Exp: (7)

The electron diffraction

Apparatus:-
The electron diffraction tube, Tel 2555, High voltage, AC
power supply.

The possibility of diffraction:-

A calculation using De Broglie's equation shows that electrons
accelerated through a p.d. of 4KV have a wave length of about
0.02nm.
Interference and diffraction effects, as studied in physical optics,
demonstrate the existence of wave, where for a simple ruled
grating, the condition for diffraction is:

nλ = 2d sin θ
Where d is the spacing of the grating and where for small angles
sinθ=θ.
The best man-made gratings are ruled at 2,000 lines per mm and
with a wave length of 0.02 nm, the angle will be less than one
second of arc or only 0.5mm at 10m from the grating. If electron
diffraction is to be observed in Teltron tube with a path length of
130mm , the spacing between 'rulings' to produce a first order of
interference at 13mm from zero (i.e. sinθ=0.1), must be 0.2nm.

Method and Calculation:-

Connect the tube Tel. 2555 into the circuit show in Fig (1.1),
switch on the heater supply and wait one minute for the cathode to
heat stabilize.
 Fig (1.1)

After that adjust VA to 4 Kv.

Two prominent rings about a central spot are observed, the radius
of the inner ring being in fair agreement with the calculated of
13mm. Variation of the anode voltage causes a change in diameter,
decrease in voltage resulting in an increase in diameter.
This is in accord with De Broglie's suggestion that wave length
increase with decrease in momentum. Evidence of the particulate
nature of the electron has been previously obtained and so this
elemonstration, which so closely resembles the optical one, reveals
the dual nature of the electron.

Fig (1.2)

The de Broglies wave length of a material particle is:

h
λ= − − − − − − − − − −(1)
mv
Where h is Planck's constant.
The law of conservation of energy requires that the change of
kinetic energy plus the change of electrical potential energy of a
charge traversing from point 1 to 2 must equate to zero because no
work is done by external forces.
1 1
( mv22 − mv12 ) + (ev2 − ev1 ) = 0
2 2
Applied to an electron traversing the gun of the Tel. 2555 tube
( v2 − v1 ) is vA,v1=0 and so for negative charges evA = 1 mv 2 substitute
2
for v in equation (1) to obtain:
1
h −
λ= = 1.23V A nm − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
2

2emV A
The condition for diffraction for small angle is
λ=d.θ
Where the θ can be calculated from the geometrical relation ship
shown in fig (1.2) as
D/2
θ=
L
And from equation (2)
1
d −
D⋅ = 1.23V A 2 − − − − − − − −(3)
2L
And
1
−
D = kV A 2 − − − − − − − − − −(4)
Equation (2) using a caliper drawing instrument measure the
diameters D for different anode voltage VA: tabulate and plot the
graph.
1 1
− −
V A / Volts
2 2

VA V
−
1
2 D meter
A 0.02 Inner
Kv Volts -1/2
inner Outer Outer
2.5 0.0200
3.0 0.0183 0.01
3.5 0.0169
4.0 0.0158
4.5 0.0149
D / meter
 Exp :( 1)

The determination of e/m

Apparatus:-
The fine Beam tube, Double gun, Tel. 2534, Two power
supply, voltmeter, Ameter, Helmholtz coil.

Theory:-
The mass (me) of electron is extremely difficult to determine in an
experiment.
It is much easier to determine the specific charge of the electron.
e
ε=
me
From which we can calculate the mass me for a given electron
charge e.
In this experiment, a tightly bundled electron beam is diverted into
a closed circular path using a homogeneous magnetic field in order
to determine the specific electron charge. The magnetic field B
which diverts the electron into the path with the given radius (r) is
determined as a function of the acceleration voltage VA.
The Lorentz force caused by the magnetic field acts as a centripetal
force. It depends on the velocity of the electrons, which in turn is
determined by the acceleration voltage.
The specific electron charge can thus be determined from the
measurement quantities VA, B and r according to the formula.
e V
= 2 ⋅ 2 A 2 − − − − − − − − − (1' )
me B ⋅r
The principle for determine the value of r:-
AB 2 = BC 2 + AC 2 − 2 BC ⋅ DC

AC 2
r = BC = AB =
2 DC
x2 + y2
Fig (2.1) r=
2y
2
 x2 + y2 
r =
2
 − − − − − − − − − −(1)
 2 y 

Method and calculation:-

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (2.2)

Fig (2.2)

1- Put the Helmholtz coils at a correct position.

The Helmholtz coils have diameter 138*10-3m and when the
flux density spaced to half this value is given by equation:
B = µ H tesla
= (4.17 * 10 −3 ) IH
And
 B 2 = 17.39 * 10 −6 I H2
Where IH is the current through the series connected Helmholtz
coils.
And from equation (1')
e V
= 2 A 2 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 10 5 − − − − − − − − − (2' )
m IH ⋅r
VA
And so I H2 = κ − − − − − − − − − −(3' )
r2
2- With Vp at zero, set VA to 95 volts.
3- Adjust IH to deflect the circular arc of the beam to pass through
point A on the fused ring and focus the beam using Vp to
maximum of 6 volt.
4- Adjusting for the beam to always pass through the point A,
tabulate IH against VA

VA I /Amp
IH H IH2
2 2

volts10*Amp Amp2
-3

150
95
100
100

105
50
110 VA/volts
115 50 100 150
 Exp: (3)

The deflection of electron by

electrostatic field

Apparatus:-
The Perrin CR tube, Tel. 2524, High Voltage, Ac power supply,
Voltmeter.

Recommended experiments:-
The existence and many properties of cathode ray have been
demonstrated with the PLANAR DIODE, Tel.2520, Planer Triode,
Tel.2521, Luminescent tube, Tel.2522 and Maltese cross tube, Tel.
2523.
Cathode ray appear to behave in a similar way to electric currents
in solid conductors and to be composed of negative charges which
can be deflected by magnetic and electric fields. If a beam of
cathode ray is allowed to impinge on a suitable collector the sign
of the charge thus collected can be tested by a detector.
The aim of this experiment is also show that the particle property
of electron because according to the de Broglies hypothec all
particles have the wavelength is associated and vise versa.

Method and Calculation:-

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (3.1)
Fig (3.1)
1- Set VF to 6 Vac and allow 1minute for the indirectly heated cathode to
reach emission temperature.
2- Set VA to 3000 V and, with Vp at 0V observes the circular spot of
luminescent. Typically 2mm diameter, at the approximate center of
the phosphor screen.
3- Increase Vp to 350 V and observe the horizontal deflection of the spot.
Note the polarity of Vp and the direction of deflection.
4- Note also that the size and shape of the spot remains unchanged with
deflection. Then tabulate your results and plot the graph.

Vp X X/mm
Volts mm
50
100
150
200 Vp / volts

250
 Exp: (8)

Stefan Boltzman's radiation law

Apparatus:- Power supply

Power supply, lamp,

V
Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Thermometer.
A Thermometer

Theory:-
Stefan Boltzman's radiation law describes the total
emission of a black-body radiator; it states that the total radiation
energy emitted by a blackbody into the space in front of its
opening per unit of time is proportional to the fourth power of its
temperature. This proportional relation ship will be verified
experimentally.

∴ U = σ T 4 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)

T: is the temperature in degree Kelvin.

σ: Stefan Boltzman's constant.
U: intensity of thermal radiation energy and from equation
becomes:
ln U = ln σ + 4 ln T − − − − − − − − − − (2)

I/Amp V/volt Power P=IV T

P/w
lnP

lnσ
T4 /K4 lnT

Exp :( 4)

To find the linear Absorption

coefficient by using He-Ne laser.
Theory:-
If a beam of laser of intensity (Io) is incident upon an
absorber, the intensity (I) transmitted through thickness (x) of the
material is given by:
I = I  e − µx − − − − − − − − − (1)
Where μ is the linear absorption coefficient, and x the thickness of
the absorber in (mm), Fig (1).
X

Io I

(Fig (1

There fore the graph between ln (Io/I) and (x) will be a straight line
which its slope will give the value of (μ).
The half value thickness is the thickness which is reduce the
incident intensity to one half.
0.693
µ x1 = ln 2 ⇒ x1 = − − − − − − − ( 2)
2 2
µ
Ln (Io( /I

A AB
Slope = =µ
BC

C B

X /mm
Exp :( 3)

Excitation by cathode ray

bombardment

Apparatus:-
The Luminescent tube, Tel.2522, High voltage, AC power supply.
Recommended experiment:-
Projection of thermionically emitted electrical charges into an
experimental zone by the use of a simple gun has already been
demonstrated with the planar triode, Tel.2521 in another
experiment.
Using the luminescent tube it can be shown that certain materials
emit radiation in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum as
a result of bombardment both by cathode ray and by near visible
radiation.
These luminescent phosphors not only act as simple detectors of
cathode rays but also emit radiation with a spectral characteristic
which yields information about their atomic structure.

Method and table:-

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (6.1)

Fig (6.1)

For maximum safety the anode Al should be at earth potential, in

order that the filament F3 , F4 and the cathode can C5 may be
operated at negative kilovolt potentials, the filament transformer
windings must be insulated to at least 5 kv as specified for all
Teltron kilovolt power supply units.
 1- Set VA,VS to around 3500 volts and note that the three
phosphors fluoresce at different wavelength (colours).
2- Vary VA,VS between 2500 and 4500 volts and note that whilst
the intensity of the fluorescence varies with voltage,
wavelength does not.
There fore tabulate as below:-

Plates Plate Plate Plate

1 2 3
VA/kvolts

(EXP(2

(Exp :( 2

Linear absorption of X-ray

Apparatus: X-ray apparatus, Geiger-Muller detector, Digital

.counter

Locate in turn the slides indicated in the following table and record the
(intensity of the radiation (counts per second

.Slide No ES Thickness I Log I Log Io -Log

mm cps
I
562.033
562.017
562.018
562.019
562.020
.Plot graph as illustrated

\\\\

Fig(1(

:The graph is characteristic of an exponential curve where

− µτ
I = I 0e

And µ is the linear or total absorption coefficient

log I
µ =
t
I
, 0 m −1
Tabulate and plot the graph of log Io/I as a function of t ; if the
practical curve of fig (1( is truly exponentional then all points on the
,log , curve should lie on a straight line passing through zero.
Observe
that this is
not so and
the curve
has a
tendency to
fall
away at a
greater
.value of t
 (Fig (2
Since log(Io /I( is a smaller than the correct exponential value, then I
alone must be responsible for the deviation and is the larger than
theory predicts; this in turn infers that the X-radiation is becoming
more penetrating as it passes through the Aluminium. This is only
consist with law of conservation of energy if not just one homogeneous
wave lengths comprises the primary X-ray beam .This is similar to
white light and such heterogeneous X-radiation is called “white”
. radiation
 EXP( )
Zeeman Effect

Purp ose : Using the Fabry-Perot interferometer, a self-made telescope, a CCD-camera

and measurement software, the splitting up of the central line into two σ -lines is
measured in wave numbers as a function of the magnetic flux density. In the classical
version where the CCD-Camera is not available, a screen with scale and a sliding device
are used to measure the splitting.

App aratus : Fabry-Perot interferometer, Cadmium lamp for Zeeman effect, Electromagnet without
pole shoes, Pole pieces, drilled, conical, Rotating table for heavy loads, Power supply for spectral lamps,
Variable transformer, 25 V AC/20 V DC, 12 A, Capacitor, electrolytic, 22000 µF, Digital multimeter,
Optical profile-bench, l = 1000 mm, Base for opt. profile-bench, adjust, Slide mount for opt. profile-
bench, h = 30 mm, Slide mount for opt. profile-bench, h = 80 mm, Lens holder, Lens, mounted, f =
+50 mm, Iris diaphragm, Polarising filter, on stem, Polarization specimen, mica , Connecting
cord, CDC-Camera for PC . Incl. measurement software PC with USB interface and connecting
wires.

The ory a nd Pr incipl e :

As early as 1862, Faraday investigated whether the spectrum of coloured flames changes
under the influence of a magnetic field, but without success. It was not until 1885 that
Fievez from Belgium was able to demonstrate an effect, but it was forgotten and only
rediscovered 11 years later by the Dutchman Zeeman, who studied it together with
Lorentz.
The “Zeeman effect” is the splitting up of the spectral lines of atoms within a magnetic field.
The simplest is the splitting up of one spectral line into three components called the
“normal Zeeman effect”. The normal Zeeman effect is studied using a cadmium spectral
lamp as a specimen. The cadmium lamp is submitted to different magnetic flux densities
and the splitting up of the red cadmium line (643.8 nm) is investigated using a Fabry-Perot
interferometer. The evaluation of the results leads to a fairly precise value for Bohr’s
magneton

The splitting of the Cd-spectral line λ = 643.8 nm into three lines, the so-called Lorentz
triplets, occurs since the Cd-atom represents a singlet system of total spin S = 0.
In the absence of a magnetic field there is only one possible D P transition of 643.8nm,
as indicated by Fig. 1.

In the presence of a magnetic field the associated energy levels split into 2 L + 1
components. Radiating transitions between these components are possible, provided
that the selection rules
∆ML=+1; ∆ ML=-1; ∆ ML=0

are taken into account. In this case, therefore, there are a total of nine permitted
transitions. These nine transitions can be grouped into three groups of three transitions
each, where all transitions in a group have the same energy and hence the same
wavelength. Therefore, only three lines will be visible.

Fig. 1: Splitting up of the components in the magnetic field and permitted

transitions.

The first group where ∆ML= – 1 gives a σ- line the light of

which is polarized vertically to the magnetic field. The
middle group ∆ML = 0 gives a π -line. This light is polarized
parallel to the direction of the field. The last group where ∆ML = + 1 gives a σ -line the light
of which is again polarized vertically to the magnetic field.
In the absence of the analyzer all the thre line can be seen simultaneously. Each ring
which was observed in the absence of a magnetic field is split into three rings when a
magnetic field is applied. Inserting the analyzer the two σ -lines can be observed
exclusively if the analyzer is in the vertical position, while only the π -line appears if the
analyzer is turned into its horizontal position (transverse Zeeman effect). Turning the
electromagnet by 90 ° the light coming from the spectral lamp parallel to the direction of the
field can also be studied since the pole-shoes have been drilled. It can be shown that
this light is circular polarized light. Whatever the position of the analyzer may be, each
of the rings seen without a magnetic field is now permanently split into two rings in the
presence of a magnetic field (longitudinal Zeeman effect). Fig. 2 summarizes the facts.
 Fig. 2: Longitudinal and transvese Zeeman effet

.Turning the electromagnet back for the observation

of the two σ -lines of the transverse Zeeman effect it is easy to see that the size of the
splitting increases with increasing magnetic field strength. For a quantitative
measurement of this splitting in terms of number of wavelengths, a Fabry-Perot
interferometer is used, the functioning of which may briefly be explained.

The difference of the wave numbers:

The difference between the squares of the radii of component (a)

Is equal to (within a very small part) the same difference for component (b)

Hence,

Whatever the value of ( P ) may be Similarly, all values

Must be equal, regardless of ( p) and their average can be taken as may be done for the
different ∆-values. With δ and ∆ as average values we get for the difference of the wave
numbers of the components (a) and (b), anticipating µ=1,

,

Equation (6) gives evidence of the fact that ∆ν does notdepend on the dimensions used
in measuring the radii of the ring system nor on the amplification of the interference pat
tern.

Me asur em en t a nd Ev al ua tio n
1. Provided the ring pattern has been properly established as explained in the section “set-
up” above, the radii of the rings have to be measured at different magnetic flux densities.
Then it is possible by using equation (6) to determine the corresponding difference in
wave numbers ∆ν .
We proceed in two steps: first we take pictures of the ring patterns at different coil
 currents/magnetic field intensities. Then in a second step the ring diameters in these
pictures are measured.
To get a life picture from the camera go to the <File> menu and chose the entry
<Capture Window>. In the capture window the settings regarding e.g. contrast,
brightness and saturation of the image can be optimized via the menu you get to when
choosing <Video Capture Filter> from the <Option> menu.
When satisfied with the image quality and a certain coil current (magnetic field) is
established, the picture is captured by choosing <Still Image> from the <Capture>
menu. This action also closes the capture window and the picture appears in the
main window of the application. At this stage it is advisable to write the value of the coil
current at which the picture was taken into it by using the <Text> tool. This prevents a
mix-up later on.
The above procedure is repeated using different magnetic fields for instance, with coil
currents of 4 A, 5 A, 6 A, 8 A and 10 A. Once these pictures have been collected, we
proceed to mea- sure the radii of the rings choosing <Circle> from the<Measure>
menu. By dragging the mouse across the picture, a circle is drawn. Fit this circle in size and
position as good as possible to the innermost ring. You will see that radius, area and
perimeter of the circle will be displayed in a little box and in a table below the picture
(compare Fig.3). What we are mainly interested in is the radius of the circle, this is r1,a.
Note that the units (nm, mm, cm) are of no importance in this experiment, that means no
calibration of the camera has to be performed.
Proceed to draw and fit circles to as many sets of rings as are visible in the picture,
this will give you; r1,b; r2,a; r2,b; r3,a…. Do the same with the other pictures captured. In the
classical version without the CCD-camera a set of radii of rings is determined in the
following way:

Fig. 3: Screenshot of software used to measure the

radii of the interference ring
The slash of the scale „0“ is shifted
horizontally along a diameter through
the ring pattern until it coincides, for
instance, with the fourth ring to the left.
A magnetic field corresponding to a
coil current of lets say 4 A is
established and the splitting of the
rings observed. The analyzer is put into the vertical position so that only the two σ -lines
appear. The „0“ slash is now adjusted to coincide perfectly with the outer ring of the two
rings, into which the fourth ring has split. The first reading on the socket of the sliding
mount is taken. The „0“ slash is then moved from left to right through all the rings. The
last reading is taken when the „0“ slash coincides with the outer ring of the fourth ring to
the right. The last reading minus the first reading divided by two then provides the
radius r4 b,. Evaluating the previous readings in a similar way leads to the following radii:

I = 4 A: r4,b ; r4,a ; r3,b ; r3,a ; r2,b ; r2,a ; r1,b ; r1,a

Further sets of radii are received when repeating the procedure, for instance, for coil
currents of 4 A, 5 A, 6 A, 8 A and 10 A. Using the slide mount, all readings are done in
“mm“ with a precision of 1/100th of a mm. Still, the dimension used is notsignificant
since it cancels out when evaluating equation (6).Now the following square can be formed
for each set of radii measured, regardless if they are measured with the ccd-camera and the
software or the classical way:

The mean values σ and δ are calculated here in the following way:

t
The étalon spacing is = 3 * 10-3 m.
Equation (6) was used to calculate the difference in wave numbers of the two s-lines as
a function of the magnetic flux density and the coil current respectively. The following
table summarizes the results:

I [A] B [mT] ∆ν [m-1]
4 417
5 527
6 638
8 810
10 911

2. The difference in wave numbers of one of the σ -lines with respect to the central lines is
. For the radiating electrons this means, for instance, a change in energy of

∆E

On the other hand the change in energy ∆E is proportional to the magnetic flux density
B. The factor of proportionality between ∆E and B is µ B , Bohr’s magneton.

Combining equations (10) and (11) results in an expression for µ B :

The literature value for Bohr’s magneton is:

 J
µB -24 T
,lit. = 9.273*10