ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 1

1.

INTRODUCTION

Most electrical equipments such as motors, transformers etc., require additional current for magnetizing purposes, in addition to the current that performs useful work. This reactive power adds stress to the transmission lines, distribution transformers, switchgear and cables. Reactive power also causes considerable loss of energy through power dissipation. The supply authority has to provide generation, transmission and distribution facilities for both components. The reading of an ammeter always shows the operating current which results from the geometric sum of active and reactive currents. The ratio between useful power (kW) and apparent power is expressed by the functions of phase angle between current and voltage. Cosine of this angle is what is referred to as the power factor. Its value ranges between zero and unity. Linear loads with low power factor such as induction motors, can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise power factor. With ideal reactive power compensation, the power factor is unity, i.e. operating current is equal to the effective current. This however, is not practicable in most applications. The poor power factor entails larger currents and therefore it requires bigger alternators, transformers, switchgear, cables etc. In effect, all the electrical apparatus pertaining to generation and supply are bigger than need to be, and bigger copper losses are sustained throughout the system owing to increased currents. Therefore, the larger the current, the larger will be the losses. This also leads to bigger IR voltage drops in transmission and distribution. This means that the quality of the supply also goes down. Consumers are penalized for low power factor, by introducing the maximum demand charge in the tariff. According to the agreement to the consumer signs with the supply authority for supply of electricity, it is a requirement that the power factor of the installation should be maintained as near as possible to unity. The supply authority NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 2 sometimes includes a power factor clause in the tariff. This is generally done for industrial tariffs. Power Factor Improvement: With high power factor, the amount of kilovolt amperes used is reduced and as a result the maximum demand of the consumer is in turn reduced. This means that the maximum demand charge also goes down. The consumer obviously then, has a financial interest in improving the power factor, just as much as the supply authority is interested in increasing its generating plant capacity or relieving the over - loaded lines and transformers of the excessive loads. The basic principle of power factor improvement is to inject a leading current in to the circuit to neutralize the effects of the lagging magnetizing current. Under these conditions, the energy required by the magnetic field circulates between the correction apparatus and the corrected installation. The aim should be to approach unity power factor. However, the cost of correction plant increases as unity power factor is approached and some compromise has to be reached. Otherwise, the cost of correction plant may outweigh the saving made on the electricity bill. It is therefore normal to limit the improvement to about 0.95. Methods of Improving Power Factor: There are various ways of supplying the necessary leading current. This is usually affected by the installation of capacitors or synchronous motors. Of these, the use of capacitors is the commonest methods used. Phase advancers are sometimes used for this purpose. Use of capacitors has certain advantages over the other methods mentioned. Capacitor assemblies are made for all voltages, for values as high as 33 kV. They can therefore be connected to circuits directly, without the use of special transformers. They have a low temperature rise and negligible losses. They occupy little floor space and do not need special foundations. The capacitor plants used can be of two types; Static and Automatic. The simplest form of power factor improvement is NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 3 the use of static capacitors. Such capacitors will inject fixed amounts of leading current independent of the lagging current and hence the correction is uneven. This method also carries the hazard of over-correction and thus producing a voltage surge that can have damaging effect on the equipment used. These effects can be overcome by using automatic power factor correction methods. Thyristor Switched Capacitor: This employs a special control device where regulation of reactive power is continuously made by means of thyristors. In this method shunt capacitor bank is split up into appropriately small units, which are individually switched in and out using bidirectional thyristor switches. Thyristor Switched Capacitors(TSC) are used in distribution systems as well as for certain loads like arc furnace, AC and DC drives etc. TSC are capable of injecting varying amount of leading reactive power and thus eliminating the possibility of over correction. Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is a type of static VAR generator, synchronized on-off device used to inject reactive power at the point of connection to the grid. In this load compensation, the objectives are to increase the value of the system power factor, to balance the real power drawn from the ac supply, compensate voltage regulation and to eliminate current harmonic components produced by large and fluctuating nonlinear industrial loads. A single phase TSC consists of a capacitor bank which is formed of a capacitor connected in series with a bidirectional thyristor valve and a small current limiting inductor. The thyristor valve provides fast switching of the capacitor bank. The small damping reactor limits the di/dt and peak current through the thyristors, providing smooth switching-on of capacitor to the circuit.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY
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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 4

General: Power factor plays major role in the efficiency of the machine and power consumption. In many big industries, Commercial and industrial electrical loads include induction motor driven equipment such as elevators, pumps, presses, DC motors, power transformers, welding machines, and arc furnaces are mostly inductive in nature. Inductive load consumes reactive power (magnetizing power) in addition to the active power to do useful work. Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amount of apparent power (measured in kVA) in the distribution system. This is important because a low power factor can waste energy, result in inefficient use of electrical power, and often result in higher energy bills. But mechanical switching of capacitors is too slow to cope with the rapid and frequent changes in reactive power. In addition, the switching mechanism generates high transient currents that can disrupt micro-processor-based equipment and processes. To overcome the above problem we are using Static Var Compensator (SVC) and Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) along with Microcontroller. Power factor and reactive power of the load is calculated using micro controller. Based on the high reactive load and frequency of the system the triggering angle of TCR is calculated. The SVC regulates voltage at its terminal by controlling the amount of reactive power injected into or absorbed from the power system. When system voltage is low, the SVC generates reactive power (SVC capacitive). When system voltage is high, it absorbs reactive power (SVC inductive). The variation of reactive power is performed by switching three-phase capacitor banks and inductor banks. Each capacitor bank is switched on and off by three thyristor switches. According to John OMalley, in Basic Circuit Analysis, the power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. In an electric NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 5 power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. Calculations Involved in Power Factor Determination: According to Singh (2008), the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of the phase angle. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be unity, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle. Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1. Analysis of Dynamic Power Factor Correction:

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 6 According to Musthafa et al, correction of power factor is achieved using FACT devices which connected to the bus supply of the plant. The fact device which is used is SVC. There are two types of power factor correction capacitors: Fixed and Automatic. Automatic capacitors are also known as switched capacitors. Automatic capacitors vary the amount of correction supplied to an electrical system, while fixed capacitors supply a constant amount of correction. Under certain conditions, switching fixed capacitors can cause motor self-excitation and network resonance. So normally capacitor type compensation is used mostly where the load pattern is smooth. Many heavy industries use fixed capacitor banks to improve the power factor where the reactive power variation is smooth. The answer to this varies with each installation. For a limited number of motors that need correction, it would be advisable to put a fixed capacitor at each motor. For a large plant with varying loads and numerous motors, an automatic capacitor may be better. Automatic capacitors are made up of banks that are switched off and on by a microprocessor controller based on the plant electrical load at any given time. Automatic capacitors are installed at the main incoming power source, while fixed capacitors are generally installed at individual motor loads throughout a plant. Power Factor Improvement by Switched Single Capacitor: According to Raju Ahmed, reactive power is recognized as an essential factor in the design and good operation of power system. Real and reactive power on a transmission line in an integrated network is governed by the line impedance, voltage magnitudes, the angle of differences at the line ends and the line plays in maintaining network stability under dynamic contingencies. Reactive power compensation or control is essential part in a power system to minimize power transmission loss, to maximize power transmission capability, and to maintain the system voltage within desired level. In this a method is proposed which improves the power factor automatically of varying lagging loads to unity, using one single large shunt capacitor NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 7 instead of using a bank of switching capacitors. Basically, this control scheme is a static power factor correction method by continuous voltage or current control of a capacitor. In this work the voltage across the capacitor is being changed by a bidirectional switch to control the magnitude of compensating capacitor current and thereby attaining unity power factor. This system incorporates high-speed insulated gate bipolar transistor switching technology. The gate signal of the switching devices is generated by using a compact and commercially available IC chip SG1524B.The scheme is simple in this sense that it uses only one static bi-directional switch controlled by an electronic control circuit that uses only analog ICs and some discrete digital components. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): According to Ali Arzani (2010), thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is a type of static VAR generator, synchronized on-off device used to inject reactive power (current) at the point of connection to the grid. A single phase TSC consists of a capacitor bank which is formed of a capacitor connected in series with a bidirectional thyristor valve and a small current limiting inductor. The thyristor valve provides fast switching of the capacitor bank. The small damping reactor limits the di/dt and peak current through the thyristors, providing smooth switching-on of capacitor to the circuit .If there is a need of reactive power in the network, the TSCs are switched in. The firing pulses are applied to the thyristor switches in response to a reactive power demand signal at specific times to obtain transient-free switching. The conditions for transient free switching in/out a capacitor can be fulfilled by considering these two main conditions. One if the residual capacitor voltage is less than the AC network peak voltage, then the correct time of switching is when the instantaneous AC voltage becomes equal to the capacitor voltage, i.e. when the voltage across the thyristor valve is zero. The other condition is AC network peak voltage may change over time causing the residual capacitor voltage to be equal or higher than the peak AC voltage; in this case the switching is carried out at the instance when the AC voltage is at its peak, i.e. the NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 8 thyristor valve voltage is minimum. The result will be an increase/decrease in reactive power in a step-wise manner since the change in the overall impedance is not smooth considering the point above, that TSCs should switch in at certain times. The TSC thyristors are line-commutated devices switched on at line frequency and turning off at zero current crossing point which at this states the line voltage is at its positive or negative peak. As mentioned, TSC can be disconnected only at zero current crossing and after disconnection the capacitor bank remains charged to the peak AC voltage. Since the capacitor bank remains charged to the peak of the AC network voltage applied, the voltage across the thyristor valve will be the difference between the applied AC system voltage and the capacitor charge voltage. This difference reaches a maximum value of twice the peak AC voltage once in each cycle. Thus, the thyristor valve must be able to withstand (block) a minimum of this voltage (2V) so that it can be realized that the high voltage thyristor valve is the core component and the most vulnerable part of TSC in which the reliability and availability of the valve is the main concern in TSC installations. Thus thyristors are stacked to form a valve with sufficient voltage blocking capability in both directions and conduct current in one direction. In the controllable direction the valve needs to be able to turn on by a current pulse applied to the gate with no turn off capability. Nowadays, the thyristor valve is assembled using one of the following two types of press-pack thyristors: Phase Controlled Thyristors (PCT) and Bi-directionally Controlled Thyristors (BCT). Utilizing the initial type, the thyristor valve comprises of two stacks of anti-parallel connected PCTs, in which the later valve configuration the two anti-parallel high power thyristors are integrated onto one single silicon wafer and are assembled into one housing and plurality of it are stacked forming the valve. The lack of a second thyristor stack in the BCT concept valve means a significantly reduced number of other components in the valve in addition to the 50% reduction in the number of thyristor units which results in decrease in costs up to 40%. Synchronous Closing Control for Shunt Capacitors NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 9 According to R. W. Alexander, Shunt capacitor energizing transients are infamous for their severity. Careful timing of energization or synchronous closing to the precise time when the instantaneous supply voltage matches the voltage trapped on the capacitor will reduce capacitor in-rush currents by an order of magnitude and virtually eliminate overvoltage. The timing for synchronous closing anticipates a future voltage zero, assuming that the switch or circuit breaker operates consistently from the close command to circuit initiation (contact make). Voltage zero timing is accomplished by adding the switch operating time (y) to a variable "a," ("b," or "c") adjusted so the sum (a + y) is some multiple of one-half cycle from a synchronous pulse at a voltage zero. In order to close a switch at an instantaneous voltage zero, it must close fast enough to prevent prestrike before the voltage wave reaches zero. Ideally, dielectric strength of switch would remain high and suddenly reduce to zero at the instant the voltage across it is zero. An air switch closes so slowly that it will always prestrike near voltage peak. Only high speed circuit breakers and vacuum switches are capable of 60 Hz voltage zero closing at all. Another key item in switch performance is closing time consistency. Since switches and circuit breakers are mechanical devices with complex mechanisms, the speed of operation is not 100% consistent. In order to use the switch for synchronous closing, it is necessary to have consistency within a few milliseconds. Synchronous closing is a viable method of reducing capacitor energizing transients resulting in the reduction of the back-to-back transient in-rush currents by a factor of 10 and single bank in-rush currents to the theoretical minimum which reduces the duty on capacitor switching devices and capacitor units, reduces the likelihood of control circuit transients and reduces transient voltage in the grounding system. Reduction of capacitor bank energizing over voltage results in extended capacitor and switch life, and reduces stress on other power system components. Personal Static Var Compensator (PSVC): According to Scott Zemerick, a prototype personal static var compensator (PSVC) has been designed for load power factor correction for both residential and commercial NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 10 applications. The PSVC demonstrates the two key benefits of power factor correction, which include decreased power costs and increased system capacity. The PSVC also demonstrates conventional static var compensator (SVC) principles that are routinely applied by power utilities. The PSVC prototype consists of two main branches a TSC (Thyristor Switched Capacitor) branch and a TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) branch. A microprocessor is responsible for calculating the displacement power factor and for executing the fuzzy logic control scheme for the two branches. The PSVC is currently being evaluated using an inductive load and an AC motor. The static var compensator (SVC) is an early generation FACTS device and a proven technology for voltage stability and power factor correction. Traditionally, the SVC is a shunt connected device consisting of two types of branches the TSC branch generates reactive power and the TCR branch absorbs reactive power. The coordination of the two branches works to balance the reactive power absorbed or generated by the SVC, thus providing load power factor compensation. Poor power factors are associated with increased power costs, reduced system capacity, and diminished power quality. Personal static var compensator (PSVC) incorporates the conceptual design of the traditional SVC but instead, focuses on distributed var control. This var controller is designed for displacement power factor correction of reactive loads. The displacement power factor (PFD) is the ratio of real power to apparent power, only considering the fundamental frequency. The microprocessor-controlled PSVC is intended for the following three audiences: The power utility company, the commercial and residential consumer, and manufacturers of applications that generate reactive power. Zero Voltage Switching: The zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) converter is the most popular topology for dcdc converters due to fixed switching frequency, ZVS operation, high efficiency, low circulating reactive energy and moderate device stresses. By using a dc blocking capacitor and a saturable inductor in series with primary winding, the primary current during the free-wheeling interval can be reduced to zero. This circuit is called as the NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 11 zero-voltage and zero-current-switching converter where in the lagging-leg switches operate at ZCS and leading-leg switches operate with ZVS. The major limitation of the ZVS converter has been the limited range of operation. When the load current is low, the ZVS of the lagging-leg switches is lost as the energy stored in the leakage inductance of the transformer is insufficient to discharge the switch and transformer capacitances. The loss of ZVS results in increased switching losses and electromagnetic interference (EMI). In the case of high-power converters using insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), an external snubber capacitor is connected to reduce the rate of rise of voltage and turn-off losses. Therefore, the ZVS operation over the entire conversion range is achieved without significantly increasing full-load conduction loss making the converter particularly suitable in applications where the output is required to be adjustable over a wide range and load resistance is fixed Role of Microcontroller in Digital Power Factor Correction: According to Steve Heath (2003), a microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or one-time programmable ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. All Atmel Flash micro controllers have separate address spaces for program and data memory .The logical separation of program and data memory allows the data memory to be accessed by 8 bit addresses. This can be more quickly stored and manipulated by an 8 bit CPU Nevertheless 16 Bit data memory addresses can also be generated through the DPTR register. Program memory can only be read. There can be up to 64K bytes of directly addressable program memory. The read strobe for external program memory is the Program Store Enable Signal. Data memory occupies a separate address space from program NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 12 memory. Up to 64K bytes of external memory can be directly addressed in the external data memory space. The CPU generates read and write signals, RD and WR, during external data memory accesses. The Special Function Register includes port latches, timers, peripheral controls etc., direct addressing can only access these register. However, upgrades to the AT89S51 have additional SFRs. Sixteen addresses in SFR space are both byte and bit Addressable. The bit Addressable SFRs are those whose address ends in 000B. The bit addresses in this area are 80h through FFh.XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output respectively of an inverting amplifier which is intended for use as a crystal oscillator in the pierce configuration, in the frequency range of 1.2 Mhz to 12 Mhz. XTAL2 also the input to the internal clock generator. However, minimum high and low times must be observed. The clock generator divides the oscillator frequency by 12 and provides a low phase clock signal to the chip.

3. HARDWARE DETAILS
Triac: Triacs are widely used in AC power control applications. They are able to switch high voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of an AC waveform. This makes triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where power switching is needed. One particular use of triac circuits is in light dimmers for domestic lighting, and they are also used in many other power control situations including motor control the triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 13 can only control current over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC waveform.

Figure 1: Triac As such the triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the two gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the other, etc., Triacs are three terminal devices that are used to switch large a.c. currents with a small trigger signal. Triacs are commonly used in dimmer switches, motor speed control circuits and equipment that automatically control mains powered equipment including remote control. The triac has many advantages over a relay, which could also be used to control mains equipment; the triac is cheap, it has no moving parts making it reliable and it operates the microcontroller 89S52 is manufactured by Atmel. Signal Conditioning Unit: In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most common use is in analog-to-digital converters. In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage , a signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 14 signal is done) and a processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC and a microcontroller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage. Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC voltage and current, frequency and electric charge. Sensor inputs can be accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge, and LVDT or RVDT. Specialized inputs include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or clock, relay or switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for signal conditioning equipment can be voltage, current, frequency, timer or counter, relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other specialized output. Power Supply: Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear and switching power supplies. The linear supply is a relatively simple design that becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high current devices; voltage regulation in a linear supply can result in low efficiency. A switched-mode supply of the same rating as a linear supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but will be more complex. An AC powered linear power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, usually a lower voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used. A capacitor is used to smooth the pulsating current from the rectifier. Some small periodic deviations from smooth direct current will remain, which is known as ripple. These pulsations occur at a frequency related to the AC power frequency. Rectifier: NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 15 There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC. The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor. A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Regulator: Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies.

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 16

Figure 2: Voltage regulator Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current or overload protection and overheating or thermal protection. The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, Hi-Fi, and other solid state electronic equipment. As fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and current. Current Transformer: A current transformer is a donut shaped device through which is threaded the wire whose current is to be measured. A current transformer is a type of instrument transformer that is designed to provide a current in its secondary which is accurately proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are designed to produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage proportional to the current being measured. The current transformers used with the Watt node transducers produce a 333 mV alternating voltage when the rated current is measured. The OSI power transducers employ CT's that produce 5V output at rated value. Current transformers measure power flow and provide electrical inputs to power transformers and instruments. Current transformers produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage that is proportional to the measured current. There are two basic types of current transformers: wound and toroidal. Wound current transformers consist of an integral primary winding that is inserted in series with the conductor that carries the measured current. Toroidal or donut-shaped current transformers do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the wire that carries the current is threaded through a window in the toroidal transformer. Current transformers have many performance NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 17 specifications, including primary current, secondary current, insulation voltage, accuracy, and burden. Primary current, the load of the current transformer, is the measured current. Secondary current is the range of current outputs. Insulation voltage represents the maximum insulation that current transformers provide when connected to a power source. Accuracy is the degree of certainty with which the measured current agrees with the ideal value. Burden is the maximum load that devices can support while operating within their accuracy ratings. Typically, burden is expressed in voltamperes (VA), the product of the voltage applied to a circuit and the current. Voltage Transformer: It converts the supply voltage to a voltage level suitable for a meter. The voltage transformer has errors that have been measured and can be applied to calibrate the meter .Transformers are devices used in electrical circuits to change the voltage of electricity flowing in the circuit. Transformers can be used either to increase the voltage or decrease the voltage .The principle of electromagnetic induction is what makes transformers work. When a current flows through a wire, it makes a magnetic field around the wire. Also, if a wire is in a magnetic field that is changing, a current will flow in the wire. In a transformer, a wire brings a current in one side. That current makes a magnetic field, which in turn produces a current in a wire on the other side of the transformer. The second current flows out of the transformer. Both wires in a transformer are actually wrapped in a coil around an iron core. The iron core is immersed in an insulating oil bath which does not conduct electricity well. The coils of wire are not physically connected. One wire has more turns in its coil than the other wire. The different numbers of coils in the two wires causes the voltage and current in each wire to be different from the other wire. By designing the transformer with just the right number of coils in each wire, electrical engineers can control exactly how much the transformer changes the voltage from the incoming to the outgoing wire. Transformers only work with AC (alternating current) circuits. Since the AC current on the "incoming" wire is constantly changing, the magnetic field it creates changes NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 18 too. The changing magnetic field is what forces current to flow in the "outgoing" wire. Transformers are passive devices - they don't add power. A high voltage and low current exits the transformer carrying almost the same amount of power along the transmission lines that the incoming low voltage and high current did. Transformers are very efficient. Under normal conditions they transmit about 99% of the power. Opto Coupler: Smaller the size, higher the speed and greater reliability are important, a much better alternative is to use an opto couplers. These use a beam of light to transmit the signals or data across an electrical barrier, and achieve excellent isolation. Opto couplers typically come in a small 6-pin or 8-pin IC package, but are essentially combination of two distinct devices ; an optical transmitter, typically a gallium arsenide LED and an optical receiver such as a phototransistor or light-triggered diac. The two are separated by a transparent barrier which blocks any electrical current flow between the two, but does allow the passage of light. Usually the electrical connections to the LED section are brought out to the pins on one side of the package and those for the phototransistor or diac to the other side, to physically separate them as much as possible.

Figure 3: Optocoupler NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 19 This usually allows optocouplers to withstand voltages of anywhere between 500V and 7500V between input and output. Optocouplers are essentially digital or switching devices, so they are best for transferring either on-off control signals or digital data. Analog signals can be transferred by means of frequency or pulse-width modulation. ADC: Analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts data from analog to digital form. Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage to a digital number. The digital output may be using different coding schemes, such as binary and two's complement binary. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered ADCs. Analog-todigital conversion is an electronic process in which a continuously variable (analog) signal is changed, without altering its essential content, into a multi-level (digital) signal. The input to an analog digital converter (ADC) -to- consists of a voltage that varies among a theoretically infinite number of values. Examples are sine waves, the waveforms representing human speech, and the signals from a conventional television camera. The output of the ADC, in contrast, has defined levels or states. The number of states is almost always a power of two -- that is, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. The simplest digital signals have only two states, and are called binary. All whole numbers can be represented in binary form as strings of ones and zeros. Digital signals propagate more efficiently than analog signals, largely because digital impulses, which are welldefined and orderly, are easier for electronic circuits to distinguish from noise, which is chaotic. This is the chief advantage of digital modes in communications. Computers "talk" and "think" in terms of binary digital data; while a microprocessor can analyze analog data, it must be converted into digital form for the computer to make sense of it. Microcontroller:

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 20 The microcontroller 89S52 is manufactured by Atmel. The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high- density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

Figure 4: Microcontroller The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 21 operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. This is 8051 based Full Static CMOS controller with Three-Level Program Memory Lock, 32 I/O lines, 3 Timers/Counters, 8- Interrupts Sources, DPTRs, 8K Flash Memory, 256 Bytes On-chip RAM. The features of microcontroller are Extensive Boolean processing (Single - bit Logic) Capabilities,8 Bit CPU optimized for control applications, On - Chip Flash Program Memory, On Chip Data RAM, Bi-directional and Individually Addressable I/O Lines and Multiple 16-Bit Timer/Counters.

Pin diagram:

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 22

Figure 5: Pin Diagram

4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The proposed circuit diagram is shown in below. The circuit uses a 12-0-12V AC which is converted into 5V dc using bridge rectifier. This circuit can be divided into four sub circuits. It is as follows.

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Fig 6: Circuit diagram Power Circuit: It mainly consists of a step down transformer, a bridge circuit& IC voltage regulators. The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0230V) to (0-12V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of opamp. NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 24 The advantages of using precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS output. The figure below shows the power supply circuit.

Figure 7: Power Circuit Bridge Rectifier: The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC .A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
Special

packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier

because it uses the entire AC wave 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand. The figure 8 shows the bridge rectifier circuit.

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 25 Figure 8: Bridge Rectifier Current Circuit: This circuit is designed to monitor the supply current. The supply current that has to monitor is step down by the current transformer. Current transformers are designed to produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage proportional to the current being measured. They are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electrical voltages where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents often in the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measure. The step down current is converted by the voltage with the help of shunt resistor. Then the converted voltage is being rectified by the precision rectifier. This precision rectifier is a configuration obtained with an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behaving like an ideal diode or rectifier. The full wave rectifier is the combination of half wave precision rectifier and summing amplifier. Outputs from current transformer are given to the zero crossing detectors which converts the sine wave signal into a square wave signal. This is given to the ADC to convert pulse signal to digital codes. The figure below shows the current transformer circuit. ....

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Figure 9: Current Transformer Circuit Voltage Circuit: This circuit is designed to monitor the supply voltage. The supply voltage that has to monitor is step down by the potential transformer. Usually the 0-6v potential transformers are used. The potential transformers are designed to provide as accurate as a voltage step-down ratio as possible. To aid in the precise voltage regulation, loading is kept to a minimum: the voltmeter is made to have high input impedance so as to draw as little current from the PT as possible. The step down voltage is rectified by the precision rectifier. The precision rectifier is a configuration obtained with an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behaving like an ideal diode or rectifier. The full wave rectifier is the combination of half wave precision rectifier and summing amplifier. Outputs from PT are given

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 27 to the zero crossing detectors which converts sine wave into square wave. This is given to the ADC to convert pulse signal to digital codes. The figure below shows the voltage transformer circuit.

Figure 10: Voltage Transformer Circuit

Power Factor Circuit: The power factor correction circuit is shown below. The voltage zero crossing and current zero crossing and input current is taken from potential transformer and current transformer which connected to the power source. The voltage and current signal from potential transformer and current transformer are fed to respective Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD) circuits as shown in figure 10. NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 28

Figure 10: Power Factor Circuit The open loop op-amplifier is used to convert the AC sine wave voltage into square waveform, which is then fed to XOR circuits to get a sharp pulse at the instance of zero-crossing. The capacitor and resistance network at the input of last stage XOR gate helps to get the sharp pulse at the output. Varying the resistor value can vary the duration of pulse. This sharp short period pulse is fed as input to ATC 89c52 microcontroller. Similarly the current signal is given to microcontroller after detection so as to calculate the phase angle between voltage and current. The current and voltage signal are fed to a flip flop to find the lead and lag status which can be used for calculation of reactive power. The voltage signal from potential transformer and Current signal from current transformer are fed to the similar op.amp circuits of AC to DC converter. The negative half cycle and the positive half cycle waveform is fed to two different DC converters and both are added in a separate op-amp to get the NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 29 cumulative dc output. The final DC output is filtered by the feedback capacitor. The filtered steady state value is fed to input of ADC for conversion of analog to digital. The automatic switching of thyristor is done by programmable microcontroller. When the load is inductive in nature, the power factor gets reduced. Then the microcontroller sends a signal to turn on the thyristor switch. Simultaneously capacitor gets charged till the normal unity power factor obtained.

5. PCB FABRICATION
General Purpose PCB:

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 30 A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially-produced electronic devices. Printed Circuit Board is shown in figure below.

Figure.12: Printed Circuit Board PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire wrap or point-to-point construction, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production; the production and soldering of PCBs can be done by totally automated equipment. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization. Every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The components leads were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction. With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 31 by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off. Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric is typically laminated together with epoxy resin. The board is typically coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are normally available are blue, black, white and red. There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. PCB Fabrication: PCB is the short form of Printed Circuit Board. PCB is a wiring arrangement that is fabricated by means of foil runs on circuit board. PCB can be mass produced inexpensively and efficiently. Printed Circuit Boards allow extreme miniaturization and high reliability. Printed circuits are fabricated by drawing and etching pattern. This pattern is then photographed and reproduced on clear plastic sheet. The plastic sheet is placed over a copper coated glass epoxy or phenolic board and the assemble undergoes a photochemical process and the resulting copper coated board consist of printed tracks. PCB Design: The design of PCB can be considered as the last step in electronic circuit designing. In electronic circuit, performance and reliability depends on the productivity of the PCB. Assembling and servicing ability also depends on the design. The schematic drawing is done in CIRCUIT WIZARD, Schematic Editor and PCB layout is drawn using circuit wizard editor. It includes many libraries with thousands of component symbols. The required symbols can be selected. After placing the component symbols, the interconnection using wire tool is completed. By relying on PCB fabrication global infrastructure and technical know-how, manufacturing your product with high quality standards, yet cost effectively, is no longer a challenge. This software has a large NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 32 footprint library and the required footprint for different components is selected. The schematic or the artwork of the circuit applied by the customer is transformed into working positive or negative films. Printed circuit boards allow extreme miniaturization and high reliability. Drilling and Plating: This is the state of art operation. Very small holes are drilled with a high speed CMC drilling machine. The heart of the PCB manufacturing process lies in the electrode less threshold plating process. The holes drilled are treated both mechanically and chemically before depositing the copper. Etching is the most important part of PCB manufacturing the person doing the art work must have fairly good idea about the PCB fabrication process available. Once a multilayer board is drilled and electro less copper is deposited the image available in the form of a film is transferred on to outside by photo printing. Construction: The construction of PCB occurs as a result of a series of regular steps, which follow a systematic manner. It includes three steps of layout preparation, transferring the layout onto the board and the final process of etching. It makes use of the software ORCAD, which is a powerful version, which facilitates in giving routes once the layout is prepared. An experienced PCB fabrication resource is a key building block for our electronic products. With this, a single EMS provider dedicate to providing better manufacturability and collaboration is obtained. By relying on PCB fabrication global infrastructure and technical knowhow, manufacturing the quality standards, yet no longer a challenge. product with high cost effectively, is

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Figure.13: PCB Design PCB fabrication is used here because if the circuit in breadboard is connected, short circuit can occur. In PCB fabrication there will be no short circuiting. So this is the best one. The board is then subjected to the etching using FeCl3. The portions covered with ink will remain unaffected and the remaining portion is etched off. Holes for inserting components were drilled. The process of PCB creation is over. The PCB is used for permanent placement of electronic circuit components. It is safe from electrical short circuits. Therefore the PCB is much popular than other devices such as breadboard etc. The component layout is prepared initially and footprints of various components are provided to each of the component manually. The net list of the circuit is then created. Auto routing of the circuit is then performed after having allotted the required width of various parts the width depends on the current flow through each of these parts.

6. OUTCOME AND OBSERVATION

The circuit has been successfully designed. This is a power factor correction technique which corrects using thyristor controlled capacitor and displays it in the Lab View software. By using this method a power factor improvement of 0.85 is NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 34 achieved while using inductive loads. The power factor improvement has become very important in the recent times. Most of the consumer power mechanisms can face power disturbances. Electric consumers can charge penalties if the power factor is low or even on high demands. Power factor correction can save our energy costs. Poor power factor can lead to bodily damage of an instrument and will lead to delay in production. That is why monitoring equipments are very important. In this project capacitors are used to compensate power factor of system and switching of this capacitors is done using triac controlled by microcontroller. Capacitors are switched through thyristors at zero current crossover thresholds. Hence the capacitor connection to the mains is always smooth, transient free and absolutely without generation of harmonics and voltage spikes. In this compensation the value of the system power can be increased, balance the real power drawn from the ac supply, compensate voltage regulation and eliminate current harmonic components produced by large and fluctuating non linear industrial loads. Thyristor Switching of capacitors for power factor improvement has many advantages over conventional contactor switching. Thyristor Switching is highly reliable with minimum maintenance, especially suitable for fast variable loads, where contactor switching systems fail to give desired results. Load power factor correction is quick and consistently near to the set value. Total power factor correction is achieved within few hundred milliseconds. Fast power factor correction reduces maximum demand more effectively, hence more savings on account of reduction in maximum demand charges.

CONCLUSION
In this project, a thyristor switched capacitor is used for the power factor improvement. By implementing this method, power factor could be maintained near to unity which helps to supply constant voltage at required ratings. Here, the microcontroller calculates the voltage, current and hence the power factor of the NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 35 load. The result is displayed with the help of Lab View software. A thyristor switched capacitor is used which regulates voltages at its terminal by controlling the amount of reactive power injected into the power system. When the load power factor is decreased, the proposed circuit automatically control the voltage across the capacitor to control the compensating capacitive current accordingly to attain unity power factor. For this purpose a thyristor switched capacitor controlled by programmable AT89S52 microcontroller is used. By using this, an increased power factor and a significant reduction in current drawn is obtained which results in reduction in electricity bills. By controlling dynamic power factor of inductive loads, wastages of reactive power can be reduced and indeed increases the efficiency of machines. Hence as efficiency is increased, the production of respective plants is increased. This is the most economic method to correct dynamic power factor in big industries where most of the loads are inductive in nature.

REFERENCE
1. 2. 3. Alexander R. W.,(1985) Synchronous Closing Control for Shunt Capacitors, IEEE Power Engineering Review,85, 7, pp.2619-2627. Arzani, A., (2010). Design and Control of a Novel Dynamic Hybrid VAR Compensator Heath,Steve.(2003),Embedded Publications, Oxford. Systems Design, 2nd Edition, Newnes

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ZVS WITH THYRISTOR SWITCH FOR PF IMPROVEMENT 36 4. Musthafa, P., M.Sivasubramanian and K.Sakthidhasan., Analysis of Dynamic Power Factor Correction Using Flexible Ac Transmission Systems, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 1, 3, pp.710-715. Raju, A.,(2006), Power Factor Improvement by Pulse Width Modulated Switched Single Capacitor, Proceedings of India International Conference on Power Electronics, pp. 212- 215. Singh,S.N.,(2008), Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. Zemerick, s., P.Klinkhachorn. and A. Feliachi,(2002), Design of a Microprocessor-Controlled Personal Static Var Compensator, US DOE/EPSCoR WV State Implimentation Award, pp.1468-1473.

5.

6. 7.

APPENDIX A

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Figure-14 : Block Diagram of ADC

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Figure-15: Pin Diagram of ADC

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APPENDIX B

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Figure-16: Pin Diagram of AT89S52

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Figure-17: Block Diagram of AT89S52

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PROGRAM OF AT89S52 ale eoc oe clk ad0 ad1 adc equ 80h equ 81h equ 82h equ 83h equ 84h equ 85h equ p1

vtg3 equ 51h vtg2 equ 52h vtg1 equ 53h ct3 ct2 ct1 t3 t2 t1 relay1 equ 54h equ 55h equ 56h equ 57h equ 58h equ 59h equ 0b2h

tx equ 0b0h rx equ 0b1h ;**************************************** org 0000h mov p0,#0ffh mov p3,#00h setb tx setb rx mov p1,#0ffh ; input from adc clr relay1
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acall serial_init ;serial port initialisation calling function acall adcdelay mov 50h,#"O" acall zigbeeupdate mov 50h,#"K" acall zigbeeupdate ll: acall txdelay clr ad0 clr ad1 acall lcddelay acall read_adc mov r0,a acall convert acall adcdelay setb ad0 clr ad1 acall lcddelay acall read_adc mov r0,a acall convert1 acall adcdelay clr ad0 setb ad1 acall lcddelay acall read_adc mov r0,a acall convert2 acall adcdelay ; ; acall checkvaluect acall checkvalueef
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mov a,#"V" acall senddata mov a,#":" acall senddata mov a,vtg3 acall senddata mov a,vtg2 acall senddata mov a,vtg1 acall senddata mov a,#"I" acall senddata mov a,#":" acall senddata mov a,ct3 acall senddata mov a,ct2 acall senddata mov a,ct1 acall senddata mov a,#"P" acall senddata mov a,#":" acall senddata mov a,t3 acall senddata mov a,t2 acall senddata mov a,t1 acall senddata hold: jnb ri,hold mov a,sbuf
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clr ri cjne a,#"1",esc1 setb relay1 ljmp ll esc1: cjne a,#"2",esc2 clr relay1 ljmp ll

esc4 ljmp ll ;******************************************* senddata: ; mov a,50h mov sbuf,a lss2: jnb ti,lss2 clr ti ret read_adc setb ale clr oe setb eoc clr clk nop setb clk nop clr ale adc1 clr clk nop setb clk nop jnb eoc,adc1 setb oe clr clk
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nop setb clk nop clr clk nop setb clk nop clr clk nop setb clk nop ; mov c,adc.7 mov acc.0,c mov c,adc.6 mov acc.1,c mov c,adc.5 mov acc.2,c mov c,adc.4 mov acc.3,c mov c,adc.3 mov acc.4,c mov c,adc.2 mov acc.5,c mov c,adc.1 mov acc.6,c mov c,adc.0 mov acc.7,c ret convert: mov a,r0 mov b,#02h
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ret

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mul ab subb a,#02h mov b,#10 div ab mov r7,b mov b,#10 div ab mov r6,b mov r5,a mov a,#0c2h acall command mov a,r5 add a,#30h mov vtg3,a acall display mov a,r6 add a,#30h mov vtg2,a acall display mov a,r7 add a,#30h mov vtg1,a acall display ret convert1: mov a,r0 mov b,#02h mul ab subb a,#02h mov b,#10 div ab mov r7,b mov b,#10 div ab
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mov r6,b mov r5,a mov a,#0c7h acall command mov a,r5 add a,#30h mov ct3,a acall display mov a,r6 add a,#30h mov ct2,a acall display mov a,r7 add a,#30h mov ct1,a acall display ret convert2: mov a,r0 mov b,#02h mul ab subb a,#02h mov b,#10 div ab mov r7,b mov b,#10 div ab mov r6,b mov r5,a mov a,#0cch acall command mov a,r5 add a,#30h mov t3,a
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acall display mov a,r6 add a,#30h mov t2,a acall display mov a,r7 add a,#30h mov t1,a acall display ret zigbeeupdate: mov a,50h mov sbuf,a l2: jnb ti,l2 clr ti ret serial_init: mov tmod,#20h mov th1,#0fdh mov scon,#50h setb tr1 clr ti ret smdelay: mov r2,#01h dl3: mov r3,#7fh dl2: mov r4,#7fh dl1: djnz r4,dl1 djnz r3,dl2 djnz r2,dl3 ret adcdelay:
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;9600 baud rate

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tdy3: tdy2: tdy1:

mov r2,#02h mov r3,#00h mov r4,#00h djnz r4,tdy1 djnz r3,tdy2 djnz r2,tdy3 ret

waitdelay: mov r2,#09h wdy3: mov r3,#00h wdy2: mov r4,#00h wdy1: djnz r4,wdy1 djnz r3,wdy2 djnz r2,wdy3 ret waitdelay1: wy3: wy2: wy1: mov r2,#03h ; Changed from 7 mov r3,#00h mov r4,#00h djnz r4,wy1 djnz r3,wy2 djnz r2,wy3 ret

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APPENDIX C

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