Rainfall-runoff Modelling As has been said before that there is a plethora of rainfall runoff models, which can be grouped

or classified based on the way the runoff generation process has been considered in these models. The classification adopted by Abbott and Refsgaard (1996) is shown in the following figure.

Deterministic models can be classified according to whether the hydrological processes involved are empirical, conceptual or distributed. Three main classes can de discerned: Empirical models (black box) Lumped conceptual models (grey box) Distributed physically-based models (white box) Empirical black box models are developed using the measured time series instead of utilising mathematical expression describing the physical processes in a catchment. Several types of empirical models are observed. One group of empirical models are statistically based using statistical methods such as ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average). Another group of empirical models are based on the unit hydrograph model (or applying the principles of unit hydrograph). The third group of empirical models are data-driven models using methods such as artificial neural networks, model trees, nearest neighbour method, evolutionary algorithm, support vector machines, etc. In lumped conceptual models the parameters and variables represent average values over the entire catchment. Therefore, the description of the hydrological processes cannot be

based directly on the equations that are supposed to be valid for the individual soil columns. As a result the equations are semi empirical, but still with a physical basis. The model parameters cannot usually be assessed from field data alone, but a have to be obtained through the help of calibration. These models operate with different but mutually interrelated storages representing physical elements in a catchment. The mode of operation may be characterized as a bookkeeping system that is continuously accounting for the moisture contents in the storages. In physically-based distributed models processes are represented by one or more partial differential equations and equations and parameters are distributed in space. The principal mode of operation of a physically-based distributed model is illustrated in the following figure. Contrary to the lumped conceptual models a physically-based model does not consider the water flows in an area to take place a few storage units. Instead, the flows of water and energy are directly calculated from the governing continuum (partial differential) equations, such as the Saint Venant equations for overland and channel flow, Richards equation for unsaturated zone flow and Boussinesqs equation for groundwater flow. Distributed models are applied to catchments with complex channel network, varying spatial distribution of land use, soil type and vegetation cover, with complex aquifer system below the soil surface, etc. While flood modelling is of primary interest, such models allow studying the interactions between surface water and groundwater and the unsaturated zone. Spatial changes in these interactions can be analysed which may greatly influence the spatio-temporal pattern of flood generation. REFERENCES Abbott, M.B. and Refsgaard J.C. (Eds.) (1996) Distributed hydrological modelling. Kluwer Academic Pub. Beven, K.J. (2001) Rainfall-runoff modelling the primer. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, New York. Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R., and Mays, L.W. (1988) Applied hydrology. McGraw-Hill, Singapore. Govindaraju, R.S., and Rao, A.R. (2000) Artificial neural networks in hydrology. Kluwer Academic Pub.