20". NOTE: The procedures

HI film

of Examples using

1 through the

3 may

be followed in factors

to X-ray Figure listed Example 4: The was posure Step i: From decayed Step 2: specimen days with Figure type calibrated

the specimen 6-12, and the in Table 6-4.

equipment equivalence

described

radiographic

of Example have passed at 50 curies. A film The

1 must since Using

be radiographed the source source, shown and this

with

Iridium the density. will have

192. 6-13 ex-

Fifty-five

in Figure 3.3

determine

to obtain 50 curie

2% sensitivity source after

6-13.

55 days

to 30 curies. 3, select a source-to-film distance of 20" (1.67

As in Example feet).

Step

3:

From when

Table using

6-4. Iridium are

The 192,

radiographic is 0.34. to 0.68

equivalence Thus, inch with of steel

factor Iridium

for 192,

aluminum, two inches

of aluminum

equivalent

(2 x 0.34).

v.j
6-37

Step 4:

From range steel.

Figure for

6-17.

The 192,

lower testing

level with

of the

permissible (0.68 inch

thickness is 0.5 inch of can

Iridium

2% sensitivity, 2% sensitivity. calculate

Therefore,

two inches with Iridium Figure

of aluminum 192 with 6-16,

of steel)

be radiographed

Step 5:

Using

the equation from EFxD 2 15xl.672 T = = S 3O Thus, an exposure time and 2.0 of 2% sensitivity

T in minutes.

= 1.4 of 1.4 density. the is 2.8. density

minutes minutes will result in a radiograph

Step 6:

Figure From 1.5, 3.3 2.8

6-16 Figure and for

does 6-15 3.3

not give the density for 2.0

correction with type Therefore, must

factor A film

for for

3.3 2.0

density. density ratio is of of a density

exposure

to obtain

the exposure to 1.5. Step 5 the

be increased

by the

Step 7:

From Thus,

exposure time

time of 2.6

for

2.0

density (1.4 density.

is 1.4 x 2.8/1.5)

minutes. will result

an exposure

minutes and the 3.3

in a radiograph NOTE:

of 2% sensitivity I and antilog 2,

In Examples plotted termine between change. plotted lation the since methods film ratio the

film scale

characteristic and it was relative exposure required values,

curves necessary

were to de-

on a log relative any two In this of required between of plotting exposures example exposure any film

of the log

difference exposure curve and is calcuof both are shown,

to calculate the film scale changes characteristic use either. in actual

characteristic is a matter Illustrations curves

on a logarithmic

of applying

two exposures.

manufacturers shown the in Figure

Example 5:

The quired mum

steel

specimen Using a single 6-17. with for 160-kv 0.25

6-18A acceptable

is to be X-rayed. density and is 3.3, in Figure densities described

Remini6-12, can

sensitivity is 2.0. with

is 2%, maximum X-ray exposure The inch

equipment of type

determine be made Step 1: From mum 140-

if a radiograph

of acceptable

sensitivity H film.

Figure voltage and

maximum of steel of steel of Figure inch

perinissible is 170kv, 6-12 are and is 135 kv.

voltage Therefore,

for

2% minionly the

sensitivity

the practical

0.375 curves

considered.

6-38

T--

Figure Step 2: From Figure

6-18. With inch

Steel type

Specimens H film may at a target-to-film be X-rayed for distance a density of of

6-12. 0.375

36", 0.25 and 2.0 as follows:

of steel

140 KV Exposure Exposure Step 3: From a 2.0 between 1.83. sure Step 4: From for Figure density the 2.0 2. 0.25" 0. 375" 6-14. is 1.91, log relative density The steel steel The and 330 mas 1000 log relative for the 3.3 exposures mas exposure density is 0.27. exposure by 1.83. inch and of steel for with The 3.3

160 KV 170 mas 400 mas type The antilog density, II film difference of 0.27 the is expofor

is 2.18.

Therefore,

to obtain

is multiplied exposure

Step

of 0.25

for

2.0

density

at

140 kv is 330 mas, of 604 mas kv will Step 5: Therefore, result

and at 160 kv is 170 mas. at 140 kv, of 3.3 the 311 mas density.

Thus,

an exposure at 160

(330 x 1.83)

(170 x 1.83)

in radiographs exposures within

acceptable

density 140 KV

range

are 160 KV 311 mas 400 mas

Exposure Exposure Since density exposure with

0.25" 0. 375" 140 kv,

steel, steel, any 3.3 1000

3.3 2.0

density density more will result than

604 mas 1000 mas will

exposure at the mas

604 mas of the

result and than

In a any 2.0 6-39

greater less

than than

thin portion

specimen, of less

in a density

at the hold

thick true

portion

of the

specimen,

and

the

same

relative

conditions of of type

with

160 kv,

it is impossible and densities with

to obtain a single

a radiograph exposure

acceptable II film. Example 6: The steel

sensitivity

specimen 192. The

shown available

in Figure source acceptable a single level with

6-18B measures

must

be radlographed Required and minimum and is 3.3

with

Iridium sensitivity is 2.0. densities Step I: From range steel. 192 with Step 2: From 2.0 Step 3:

30 curies. sensitivity of type permissible

is 2%, maximum Determine can be made 6-17. with The 192, the

density exposure of the

if a radiograph

of acceptable

A film. thickness is 0.5 with inch of Iridium

Figure for

lower testing

Iridium

2% sensitivity,

Therefore,

specimen

can be radiographed

2% sensitivity. 6-16. with does 6-15 3.3 for type The EF (exposure is 12.5, correction with must type Therefore, factor) and for 0.5 inch steel is 21. for

Figure density 6-16 Figure and for

A film the 2.8.

of 1 inch factor A film for

of steel 3.3 2.0

Figure From 1.5,

not give the density 2.0

density. density is of 3.3, of 2.8

exposure density

for

to obtain

a density ratio

the exposure to 1.5. Step 4: From film Step is 12.5.

be increased

by the

2, the Thus of 3.3

EF

of 0.5

inch

of steel (12.5

for

2.0

density will result

with

type

an EF of 23.4 density. result and in 2.0 of the

x 1.87)

in a

radiograph Step 5: Since portion through 23.4 with 2. The DOUBLE specimen of the savings holder, for a. 6-40 practical The and by film FILM will an EF

of 21 will specimen, thinner exposure

density

through will any result

the thicker in 3.3 and EF between

(1") density 21 and density

of the the result

an EF of 23.4 specimen, of acceptable A film.

portion

in a radiograph of type

sensitivity

a single

EXPOSURES 5, and a single which one for could the not be X-rayed by using thinner using film effect portion. two films technique, This of the of a single films employed satisfactorily one for the However, of different the radiation film two films because on either exposure. in the double film technique with the a single thicker also conin the two films with placed the of the

of Example film, with may specimen in time. exposed purposes, exposure

exposure portion may same is, sequent

on one

be X-rayed exposure double that the

two exposures,

specimen are

be X-rayed

speeds,

In this

simultaneously. identical ratio between to that the

is practicable

absorption

of radiation

is so slight

determines
F

the (slow

range speed) ratio,

of specimen The ratio film film ranges

thickness of exposure from

that between as set

can be radiographed fine by the the and (medium than 1 to 4, are

with speed) and Bebased portions on of depend-

acceptable extra-fine ent upon

I;- -:

density. the particular high for

1 to 3, to more film

characteristics acceptable density of the of the

manufacturer. thicker

cause the film. used. Example )

of this specimen, through (Fast,

calculations On the faster

for double

technique

an exposure density

maximum recorded the thinner grain,

through two films;

an acceptable on the slower it is seldom

portions film

specimen, here

recorded since

coarse

is not considered

7.-

The quired mum types

steel

specimen Using

shown is 2%, the and The inch

in Figure maximum

6-18A acceptable

is to be X-rayed. density can is 3.3, in Figure be made described

Remini6-12, with

sensitivity is 2.0.

X-ray the

equipment film

determine

if radiographs

of acceptable double

density technique.

II and I17 film Figure with for 6-17. 0.25 curves 6-12.

Step

1:

From sitivity voltage and

maximum

permissible and the

voltage practical

for only

2% senminimum the 140-

of steel of steel

is 170 kv, is 135 kv. 6-12 are

0. 375 inch

Therefore,

160-kv Figure

of Figure With

considered. at a target-to-film be X-rayed for distance a density of of

Step

2:

From

type

II film may

36", 0.25 and 2.0 as follows.

0. 375 inch

of steel

140 KV Exposure Exposure Step 3: From 2.0 1.83. sure exposure between 1TI film the type Step 4: From for 2.0 Thus, tween Figure density the for 0.25" 0. 375" 6-14. is 1.91, log relative 2.0 with the is 0.62. for density type steel steel The and log for 330 mas 1000 relative 3.3 the for density is 0.27. exposure by 1.83. 2.0 density for type 2.0 mas exposure 2.18. The for 3.3 And, is 2.53. density the with The

160 KV 170 mas 400 type mas 17 film is expofor be-

difference of 0.27 the log relative The with

exposures to obtain I17 film is multiplied exposures antilog density

antilog density, the

Therefore,

difference types II and for to obtain

log relative The 2.0

of 0.62 with

is 4.17. 1TI film,

Therefore, exposure

exposure II film Step

is multiplied 2. The

by 4.17. with mas type II film of 0.25 at 140 kv, inch and of steel 709 mas

exposure of 1376

density

at 140 kv is 330 mas,

and at 160 kv is 170 mas.

an exposure

(330 x 4.17)

6-41

(170 x 4.17) type Step 5: From 1830 HI film. Step 2. mas

at 160 kv will

result

in radiographs

of 2.0

density

with

V
The mas, exposure and of 0. 375 inch and steel mas. with density for Thus type 2.0 density at of at 160 kv is 400 at 140 kv, of 3.3 density an exposure at 160 II film. are

140 kv is 1000 (1000 kv will Step 6: Therefore result

x 1.83)

732 mas

(400 x 1.83)

in radiographs within

exposures

the acceptable 140 KV

range 160 KV 709 mas

Exposure 2.0 density,

0.25" type 0. 375" type

steel, HI film steel, II film

1376

mas

Exposure 3.3 Since mas the than density, with will 3.3

1830

mas

732mas

140 kv any exposure result at the in radiographs of the thick density for the equal. 709 and for specimen portion can the thick

more with

than

1376

and less

than 2.0

1830 at less The 732

a density

greater II film,

than

thin portion

on type of the film with

III film, on type one of the

and a density at 140 kv. and the

radiographs

of acceptable 709 mas mas sure able NOTE: exposure between density. The Minor

be made thin portion the will

exposure specimen

exposure

portion

of the result

specimen

at 160 kv are of accept-

approximately

Exposing 732 mas

specimen

to 160 kv at an expo-

in radiographs

calculations are variances

in the foregoing close approximations in film,

examples and distance,

and

in most values. and etc.)

radiography in measurement do not permit 3. The RADIOGRAPHIC principles to almost to assist of the are upon, SLIDE RULES

not exact density,

in equipment

performance,

capabilities (time, exact calculations.

of exposure any the

calculation Slide

illustrated rules, rapid in calculating in film

in the

foregoing are curves,

examples and similar simply exposure square from law. them in the handy

may

be

applied designed ments devices relied

exposure. radiographer contained tables, accurate, the user

calculators, exposures

devices arrangeand These may be examples. charts,

information equivalence reasonably providing

characteristic information the

radiographic

and and

application the

of the inverse obtained principles

understands

illustrated

6-42

605 [I. The

r

RADIOGRAPHIC GENERAL exposure 6-19

APPLICATIONS

arrangements through 6-42 permits radiography may of film and to the Angulation. the fusion

discussed are commonly of most be used and apply

in the following used, specimens. either of the X-ray as related

paragraphs Except where

and of the ray In the

illustrated principles

in specified, The of following:

Figures illustrated any basic source applying a.

and application

otherwise

of the

arrangements

with contrast

or gamma

equipment. distance, interest the

principles energy, radiation Tube tion, and beam b. Focal and focal c. Incident radiation lines, joint

density highest

to source-to-film should be given

exposure

to each

arrangements. attention exposure angulations

degree,

special and

Prior in order path. The

to setup must know to set

of any weldment penetration and the

configurastandard, incident

radiographer lines

the joint

preparation,

the tube

resultant

propagation Spot distance spot Location. and is shown

focal

spot

location the FFD

is relative (focal _. film

to the distance).

film

position The

is commonly

called

on illustrations The effective area

by the incident focal of interest, if a fillet penetration, of the (See

I

symbol beam

Beam field. to the line.

Alignment. It is the center instead of the

is the size,

central with for

beam

of the

spot

projected calls

in straight a prepared corner should ) 100% beam

and parallel weld the two legs Figures incident instead 6-21

fusion the

As an example, of 100% Joint of the Junction is not required. Sometimes be known side. built testing

penetration, intersect area d. where

corner fusion

of at the unfused 6-23. locate the depth the amount

through

Discontinuity discontinuities of the of material discontinuity save and radiographic

Location. especially must the reduce and materials. from will

it is essential thick in order Correctly and and to remove

to precisely specimens where and a minimum

in exceptionally

discontinuity

nearest

locating additional both

removing

in stresses time,

discontinuities, manufacturing

manufacturing

conserve

e.

Critical criteria graphic least to give exposures zones ments

and Non-critical of every process. and/or the highest least necessary specimen

Criteria. before any

The he must he must

radiographer decide determine with which the

must film

know in the will the

the

stress the angle of

function

is performed

radio-

To illustrate, sensitivity, to give amount

give and

distance

of distortion, full part

and he must coverage Typical

determine respect

number affected require-

to heat

and designed are:

configuration.

radiographic

standard

6-43

(1)

Extent sequent

and

distribution

of radiographic

testing

for

initial

and

sub-

weldments. welds to be examined for individual weldments.

V
of weldments to apply to be examined. to each weld.

(2) (3) (4)

.

Specific Numerical

sequence standards

Radiographic FACTORS Interpretation

RELATED a. Improper applied,

of Discontinuities. of the by all through 3, radiographic personnel 6-42 Typical

in order process involved illustrate interpretations. Applications. some

to properly must in overall typical These

interpret and final weldment weldments

discontinuities, noted, evaluation. configurations are b. discussed

all factors and known 6-19 correct and under Figures

be correctly

and incorrect

paragraph

Elimination will minimize

of Distortion. distortion and are also serve

Observing by showing Penetrameters added other the

the proper image

geometry proper

of application perspective.

in the

c.

Proper (1)

Identification Penetrameters They can identification the proper penetrated.

Placement. to show such a known discontinuity. and although thickness

to a specimen purposes,

as image

orientation

of the minimum thickness penetrameter indicates the

to be interpreted, total of the overall

(2)

Identification and every X-ray or any plate plate position rotated article), that the control other can also should

Plate. individual number, pertinent serve normally article,

The

identification Information number,

plate area

is used such

to identify date

each

exposure. weld the if the to the information purpose the area face

as article The The

number, of exposure,

number,

is provided. of orientation. propagated radiation. numbers plate adjacent proper been and

identification identification In the case has of been the used and a reversed (under been

a circular

of interest

show the film has

in relation to place the geometric the

identification of interest knows the have

article

area

to the technique

interpreter

principIes

followed.

3. Figures graphed Subject 6-44

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-19 since contrast and its 6-20 critical is small

APPLICATIONS illustrate area and flat exposure

ON WELDED weld areas. defined calculations

FLAT This are type

PLATES of weld width, is easily and thickness. simple. radio-

Ks clearly

in length,

relatively

ao

Figure ficient

6-19 for 6-20

is a common this particular

buttweld. Joint.

An exposure

angle

of 90 will

be suf-

Do

Figure the well as itivity, shim

is an example beam alignment

of a 45 V-groove should be parallel

buttweld. along the

In this fusion

Instance, line, as

incident

90 to the horizontal plane. the radiographer must select so that for the the image thickness of the of the

To insure the correct the proper penetrameter penetrameter specimen ts a true at the weld

degree of sensand sufficient representation area.

stock

of sensitivity

DETERMINATION RADIATION PROPAGATION ANGLE ON ALL WELDMENTS CRITICAL: NON-CRITICAL: WILL CAUSE FAILURE IN A SYSTEM OR FUNCTION LOW STRESS FUNCTION IN.

MOST JOINTS OVER 0.125 ARE PREPARED JOINTS 11_"'90_ EXPOSURE AJ_LE HIGH DEGREE OF FILM SENSITIVITY POSSIBLE TO 0.125 IN. THICKNESS (_ FOCAL SPOT

Figure

6-19.

Common

Buttweld

C
\\ 45__'_l

90" I I
45, // BUTTWELD TO 0.125 UNPREPARED JOINT IN. THICK

\*2", I

45 BEVELED VZGROOVE BUTTWELD ABOVE 0.1251N. THICK. MOST BEVELS OR GROOVES ARE BELOW 45*

/. //llllllll/
Figure 6-20. V-Groove Buttweld 4. Welded film RADIOGRAPHIC T-joints good Figures incident the tube tendency
V

APPLICATION in Figure of the 6-22, spot weld

ON WELDED 6-21 ro0t are present image

T-JOINTS a more difficult problem. to locate The the root

illustrated apt resolution 6-21, beam may 6-21 or focal

of the weld so that a.

is most

to contain

discontinuities

and

there

is no place

will

be obtained. of the The correct angles and Incorrect is to position This

and 6'23 midway

examples the

alignment or may illustrates the

of a T-weldment. between not be correct, the correct as will angulatton

usual right

tendency

two

or at 45 .

be shown. of 15 for a 100% corner pene-

b.

Figure tration.

As only

corner

penetration

is required,

an angle

of 15 or less 6--4=5

f
will be sufficient corner.
C.

as long

as the

standing

leg

is not superimposed

over

the

Figure under tration. have the scrap.

6-22 the been

shows

that leg the

if the

beam had 6-22

should

be angled

too much, penetration, 6-21 and

it wllI pass peneby or it would rejected rework

standing Assuming accepted shown

and be misinterpreted specimen technique shown resulting

as incomplete in Figure

corner

100% corner

by the

technique

in Figure

tn unnecessary

d.

Figure tube must

6-23 angle have

illustrates at 45 . full Since penetration

I I

a correct by X-ray

technique penetration as well

and

should was

be exposed

with

the

100% joint

required,

the Joint

as welding.

I I I
STANDING LEG.,,..,_,
-.,. %. '%%.

\ \ //

/(_

! ! !

"5.
/ / / /

//

,%%.
%.%.

%% %% %.%.

i,,"#
r

N
v

1OO PER CENT CORNER PENETRATION

PICKS UP UNFUSED AREA UNDER STANDING LEG

Figure

6-21.

Correct (100%

Angle Corner

for

T-Joint

Figure

6-22.

Incorrect (100%

AngIe Corner

for

T-Joint

Penetration)

Penetration)

TO EXCESSIVE UNREQUIRED REWORK AND SCRAP LOSS MISINTERPRETATION LEADS

I0O_ STAN_NGLEG JOINTII_L_" RATIOIt

Figure

6-23.

Correct Angle Penetration)

for

T-Joint

(100%

Standing

Leg

6-46

5.

RADIOGRAPHIC
a.

APPLICATION 6-24 and 6-25 are

ON WELDED illustrative joint. them

CORNER of correct Proper

JOINTS and incorrect should X-ray cover on the weld, result and film. design artion the and and/' alI

Figures or detail weldment The stress.

placement configurations factors the

of a corner to show are welding forgets

criteria joint

to the best on the

advantage configuration, focal spot, recorded

deciding Since

standards, joint alignment

technician

concentrates

cle alignment, film.

b.

he often

or the

Figure alignment.

6-24

shows

correct

tube

angulation,

article

placement,

and joint

c,

Figure placed resulting

6-25

shows

correct

tube that the

angulation, unfused

but tube area wilI

or detail appear

have

been film

in such

a position

on the

in an incorrect

interpretation.

! r

MISINTERPRETATION LEADS TO EXCESSIVE UNREQUIRED REWORK AND SCRAP LOSS UNFUSEO AREA THIS PLANE

1.oo'/, ORUEIt C PErORATiON

FqCKS UP UNF'USEJ) AREA

Figure

6-24.

Correct Angle for Corner Joint and Correct Detail Placement

Figure 6-25.

Correct AngIe for Joint but Incorrect Placement

Corner Detail

d.

Figure aperture.

6-26

illustrates The

100% Joint film and

penetration. Joint must

The be placed

X-ray parallel

tube

angulation the tube

of 45 is correct.

with

49"

ZOO*/, JOINT

PENETRATION

Figure

6-26.

Correct Placement

Angle

for

Corner Penetration)

Joint

and

Correct

Detail

(100%

6.

RADIOGRAPHIC
a_

APPLICATION diagrams Additional in Figure X-rays weIdments rapid cooling

ON

HEAT 6-27

AFFECTED the heat at effects thinness It the should

ZONES affected 90 to the zones heat of weldaffected and and the that conpossiroutine to detect

The ments. zones

three

show be

should in view due to

obtained of the

of critical the

of expansion of zone, be noted required

traction, ble flaws

relative structure.

rearrangement of the at heat affected

of molecular weldment will zones. not

X-rays

produce

sensitivity

HEAT

AFFECTED

ZONES

WELDMENTS NOTE:

CLASSIFIED

AS CRITICAL COULD CAUSE OR FUNCTION

ALL WELDMENTS WHICH A FAILURE IN A SYSTEM

SHOULD HAVE ADDITIONAL RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURES AT 90" TO THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONES. TION, REGARDLESS WELD OF JOINT AND CONFIGURAFUSION PENETRATION,

SPECIFICATIONS.

Figure 6-48

6-27.

Heat

Affected

Zones

of Weldments

VL

b.

The

two focal with leg

spots the of the

shown central weldments. welds pass

in Figure (incident}

6-27 beam

represents

a single heat

source affected

at two zones

positions, on each c. Since ment, the d. heat the and

at 90 to the

shots the affected

of the beams zones

were through

taken the

at an angle legs good toe

to the

legs

of the

weldin

at an angle, resolution. of the the weld

a 2% sensitivity

would

not produce to the

Particular

attention

should to detect

be given cracks

where

it Joins of the

the parent metal weld metal. e. In welding, grow which area 7. Figure
=

which

follow

configuration

the the

elongated walls of the structure to solidify.

crystals melt that

or dendrites toward final the center segregated eutectic

of the and zone

solidifying weld. weakened

metal This results is the by eutectic,

from

of the

in a coarsened is the last where

is highly The begins. ON SINGLE

of solidification

cracking

usually

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-28 when shows possible. single

APPLICATION an example This wall of the

WALL application, as well

TUBING which should objects. always be

single are:

wall

used relating

is true applications

of fiat

objects

as circular

Factors

to all a.

All circular propagated weld, zone. away

articles beam. from the the

should Lead lead beam, weld area

be numbered should at least away and

in a clockwise be placed 1/8 inch from on the from

direction side heat they circular the the

facing opposite affected will not article to retain

the the

numbers numbers

By placing in the

the beam,

superimpose in a clockwise

of interest. future

Numbering

direction

is for

reference.

A good method

identification is to electrolytically pression stamps if the specifications should b. In laying distortion (1) be taped or otherwise

etch the numbers permit. Lead affixed least

or to utilize metal imnumbers, when used, article. of geometrical

temporarily weld

to the amount

out a circumferential the following methods

for the

can be used: area take both the points place. sides at which the greatest

Calculate on both sides visual circumferential Deduct approximately

of each changes 10% from

(2)

to allow

for

distortion.

6-49

MINIMUM

F.F.D.

36 IN.

IMAGE MISAUGNMEMT DUE TO DETAIL GEOMETRY AND DIVERSIONARY BEAM ALIGNMENT

__

90

DO .NOT EXCEED THIS AREA OF COVERAGE ON CIRCUMFERENTIAL DETA! I._

PLACEMENT LEAD BACKING TO STOP BACI(SCATT 1 IN. OVERLAP - SIMGI_E WALL MINIMUM OF SIX EXPOSURES, AND MORE, ON LARGER CIRCUMFERENCE TUBING, SPHERES, TANKS, ETC.

2-1/2 IoD. MINIMUM

Figure

6-28.

Circumferential

Single

Wall

Application

c.

Another good method for discontinuity place lead arrows with adhesive backs area. These arrows must remain

location and in the center

area and the

orientation, at the ends film has

is to of each been

on the article

until

interpreted, taminated arrows heat d. treating

and then removed, should the lead arrows will also blow holes into operations and if they

as any subsequent welding will be conmelt and run into the weld. The lead or through are a metal article on subsequent not removed. backing should be covered to

All lead protect

tables the

secondary against

radiation contamination. ON DOUBLE

specimen

8. Figures

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-29 and 6-30

APPLICATION illustrate to double

WALL

TUBING distortion, and

geometric wall

principles,

minimum

orientation

as related

applications.

6-50

TWO PENETRAMETERS REQUIRED ONE 2% OF DOUBLE WALL ONE 2"/. OF SINGLE WALL /

/
_s,_ PEN.

MINIMUM OF SiX AROUND, AREA OF INTEREST ADJACENT TO FI LM

0
AREA OF INTEREST

I I \

ROTATED 90 90 = X-RAY TUBE POS4TIOW TWO VlEWS SUPERIMPOSED DUE TO PREDOMINANCE OF CRACKS IN A PERPENDICUI.A_ POSITION TO THE HORIZONTAL PLANE END VIEW I_P ANGULATION SHOTS NECESSARY FOR DEFECT ORIENTATION

F.F.D. 48 IN. OR OVER

AREA OF INTEREST II11UNE FOCAL SPOT AND DIVERSIONARY BEAM. TUBES MUST FALL WITHIN UMBRA OF RADIATION

MULTIPLE

TUBE EXPOSURE

Figure

6-29.

Double 1 1/4

Wall Inch

Application Inside Diameter

with

Tube

Size

Over

6-51

/
V
THIS ANGLE DETERMINED BY TUBE DIAMETER TO PROJECT TOP PORTION OF WELD OUTSIDE OF BOTTOM PORTION

PENETRAMETER P LACEM ENT SIZE = 2% DOUBLEWALL

PENETRA METER PLACEMENT ,SIZE = 2% SINGLE WALL

I l x I

TOP IMAGE/

BOTTOM IMAGE

PROJECTED IMAGE

Figure

6-30.

Double 1-1/4

Wall Inch

Application Inside Diameter

with

Tube

Size

Less

Than

al

Tubing

Size

1-1/4

to 2-1/2

Inch are

Inside

Diameter. but only one

(See

Figure

6-29.

(1)

Two penetrameters The top penetrameter pass but of the side weld radiation standard, wall bottom on the in the

shown, Is equal The side welds numbers the angled to the will

is required total material is not to show as both by side will

by standard. the the beams single film. be of per required top and should superimpose

to 2% of the bottom film

through. it is useful and the circular

penetrameter interpreter angle side so they

thickness

of the

radiation appear

on the not

In addition,

lead away area.

area from

and the beam

top penetrameter

6-52

(2)

Two taken

90 vertical to show

and the joint

90 opposing fusion and

shots, cracks

superimposed, in the perpendicular

shouId

be There

position.

The angle shots are should be a minimum

required for area and defect orientation. of six views around the tube. per geometrical requirements principles will so that

(3)

Film tinuities oversize

should and

be in contact rejected. of Figure assembly adjacent or more. cone diameter

discon-

acceptable

to standard

not be expanded

(4)

The than spot.

lower one are

Ieft tube

6-29

illustrates and angled

a method Note to align

for that

exposing the the areas focal

more of

on a single to the distortion The film

exposure. to use

interest

with

To minimize 80% of the of radiation

it is best "Umbra" is known

a focal The

film outer

distance to the 20% of the or the

of 48 inches central cone "Halo". b. Tube Size The sent Less double

referred diameter. as the

to pertains "Penumbra",

of radiation

Than wall

1-1/4

Inch

Inside application Since to any the

Diameter. for tubing 1-1/4 is small, degree. provided tube inch The the to the for or less, preof and discontinufilm. these amount

(1)
m r v , I_

exposure 6-30.

is shown expansion deducting ity image

in Figure can that has

the

diameter

defects

will not be expanded be ealcuIated amount been from projected

appreciable discontinuity, the

by measuring from will give

the top penetrameter top of the

(2) (3)

Three tubing The very tion.

elltpsed diameters. placement important

exposures

sufficient

coverage

of the to this

bottom operation

penetrameter in order

and

the

lead

numbers

are orienta-

to provide

absolute

9.

RADIOGRAPHIC

APPLICATION

ON

CLOSED

SPHERES in Figure 6-31. The must be In

The radiographic applications for a closed sphere are shown

applications are similar to those for double wall tubing. The penetrameters this case the area numbers since the area can be more may

placed on a block of similar material to show totalthickness of the double wall. easily oriented.

be face up with the identification plate if desired,

6-53

1 j,

V
I -_SPHERE OR TUBE HEAD MAY BE POSITIONED TO FACILITATE EASE OF EXPOSURE
!

DOUBLE WALL MIN. F.F.D. - 216 IN.

THIS ANGLE DETERMINED BY _ SPHERE DIAMETER

APPROX. / PRIMARY BEAM SHOULD BE 10o _ 15" [''-AS NEAR PERPENDICULAR / /AS POSSIBLE, BUT SHOULD _ MOT SUPERIMPOSE

/://
_'_

!// !! \
I "! !
I I I

,o_ _ I
vl "a" o" uJ .JI _ I _4

I_ __!
I_ _o,,I

'l

I _II
I1\

_,_ _, _"

_' _ _
o _<z /

__ .
_

iI sHOuLDNUMBERS AL_ Be LEAD

I 1/8 IN. OUT OF HEAT

I AFFECTED ZONE PLACED ATLEAST

,\\\

'

,,, _ _ _'

ON ALL WELDMENTS RI,,M IN CONTACT

PEN. A_

2%

_//'?\ ___
,11 I
IDENTIFICATION FILM I., I _ _a. "o

\\ I \\'-I _ ' I=_ IJP : II::

IDENTIFICATION PLATE ON TOP OF CASSETTE UNDER SPHERE

CASSETTE AND _LM

PLACEMENT OF PENET RAM ETER AND EQUIVALENT METAL BLOCK

"" I1_ \ .11 \ \ .,,///

Figure

6-31.

Sphere

Weldment

App]ieation

6-54

I0. Figure X-ray source that plane upper the exposure. be taken

RADIOGRAPHICAL 6-32 tube shows or film end some cannot positions. of the to the the tank

APPLICATION of the procedures inside. source weld positioned plane, The be placed

ON

CLOSED multiple at one film end

TANKS a closed source end of the exposed additional source distance tank tank with when the represents a single

of radiographing The position with tank at the

at various other If the through

illustrates a single sectional must at the

can be covered

and end,

circumferential source principles horizontal

should by the

be on a cross exposures position must

in relation left.

at the

tank

as represented

Geometric

and minimum

distortion

be maintained.

F.F.D. VARIABLE WITH TANK DIA. AND/OR LENGTH BUT MIN. _,6 IN. MUST BE MAINTAINED DUE TO CONE OF RADIATION GEOMETRY

PRIMARY BEAM SHOULD BE AS PERPENDICULAR AS POSSIBLE BUT SHOULD NOT SUPERIMPOSE IAPPROXo / /

/
-_..
I

/
%.,,'
/ ""II_'---. IF TUBE APERTURE IS ... _ /PLACED IN CONTACT WITH (I_"-/NEAR / /OUT SIDE IT WILL BURN NEAR SIDE IMAGE AND WILL GIVE A VERY HIGH IMAGE RESOLUTION
_i-,ll. i

-ll_./ /I I -_C..-_/

ti:--:---/'l

I ./I

'
rlL.M

\-)
6-55

Figure

6-32.

Closed

Tank

Application

11. Figure practice through rather exposure.

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-33 is a good type because the than various intensify. This

MULTIPLE method and This to use are behind may sensitivity

COMBINATION when unknown. do not first for weld permits weld may the setup

APPLICATION exposure to the screens the the of latitude where grind from outs time is excessive, values filter a single cannot through

is difficult, always a high grind have measure The degree outs multiple

or material

and thickness density screens application

It is not recommended cassette. back

as a standard required will with depth

application be used the or when

be checked

or is unknown,

of varying

depths. This system gives varying degrees of film the various films and screens to the back film.

density

top film

/ /

/ /

/
v C,,,

/ / / / z / / / ! /
v

(
1. 2. 2. VARY VOLTAGE, AMPERAGE, AND TIME VARY DISTANCE (26 IN. MINIMUM) VARY THICKNESS AND ATOMIC NUMBER OF TUBE HEAD FILTERS 4. 5. 6.

'} )
6-33. Multiple Combination Application

FILM CASSETTES

VARY FILM TYPES AND COMBINATIONS VARY SCREEN AND NON-SCREEN COMBINATIONS VARY NUMBER OF CASSETTES UNDER SPECIMEN WITH ABOVE COMBINATIONS

Figure

6-56

_.j

12. RADIOGRAPHIC APPLICATION AI1 welds or seams on a hemispherical source section taneously. is acceptable. as shown and film This in Figure is placed procedure 6-34. over all is time The

ON HEMISPHERICAL SECTIONS section may be radiographed with source and is placed The is often in the ray used geometric exposes gamma gamma all

a radioisotope center areas of the simul-

the welds. saving

when

radiography

__

.,,/I

FILM

HOLDERS

TO COVER

Ji?- :-ii!il ,,\

"_"x\ '\\

'
SOURCE
pz t

Figure

6-34.

Hemispherical

Section

13. Figures Figure great tube the sure able, The small

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-35 6-35 and depicts 6-36

PANORAMIC illustrate two

APPLICATION examples of panoramic welds anode X-ray of the pipe. the area thickness. in the is used same when on piping tube. The exposure whose The X-ray beam tube (the application. diameter is of this type is placed in weld). anode Expotube. is acceptof similar

a means

of radiographing

enough to permit insertion of a rod will expose the entire circumference center of the pipe are so that based source shown are the onthe may beam weld be used 6-36 calculations a radioisotope arrangement articles

strikes

of interest manner

If gamma a sufficient

radiography as a rod number

in Figure

to be radiographed.

6-57

ALL FILM HOLDERS EXPOSED SIMULTANEOUSLY

Figure

6-35.

Panoramic

Application,

Large

Pipe

Weld

_,
!/

I ,,
_
\

, ,
I
I

'I

_FILM
i

I/
/

//'-/
t/

_
",

,
_
\

, ,
i

I
/ /

\\\
4
/"

,,'
/
,/ /

\,-\N
,'\_\X
...""
v'_.,.) coot, La,.:'_

\\

i/
v

/",

J
I

"--.

""

"\

"

_,__ _ ...............
i s i" 1 t .,'/ I / i/ I -/ I / I

_:._ _.=:_ ...........

" I "_ I t \ _ "%. _ " "%.% %_. "_ _. _.

_ -I

I
I

" ""

//i// / / /

/ II

| II I I |

\ \ \ \

\'x'\\//_/%. _ \\

_'_

_.

/
/III / /

Figure

6-36.

Panoramic

Application,

Similar

Articles

6-58

_.i

14. elliptical the

RADIOGRAPHIC radiographic or single of the to the the wall pipe.

APPLICATION procedure shots Since is shown along path

ON LARGE for large "a" pipe in Figure

PIPE welds less

WELDS that than the cannot figure that desired be handled it is evident at path results or more "b", with by that which a segments, and shim in the In the

Recommended thickness exposure,

6-37. to obtain is divided

specimen

is much

is tangential single and each selection area

it is impractical of the weld

circumference

into three

segment is radiographed. are based on the thickness of each segment.

Exposure calculations and penetrameter of the specimen (double wail) penetrated

of interest

I_SOURCE

SOURCE

/i \
ii II II II II b. II / \ \ \ \ \ \\/

I a

# I I I

%,J / i/

,'if\\
/ I _ --

i1 ',.
I Figure \ x 6-37.
\

. Large

FILM Pipe

= Welds

15.

RADIOGRAPHIC a. Alignment. recorded less ment gram width diagram length sequently, radiographic than

TECHNIQUES Figure on the 2% of the 6-38 overall

OF DISCONTINUITY illustrates Either specimen is not incorrect is less aligned than than

LOCATION are cross often sections path. because thickness. because thickness. performing The the The the Cona not are aligndia-

why discontinuities the discontinuity or the the radiation alignment overall total when alignment with thickness discontinuity 2% of the discontinuity 2% of the be used should

radiograph.

longitudinal

of the of the of the

discontinuity shows right discontinuity

on the left on the

shows possible

correct is more angles

discontinuity several examination.

6-59

"n

I-I=

A1

B1

_L
I
I
A B 4-

I
I

+2%

T
ARE DETECTED

I
A1 ' B1

I
of discontinuity two over separate the other, films, super-

FINE DISCONTINUITIES X-RAY IS DIRECTED

MORE EASILY WHEN THE

ALONG PATH AIA 1 RATHER THAN ALONG AA.

Figure

6-38.

Angulation

and

Flaw

Alignment

b.

Single location each imposing measured separate of the of the shift front film.

Exposure may also at a precise

- Superimpose. be used. density, then

This It involves laying

technique exposing one film

the two back markers. The shift of the discontinuity is and calculated. A simpler variation is to expose two films and superimpose is less the than the two back the is nearer than one-half the top markers. shift of the the the film. shift If the If the of the from the shift one-half discontinuity

discontinuity front of the marker, marker,

discontinuity is greater

discontinuity the

discontinuity

is nearer

or away

16. Figures

RADIOGRAPHIC 6-39 will through

APPLICATION 6-42 illustrate special four four

ON BRAZED/BONDED types are of exposures may used for X-ray

HONEYCOMB used to evaluate however, they detail brazed noror

or bonded mally area. 6-60

honeycomb. be variations

Other

applications and

be used;

of these

of a specific

1
I VERTI_ / VERTIC_ _RAL

BEAM OF RADIATION

I-._1 FLAT

k
VERTICAL _ _ SLIGHT AND SEVERE CONTOUR

WEDGES (AREAS LESS THAN ONE INCH IN THICKNESS)

) X-RAY

SOURCE

_X-RAY

SOURCE

\ \'
' \ _

.o_
H "= .05B

a=

Rs(V--d) d(V-R)

/\

/ \
// \
R

C
l;dl_ 1 I
"----H

\
\
1

I I I I_1 1 .lo"--I
B CONTOUR PANELS

.os"-_l-_4-c ---_-

B FLAT AND WEDGE PANELS

V = PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM TUBE TO FILM PLANE. H = HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM PERPENDICULAR TO SECTION OF CORE BEING X-RAYED. B = LENGTH OF CORE SECTION BEING X-RAYED.

C = CELL SIZE. d = THICKNESS OF CORE SECTION. R ----RADIUS OF CONTOUR OF COMPONENT. s =ARC LENGTH.

Figure

6-39.

Double

Surface

Application

a.

Double Surface. Variations of this technique should be used to radiograph panels less than one inch thick. The following conditions should be satisfied on all exposures: (1) The upper surface fillet of any cell in the area X-rayed should not overlap the extreme lower fillet of the adjacent cell. (2) The upper surface fillet of any ceil in the area X-rayed should not be superimposed on any other fillet. (3) The direction of the central beam of radiation should always be normal to the core ribbon direction as shown in Figure 6-39.

b.

Single Surface. Variations of this application should be used to radiograph panels one inch or greater in thickness. The upper surface fillets (those closest to the X-ray tube) should be sufficiently blurred to permit adequateviewing of all lower surface fillets within the area X-rayed. A wedge shapedcopper filter shouldbe used at the X-ray tube, as illustrated in Figure 6-40, to obtain a more uniform density over the area exposed. Filter size and thickness should be adjusted for each X-ray tube.

V
/_"/TUBE TARGET

3 P!

- I-AREA

OF PANEL BEING X-RAYED A-B = .50 IN. ( APPROX._ TUBE TO FILM PLANE TO SECTION OF CORE ANGLE OF RADIATION CORE THICKNESS WEDGE SHAPED COPPER FILTER

V = PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM H = DISTANCE FROM PERPENDICULAR BEING X-RAYED Y = FILLET WIDTH # = X = FOCAL SPOT SIZE T =

Figure 6-62

6-40.

Single

Surface

Application V

e.

Edge are

Member illustrated

Exposures. in Figure member exposures the setup

Two 6-41.

basic

setups

for

edge

member setups shall

exposures be used

Variations as outlined. for Z-edge

of these

%.i

on all edge View panels) View Both the

A illustrates adequate on core B illustrates surfaces amount shall of void

member

exposures. (on fiat and

In most slight contour

instances,

coverage

will

be obtained

exposures. the area setup for wedge edge U-channel This member (rib and spar) exposures. of

be X-rayed in both

separately.

permits

determination

surface.

CENTRAL

BEAM OF RADIATION

_f A Z-MEMBER _ X-RAY FILM B U-CHANNEL

Figure

6-41.

Edge

Member

Application

d.

Vertical vertical exposures the vertical exposures The

Tie

Exposure. to evaluate vertical evaluation panels of the

Figure Variations

6-42

illustrates setups the between vertical on contour in view A.

the

basic should

setups be used setup special

for on all and for edge

tie exposures. made braze

of these

the braze U-channel (Z-member) is illustrated

core leg. panels

vertical The and

Z-member

or the

on flat leg the

vertical from and

Z-member The over

should central leg

be inclined beam of the leg the Z.

approximately should

8 to 10 be

degrees vertical

horizontal.

of radiation

directly setup film.

the vertical be with central

An alternate parallel degrees to the

would The

the vertical beam toward

of the

Z horizontal be 8 to 10 area of the

and being

of radiation center

should

off of vertical

and directed

radiographed.

The (left

setup hand

for vertical on all part) other should plane.

braze panels be the

evaluation is illustrated farthest

(U-Channels) in view the X-ray B. from

on wedges The tube lower and

and must

special be in

exposures the horizontal

surface

6-63

The central beam of radiation should be at an angle and distance so the projected vertical member height will not be less than half andnot greater than the actual vertical leg height.

;ENTRAL

BEAM OF RADIATION

_/

VERTICAL 8" - 10 --

FILM

_"

ALTERNATE A1

EXPOSURE

TECHNIQUES A2

PROJECTED VERTICAL B U_HANNEL

LEG LENGTH

Z-MEMBER

Figure 17. RADIOGRAPHIC a. General. different two major have been construction associated (1) (2) Loose

6-42.

Vertical ON

Tie

Exposure

APPLICATION The than areas and with application applications are

SEMICONDUCTORS to semiconductors With are Specific below. weld the electrical acceptance inconsistent discontinuities (See splash, Figure 6-43. ) is somewhat semiconductors tests internal

of radiography discussed after areas are balls, connecting These

previously. of concern material. listed flakes, leads

of concern foreign

completed. internal

semiconductors solder

particles,

and wire internal elements

Loose or discontinuous and external terminals Extraneous Inclusions sealing matter, or voids material clearance of Semiconductor into consideration tube head

between

(3) (4)

excessive in seals

solder or around

or weld lead

extrusions or insufficient

connections

(5) b.

Inadequate

Techniques must (1) (2)

Radiography. to obtain

The

following test

parameters results.

be taken A beryllium Voltage

satisfactory should be used.

or equivalent

must

not exceed

150 KV; there

is no limitation

on current.

6-64

--.,,,--AXIS OF SYMMETRY

-,-AXIS

OF SYMMETRY
=

_"----

ANODE LEAD

J-_

54

2
/fl I I '
I

i>1

INDEXING TAB 4

8ASELEAO
EMITTER LEAD

-'=---CATHODE

LEAD

TRANSISTOR

DIODE

1. 2.

LOOSE PARTICLES,

SOLDER BALLS,

FLAKES,

WELD SPLASH, WIRE. AND EXTERNAL

LOOSE OR OPEN LEADS BETWEEN INTERNAL ELEMENTS TERMINALS. EXTRANEOUS MATTER, EXCESSIVE SOLDER,

3. 4. 5.

OR WELD EXTRUSIONS.

IN'CLUSIONS OR VOIDS IN SEALS OR AROUND LEAD CONNECTIONS. INADEQUATE CLEARANCE.

Figure

6-43.

Transistor

and Diode

Defects

(3) (4)

To Use

avoid

parallax

use

extra

fine and

grain, sufficient

single light

coated intensity inch

emulsion during

film. film

20 power

magnification to enable semiconductor

interpretation (5) (6} (7) Use correct

identification alignment. source.

of 0. 001

discontinuities.

Correctly Assure

locate proper

radiographic density in area

of interest.

6-65

The
Co

last

two parameters of Semiconductors. designed edge to curve of the film that

are

discussed Figure

further 6-44 The same

in succeeding illustrates

paragraphs. holding from be

Alignment fixture the outer mounted

a typical equal facing FFD

the

film

in order center. the

to maintain pin on each

to the

semiconductors

should

consistently,

is with

the target.

i_

SOURCE

4 8"

BAC KU P LEAD

i
Figure 6-44. Semiconductor Holding Fixture
do

Radiographic (1)

Views the views required for views may be required satisfactory coverage to detect a specific

Figure 6-45 illustrates of a transistor. Other type of discontinuity.

6-66

%.._
Z AXIS Y AXIS

EMITTER

X AXI S 1./ =C_ _-'-'-'BASE COLLECTOR

Figure

6-45.

Suggested

Views

of Transistor
/ /

(2)

Figure

6-46

illustrates resistors,

the and

views capacitors.

required

for

satisfactory

coverage

of diodes,

f
90

Figure

6-46.

Suggested

Views

of Diode,

Resistor,

and Capacitor

eo

Fluoroscopic diodes, conjunction viewing cation the

Application. and closed from with part

Another capacitors circuit different

method is through

for the Such

examining use a system rotated.

transistors, in appliwould The 607. permit

resistors,

of a fluoroscope

television. directions further

as it was in paragraph

of fluoroscopy

is discussed

606

UNSATISFACTORY

RADIOGRAPHS their

Table 6-6 lists many of the faults encountered in unsatisfactory radiographs, probable causes, and the required corrective actions. Table 6-6.
DEFECT
,, ,,,

Unsatisfactory Radiographs
CORRECTIVE VIEW WITH HIGHER ACTION INTENSITY ILLUMINATION. IF CORRECT, REDUCE

PROBABLE OVEREXPOSURE

CAUSE

HIGH DENSITY

CHECK X-RAY TIMER AND METERS; EXPOSURE 30/ OR MORE. OVEROEVELOPMENT CHECK DARKROOM TIMER

CHECK FOR HIGH DEVELOPER FOG LOW DENSITY UNDEREXPOSURE AS INDICATED LATER.

TEMPERATURE.

CHECK X-RAY TIMER AND METERS; IF CORRECT, INCREASE EXPOSURE 40_/o OR MORE. CHECK DARKROOM TIMER. CHECK FOR LOW DEVELOPER TEMPERATURE. CHECK FOR WEAK (DEPLETED) DEVELOPER. SCREEN AS INDICATED

UNDERDEVELOPMENT

MATERIAL AND FILM HIGH CONTRAST

BETWEEN

HIGH SU_ECT CONTRAST. HIGH FILM CONTRAST LOW SU_ECT LOW CONTRAST

INCREASE USE FILM REDUCE USE FILM

KILOVOLTAGE. WITH LOWER CONTRAST KILOVOLTAGE. WITH HIGHER CONTRAST

CHARACTERISTICS.

LOW CONTRAST

FILM CONTRAST

CHARACTERISTICS.

UNDERDEVELOPMENT

CHECK DARKROOM TIMER. CHECK FOR LOW DEVELOPER TEMPERATURE. CHECK FOR WEAK (DEPLETED) DEVELOPER. IF POSSIBLE, DECREASE SPECIMEN-TO-FILM DISTANCE; IF NOT, INCREASE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE. INCREASE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE.

POOR DEFINITION

OVERLONG SPECIMEN-TOFILM DISTANCE TOO SHORT SOURCE-TOFILM DISTANCE TOO LARGE FOCAL SPOT

USE TUBE WITH SMALLER FOCAL SPOT OR INCREASE THE TUBE-TO-FILM DISTANCE. USE SMALLER GAMMA RAY SOURCE OR INCREASE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE. AS INDICATED.

TOO LARGE SOURCE

GAMMA

RAY

SCREENS AND FILM CLOSE CONTACT FILM FOG GRAININESS IN THE

NOT IN

USE FINER

GRAINED

FILM. LIGHTS NOTED. IN

LIGHT LEAKS DARKROOM EXPOSURE

WITH DARKROOM UNLIGHTED, TURN ON ALL ADJOINING ROOMS, SEAL ANY LIGHT LEAKS CHECK CHECK SAFELIGHT SAFELIGHT LAMPS FOR CORRECT FILTERS.

TO SAFELIGHT

WATTAGE.

STORED FILM NOT PROTECTED FROM RADIATION

ATTACH A STRIP OF LEAD TO A LOADED FILM HOLDER AND PLACE THE HOLDER IN THE FILM STORAGE AREA. DEVELOP THE TEST FILM AFTER 2 OR 3 WEEKS; IF AN IMAGE OF THE STRIP IS EVIDENT, IMPROVE THE PROTECTION IN THE STORAGE AREA. STORE FILM IN A COOL, DRY PLACE NOT SUBJECT GASES OR VAPORS. CHECK DARKROOM TIMER. CHECK FOR HIGH DEVELOPER TEMPERATURE. CHECK DEVELOPER IF CONTAMINATED, DO NOT INSPECT SOLUTION REPLACE. FOR CONTAMINATION; TO

EXPOSURE

TO HEAT,

HUMIDITY t OR GASES, OVERDEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPER

SOLUTION

EXPOSURE CESSING

DURING PRO-

FILM

DURING PROCESSING

UNTIL

FIXING IS COMPLETED.

6-68

Table

6-6.

Unsatisfactory

Radiographs

(Cont)

DEFECT
l

PROBABLE

CAUSE

CORRECTIVE

ACTION

FINELY

MOTTLED

FOG

STALE

FILM CASSETTE

FOG ON EDGE OR CORNER YELLOW STAIN

DEFECTIVE

DEPLETED

DEVELOPER

REPLACE

DEVELOPER

SOLUTION. THOROUGHLY.

FAILURE TO USE STOP BATH OR TO RINSE DEPLETED DARK CIRCULAR MARKS FIXER

USE STOP BATH

OR RINSE

REPLACE USE CARE

FIXER

SOLUTION. FILM IN THE DEVELOPER

FILM SPLASHED WITH DEVELOPER PRIOR TO IMMERSION LACK OF FIXATION

IN IMMERSING

DARK SPOTS LIKE AREAS

OR MARBLE-

USE FRESH TIME.

FIXING

SOLUTION

AND CORRECT

FIXING

DARK BRANCHED AND SPOTS

LINES

STATIC

DISCHARGE

REMOVE FILM CAREFULLY FROM WRAPPER. DO NOT RUB ONE FILM AGAINST ANOTHER. AVOID CLOTHING PRODUCTIVE OF STATIC ELECTRICITY. AS INDICATED.

DARK

FINGERPRINTS

TOUCHING UNDEVELOPED FILM WITH CHEMICALLY CONTAMINATED FINGERS BY

DARK

SPOTS

OR STREAKS

FILM

CONTAMINATION SALTS FILM HANDLING

INSURE

THAT

DEVELOPER

SOLUTION

IS NOT CON-

METALLIC CRESCENT-SHAPED LIGHT AREAS FAULTY

TAMINATED. KEEP FILM FLAT DURING HANDLING. HANGERS. OF FILM IN

USE ONLY CLEAN, AIR BUBBLES ON FILM DURING DEVELOPMENT TOUCHING UNDEVELOPED FILM WITH OILY OR GREASY FINGERS

DRY FILM

LIGHT CIRCULAR PATCHES LIGHT FINGERPRINTS

AGITATE IMMEDIATELYUPONIMMERS_ON DEVELOPER. ASINDICATEQ.

CIRCULAR SHAPED

OR DROPLIGHT PATCHES

FILM

SPLASHED

WITH PRIOR

AS INDICATED

WATER OR FIXER TO DEVELOPMENT

LIGHT

SPOTS

OR AREAS

DUST OR LINT BETWEEN SCREENS AND FILM NON-UNIFORM DEVELOPMENT

KEEP

SCREENS

CLEAN.

SHARPLY

OUTLINED

LIGHT

AGITATE

FILM

DURING

DEVELOPMENT.

OR DARK AREAS WAVY MARBLELIKE MARKS NON-UNIFORM TEMPERATURE IN PROCESSING DEVELOPMENT DIFFERENCES SOLUTIONS AGITATE MAINTAIN CONSTANT FILM ALL DURING DEVELOPMENT. SOLUTIONS AT SAME

RETICULATION

(LEATHER

PROCESSING

GRAIN APPEARANCE) FRILLING (LOOSENING OF FILM EMULSION FROM THE FILM BASE)

TEMPERATURE. TEMPERATURE AND REPLACE

OVERLY WARM OR DEPLETED FIXER SOLUTION

MAINTAIN CORRECT FIXER FIXER AS REQUIRED.

r:

6-69

607
I.

SPECIAL GENERAL

TECHNIQUES V as a method and gamma has that been do not using rays film. use chapters, film the penetration material method chapter, the In this and differential for special medium, internal the of recording absorption discontinuities. effects of tech-

Radiography characteristics In the Xniques, 2.

is defined of Xradiation those

to examine

discussions including

of the previous

and gamma

radiographic

as a recording

will be discussed.

FLUOROSCOPY is the screen adapted Cannot the process (Figure in which 6-47). an X-ray line produced image low-cost, is observed high-speed are: since be too visually process on

Fluoroscopy a fluorescent and is easily a.

It is a relatively requirements. that passing the screen. are thick

to production with

Its disadvantages or of dense the specimen material

be used

specimens radiation

intensity

of the

through

would

low to sufficiently

brighten

___X-RAY TUBE _-___ / / \ \ i DIAPHRAGM _

LEAD CABINET

V / / I / / /
i I1_ \ _ l J/SPECIMEN

\ /,,. LEAD DOOR

FLUORESCENT

SCREEN

_.__ . Ao .Ass \\
I

i II

LEAD GLASS

LEAD CABINET

Figure

6-47.

Schematic

Diagram

of a Fluoroscope

6-7o

Do

kJ

Relatively required grain of the

poor to obtain

sensitivity sufficient

because

of the

short and the

source-to-screen low contrast and

distance coarse

brightness,

screen. operator to greater amounts of radiation than other radiographic

c.

Subjects methods.

the

d e. 3. Despite rapid desirable. to submitting Jected, 4. The from image smaller screen screen. area and

Is dependent Does

upon

the

human

eye. record.

not produce

a permanent

USE OF FLUOROSCOPY the foregoing By use the with IMAGE image resultant disadvantages, for gross of fluoroscopy, lot to radiographic cost savings. fluoroscopy internal a large test, and number those is widely of articles with gross used in applications be screened where is reprior

scanning

of articles

discontinuities

or abnormal can defects

conditions immediately

AMPLIFIER is designed to overcome of the of an image image The viewer focuses optical image. tube on the the the and disadvantages serves screen to produce the directly of the upon an optical of fluoroscopy to protect system the (Figure the image image on the caused operator 6-48). and on the small sized in screen design and The

amplifier

by the

relatively radiation. tube

low brightness It consists the X-ray screen. to the of electron

It also fluorescent electrons

converts

to electrons,

accelerates and the

and electrostatically fluorescent it appears brightness energy The

system

magnifies looking product

as if he were factor

at a normal reduction tube image

amplification

is the

acceleration.

Dependent
ELECTRON ,_LENSES

PHOTOELECTRIC LAYER LAYER _ _ #f_

_ I._

ELECTRONS

11111
I ._ilir- _-X-RAYS
iii_! /_ _ "-"

-- _i"*" ---- _J

.,/vmw_NG
SYSTEM

.OPTICAL

I .iiil-- -- "-"--- "" -_--_Cj:-_.._U U

.jll_e--/%--_ F

.....- I
\ _% .
'" "

V,S,BLE

J.
"

/
;
_

I
I

\FLUORESCENT
LAYER

LIGHT

EVACUATED GLASS ENVELOPE

Figure k.,,

6-48.

Schematic

of an Image

Amplifier 6-71

construction, a closed may to produce 5. The cient which for type circuit be viewed

this

factor

ranges system,

from the

100 to 1000. X-ray Or, image if desired,

By use produced the

of a suitable by the may image

camera

and

television on a monitor

image

amplifier

screen.

be photographed

a permanent

record.

TE LEVISION television since there techniques is in turn

RADIOGRAPHY mentioned energy in the loss that The differs paragraph signals use sensitive normal from that on fluoroscopy in converting energize equipment vidicon vidicon used exposure. of an X-ray and positioning for assemblies, screen
TUBE

technique converted are The than with

is relatively

ineffisystem. designed of this repropart an and a commay

is a large

incurred

the X-rays the television specifically tube

into light,

into electrical available tube X-ray from

Advanced

television

radiographic of equipment. rather combined

applications. photosensitive. observer beam, such 6-49),

is an example in that instant tube test which it is X-ray image is the specimens, and Permanent system key

tubes to permit The

sensitive duction, intense closed of small ponents. be obtained, of a system

It is widely protection consisting for The handling system components X-ray the

(Figure diameter

otherwise a unit readout. as electronic for

source

provides inspection records system.

small circuit

television

is designed and inspection.

radiographic

specimens It is highly

suitable

In-motion

if desired,

by photographing
_

monitor

of the

readout

X-RAY

SPECIMEN /

TRAY

TV CAM ERA

,---,
I X-RAYGENERATOR LI Ill I _LF"-" / / ---

II

,.=,.

I1,

;L. SYST, % ],CONiO

Vidicon X-ray System

II

HANDUNGIIIcONTROL |1

III"o 'TO

'1
charged when layer

Figure 6. XERORADIOGRAPHY is a "dry" an X-ray which The causes plate

6-49.

Typical

Xeroradiography plates istic exposed to record of selenium to X-rays.

radiographic image. used it to become

process of the

that

uses good

eleotrostatically is the peculiar electrical consists

The basis to record

process

characterconductor of a thin

a relatively the X-ray

image

V 6-72

of selenium bondedto a backing plate of aluminum. Under darkroom conditions an electrostatic charge is placed on the selenium by passing a high potential charging bar across the surface of the plate at a uniform velocity. The selenium having good insulation properties will retain the charge. The sensitized (charged) plate is then placed in a light-tight cassette, or holder, and used in X-ray exposures in the same way as film. 7.
Under down the EXPOSURE exposure, and plate the the charge form charged of charge. 6-50. ) PROCESS record a plastic is desired adhesive When adhesive. of a xeroradiograph, white the paper. paper The the image may process be photographed uses paper it X-rays leaks cause through by X-ray and the insulating properties to the backing of the an image (in various light thus colored, charged visually to the of the plate. degrees), sometimes areas presents selenium Since areas. in amounts the X-ray to break the remains The fluorescent, determined image. amount on plate

(discharges) intensity, discharged it with cling coating

of discharge is developed finely by the (See 8. divided degree Figure

is determined in the after exposure

specimen

of charged powders, The

by spraying which powder

TRANSFER

If a permanent or transferred coated with

to a special

transfer

is pressed

on the xeroradiograph,

Figure k.w

6-50.

Sample

Xeroradiograph 6-73

lifts the powder image from

the paper it to cool. 9. A single are i0. by applying sufficient

the

selenium heat

plate. the

The

image

is permanently and then

affixed permitting

to

to soften

plastic

coating,

STEREORADIOGRAPHY radiographic to know image the has depth

AND DOUBLE length and and double

EXPOSURE but does

(PARALLAX) not have perspective. When methods

width

it is necessary available,

of a flaw

in a thick exposure

specimen (parallax).

two radiographic

stereoradiography

STEREORADIOGRAPHY gives specimen, of the each through The eye sees right the from the and X-ray other while eye image into one is little visualization. optical sees viewer tube a three-dimensional "The equal permits eye shift true of the in relation to the the of the position. perspective 6-51.) right effect specimen. separation to view to see position spatial but viewer viewer shift and by use are The of two radiomade with two eyes. two positions the only two radioone of the X-ray and are in flaw tube,

Stereoradiography graphs different are The graphs and the of the positions

a stereoscope. by a distance means, each image left the of the used allowing

two radiographs to the

displaced stereoscope,

of a human's

simultaneously left the or

radiographs. merges apparent. location

of the combines

The brain

two images Stereography structural

in which (See

relationships is of value

in industrial Figure

radiography

1,

d/

k
Ix
LEFT STEREORADIOGRAPH

it
Ii II

i'

I II
III

Ii II
RIGHT STEREORADIOGRAPH

I\

,11 /I
II I

!\ I i.\ I _ixi I \l
I I\II IIlxt|

I It I Ii iI! i/ I

I/x!l
II Ill LEFT SHIFT _z=z_ _ OF TUBE _II xll RIGHT SHIFT OF TUBE

Figure

6-51.

Stereoscopic

Radiography

6-74

11. Double positive

DOUBLE exposure than

EXPOSURE (parallax) stereoradiography, image, and 6-52.

tPARALLAX) methods of determining since Lead a normal and of the the tube film from bt a + b flaw from the shift flaw image film plane while the they are on human Two is located of the film M2 image the flaw based depth exposures, are made. flaw shift and will at F1 for depth in a specimen measurements One one such attached approximately between and F1 change are more of the method is oneto the

on physical perception.

radiographic illustrated front 'half and the tible. equation. and the other. The back time

do not depend of the specimen.

in Figure surfaces required The of the distance

markers exposure, image

M1 and

M2 are

respectively each The one distance exposure

for

F2 is predetermined position tube

at F2 for

of M1 will be small

perceptibly following

as a result

shift,

if not impercepby the

of the flaw

plane

is determined

d where d a b t a. If film exposure graphs applied. b. For shift If the flaw depth are in position = = = = distance distance change

of the of tube

position of the

in position distance. small two flaw size

focus-film or the aligned of the

fog,

of the

flaw,

does

not may of the

permit

use

of the The equation the

double change is

technique,

separate

radiographs images and

be made. M2 markers, foregoing

two radio-

by superimposing image

is measured,

the

determination the shift flaw and the

when is nearer image

all to,

that the shift half

is required relationship of the the flaw shift

is knowledge between provides than half, the the the

of which image the flaw answer.

specimen of the flaw

surface image

M1 marker

is greater

than of the

of the

M1 image,

flaw is nearer is nearer the 12. Flash to flash machinery exposures. fer in design electron FLASH

the top surface bottom surface.

specimen;

if less

RADIOGRAPHY permits for flash tube and the observation of high-speed or rupture the motion of flash The located tube extremely has freezes high circuits electrode events in opaque materials. Analagous high-speed time duration difand The high equipment cathode, cathode.

radiography primarily photography, etc. The from emission

It is used

observation radiography voltage, X-ray the high of high

of explosive

processes. of projectiles, short a cold the radiography near

by use

current,

voltage

conventional is initiated

equipment.

by a third

6-75

FIRST EXPOSURE POSITION

F1

F2

SECOND EXPOSURE POSITION

\\ \\

Ill II I_ II 1_ II I I I I I I I 1 1

I \\I _ /

V
/ / / _ I I _ I _ I

I\\ \\ \'t \ I\

MI't\,
_" l\

!
I

//
I/ I
M2
|

SPECIMEN,, I \ ,
FLAW(_Ft .....

/
I 1, I,'_, b ]f II \_M2i" x "ix FILM PLANE

_/

/f

1
_ voltage and then disbut, as 2000 amperes the tube is not

Figure

6-52.

Parallax

Technique

voltage charged because damaged. 13.

circuit

contains

capacitors

which

are

charged reaches of the

to peak as high exposure,

in a high voltage of the fractional

pulse. Tube current microsecond duration

IN-MOTION

RADIOGRAPHY is any film, are or, the radiographic during each use in-motion cases, relative the technique in use, in many for specimen method the of them mechanical motion radiography to eact: wherein exposure. designed picture is that other the source of radiation, in-motion purpose with X-ray the This or by The mentioned the X-ray a specific to move loaded exposure fixed. the film, during

In-motion the and film. position requirement fixing multiple and the on the radiographic

radiography or the techniques These specimen, the The one

specimen, application.

is moving

Many to serve cameras must

special

techniques

arrangements

machine,

requirement and

of the film is met specimen variations calculations

remain and

by synchronizing and film and in position procedures of in-motion

movement and moving are discussed all

of the specimen only based in this the source

of radiation.

on the requirements chapter.

6-76

CHAPTER

7:

COMPARISON AND TABLE OF

SELECTION CONTENTS

OF

NDT

PROCESSES

Paragraph 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 GENERAL METHOD NDT ..................................... IDENTIFICATION CATEGORIES ......................... ..................... AND METALLURGICAL ........................ SELECTION

Page 7-3 7-3 7-3 7-3 7-6 AND LIMITATIONS .......... 7-6 7-8 7-10 7-10 7-14 7-16 ................... 7218 7-20 7-22 7-24 7-26 7-28 7-30 7-32 7-34 7-36 7-38 7-40 7-42 7-44 7-46 7-48 7-50 7-52 7-54 7-56 7-58 ....................... 7-60

DISCONTINUITY

DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY ANA LYSIS NDT COLD FILLET BURST METHODS

CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION

.....................................

........................................ SHUTS .................................... CRACKS (BOLTS) ..........................

GRINDING CRACKS ................................ CONVOLUTION CRACKS ........................... HEAT-AFFECTED HEAT TREAT SURFACE THREAD SHRINK CRACKS ZONE CRACKS CRACKS CRACKING ............................. .........................

................................

TUBING CRACKS (TNCONEL "X") ...................... HYDROGEN FLAKE ............................... HYDROGEN INC LUSIONS INCLUSIONS LACK LAPS LAPS GAS EMBRITTLEMENT .................................... .................................... .......................... .......................

OF PENETRATION AND SEAMS AND SEAMS POROSITY

LA MINA TIONS ................................... ............................... ............................... ............................... .................................. .............................. ............................... .............................. ............................... CORROSION

MICRO-SHRINKAGE UNFUSED STRESS MANDREL HOT TEARS HYDRAULIC POROSITY CORROSION TUBING DRAG

.................................

SEMICONDUCTORS INTERGRANULAR

....................................

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT)

Page Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-32 Liquid Magnetic Ultrasonic Eddy Current Penetrant Particle Test Test Test .....
* 0 , * .

7-4 7-4 7-4 7-6 7-6 7-9 7-11 7-13 7-15 7-17 ............. 7-19 7-21 7-23 7-25 7-27 7-29 7-31 7-33 7-35 7-37
* * . . . *

............................... Test ............................. ............................. ......................... ........................ ...................... ................... Discontinuity .................. ..................

Radiographic Test Burst Discontinuities Cold Fillet Grinding Convolution Heat-Affected Heat Surface Thread Tubing Hydrogen Hydrogen Weldment Wrought Treat Shrink Crack Crack Flake Shuts Crack

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Cracks Zone Cracks Crack Crack

Discontinuity Cracking Discontinuity.. Discontinuity

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity

....................... ....................... ...................... ................ ................... .................... ...................

Embrittlement Inclusion IncIusion

Discontinuity Discontinuity.

Discontinuity

Lack of Penetration Discontinuity Lamination Discontinuity ..........

7-39 7-41 7-43 7-45 7-47 7-49 7-51 7-53 7-55 7-57 7-59 7-61

Laps Laps Gas Stress

and and

Seams Seams

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity

in Rolled in Wrought ..................... ........................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ....................... ......................

Threads Material

......... ........

Micro-Shrinkage Porosity Unfused Hydraulic Mandrel Hot Tear Semiconductor Intergranular Porosity Corrosion Tubing Drag

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Corrosion

Discontinuity

.......................... Discontinuity ................

7-2

CHAPTER

7:

COMPARISON

AND

SELECTION

OF

NDT

PROCESSES

700 The

GENERAL purpose of this chapter is to summarize the NDT methods the which characteristics may of various types each of type

discontinuities, of discontinuity. The when (heat one 701 Figures three and 702 The part space only ent 703 Each tasks NDT relationship applied treating, test method

and to list

be employed

to detect

between to the

the

various

NDT process, and the

methods discontinuity

and their will

capabilities be shown.

and Such

limitations variables or of

detection

of a specific or plating),

as type processing)

of discontinuity machining, all will over help

(inherent, determine

or service), limitations of testing

manufacturing (metallurgical, and the

processes structural, selection

sequence

ultimate

another.

METHOD 7-1 elements that

IDENTIFICATION 7-5 illustrate in all five five tests, with NDT the methods. different Each methods method. illustration in each shows test the

through may

involved

category,

be accomplished

a specific

DISCONTINUITY that hundreds During of design, the will

SELECTION be reviewed are selection in paragraphs with the of discontinuities which would standards, and 706 through various for inclusion 732 are in this were only a

discontinuities of the many industry. a few of those conditions

that

associated

products changed

of the under

aerodiffer-

section, chosen.

discontinuities

not be radically

configuration, CATEGORIES

environment

DISCONTINUITY of the specific the

discontinuities and service. discontinuity

are

divided

into three ferrous

general

categories: classified materials, if applicable.

inherent, the 1. specific

processing, material

Each and

of these with the

categories

is further processes

as to whether

is associated

or nonferrous

configuration,

manufacturing

INHERENT

DISCONTINUITIES are There Inherent related those are discontinuities two types. wrought to the discontinuities and original cover those discontinuities of the metal that are related to the solidification

Inherent of the

discontinuities molten a. metal.

Wrought. which are or ingot.

melting

solidification

7-3

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

PERSONNEL F

PENETRATE VISIBLE DYE TESTING

DETECT SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

TECHNIQUES

t-'
i

__

FLUORESCENT PENETRANT TESTING

APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED

Figure

7-1.

Liquid

Penetrant

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

PERSONNEL _

TESTING DRY VISIBLE LOCATE DISCONTINUITY

_EQUIPMENT

TESTING WET FLUORESCENT TESTING

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

J
I
I !

Figure

7-2.

Magnetic

Particle

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE ___ | _ _

TASK LOCATE DISCONTINUITY

PERSONNEL_----

PULSE ECHO

"_""_
F =/ "1 RESONANCE TESTING

[_--__:

\_/"/"-.IOETERM,NE I
BOND ' I I

I /P_ "_ ___._'_/_ _

L
___ EQUIPMENT_ --

---------

J __ -_"_1- MEASURE
l/_ L- THIcKNEss _I
_\ ,,.... SPECIALIZED I APPLICATIONS

THRU TRANSMISSIONV_ -

-I TESTING

I_
I

I
I

Figure 7-4

7-3.

Ultrasonic

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

MANUAL CONDUCTIVITY TESTING

CONDUCTIVITY MEASURE

HARDNESS DETERMINE I PERSONNEL _'-MANUAL DISCONTINUITY TESTING DISCONTINUITIES DETECT MANUAL COATING AND PLATING THICKNESS TESTING PLATING MEASURE THICKNESS MANUAL OR AUTOMATIC PHASE ANALYSIS TESTING DIMENSIONAL DETECT CHANGES AUTOMATIC MODULATION ANALYSIS TESTING APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED

ITECHNIQUES I

Figure

7-4.

Eddy

Current

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK OBSERVE FUNCTION

I PERSONNEL[

TESTING FILMLESS LOCATE DISCONTINUITY

TECHNIQUES_

TESTING X-RAY FILM DETERMINE BOND

[EQUIPMENT

I-_

.___

TESTING RAY FILM GAMMA

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

I I I I

Figure 7-5,

Radiographic

Test

7-5

be

Cast. related includes variables

Inherent those such

cast

discontinuities casting,

are

those

discontinuities of the cast excessively stacking.

which article.

are It

to the melting,

and solidification that would feeding, handling, be inherent and gating,

discontinuities as inadequate entrapped gases,

to manufacturing high pouring

temperature, 2. PROCESSING

DISCONTINUITIES are such those discontinuities forming, that are related to the various rolling, welding,

Processing manufacturing heat 3. Service service 704 treating,

discontinuities processes and plating.

as machining,

extruding,

SERVICE

DISCONTINUITIES cover such those discontinuities corrosion, fatigue, that are and related errosion. ANALYSIS discontinuity The disto the various

discontinuities conditions DISCONTINUITY

as stress

CHARACTERISTICS encompasses that illustrate

AND METALLURGICAL an analysis examples of the specific

Discontinuity and reference cussion a. b. c. d. e. will

characteristics actual cover: and location (parallel photos

of the discontinuity.

Origin

of discontinuity or normal shaped, typical

(surface, to the grain).

near

surface,

or internal).

Orientation Shape Photo (flat,

irregularly and/or

or spiral). overall discontinuity view of the discontinuity). is produced and at what stage

(mtcrograph

Metallurgical of manufacture).

analysis

(how the

705 i. The the may the end

NDT

METHODS

APPLICATION

AND

LIMITATIONS

GENERAL technological level now loading reliability would of test of the selectively accomplishments reliability zone end product and the specific and of the been takes article. in the field reproducibility article. into Such reduce of nondestructive to a point This consideration an evaluation needless where the zoning testing the design upon have the reduces brought structural as the that

engineer as well

is based

application

environment in no way

characteristics of the product, have

but it does acceptable.

rejection

of material

otherwise

%J
7-6

Just size a die zoned less The the

as the will forging

structural depending same control

application on the masses the

within method

the

article

varies,

the

allowable thin web

discontinuity For sections example, would for

vary the

of manufacture for the whole applications requirements must also type select

and configuration. forging. are permit The forging higher, larger

that has large level where

of material structural

and extremely

not require rigid

of acceptance the structural specialist for NDT the

can be

for rigid control

and zoned discontinuities. which NDT will

where testing

nondestructive design the objective same

the method that all

satisfy can

of the specific reliability OF THE method methods upon

article same

and not

assume

methods

produce 2.

of discontinuity.

SELECTION

METHOD evaluation supplement the same such as: of a specific each task. other discontinuity and that several it should NDT of one method be

In selecting kept over in mind may another a. b. c. d. e. f. methods

the NDT that NDT

for the may

be capable is based

of performing variables

The selection

Type

and origin

of discontinuity processes

Material Accessibility Level

manufacturing of article

of acceptability available

desired

Equipment Cost

To satisfactorily task must be made methods

develop

knowledge article each

of the above requiring discontinuity

variables, testing.

a planned

analysis

of the

for each listed for may for

NDT

The NDT 0rder portion

in paragraphs However,

706 through when

732 are

in that

of preference of the chapter

that particular be kept the order alter

discontinuity. in mind of test

reviewing NDT

it should

that the rapidly preference.

developing

field

and new techniques 3. LIMITA TIONS

The limitations standard, the NDT affected.

z_

applicable material, but in many these

to the various and the service cases

NDT

methods reliability slightly

will

Vary with the not test of the

applicable affect is may of matelocation, may NDT be if you test.

the test, For

environment. that are listed under many The combinations mentioning intent influence the

Limitations for one different all of this limitations chapter

only

the structural limitations

article

reasons, to other capability

discontinuity conditions that

also rial

be applicable or environment. and with aware test

discontinuities the do not permit discontinuity. factors that

In addition,

of environment,

material, associated are made

a specific of the

is fulfilled of a valid

many

selection

7-7

706 1.

BURST CATEGORY. Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

2. 3.

MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY

CHARACTERISTICS Straight Usually or irregular parallel with or cavities varying in size with the grain. Found in wrought (See Figure 7-6.) large intermaterial

Surface or internal. faces or very tight. which 4. required forging,

rolling,

extruding.

METALLURGICAL a. Forging processing ment b. during bursts the

ANALYSIS are surface or internal temperature, rolling, ruptures which operation. is distinguishable are attributed to move-

at an incorrect forging,

or excessive

working

or metal

or extruding

A burst does from a pipe, Bursts are

not have a spongy appearance even if it should occur at the often large and very AND METHOD the detection in the seldom

and, therefore, center. during

c. 5. NDT a.

healed

subsequent

working.

METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally Bursts producing (3) Ultrasonic could (4) Nicks, on the

APPLICATION TESTING used are for

LIMITATIONS

of internal material on the

bursts. and they scope. varying degrees of burst which resemble a crack,

definite a very testing

breaks sharp

reflection

is capable by other areas,

of detecting NDT tool adverse

not be detected gouges, article raised may

methods. tears, foreign test material, results. Testing diameter. is gas bubbles

produce

ultrasonic

b.

EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used. restricted to wire, rod, and other articles under 0. 250 inch MAGNETIC (1) Usually internal _sults PARTICLE TESTING ferrous METHOD material that has surface

c.

used on wrought burst. are limited

or exposed

(2) d. LIQ_

to surface TESTING

and near METHOD. should

surface Not

evaluation. used. dye When penetrant

PENETRANT penetrant

normally previously

fluorescent tested, Cleaning

is to be applied

to an article first

all traces of dye penetrant _n applicable solvent.

be removed

by prolonged

7-8

eo

RADIOGRAPHIC as the size, direction and material

TESTING of the burst, thickness

METHOD. close restrict

Not interfaces, the

normally wrought

used.

Such

variables discontinuity

material,

capability

of radiography.

FORGING EXTERNAL

BURST

BOLT INTERNAL BURST

ROLLED BAR INTERNAL

BURST

FORGED BAR INTERNAL

BURST

Figure

7-6.

Burst

Discontinuities

7-9

707 1. 2. 3. Surface

COLD

SHUTS Inherent Ferrous and Nonferrous Cast Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and subsurface. lap. (See

CHARACTERISTICS Generally 7-7.) ANALYSIS during casting or meeting of one films formed molten of two surface on cold, meet will metal. streams before sluggish produce with the They may result coming metal or shuts. sprues flows They are from from over that more splashing, different it, will the smooth indentations on the cast surface resembling

a forging 4. Cold

Figure

METALLURGICAL shuts are produced

surging, directions. presence prevent prevalent

e

interrupted Also, a fusion of interposing where in castings METHODS LIQUID

pouring, solidification surface which are

of metal other metal, cold several

any factor or gates.

two surfaces

in a mold AND

NDT a.

APPLICATION PENETRANT

LIMITATIONS METHOD.

TESTING

(1) Normally used to evaluate surface cold shuts in both ferrous and nonferrous materials. (2) Will appear as a smooth, regular, continuous, or intermittent indication, reasonably parallel to the cross section of the area in which it occurs. (3) Liquid penetrant used for the testing of nickel base alloys (such as Inconel "X," Rene 41) should not exceed 0.5 percent sulfur. (4) Certain castings may removal have surfaces which may be blind and from which

of the excessive penetrants may be difficult. configuration (recesses, orifices, and flanges) may permit

(5) Geometric continulty. b. MAGNETIC

buildup of wet developer thereby masking

any detection of a dis-

PARTICLE

TESTING

METHOD

(i) Normally

used for the screening of ferrous materials.

(2) The metallurgical nature of 431 corrosion-resistant steel is such that in some cases magnetic particle testing Indications are obtained which do not result from a crack or other harmful discontinuities. These indications portion arise exhibits from a duplex structure within the material, other wherein does not. one strong magnetic retentivity and the

7-10

c.
f

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Normally continuities. Appear definite Casting detected

TESTING detectable

METHOD by radiography while testing for other casting dis-

(2)

as a distinct dark smooth outline. configuration by radiography. TESTING may

line

or band

of variable

length

and width,

and

(3)

have

inaccessible

areas

which

can

only be

d.

ULTRASONIC article testing.

METHOD.

Not recommended. rule lend

Cast

structure to ultrasonic

and

configuration

do not as a general

themselves

e.

EDDY figuration

CURRENT and

TESTING inherent

METHOD. variables

Not recommended. restrict the use

Article of this

conmethod.

material

SURFACE

COLD

SHUT

=E

INTERNAL COLD SHUT

SURFACE COLD SHUT MICROGRAPH

r
Figure 7-7. Cold Shuts Discontinuity 7-11

708 1. 2. 3. Surface. inward. 4. Fillet this

FILLET

CRACKS

(BOLTS)

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Located (See

Service Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS junction of the fillet with the shank of the bolt and progressing

at the 7-8.)

Figure

METALLURGICAL cracks bolt occur where repeated to the

ANALYSIS a marked stress loading change risers takes in diameter are place, created. whereby These risers surface occurs, During the tensile such the tensile as between application load loads can fluctuates cause Fatigue inward. the of

head-to-shank in magnitude fatigue failure, failure, which NDT a.

Junction due

where operation

in service

of the

mechanism.

starting is surface

at the point phenomenon, APPLICATION TESTING for

where the stress starts at the AND METHOD service associated and

are built in. and propagates

METHODS ULTRASONIC (i) (2) Used

LIMITATIONS

extensively

discontinuities equipment enable

of this on the

type. spot

A wide selection of transducers evaluation for fillet crack. Being sharp a definite reflection. ) equipment to give has extreme break in the

(3)

material,

the

scope

pattern

will

be a very

(Actual

propagation

can be monitored

by using

ultrasonics. (4) Ultrasonic should b. LIQUID (1) (2)

sensitivity, and reliable

and

established

standards

be used

reproducible METHOD

results.

PENETRANT used

TESTING during

Normally May

in-service ferrous

overhaul and nonferrous

or troubleshooting. bolts, although usually

be used

for both

confined (3) (4) Will

to the nonferrous. as a sharp damage strippers, may clear result indication. from coating exposure removers, of high strength steels solutions,

appear

Structural to paint etc.

alkaline

deoxidizer

(5)

Entrapment areas may

under cause

fasteners, corrosion

in holes, due to the

under penetrant's

splices,

and

in similar for moisture.

affinity

7-12

c.

MAGNETIC

PARTICLE

TESTING

METHOD

(i) Normally

used on ferrous bolts.

(2) Will appear as clear sharp indication with a heavy buildup. (3) Sharp fillet areas may produce non-relevant magnetic indications.

(4) 17.7 pH is only slightlymagnetic in the annealed condition, but becomes strongly magnetic after heat treatment, when it may be magnetic particle tested. d. EDDY this e. CURRENT type TESTING Other NDT METHOD. methods Not normally are more used for detection of

fillet cracks.

compatible to the detection of

of discontinuity. TESTING Surface METHOD. in relation Not normally of this to the type thickness used for detection to of material. of

RADIOGRAPHIC fillet cracks. evaluate

discontinuities of crack

would

be difficult

due to size

lr

kj

FILLET

FATIGUE FAILURE

FRACTURE AREA OF(A) POINT OF FAILURE

SHOWING TANGENCY

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF FATIGUE CRACK IN FILLET SHOWING TANGENCY POINT IN RADIUS

Figure

7-8.

Fillet

Crack

Discontinuity 7-13

709 1. 2. 3. Surface. but not direction case Figure 4.

GRINDING CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

CRACKS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous

DISCONTINUITY Very always, shallow occur and )

CHARACTERISTICS and They ceramic sharp are at the Grinding found that root. Similar are heat to heat generally treated treat cracks chrome operations. and usually, angles to the plated, (See

in groups. materials

cracks are

at right

of grinding. 7-9.

in highly

articles,

hardened

subjected

to grinding

METALLURGICAL of hardened by local caused feed, NDT a. by lack

ANALYSIS surfaces frequently of the coolant, introduces surface being a dull cracks. ground. These The ground thermal overheating wheel, cracks is too

Grinding are rapid 5. caused usually

overheating of or poor cut.

or improperly

or too heavy METHODS LIQUID (1)

APPLICATION

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD and nonferrous materials for the detec-

PENETRANT used

TESTING on both cracks. indication of fine ferrous

Normally tion

of grinding penetrant pattern are

(2)

Liquid shattered

will lines.

appear

as irregular,

checked,

or

(3)

Cracks longest

the most

difficult time.

discontinuity

to indicate

and

require

the

penetration that to the have

(4) Articles the prior b. MAGNETIC (1) (2) Restricted Grinding although in which (3) Magnetic and as its

been and

degreased of the

may

still

have

solvent time for

entrapped evaporation

in

discontinuity

should

be allowed penetrant. METHOD

sufficient

application

PARTICLE to ferrous cracks case are they

TESTING materials. generally cases may

at right

angles network

to grinding of cracks field.

direction, may appear,

in extreme

a complete

be parallel

to the size

magnetic

sensitivity depth below

decreases the surface

as the

of grinding

crack

decreases

increases.

7-14

c.

EDDY grinding developed

CURRENT cracks. for

TESTING Eddy a specific TESTING Other to this current

METHOD. equipment

Not

normally has the

used capability

for

detection can be

of

and

nonferrous METHOD. forms type or

application. Not NDT are normally more than Not are too used for detection faster, of and

d.

ULTRASONIC grinding better cracks. adapted

economical, ultrasonics. for

of discontinuity METHOD. cracks for

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC grinding methods cracks. are more

TESTING Grinding suitable

recommended tight and small. cracks.

detection Other NDT

of

detection

of grinding

A TYPICAL CHECKEDGRINDINGCRACK PATTERN

P
t _t

F'- _

,T!_ 2 _ _

B GRINDINGCRACKPATTERN NORMAL TO GRINDING

MICROGRAPH

OF' GRINDING

CRACK

Figure

7-9.

Grinding

Crack

Discontinuity

7-15

710 I. 2. 3. Surface.

CONVOLUTION CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Range of the 7-10. ) in size

CRACKS Processing Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS from micro and fractures extend to open fissures. in direction Situated on the (See

periphery Figure 4. The

convolutions

longitudinally

of rolling.

METALLURGICAL rough 'orange which The service pits and peel' stretches roughened

ANALYSIS effect the of convolution material (vibration cracks contains and cracks small is the pits result attack which may form of either such stress stresses photograph. a forming risers. that act

operation treatment. Subsequent on these

or from

chemical flexing) in the

as pickling

surface

application form fatigue

introduce

as shown

accompanying

NDT a.

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING for of article

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD this type of failure. of discontinuity limits detection

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Used

extensively

Configuration almost

and location

exclusively

to radiography. to X-ray are of difference particle source is very to X-ray in density. testing testing. grease may pencil affect the on titanium) structure used of the may supplement but not critical may not since register

(3)

Orientation those on the film

of convolutions which lack due to the

discontinuities

not normal

(4)

Liquid replace

penetrant radiographic

and magnetic

and ultrasonic material (e.g.,

(5)

The

type

of marking the area

to identify article. b. ULTRASONIC convolution and internal sonics. EDDY tion CURRENT

of discontinuities

TESTING cracks. micro

METHOD.

Not normally

used

for

the

detection

of

Configuration fractures are

of the article (double-walled all factors which restrict the

convolutions) use of ultra-

Co

TESTING cracks. itself

METHOD. case method

Not normally of ultrasonic of testing.

used testing,

for the

the

detection

of convolution does

As in the to this

configura-

not lend

7-16

d.

LIQUID detection they creates are

PENETRANT of convolution internal a serious and

TESTING cracks. are

METHOD. Although over

Not recommended the discontinuities an exterior shell

for are

the surface,

superimposed of entrapment.

which

problem

e.

MAGNETIC

TESTING

METHOD.

Not applicable.

Material

is nonferrous.

TYPICAL

CONVOLUTION

DUCTING

CROSS-SECTION

OF" CRACKED CONVOLUTION

j-

C HIGHER MAGNIFICATION ORANGE PEEL

OF CRACK SHOWING

MICROGRAPH OF CONVOLUTION WITH PARTIAL CRACKING ON SIDES

Figure

7-10.

Convolution

Cracks

Discontinuity

7-17

711
1. 2. 3. Surface. affect 4.

HEAT-AFFECTED CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Often zone quite

ZONE Processing Ferrous and

CRACKING

%2
(Weldments) Nonferrous

CHARACTERISTICS deep and very (See ANALYSIS zones contain prior of weldments more than to welding. AND LIMITATIONS TESTING ferrous METHOD weIdments. especially failure articles on highly of article. can be very difficult heat treated increases 0.30% carbon in severity are prone with to this increasing type of tight. Figure Usually 7-11.) parallel with the weld in the heat-

of the

weldment.

METALLURGICAL of heat-affected Steels

Hot cracking carbon failure 5. content. and NDT a.

that

require METHODS MAGNETIC (1) (2)

preheating

APPLICATION PARTICLE used are May for very

Normally Prod articles. burns

detrimental,

contribute of highly

to structural heat treated

(3)

Demagnetization due to metallurgical PENETRANT used that for has

structure. TESTING nonferrous had its surface should removed. after may the METHOD weldments. obliterated, blurred, or blended tested until the due

b.

LIQUID (1) (2)

Normally Material

to manufacturing smeared surface (3) Liquid penetrant

processes has been testing

not be penetrant

application due

of certain to the covering

types

of

chemical film coatings of the discontinuities. c. RADIOGRAPHIC of heat-affected origin d. make Other TESTING zone NDT

be invalid

or filling

METHOD. more

Not normally suitable.

used

for the and

detection

cracking. methods METHOD

Discontinuity

orientation

surface

ULTRASONIC (1) (2) (3) Used Rigid The root sound where

TESTING specialized

applications are

have

been

developed. to develop valid tests.

standards

and procedures of the surface slope condition)

required

configuration radii and the beam.

roughness (i. e., sharp versus rounded are major factors in deflecting the

7-18

e,

EDDY detecting used

CURRENT nonferrous

TESTING zone cracking. surface particle

METHOD. Eddy discontinuities; or liquid

Not normally current equipment however,

used has

for

the

detection of

of heat-affected as magnetic

capability

it is not as universally

penetrant.

MICROGRAPH OF WELD SHOWING CRACK NOTE ENTRANCE TO THE

AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE COLD LAP WHICH MASKS THE

CRACK

MICROGRAPH

OF CRACK

SHOWN

IN (A)

Figure

7-11.

Heat-Affected

Zone

Cracking

Discontinuity

7-19

712 1. 2. 3. Surface.

HEAT

TREAT

CRACKS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought and Cast Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Usually on the machining surface

CHARACTERISTICS and forked. Seldom in areas nicks, (See Figure and follow with rapid ) a definite change pattern of material which have and can be in any thickness, been exposed

deep part. marks,

direction sharp to the 4. During heating thickness. to rupture. cracks

Originate fillets, material.

discontinuities 7-12.

of the

METALLURGICAL the heating These Where deveIop. METHODS may NDT a. and

ANALYS_ cooling process movement may stress exceed risers localized of the the occur tensile stresses article, (keyways strength may be set up by unequal causing it

or cooling,

restricted stresses built-in

or unequal of the or grooves)

cross-sectional material additional

APPLICATION PARTICLE

AND

LIMITATIONS METHOD treat cracks are normally detected by mag-

MAGNETIC (1) For netic (2)

TESTING heat

ferrous particles

materials, testing.

V
indications will normally be straight, forked, or

The magnetic particles curved indications. Likely points of origin fillets, structure 17.7,

(3)

are

areas with

that

would

develop

stress

risers,

such

as keyways, (4) Metallurgical steels b. LIQUID (I) (17.4,

or areas

rapid

changes and heat

in material treatable

thickness. stainless

of age hardenable and 431) may produce

irrelevant

indications.

PENETRANT

TESTING materials

METHOD liquid penetrant testing is the recommended

For nonferrous method. Likely magnetic points

(2)

of origin

would

be the

same

as those

listed

above

for

particle

testing. be used in LOX systems must

(3)

Materials be tested

or articles that will eventually with compatible penetrants. TESTING METHOD

c.

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

Normally Magnetic

not used. particles and liquid penetrant are more direct and economical.

7-20

d.

ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD.

treat cracks. If used the scope pattern wave METHOD. discontinuity. Recommended TESTING Surface for designed

Not normally will show mode would

used

for

detection indication

of heat of a

a definite

be surface. used easily for detection of by other

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC heat NDT treat cracks. methods

Not normally are more application.

discontinuities surface

detected

FILLET AND MATERIAL THICKNESS RELIEF RADIUS CRACKING (LOWER

CRACKS LEFT)

(TOP CENTER)

HEAT TREAT CRACK DUE TO SHARP MACHINING MARKS

Figure

7-12.

Heat

Treat

Cracks

Discontinuity 7-21

713 1. 2. 3. Surface. from

SURFACE CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

SHRINK

CRACKS

V
Processing Ferrous and (Welding) Nonferrous

DISCONTINUITY Situated small, the on the tight, direction

CHARACTERISTICS face and of the shallow, weld, (See fusion and Figure zone, deep. 7-13. ) and base Cracks metal. may run Range parallel in size or

very

to open

transverse 4. Surface heating stresses Restriction cooling,

of welding. ANALYSIS are generally article.

METALLURGICAL shrink that cracks exceed

the Heating

result of the

of improper material stresses.

heat causing

application, area the may during material

either set up

in

or welding

of the

or cooling or expansion)

in a localized of the material

the tensile may also set

strength (contraction

to crack. heating,

of the movement or welding

up excessive

NDT a.

METHODS LIQUID (i) (2)

APPLICATION

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD normally is easily ferrous detected portable by liquid and penetrant. during

PENETRANT shrink penetrant control which fittings and

TESTING cracks are

Surface Liquid In-process

equipment for are will mask are both joined retain the

can be used weldments. intermittent will seep

and nonferrous riveting, which

(3)

Assemblies or press developing

by bolting, the penetrant, surfaces. air dryer

welding, out after

adjoining in a hot should

(4)

When sive the

articles drying

dried

or by similar to prevent

means, evaporation

excesof

temperature

be avoided

penetrant. PARTICLE weldments discontinuities indications TESTING are METHOD tested parallel do not by magnetic to the interrupt magnetic or distort particle field the method. will not magnetic

b.

MAGNETIC (I) (2) Ferrous Surface produce field. (3) Areas might solids

normally that are they

since

of grease be damaged should

fittings, be masked

bearing before

races, testing.

or other

similar solution

items

that

or clogged

by the

suspension

or magnetic

7-22

c.
E_

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

TESTING

METHOD welded be used pipe where and tubing. configuration

Normally

confined

to nonferrous coil could

Probe or encircling permits. TESTING

article

d.

RADIOGRAPHIC of surface other types

METHOD. During the surface METHOD. Other forms are more

Not normally radiographic indications Not normally of NDT (liquid economical, may

used testing

for

the detection for

discontinuities. of discontinuities, TESTING cracks. better

of weldments

be detected. for are detection and faster. of magnetic

e.

ULTRASONIC surface particle) shrink give

used and

penetrant

results,

TRANSVERSE

CRACKSIN

HEAT-AFFECTED

ZONE

_ %

i_/"

':'

'-

f
IV " _=

TYPICAL

STAR-SHAPED

CRATER

CRACK

SHRINKAGE

CRACK

AT WELD

TERMINAL

Figure

7-13.

Surface

Shrink

Crack

Discontinuity

7-23

714 1. 2. 3. Surface. thread. 4. Fatigue

THREAD

CRACKS Service Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Cracks (See are

CHARACTERISTICS transverse 7-14.) ANALYSIS type act are not may direction uncommon. stress start risers of applied AND as fine High created stresses. cyclic stresses resulting roots and and/ discontinuities from to the grain (transgranular) starting at the root of the

Figure

METALLURGICAL failures and/or cracks. of this flexing Fatigue

vibration produce or cracks NDT a.

on the

by the thread

cracks in the

submicroscopic

and propagate METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)

APPLICATION

LIMITATIONS METHOD over as gasoline non-fluorescent. and kerosene are not

PENETRANT

TESTING

Fluorescent Low surface recommended When applying

penetrant

is recommended such

tension solvents cleaners. liquid adjacent penetrant areas

(3)

to components should

within

an assembly masked

or

structure, overspraytng. b. MAGNETIC (I) (2) Normally Irrelevent ation. Cleaning may c. EDDY thread ment d. result

the

be effectively

to prevent

PARTICLE used

TESTING

METHOD

on ferrous

materials. may result from the thread configur-

magnetic

indications

(3)

titanium

and

440C

stainless

in halogeneated material. used

hydrocarbons

in structural TESTING The article

damage METHOD. configuration

to the

CURRENT cracks. if adaptable.

Not normally would require

for

detecting equip-

specialized

ULTRASONIC cracks. Thread

TESTING

METHOD. does

Not

recommended itself

for

detecting testing.

thread

configuration

not lend

to ultrasonic

7-24

eo

RADIOGRAPHIC thread designed tight and extremely cracks. for the surface difficult.

TESTING Surface specific connected,

METHOD. discontinuities condition. their

Not are Fatigue

recommended best screened of this cracks

for

detecting method very be are

by NDT type would

detection

by radiography

COMPLETE

THREAD

ROOT

FAILURE

TYPICAL

THREAD ROOT FAILURE

MICROGRAPH OF (A) SHOWING CRACK AT BASE OF ROOT

MICROGRAPH OF (B) SHOWING TRANSGRANULAR CRACK AT THREAD ROOT

Figure

7-14.

Thread

Crack

Discontinuity

7-25

715 1.
2. 3. Tubing (See 4. Tubing

TUBING

CRACKS

(1NCONEL

"X")

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY cracks Figure formed 7-15. )

Inherent Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS on the inner surface (I.D.), parallel to direction of grain flow.

METALLURGICAL I.D. a. b. cracks Improper Foreign causing heated c. may cold material

ANALYSIS be attributed reduction may the heating in the to one or a combination of the have and annealing rate been cracking operation. to the annealing range. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD of this type of discontinuity. (0. 156 inch) are well within temperature with possible cracking tube during fabrication. on the the cold inner worked surface material of the was tubes of the following:

embedded when

embrittlement during

Insufficient occurring

1200-1400F

5.

NDT a.

METHODS EDDY (1) (2)

APPLICATION TESTING for

CURRENT used

Normally The

detection

diameter

(1 inch) capability.

and wall

thickness

equipment (3) b. Testing

of ferro-magnetic TESTING used variety

material

may

be difficult.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally A wide tubing (3) (4}

METHOD gauge tubing. and transducers of this varying couplants effect type. limitations. high sulfur content are available for screening

on heavy

of equipment

for internal transducers ultrasonic wtI1 have

discontinuities have contact an adverse

Ultrasonic Certain which

temperature may have nickel

on high

aIloys.

c.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Not normally

TESTING used for

METHOD detecting tubing cracks.

7-26

(2)

Discontinuity graphic

orientation

and thickness

of material

govern

the

radio-

sensitivity. forms and of NDT reliable. TESTING METHOD. would Not recommended to process for detecting and (eddy current and ultrasonic) are more economical,

(3)

Other faster,

do

LIQUID tubing interpret.

PENETRANT cracks. Internal

discontinuity

be difficult

eo

MAGNETIC nonferrous

PARTICLES under normal

TESTING conditions.

METHOD.

Not applicable.

Material

is

TYPICAL

CRACK

ON INSIDE

OF TUBING

SHOWING

COLD

LAP

ANOTHER

PORTION

OF SAME

CRACK

SHOWING

'CLEAN

FRACTURE

MICROGRAPH

OF (B)

Figure

7-15.

Tubing

Crack

Discontinuity 7-27

716
1. 2. 3. Internal etched and and 4. Flakes tion found aligned

HYDROGEN CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

FLAKE Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS surface, flakes appear flakes found as bright Sometimes are in heavy silvery known steel areas. as thin chrome and On an checks generally billets,

DISCONTINUITY fissures surface parallel (See cracks with Figure

in a fractured they appear when the revealed grain. 7-16.)

as short They

discontinuities. by machining, are usually

hairline bars.

extremely

forgings,

METALLURGICAL are and only NDT a. internal in heavy METHODS ULTRASONIC (!) (2) Used fissures

ANALYSIS attributed of hydrogen forgings. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD for wrought the method the detection condition or the contact most of hydrogen flake. successfully surface using steel to stresses during produced cooling after by localized hot working. transformaUsually

decreased

solubility alloy

APPLICATION TESTING

extensively in the the

V
condition

Material either will

can be screened method. The suited. flake will

immersion

determine

(3)

On the A-scan presentation, hydrogen the screen or as loss of back reflection. All foreign removed gouges, tool materials prior to any marks, (loose testing. and scarfing scale, dirt, may

appear

as hash

on

(4)

oil, cause

grease) loss

should such

be as nicks,

Surface

irregularities

of back

reflection.

b.

MAGNETIC (I) (2) Normally Flakes hairline (3)

PARTICLE used appear cracks.

TESTING

METHOD articles. and resemble chrome checks or

on finished as short

machined discontinuities

Machined surfaces of the flake. Where the general

with

deep

tool

marks

may

obliterate

the

detection

(4)

direction

of a discontinuity in two or more

is questionable, directions.

it may

be necessary

to magnetize

7-28

c.

LIQUID flakes. detect

PENETRANT Discontinuities by liquid CURRENT

TESTING are very

METHOD. small

Not normally and would

used

for

detecting to

and tight

be difficult

penetrant. TESTING METHOD. structure of eddy current. Not its recommended and for detecting orientation with of radiography. Not recommended materials for detecting limits their

d.

EDDY flakes.

The metallurgical to the use

of ferrous

adaptability e.

RADIOGRAPHIC flakes. respect The size

TESTING

METHOD. restricts

of the discontinuity, surface

location

to the material

the application

4_340 CMS HAND FORGING REJECTED FOR HYDROGEN

FLAKE

CROSS-SECTION

OF(A)

SHOWING FLAKE CONDITION

IN CENTER OF MATERIAL

Figure

7-16.

Hydrogen

Flake

Discontinuity 7-29

717 1. 2. 3. Surface.

HYDROGEN CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

EMBRITTLEMENT

V
Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS (interface) that was (See with no orientation to pickling 7-17.) Figure or direction. and/or plating Found or in and Service

DISCONTINUITY Small, heat exposed

nondimensional material to free hydrogen. ANALYSIS and surface

in highly material 4.

treated

subjected

METALLURGICAL such hydrogen material METHODS MAGNETIC (1) (2) Magnetic as pickling at the

Operations generate face of the NDT a.

cleaning of the

prior material.

to electroplating This hydrogen embrittlement

or electroplating penetrates the surand cracking.

creating

immediate

or delayed AND

APPLICATION PARTICLES indications

LIMITATIONS METHOD as a fractured are randomly pattern. orientated and may

TESTING appear

Hydrogen embrittlement cracks follow the magnetic field. Magnetic plating. particle testing should

(3)

be accomplished

before

and

after

(4)

Care

should

be taken

to produce article steel with

no confusing by overheating. is non-magnetic

or irrelevant

indications

or cause (5)

damage

to the resistant

301 corrosion but becomes

in the annealed

condition,

magnetic

cold

working.

b.

LIQUID (I) (2)

PENETRANT used

TESTING for

METHOD hydrogen are extremely may embrlttlement. tight, mask the small, and difficult

Not normally Discontinuities to detect.

detecting surface plating

on the Subsequent

deposit

discontinuity.

c.

ULTRASONIC (I) (2) Not normally Article this (3)

TESTING used

METHOD for detecting and size hydrogen do not, embrittlement. in general, lend themselves to

configurations of 'testing. has capability

method

Equipment Recommend

of detecting_hydrogen technique.

embrittlement.

surface

wave

7-30

d.
a_

EDDY hydrogen may

CURRENT produce

TESTING

METHOD. Many variables

Not recommended inherent in the

for specific

detecting material

v,j
e.

embrittlement. conflicting TESTING

patterns. METHOD. The cases sensitivity in excess Not recommended for detecting

RADIOGRAPHIC

hydrogen embrtttlement. embrtttlement is in most

required to detect hydrogen of radiographic capabilities.

V A DETAILED CRACK PATTERN OF HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT

HYDROGEN

EMBRITTLEMENT

UNDER

CHROME

PLATE

HYDROGEN CHROME

EMBRITTLEMENT PLATE

PROPAGATED

THROUGH

r,

Figure

7-17.

Hydrogen

Embrittlement

Discontinuity 7-31

718
1. 2. 3. Surface metallic

INCLUSIONS V CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and subsurface. appear Figure (See Processing Ferrous (Weldments) and Nonferrous Welded Material

CHARACTERISTICS Inclusions singly 7-18. ) may be any shape. They or may be metallic throughout or nonthe

and may

or be linearly

distributed

scattered

weldment. 4. Metallic

METALLURGICAL inclusions or base are

ANALYSIS generally material particles entrapped of metals inclusions in the of different are weld oxides, density sulphides, the as compared slag weld or metal

to the weld

metal. foreign

Non-metallic

other non-metallic and the base metal. NDT a. METHODS

or between

APPLICATION TESTING

AND

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) This NDT

METHOD

method is universally used.

(2) Metallic inclusions appear on the radiograph as sharply defined, round, erratically shaped, or elongated white spots and may small linear or scattered groups. (3) Non-metallic inclusions will appear on the radiograph as shadows of be isolated or in

round globules or elongated or irregularly shaped contours occurring singly, linearly, or scattered throughout the weldment. They will Less generally appear in the fusion zone or at the root of the weld. absorbent materials by a lighter film density. (4) Forci_n material such as loose scales, splatter,or fluxmay invalidate test results. b. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD

absorbent material is indicated by a greater film density and more

(1) Normally

confined to thin wall welded tubing. be required if valid results are to be

(2) Established standards may obtained. c. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

METHOD

(1) Normally

not used for detecting inclusions in weldments. weldments where the discontinuities are surface

(2) Confined to machined or near surface. 7-._2

(3)

The

indications

would

appear

Jagged,

irregularly

shaped,

individually

or clustered, (4) Discontinuities between d. ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Not normally Specific ultrasonic e. LIQUID are the

and would may magnetic

not be too pronounced. when and the improper surface contact of the exists

go undetected particles METHOD for detecting of design

article.

TESTING used

inclusions. or of article configuration may require

applications testing.

PENETRANT not open

TESTING fissures.

METHOD.

Not

applicable.

Inclusions

normalIy

METALLIC

INCLUSIONS

INCLUSIONS

TRAPPED

IN WELD

CROSS-SECTION

OF WELD

SHOWING

INTERNAL

INCLUSIONS

Figure

7-18.

Weldment

Inclusion

Discontinuity

7-33

719 1. 2. 3.

INCLUSIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY (original with and likely large material. Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS bar) long or surface straight (after lines in groups. and not parallel Figure ANALYSIS 7-19.) machining). The other There type lines. are and Found two types: quite tightly one adherent. as extruded,

Subsurface is non-metallic Often and 4. short rolled a comparatively

parallel

to flow lines to flow

to occur mass (See

is non-plastic, in forged,

appearing

METALLURGICAL

Non-metallic

inclusions (stringers) are caused by the existence of slag or oxides in

the billetor ingot. Non-plastic inclusions are caused by particles remaining in the solid state during billetmelting. NDT a. METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) Normally APPLICATIONS TESTING AND METHOD V LIMITATIONS

used to evaluate inclusions in wrought material.

(2) Inclusions will appear as definiteinterfaces within the metal. Small clustered condition or conditions on differentplanes causing a loss in back reflection. Numerous small scattered conditions cause excessive "noise". (3) (4) Inclusion The orientation in relationship beam to ultrasonic should possible. beam is critical. to the

direction

of the ultrasonic grain

be perpendicular

direction b. EDDY (1) (2) c.

of the

flow whenver METHOD wall tubing materials

CURRENT used

TESTING for thin

Normally Testing

and

small

diameter

rods.

of ferro-magnetic PARTICLE used will TESTING

can be difficult.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally Inclusions indication. (3)

METHOD surface. intermittent or clustered. that a surface when its axis or near surface is in any or as a continuous

on machined appear may

as a straight be individual

They

The magnetic technique should inclusion can be satisfactorily direction.

.be such detected

7-34

z-

(4) A
(5) d.

knowledge be paralleI types

of the grain

flow

of the material

is critical

since

incIusions

will

to that direction. of steels are more prone to inclusions than other.

Certain

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT used

TESTING

METHOD inclusions in wrought material. surface. NDT methods

Not normally Inclusions

for detecting

are generally TESTING surface testing

not openings METHOD. are more

in the material Not recommended.

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC designed inclusions for

suitable

for detecting

surface

J
TYPICAL INCLUSION PATTERN ON MACHINED B SURFACES STEEL FORGING SHOWING NUMEROUS INCLUSIONS

_+_

MICROGRAPH OF TYPICAL

INCLUSION

LONGITUDINAL CROSS-SECTION ORIENTATION OF INCLUSIONS

SHOWING

Figure

7-19.

Wrought

Inclusion

Discontinuity

7-35

720 I. 2. 3. Internal running 4. Caused

LACK

OF

PENETRATION Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or external. parallel with

CHARACTERISTICS Generally the weld. irregular (See Figure and filamentary 7-20. ) occuring at the root and

METALLURGICAL by root Also face

ANALYSIS of joint not reaching welding fusion rate, temperature too large before weld rod, metal was a

deposited. bead. 5. NDT a.

caused

by fast

a welding

or too cold

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD variety of welded articles to determine the

RADIOGRAPHIC (i) Used lack (2) Lack area

extensively of penetration. of penetration of varying appear

on a wide

will length in the

appear and width. center

on the radiograph It may weld of the

as an elongated of multipass

dark

be continuous at the ]unction

or Intermittent

and may bends. (3)

Lack of penetration source is critical.

orientation

in relationship

to the

radiographic

(4)

Sensitivity levels govern discontinuities. TESTING

the

capability

to detect

small

or tight

b.

ULTRASONIC (1) Commonly (2) Complex

METHOD

used for specific applications. weld configurations, or thin wall weldments to ultrasonic testing. do not lend

themselves

(3) Lack of penetration will appear on the scope as a definitebreak or discontinuity resembling a crack and will give a very sharp reflection.

(4) Repeatability of ultrasonic test results is difficult unless equipment is standardized.

7-36

c. x..j

EDDY (1)

CURRENT used

TESTING

METHOD lack of penetration in nonferrous welded

Normally pipe and

to determine

tubing. can be used requirement TESTING backside appears TESTING where backside appears where other of the nonferrous equipment. articles can meet

(2)

Eddy the

current configuration

d.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally Lack

PARTICLE used where

METHOD of weld is visible. indication of varying width.

of penetration PENETRANT used

as an irregular METHOD of weld

e.

LIQUID (1) (2)

Normally

is visible. indication of varying

Lack of penetration width. Residue any left by the

as an irregular

(3)

penetrant

and the

developer

could

contaminate

re-welding

operation.

INADEQUATE ROOT PENETRATION

INADEQUATE ROOT PENETRATION WELDED TUBE

OF BUTT

INADEQUATE FILLET WELD PENETRATION KNOWN AS BRIDGING

k.J

Figure

7-20.

Lack

of Penetration

Discontinuity

7-37

721 1. 2. 3. Surface surface Found 4.

LAMINATIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and internal. material. extruded, Inherent Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS Flat, extremely contain rolled and thin, a thin material. generally film (See aligned Figure parallel the 7-21.) to the work surfaces.

of the in forged,

May

of oxide

between

METALLURGICAL are separations

ANALYSIS or weaknesses They may be the and made extremely directional thin. generally result aligned parallel seam, Laminations to the are work flat-

Laminations surface of the or segregations tened impurities NDT a.

material. elongated that are

of pipe, by working.

blister,

inclusions,

METHODS ULTRASONIC (I) For

APPLICATION TESTING gauge

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD material makes may selected methods the geometry their be used are detection depending adaptable. interface with a loss of back and orientation of lamination

heavier

(normal (2) Numerous thickness contact (3)

to the wave

beam) modes

limited upon

to ultrasonic. the material

or method or immersion will appear

for testing.

Automatic

and manual

Lamination reflection.

as a definite

(4)

Through very thin

transmission sections.

and

reflection

techniques

are

applicable

for

b.

MAGNETIC (I) Articles lamination (2) (3) Magnetic Magnetic size

PARTICLE fabricated

TESTING from

METHOD materials are normally tested for

ferrous particle. appear is not

by magnetic indication particle will testing

as a straight, capable

intermittent the

indication. over-alI

of determining

or depth PENETRANT used

of the

lamination. METHOD materials.

c.

LIQUID (1)

TESTING on nonferrous

Normally

V 7-38

(2)

Machining, and thereby and

honing, close alkalines Thorough

lapping, or mask seriously cleaning

or blasting surface limit of the

may

smear

surface

of material

lamination. the effectiveness is essential. used sheet to detect stock. for detecting in the almost direction impossible. laminaof liquid penetrant

(3)

Acid testing.

surface

do

EDDY tions.

CURRENT If used,

TESTING the method

METHOD. must

Not normally to thin

be confined

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC laminations of the X-ray beam,

TESTING Laminations thereby

METHOD. have very making

Not recommended small thickness changes detection radiographic

m !

|
J m

%_/
A LAMINATION IN 0.250 IN. PLATE B LAMINATION IN 0.040 TITANIUM SHEET

LAMINATION ORIENTATION

IN PLATE

SHOWING

SURFACE

LAMINATION ORIENTATION

IN 1 IN.

BAR

SHOWING

SURFACE

_,.j-

Figure

7-21.

Lamination

Discontinuity

7-39

722 1. 2. 3. Surface. cracks. and 4.

LAPS

AND

SEAMS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Rolled Threads

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Wavy Found

CHARACTERISTICS deep and sometime in the minor, pitch, Figure 7-22.) very and tight, major appearing diameter as hairline of the thread,

lines, often quite in rolled threads of rolling. (See

in direction

METALLURGICAL

ANALYSIS

During the rolling operation, faulty or oversized dies or an overfillof material may cause material to be folded over and flattened into the surface of the thread but not fused. NDT a. METHODS LIQUID (1) APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS METHOD and nonferrous first choice. slightly seams may curved, occur materials makes

PENETRANT with liquid

TESTING both

Compatibility fluorescent

ferrous the

penetrant

(2)

Liquid penetrant indications intermittent or continuous individually or in clusters. material into the may not

will be circumferential, indications. Laps and

(3)

Foreign penetrant penetrant

only area.

interfere but may

with cause

the

penetration

of the of

discontinuity

an accumulation

in a nondefective of threads off laps and the and may

(4)

Surface sealing

be smeared

due to rolling

operation,

thereby

seams. are not compatible. in fluorescent Dye penetrants penetrants.

(5)

Fluorescent tend to kill

dye penetrants fluorescent TESTING indications

qualities

b.

MAGNETIC (1) Magnetic liquid (2)

PARTICLE particle

METHOD would generally appear the same as

penetrant. magnetic indications may result from the thread

Irrelevent configuration.

(3)

Questionable penetrant

magnetic testing.

particles

indications

can be verified

by liquid

V
7-40

c.
a=

EDDY laps

CURRENT and seams.

TESTING Article TESTING

METHOD. configuration

Not normally is the Not restrict Not restricting

used

for

detecting

factor. for detecting laps

d.

ULTRASONIC and seams.

METHOD.

recommended ultrasonic recommended

Thread

configurations METHOD.

capability. for detecting the laps

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC and seams. Size of radiographic

TESTING and testing.

orientation

of discontinuities

restricts

capability

TYPICAL

AREAS OF FAILURE

LAPS AND SEAMS

.,

FAILURE OCCURRING AT ROOT OF THREAD

F_

AREAS WHERE LAPS AND SEAMS USUALLY OCCUR

_...J

Figure

7-22.

Laps

and

Seams

Discontinuity

in Roiled

Threads

7-41

723
i. 2.

LAPS

AND

SEAMS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY

ao

CHARACTERISTICS Wavy usually smeared (See lines enter closed. Figure 7-23. usually the surface Found ) often grain quite and deep and sometimes spiral when very tight, usually with not very in wrought pronounced angle. forgings, or tightly Laps plate, may adherent have surface bar, tubing,

Lap since and

Surface. they rod.

at a small

openings

Do

Seam parallel rolled

Surface. fissures rod and

Lengthy, with the tubing. ANALYSIS blowholes, in the

at times

associated

4. Seams

METALLURGICAL originate and innerfaces are similar During may exist but not fused. NDT a. METHODS MAGNETIC (I) (2) Magnetic Surface method. (3) Laps and from elongated of the to seams

cracks, direction

splits, of rolling is very

and small.

tears

introduced The

in earlier distance between

processing adjacent Laps

or forging.

discontinuity and the may may sizing occur

result of the

from material,

improper corners in material of the

rolling, may being article.

forging, be folded flattened

or sizing over into or the

operations. an overfill surface

the processing during Laps

resulting

on any part

APPLICATION PARTICLE particle and

AND LIMITATIONS TESTING METHOD for ferrous and seams may material. be detected by this

is recommended laps

near-surface

seams They

may may

appear

as a straight,

spiral,

or and

slightly continuous

curved or

indication. intermittent.

be individual

or clustered

(4) Magnetic
magnetizing crack

buildup current is necessary. magnetizing

of laps

and

seams than

is very that used

small. for the

Therefore, detection

a of a

greater

(5) Correct

technique the discontinuity

should

be used lie

when

examining nearly

for parallel

forging laps since to the surface.

may

in a plane

V
7-42

b.

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT penetrant and seams penetrant. penetrant the

TESTING

METHOD for nonferrous tight and difficult material. to detect especially

Liquid Laps

is recommended may be very

by liquid (3) Liquid

testing article

of laps before

and

seams the

can

be improved

slightly

by heating c. ULTRASONIC (1) (2) , (3)

= ,

applying

penetrant.

TESTING used wave and

METHOD wrought permits and material accurate prior to machining. of the depth,

Normally Surface length,

to test technique

evaluation

size

of laps

seams. and seams will appear as definite inner

Ultrasonic indication of laps faces within the metal. CURRENT used TESTING for the

de

EDDY (1) (2)

METHOD evaluation of laps by eddy and current seams where in tubing article and pipe. configura-

Normally Other tion

articles and size

can be screened permit. TESTING METHOD.

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC

Not

recommended

for detecting

_j

laps and seams in wrought material. Although the ratio between the discontinuity size and the material thickness exceeds 2 % of sensitivity in most cases, discontinuities have a very small thickness change in the direction
q Imn._t

of the
imnossible.

X-ray

beam,

thereby

making

radiographic

detection

A Figure

TYPICAL FORGING LAP 7-23.

MICROGRAPH OF A LAP

Laps

and

Seams

Discontinuity

in Wrought

Material 7-43

724
1. 2. 3.

MICRO-SHRINKAGE CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Processing Magnesium Casting

CHARACTERISTICS

Internal. Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear as concentrated porosity in cross section. 4. METALLURGICAL (See Figure 7-24.)

ANALYSIS state. If sufficient

Shrinkage occurs while the metal is in a plastic or seml-molten void. The void is identifiedby its appearance Micro-shrinkage

molten metal cannot flow into different areas as it cools, the shrinkage will leave a and by the time in the plastic range it occurs. is caused by the withdrawal of the low melting point con-

stituentfrom the grain boundaries. 5. NDT

ao

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

AND

LIMITATIONS

RADIO(_RAI_HIC (1) Radiography

METHOD used to determine the acceptance level v

is universally

of micr0,shrinkage. (2) Micro-shrinkage resembling indicative b. LIQUID will feathery of cavities appear streaks in the on the grain radiograph irregular as an elongated patches, which swirl are

or as dark

boundaries.

PENETRANT

TESTING

METHOD surfaces. These conditions

(1) Normally

used on finished machined

(2) Micro-shrinkage

is not normally open to the surface. areas. on the plane varies

will, therefore, be detected in machined (3) The the appearance condition has of the been indication cut. porous The depends appearance

through

which

from

a continuous

hairline

to a massive may affecting structural the improper approval

indication. by saturating a surface damage the micro porous

. (4)

Penetrant casting

act as a contaminant their and use ability

to accept

treatment. article should can never result be used

(5) Serious
from unless

a dimensional of acids

to the They

or alkalies.

is obtained.

7-44

c.

EDDY

CURRENT

TESTING Article

METHOD. configuration

Not and

recommended type

for

detecting do not lend

mlcro-shrlnkage. themselves d. ULTRASONIC shrinkage. e. MAGNETIC nonferrous. to eddy

of discontinuity

current. METHOD. and TESTING article Not recommended are for detecting microfactors. Material is

TESTING Cast structure

configuration Not

restricting

PARTICLE

METHOD.

applicable.

CRACKEDMAGNESIUM HOUSING

"" -C B CLOSE-UP VIEW OF (A) C

]/r.P

_',:"

:.

MICROGRAPHOF CRACKEDAREA

Figure

7-24.

Micro-Shrinkage

Discontinuity

7-45

725 1. 2. 3. Surface groups. 4. Porosity on the 5.

GAS POROSITY CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or subsurface. at the May also point. Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments

CHARACTERISTICS Rounded Scattered or elongated, uniformly at the root teardrop throughout or toe. (See shaped with or without or isolated 7-25. ) a sharp in small

discontinuity

the weld Figure

be concentrated ANALYSIS by gas

METALLURGICAL in welds base NDT a. or filler METHODS is caused metal,

entrapment cleaning

in the molten or preheating.

metal,

too much

moisture

or improper

APPLICATION TESTING is the

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD most universally used NDT method for the detection

RADIOGRAPHY : (1) Radiography of gas (2) The

porosity

in weIdments. image with smooth with axis. as loose scale, flux, or splatter will affeet spots of a 'round' edges, the major porosity axis will appear porosity several as oval will appear times v

radiographic spots shaped than

shaped as oval longer (3) Foreign validity

while

'elongated' sometimes

the minor

material such of test results. TESTING testing

b.

ULTRASONIC (1) Ultrasonic

METHOD equipment is highly sensitive, should capable be used of detecting if valid test

micro-separations. Established results are to be obtained. (2) c. Surface finish and grain TESTING size will

standards

affect

the

validity

of the

test

results.

EDDY (i) (2)

CURRENT

METHOD welded to a depth METHOD control of ferrous and nonferrous pipe and tube. than one-quarter inch.

Normally Penetration

confined restricts

to thin wall testing TESTING

of more

d.

LIQUID (i)

PENETRANT confined

Normally weldments.

to In-process

7-46

(2)

Liquid surface Extreme magnetic entrapped

penetrant testing, evaluation. caution (iron and must oxide),

like

magnetic

particle,

is restricted

to

(3)

be exercised and liquid the

to prevent penetrant rewelding

any

cleaning from

material, becoming

materials operation.

contaminating TESTING to detect would since

e.

MAGNETIC (1) (2)

PARTICLE used porosity defined

METHOD gas porosity. Near strong surface porosity would

Not normally Only surface

be evident, it is neither

not be clearly

or pronounced.

TYPICAL

SURFACE

POROSITY

CROSS-SECTION POROSITY

OF (A)

SHOWING

EXTENT

OF

MICROGRAPH SHRINKAGE

OF CROSS-SECTION POROSITY

SHOWING

TYPICAL

M.z

Figure

7-25.

Gas Porosity

Discontinuity

7-47

726 1. 2. 3. Internal.

UNFUSED CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

POROSITY Processing Aluminum CHARACTERISTICS fissures aligned forged, ANALYSIS to porosity is oxidized processing, which is in the into cast ingot. shape. of a foreign in an extremely During If the thin the rolling, they interface parallel with the grain Figure flow. 7-26. ) Found in wrought

DISCONTINUITY Wafer-thin which

aluminum 4. Unfused forging, surface will or void. NDT a.

is rolled,

or extruded.

(See

METALLURGICAL porosity of these

is attributed operations the discontinuities

or extruding during

it is flattened

wafer-thin

internal

or is composed resulting

material,

not fuse

subsequent

METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) (3) (4) Used

APPLICATION TESTING for be tested fixes

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD the detection of unfused porosity. configuration. in all three directions. it may be

extensively may

Material Ultrasonic Where necessary the

in the wrought the location of the

as received of the void

testing general to test

direction from several and

discontinuity

is unknown,

directions. article porosity configuration to the will material

(5)

Method determine surface.

of manufacture the orientation

subsequent of the unfused

b.

LIQUID (i) (2)

PENETRANT used porosity with on. preparations

TESTING on nonferrous will the appear grain.

METHOD machined as a straight Liquid articles. line of varying is restricted lengths run-

Normally Unfused ning evaluatl

parallel

penetrant

to surface

(3)

Surface obliterate the

such the

as vapor surface

blasting, discontinuities,

honing,

or sanding

may

by masking of liquid agitation

thereby

restricting

reliability

penetrant

testing. in a large container may produce foaming.

(4)

Excessive

of powder

7-48

EDDY unfused

CURRENT porosity.

TESTING

METHOD.

Not normally

used

for

detecting

do

RADIOGRAPHIC

TESTING used for

METHOD detecting are X-ray unfused difficult beam. METHOD. Not applicable. Material is porosity. to detect that the by a method which

(1) (2)

Not normally Wafer-thin measures

discontinuities density or which to the

requires

discontinuity

be parallel

and perpendicular
e.

MAGNETIC nonferrous.

PARTICLE

TESTING

+=

FRACTURED SPECIMEN SHOWING UNFUSED POROSITY

UNFUSED POROSITY EQUIVALENT TO 1/64, ,5/64 AND 8/64 (LEFT TO RIGHT)

3/64,

TYPICAL

UNFUSED POROSITY

ULTRASONIC

SCOPE

PATTERN

OF (C)

Figure

7-26.

Unfused

Porosity

Discontinuity

7-49

727 1. 2. 3. Surface.

STRESS

CORROSION Service Ferrous and Nonferrous

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Range however, METALLURGICAL factors are static likely from

CHARACTERISTICS shallow transverse to very cracks deep, are and also usually possible. follow (See the grain flow 7-27.) of the

material; 4. Three

Figure

ANALYSIS for the stress, faster residual phenomenon 2) the at high presence to this levels of stress type corrosion to occur: environment, Stress from corrosion of stress. (applied) at low levels external and

necessary tensile that to occur include

1) a sustained 3) the use is much The type loading. NDT a. more

of a corrosive of failure. than as those of stress

of a material of stresses

is susceptible

(internal)

as well

METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)

APPLICATION

AND

LIMITATIONS METHOD used for the detection of stress corrosion. V

PENETRANT penetrant

TESTING is normally

Liquid

In the preparation, application, and final cleaning care must be exercised to prevent over spraying the surrounding cleaning affect articles. immediately the test before results the if the

of articles, extreme and contamination of

(3)

Chemical may evaporate.

application solvents are

of liquid

penetrant time to

seriously

not given

(4)

Service will removed.

articles

may

contain

moisture

within results

the if the

discontinuity moisture

which is not

dilute,

contaminate,

and invalid

b.

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

TESTING used

METHOD stress corrosion. of resolving with equipment stress corrosion where

Not normally Eddy article current

to detect

equipment

is capable is compatible

configuration TESTING used are

limitations.

c.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2)

METHOD to detect stress corrosion. to surface of material and require

Not normally Discontinuities surface

perpendicular

technique.

7-50

d.

MAGNETIC (1) (2)

PARTICLE used

TESTING to detect and

METHOD stress usual corrosion. nonmagnetic condition exclude mag-

V,j

Not normally Configuration netic particle

of article testing. TESTING used

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally Surface application. with the use

METHOD stress detected corrosion. by NDT can method shown designed stress for such

to detect are best

indications

However, of the proper

radiography technique.

and has

corrosion

FRACTURED ALUMINUM ALLOY COUPLING DUE TO STRESS CORROSION

Figure

7-27.

Stress

Corrosion

Discontinuity

7-51

728
i.

HYDRAULIC CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and Usually internal. they

TUBING Processing Aluminum and 6061-T6 Service

3. Surface deep.

CHARACTERISTICS Range will which in size has from short to long, of the (See Figure shallow grain 7-28. ) to very tight the and

be found

in the

direction

flow with

exception

of stress 4.

corrosion,

no direction.

METALLURGICAL tubing

ANALYSIS are usually one of the the following: tube material and being

Hydraulic a.

discontinuities

Foreign embedded Laps Seams in the

material coming into the surface are the result

in contact with of the tube. of material blowholes, and which then are

b. c.

which which eariler

being

folded

over splits during

and and

not fused. tears introduced

originate processing, corrosion

from

cracks, elongated

rolling. environ-

d.

Intergranular ment. METHODS EDDY (1) (2)

is due

to the presence

of a corrosive

5.

NDT a.

APPLICATION TESTING used walled

AND

LIMITATIONS

CURRENT

METHOD of nonferrous tubing. may not be successfully tested

Universally Heavier due

for testing tubing

(0. 250 and above) ability of various of the

to the

penetration nature

equipment. may not be clearly de-

(3)

The specific fined. Test Testing All the results

discontinuities

(4) (5) (6)

may

not be valid

unless

controlled may foreign

by known

standards.

of ferro-magnetic should be free

material of any

be difficult. material that would invalid

material test results.

b.

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT used

TESTING for

METHOD tubing discontinuities. and with established

Not normally Eddy current

detecting economical,

is more is more

faster,

standards

reliable.

7-52

c.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2)

TESTING used

METHOD for detecting tubing over range discontinuities. testing since discontinuity it is faster and non-

Not normally

Eddy current is recommended and more economical for this ferrous material. TESTING used type for METHOD detecting

ultrasonic of surface

d.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally The size and

tubing and

discontinuities. the configuration of material of the article for this group

of discontinuity for

limit the use of radiography of discontinuities. e. MAGNETIC ts nonferrous. PARTICLES TESTING

screening

METHOD.

Not applicable.

Material

...........................

INTERGRANULAR

CORROSION

LAPIN

OUTER SURFACE OF TUBING

EMBEDDED

FOREIGN MATERIAL

TWIN LAPS IN OUTER SURFACE OF TUBING

Figure

7-28.

Hydratdic

Tubing

Discontinuity

7-53

729 1. 2. 3. Internal tears. Figure 4. During passes portion the Certain 5.

MANDREL CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

DRAG Processing Nonferrous Thick-Wail Seamless Tubing

DISCONTINUITY surface Often 7-29. )

CHARACTERISTICS tubing. material Range will from shallow within even the gouges gouged to ragged area. (See

of thick-wall a slug of the

be embedded

METALLURGICAL the manufacture the offset

ANALYSIS of thick-wall rolls. may may are break more seamless piercing or have to this loose prone tubing, mandrel over slug the the billet follows the embedded than is ruptured this mandrel. into the others. fracture, wail. as it a As it does

through

As the be scored

of the material of the tubing of material types NDT a.

and be forced type

surface

of failure

METHODS EDDY (1) (2) (3) (4)

APPLICATION TESTING for testing are the

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD testing may of thin-wail pipe or tube. materials.

CURRENT used

Normally Eddy

current

be confined

to nonferrous

Discontinuities Several factors

qualitative,

not quantative affect output

indications. indications.

simultaneously METHOD the screening

b.

ULTRASONIC (1) Normally drag. (2) (3) i4)

TESTING used for

of thick-wall

pipe

or tube

for

mandrel

Can be used Requires

to test

both

ferrous side

and only.

nonferrous

pipe

or tube.

access

from

one

May be used automatic

in support

of production

Iine

since

it is adaptable

for

instrumentation. of mandrel indications TESTING used drag drag on the or tear scope. will produce very sharp and

(5)

Configuration noticeable

c.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Not normally of mandrel (2)

METHOD it has been instrumental welds. around the circumference in the detection

although during

examination several

of adjacent exposures

Complete coverage of the tube.

requires

7-54

(3)

This slow

method is not designed for production and costly for large volumes of pipe will disclose only

support or tube.

since

it is very

(4)
d.

Radiograph

two dimensions

and not the third. for detecting

LIQUID mandrel

PENETRANT drag since PARTICLE drag.

TESTING discontinuity TESTING particles.

METHOD. is internal METHOD.

Not recommended and would Not

not be detectable. for surface detectto be

e,

MAGNETIC ing mandrel

recommended to the will drag occur

Discontinuities

are not close Most mandrel

enough

detectable by magnetic less stainless steel.

in seam-

EMBEDDED

SLUG SHOWING DEEP GOUGE MARKS

SLUG BROKEN LOOSE FROM TUBING WALL

ANOTHER

TYPE

OF EMBEDDED

SLUG

GOUGE ON INNER SURFACE

OF PIPE

Figure

7-29.

Mandrel

Drag

Discontinuity

7-55

730

SEMICONDUCTORS

1. 2. 3.

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY

Processing Hardware

and

Service

CHARACTERISTICS sizes and shapes and various degrees of density. They may or broken internal hardware. (See Figure 7-30. ) Found in transistors,

Internal. Appear be misformed,

in many

aligned, damaged,

diodes, resistors, and capacitors. 4. METALLURGICAL discontinuities inadequate clearance lead or around ANALYSIS such

Semiconductor loose leads, or voids 5. in seals

as loose between

wire, internal are

weld

splash, and

flakes, case, of processing

solder and

balls,

elements the product

inclusions errors.

connections AND

NDT a.

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC (1)

METHOD method for the detection of discontinuities

Universally used in semiconductors. The limit configuration the NDT

as the NDT

(2)

and method that to the

internal

structure

of the various

semiconductors

to radiography. have density copper of the heat sinks may require more than one

(3)

Semiconductors technique due wires materials be needed

copper. are very fine and may special be constructed gold techniques and

(4) Internal from may (5) aluminum.

in semiconductors of different If the latter to resolve may of the its density is used

such

as copper,

silver,

with

the others,

reliability. the highest structure sensitivity to resolve. may

Micro-particles complexity additional

require internal

(6) The

of semiconductors

require

views

to exclude

the possibility by hardware. will

of non-detection

of discontinuities (7) Positive positioning

due to masking of each

semiconductor

prevent

invalid

interpretation. (8) Source angle should give minimum distortion. may observation be accomplished during using

(9) Preliminary a vidcon rotation

examination system that of the article. would

of semiconductors allow visual

360 degree

7-56

b.

EDDY struction

CURRENT of the

TESTING discontinuities. article

METHOD. Nature

Not recommended of discontinuity to this and form

for

detecting of con-

semiconductor

method of NDT. for

do not lend TESTING

themselves METHOD.

c.

MAGNETIC

PARTICLE

Not recommended

detect-

ing semiconductor d.

discontinuities. METHOD. Not recommended for detecting

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING semiconductor discontinuities. ULTRASONIC conductor TESTING METHOD.

e.

Not

recommended

for

detecting

semi-

discontinuities.

STRANDS

BROKEN

IN HEATER

BLANKET

FINE

CRACK

IN PLASTIC

CASING

MATERIAL

BROKEN

ELECTRICAL

CABLE

FOREIGN

MATERIAL

WITHIN

SEMICONDUCTOR

Figure

7-30.

Semiconductor

Discontinuity 7-57

731 1. 2. 3. Internal

HOT

TEARS

V
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or near Occur surface. singly Inherent Ferrous Castings

CHARACTERISTICS Appear as ragged (See line Figure of variable 7-31.) width and numerous

branches. 4. Hot Tears sections 5.

or in groups. ANALYSIS caused metal

METALLURGICAL cracks the may that NDT a. (tears) surface originate adjoin are

by non-uniform while its are stresses masses set

cooling temperature which

resulting is still are slower

in stresses in the rapid brittle cooling to cool.

which range. of thin

rupture

of the where heavier

up by the more

of metal,

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING testing and the

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD is the first choice may since the material and is cast

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Radiographic structure (2)

discontinuities hot tear

be internal to the source

surface. influence

Orientation of the the test results. The sensitivity tears.

in relation

may

(3)

level

may

not be sufficient

to deteet

fine

surface

hot

b.

MAGNETIC (1) Hot tears magnetic (2) Article

PARTICLE that are

TESTING exposed method. and

METHOD to the surface can be screened with

particle configuration

metallurgical

composition

may

make

demagnization (3) Although radiography (4) Foreign test.

difficult. particle be used not removed can for detect final prior near analysis. to testing will cause an invalid surface hot tears,

magnetic should material

c.

LIQUID

PENETRANT

TESTING

METHOD for nonferrous cast material.

(i) Liquid penetrant is recommended

(2) Liquid penetrant is confined to surface evaluation.

%J
7-58

(3)

The use of penetrants on castings may ing the porous structure and affect the Repeatability of indications TESTING METHOD. of this to ultrasonic TESTING structure to eddy type may be poor Not when testing.

act as a contaminant by saturatability to apply surface finish. after a long period of time. hot do

(4)
do

ULTRASONIC tears. not lend

recommended associated with

for

detecting structure

Discontinuities themselves CURRENT Metallurgical themselves

cast

e.

EDDY tears. not lend

METHOD. along current

Not recommended with testing. the complex

for

detecting do

hot

configurations

A TYPICALHOT TEARS INCASTING

B HOTTEARSIN FILLET OF CASTING

C CLOSE-UPOF HOT TEARS IN(A)

D CLOSE-UP HOTTEARSIN (B) OF

Figure

7-31.

Hot

Tear

Discontinuity 7-59

732 I. 2. 3. Surface appear from the 4. Two

INTERGRANULAR CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or internal. singly the fact or that (See very

CORROSION

V
Service Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS A series in groups. little may of small The insidious in any corrosion extend 7-32.) ANALYSIS to intergranular corrosion are: cormicro-openings nature direction or corrosion with product following no definite is visible the grain pattern. on the May results surface. of

of intergranular

corrosion

Intergranular material.

corrosion Figure

boundaries

METALLURGICAL factors a. that contribute

Metallurgical rosion such Improper intergranular rosive

structure of the material as unstabilized 300 series relieving corrosion. wilI or heat Either result treat

that is prone to intergranular stainless steel. may create attack. the susceptibility with

b.

stress atmosphere

to a cor-

of these in intergranular

conditions

coupled

NDT a.

METHODS LIQUID

APPLICATION PENETRANT

AND

LIMITATIONS METHOD

TESTING

(1) Liquid penetrant is the first choice due to the size and location of this type of discontinuity. (2) Chemical cleaning operations immediately before the application of

liquid penetrant may test results.

contaminate the article and seriously affect the

(3) Cleaning in solvents may corrosion. (4) b. Trapped penetrant solution

release chlorine and accelerate intergranular

may

present

a cleaning

or removal

problem.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Intergranular with (2)

TESTING corrosion

METHOD in the more advanced stages has been detected

radiography. levels may prevent the detection of fine intergranular cor-

Sensitivity rosion.

(3) Radiography may not determine rosion will occur.

on which surface the Intergranular cor-

7-60

c.

EDDY (1) (2) (3)

CURRENT current or pipe

TESTING can lend

METHOD for the screening to this may of tntergranular method seriously of NDT affect corrosion. testing. the output

Eddy Tube

be used themselves

readily material

Metallurgical indications.

structure

of the

d.

ULTRASONIC equipment has

TESTING the

METHOD. to detect TESTING Type

Not normally intergranu]ar

used

although

the

capability

corrosion. Not recommended and material for detectrestrict

e.

MAGNETIC ing intergranular the use

PARTICLES corrosion.

METHOD. of discontinuity

of magnetic

particles.

MICROGRAPH SURFACE

OF INTERGRANULAR SUBSURFACE

CORROSION CORROSION

SHOWING

LIFTING

OF

FROM

,.

MICROGRAPH ONLY MINOR

SHOWING EVIDENCE

NATURE

OF INTERGRANULAR IS EVIDENT

CORROSION. FROM SURFACE

OF CORROSION

Figure

7-32.

Intergranular

Corrosion

Discontinuity 7-61

rL

_.