DECEMBER 1997

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COMPARATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

O.M. DE VEGT W.G. HAIJE

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CONTENTS
CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. INTRODUCTION GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY 3.1 Flaxfibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades 3.2 Carbon fibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades 3.3 Glassfibre reinforced polyester rotorblades IMPACT ASSESSMENT 4.1 Classification 4.2 Normalisation 4.3 Evaluation ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MATERIAL SELECTION DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES APPENDIX A ECO INDICATOR APPENDIX B IMPACT TABLE 3 5 7 9 9 12 14 15 15 16 17 19 23 25 27 29 31 33

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The environmental soundness of materials is a very complicated issue. The aim of the present study is to compare and quantify the environmental impact of three rotorblades made of different materials and to establish which stage in the life cycle contributes most. The life cycle of a product can be represented by the following stages: the production phase; the utilisation phase; the disposal phase. The production phase includes depletion of raw materials (mining) and production (machining) of products. The utilisation phase includes use of energy, maintenance and cleaning. The disposal phase finally includes landfill, incineration, recycling etc. The environmental impact of a product is not only determined by the materials selected but also by the function of the product itself. For instance when natural fibres are applied in vehicles as a substitution for metals the environmental impact in the use phase will be reduced due to a lower energy consumption caused by a lower car weight. The influence on the environmental impact of the production phase has also to be taken into account. The material relation between the production phase and the use phase and the disposal phase is complicated. In general the lifetime of a product use phase can be extended (positive aspect) for instance by application of a coating onto the surface. Due to the coating the product can not easily be recycled, which is a negative aspect. This complex interaction between a product and the environment is dealt with in a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) [Heijungs et al., 1992]. The three types of composites used in the rotorblade of the wind energy converter considered in this study are: flaxfibre reinforced epoxy, carbon fibre reinforced epoxy and glassfibre reinforced polyester. The assessment is performed using the computer program Simapro 3 [Goedkoop, 1995], which is based on the Dutch CML [Heijungs et al., 1992] method for the environmental life-cycle assessment of products using the Eco-Indicator 95 evaluation method. The CML method defines five phases for an LCA: goal definition and scoping; inventory; classification; impact assessment; improvement analysis.

The improvement analysis is not part of this work. In the scope of the project environmentally sound material selection1 another comparative LCA concerning different coatings on a steelplate has been carried out and has been published in report ECN-I-97-001 [Haperen and Haije 1997]. Performing an LCA is a time-consuming process due to the detailed information which is required. In chapter five we formulate some general guidelines for incorporating environment related issues into the design process, especially relating to composite materials, without performing an exhaustive LCA. This study ends with our main conclusions and recommendations.

milieubewuste materiaalkeuze

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2.

GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION

Goal of this investigation is a comparison between the environmental impact of three types of composites applied in a windrotorblade used in a three bladed wind energy converter. The assembly of the glassfibre rotorblade to the rotor is different from the carbon- and flaxfibre rotorblade. The glassfibre reinforced rotorblade is assembled with a flange to the rotor in contrast with the carbon- and the flaxfibre reinforced rotorblades. The carbon- and flax fibre rotorblades contains fixing holes at the root in which the rotor tube precisely fits. Therefore the amount of steel used in the blade is a crucial parameter. The functional unit for this LCA is defined as follows: a windrotorblade to be applied in a 250 kW wind energy converter with a usetime of x years. In which x is the same for each rotorblade but not relevant for this LCA-study. Furthermore, the energy production of a wind energy converter is not taken into account. Due to the aspect that not all aspects can be taken into account in a detailed way or with sufficient accuracy the LCA performed is a streamlining one.

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3.

LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY

In the inventory phase all relevant environmental interventions relating to the different phases of the rotorblade life cycle are collected and quantified. The life cycle of rotorblades consists roughly of four phases: extraction and processing of raw materials, product manufacture, use of the product and waste scenario of the product. The main life cycle steps of the rotorblades are represented in figure3.1. In this LCA three types of rotor blades are considered: flaxfibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades, carbon fibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades and glassfibre reinforced polyester rotorblades. The production of flaxfibre and carbon fibre rotorblades are described in the following sections. The glassfibre rotorblade is described in detail elsewhere [ Kok, 1996 ].
raw materials

rotorblade manufacture

use phase

disposal phase

Figure 3.1 Processing steps of a windrotorblade

3.1

Flaxfibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades

At the moment most rotorblades are manufactured from polyester- or epoxy resins reinforced with glass- or carbon fibres. Flaxfibres have not been applied in the manufacturing of rotorblades as yet. Therefore to perform an LCA of flaxfibres applied in rotorblades, we based our data upon the quantity of carbon fibre applied in a 250 kW rotorblade. From the well documented data the amount of flaxfibre has been calculated based on the densities of carbon fibre and flaxfibre. The inventory of flaxfibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades starts with with the production of raw material required for the manufacturing of rotorblades and ends with the disposal of rotorblades. More specifically the following life cycle phases are considered: agricultural cultivation and treatment of flax, production of the epoxy resin, rotor mould manufacturing, the use- and disposal phases.

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fax cultivation

epichlorohydrin

bisphenol-A

flaxfibre treatment epoxy resin prod.

mould manuf.

rotorblade manufacture

use phase

disposal

Figure 3.2 Process scheme of flaxfibre reinforced rotorblade The cultivation of flax consists of several phases. The land needs to bo plowed, before that seeds are sown. The crop has to be protected against different pests, and the crop needs nutrients in the form of fertilizers. The cultivation needs about 5 kg pesticides /hectare a year. This corresponds with an amount of active compound of 1.3 kg/hectare a year. It is assumed that 12.9% of this active compound are waterborn emissions and 23% are airborne emissions [ IMSA, 1994]. Finally the crop can be harvested. The yield of flax is 1.65 ton/ha [3]. For each of these phases a tractor is necessary. Emissions descended from the tractor are derived from Idemat [Remmerswaal, 1996]. The emissions are given in the appendix. With regard to CO2 emissions the assimilation of CO2 during the flax growth has been taken into account. The CO2 fixation per kg flax is given in table 3.1. Table 3.1 Carbon dioxide fix for the cultivation of flax Composition of flax fibres: 71% cellulose (C6H10O5) 19% hemicellulose (C5H10O5) 4% lignine (C10H12O3) TOTAL Molweight C-percentage 162 g 44% 150 g 40% 180 g 66% CO2 - fix 71%*3,6*44%=1124,6 g/kg flax 19%*3,6*40%=273,6 g/kg flax 4%*3,6*66%=95g/kg flax 1493 g/kg flax

The fibres can be obtained from the harvested stems by different isolation processes so that the wood components may be more easily separated from the fibre constituents. In the past this process had been accomplished by dew-retting. Dew-retting means that the flax is left on the field during 3-4 weeks. It calls for dry weather towards the end of the process if the flax is not to become over retted. When flax after harvesting is immediatly taken away from the field this is the so-called green-flax. The green-flax is sensitive to rot and moisture and hence can not be applied in rotorblades because of its detrimental properties. The composition of green flax is about 19 w% hemicellulose, 4 w% lignine and 71 w% cellulose, the remainder are pectines, nitrogen, pectose and ash [Fritz, 1994]. Hemicellulose is

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the most sensitive fraction because of the high water absorption (its own weight) and swell. The green-flax must be treated in order to withstand the influence of moisture. A novel process [CERES] which uses green-flax is considered for this LCA. The treatment of green-flax is given below in the proces scheme.

green flax

thermolysis

drying

curing

treated flax

Figure 3.3 Treatment of strawflax The flax-treatment process does not use dew retted flax as a feedstock but the full rippled (deseeded) stalk, the straw-flax. This proces contains three phases. The first phase is a thermolysis. This means that sheaves of straw-flax are treated in water at a temperature of about 180C in a autoclave during 30 minutes. The second step is a drying step at 80C. Thereafter a curing step takes place at temperatures above 150C during two hours to thermoset the resin components. The energy in the form of heat needed for the flax treatment is calculated to be 9.3 MJ/kg. After this process lignine and hemicellulose are converted into an inert resin which does not absorb water. This reduces the rot sensitivity, thereby extending the lifetime of lignocellulose fibres. The flax thus obtained is assumed to be applied in rotorblades. The rotorblade has a length of 13,4 m and a global mass of 300 kg. A flaxfibre polymer composite is composed of flaxfibres and a epoxy resin. The structure of the rotor blade consists of two shells and two spars made of flax-epoxy and glass epoxy laminate, stratified together with foam cores. After laying out the gel-coat in the mould, the first layers are laid down and after that the unidirectional layers. Then the foam cores are placed in the mould and all the other layers are laid down subsequently. Each layer is impregnated separatetely with the epoxy resin on a table and rolled beforehand. This method is called the hand-lay-up method. The surface of the blade will have the following layers; gel-coat, glass veil, copper-mesh and a epoxy laminate. Based on information from a rotorblade manufacturer [Lagerwey] the amount of fibre of any nature applied in a rotorblade amounts to 0,055 m3. This corresponds to 78 kg flaxfibre applied into one rotorblade. The epoxy resin is produced by the Ciba-Geigy Corporation California. The energy used in the production of resins is mainly in the form of heat for chemical reactions and mechanical work for stirring.

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The energy consumed in producing epoxy resin from its starting materials amounts 1.74 MJ electric power and 5.5 kg steam per kg epoxy resin produced. The resin contains an organic peroxide used as catalyst. Due to this catalyst curing of the unsaturated resins takes place. The rotorblade also contains stainless steel and compounds which are incorporated in the laminate. These compounds containing epoxy resin and fibreglass in the proportion 1:1. The energy consumed in assembly of a rotorblade is assumed to be 500 kWh in the form of mechanical work for the machines. Solid emissions arising from sanding and polishing are disposed of (landfill).

3.2

Carbon fibre reinforced epoxy rotorblades

Process stages for the carbon fibre reinforced epoxy rotorblade are shown in figure 3.4. Carbon fibres are produced from fibre precursors of which the most important is polyacrylonitrile (PAN). PAN is a polymerisation product of acrylonitrile. Acrylonitrile is produced by the Sohio process. For one kg acrylonitrile 0.4 kg ammonia and 1 kg propylene are needed [Biekart et al., 1997]. Carbon fibre production involves heating PAN fibres to about 220C for oxidation and after that heating to above 1000C for carbonization. The energy needed for producing carbon fibre is calculated based on a specific heat of 1.26 kJ/kg.K for PAN, and a temperature rise of 1000C, thence the energy consumption amounting to 1.26 MJ/kg. The overall processes result in 50-55% of the original PAN precursor mass converted to carbon fibres.[Lee et al. 1991]. Therefore the energy in the form of heat required for the carbonization proces is about 2.52 MJ/kg. With an efficiency of 45% for generating electricity and including other energy consumption such as heat loss and fibre treatment, the actual energy needed is 7.56 MJ/kg. For the carbon fibre production the average energy composition in Asia is selected, because no specific data regarding the composition of the Japanese energy mix is available in the Simpro database. The average composition of one MJ energy in Asia is 35% coal, 53% oil and 9% gas [Remmerswaal, TUD, Warmer ECN].

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acrylonitrile prod.

polymerization

spinning

stabilization

carbonization epichlorohydrin surface treatment bisphenol-A

carbon fibre
expoxy resin prod.

mould manuf.

rotorblade manufacure

use phase

disposal

Figure 3.4 Process stages for the carbon fibre reinforced epoxy rotorblade The rotorblade has a length of 13,4 m and a global mass of 300 kg. A carbon fibre polymer composite is composed of carbon fibres and a epoxy resin produced by the Ciba-Geigy Corporation California. The manufacturing of the rotorblade is the same as is described by the flaxfibre rotorblade. Based on information from Lagerwey the amount of fibre applied in a rotorblade amounts to 0,055 m3. This corresponds to 100 kg carbon fibre applied into one rotorblade. The rotorblade also contains stainless steel and compounds which are incorporated in the laminate. These compounds contain epoxy resin and fibreglass in the proportion 1:1. The energy consumed during assembly of a rotorblade is assumed to be 500 kWh in the form of mechanical work of the machines. Solid emissions arising from sanding and polishing are disposed of (landfill). There are certain issues related to end of life of composites in general and in particular of rotorblades. Composites recycling methods in the strict sense of the word does not exist at the moment. A wellknown technique is the ERCOM process (reuse of granulated material) [Overbeek, 1996]. Other methods [Haije 1994] are: pyrolysis ( chemical decomposition by heat)

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 hydrogenation combustion (use of heat of combustion) In this LCA study we assumed that rotorblades are discarded2 at the end of life: landfill. However there is a leaching model which can be used of landfill scenarios[7].

3.3

Glassfibre reinforced polyester rotorblades

The life cycle assessment of glassfibre reinforced polyester rotorblade is given in detail [Kok 1997]. This data has been used for calculating the eco-indicator. glass fibre prod. epichlorohydrin bisphenol-A

glass fibre mould manuf. epoxy resin prod.

rotorblade manufacture

use phase

disposal

Figure 3.5 Process stages for the glass fibre reinforced polyester rotorblade

Based on information of producer

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4.
4.1

IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Classification

In the classification step, all impacts are sorted into classes according to the effect they have on the environment. The environmental impacts are aggregated within each class to produce an effectscore. Classification enables the environmental effects of two or more products to be compared. The environmental profiles of the three rotorblades are compared for different impact categories and presented in figure 4.1. The environmental profiles are entirely caused by the production phase. During the use phase there is no maintenance or any other impact on the environment. In the disposal phase the rotorblade is discarded.

Figure 4.1 Characterisation for three types of rotorblades observed With regard to the greenhouse effect flaxfibre has a better effectscore. This is primarily caused by the fact that flaxfibre assimilates CO2 during its growth. The emissions to the air caused by the carbon fibre production has a higher impact on the summer- and winter smog and acidification compared with glass- and flax fibre which are produced in Europe in contrast with carbon fibre which mainly is produced in Japan. This is caused by the higher energy consumption for carbon fibre production.

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The classification step has provided an environmental profile which consists of a fixed set of classification scores on the impact categories taken into account. In this figure the rotorblade with the highest contribution to a particular effect is indicated with a 100% bar. Interpretation of this figure may be difficult because comparison between impact categories is impossible. Therefore a normalisation step is performed, in order to gain a better understanding of the relative size of an effect.

4.2

Normalisation

In the normalisation step the effects are set off against a normal effect. Via normalisation, the environmental impacts of a product are related to the economic activities in a certain region through a certain period of time. The normalisation values are based on average European data [Goedkoop, 1995], this is part of the Eco-indicator 95 method. By executing this step it is possible to see the relative contribution of the material production to each already existing effect.

Figure 4.2 Normalisation for the three types of rotorblades observed Normalisation reveals which effects are large and which are small with respect to other effects in relative terms. However, it does not yet say anything about the relative importance of the effects. A small effect can very well be the most important. A weighing step is therefore necessary to achieve an overall result.

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4.3

Evaluation

The evaluation step converts the impact profile, which is difficult to interpret, into one environmental score, the Eco-indicator 95 and hence this is called the Eco-indicator 95 method [Goedkoop, 1995]. This is a useful quantified number especially when more alternatives are being compared. In the Eco-indicator 95 method the weighing of effects are based on the socalled Distance-to-Target principle. This means that weighing factors are based on the distance between the current level and target level. The Eco-indicator 95 method makes use of target levels which are as much as possible independent of politics and stem from scientific information.

Figure 4.3 Evaluation of the three rotorblades considered The quantified contribution to each impact category is shown in table 2. Table 4.1 Evaluation Process/Assembly Carbon fibre Rotor bl. Flaxfibre Rotor bl. Glassfibre Rotor bl. greenh. ozone acidif. eutroph. 0.327 0 0.920 0.121 0.181 0 0.536 0.0771 0.360 0 0.709 0.0867 h.metals carcin. w.smog s.smog pesticid 0.150 0.0586 0.310 0.519 0 0.150 0.0586 0.176 0.408 0.268 0.672 0.203 0.171 0.274 0

Adding up the individual weighed effect scores leads to one indicator. This is performed in figure 4.4.

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Figure 4.4 Eco-indicator for the three rotorblades The results obtained with the eco-indicator 95 method are shown in table 4.2. Table 4.2 Eco-indicator points of three different 250 kW rotorblades Eco-indicator flaxfibre reinforced carbon fibre reinforced epoxy 250 kW epoxy 250 kW rotorblade (without rotorblade pesticides 1,58 Pt 2,40 Pt

flaxfibre reinforced epoxy 250 kW rotorblade 1.85 Pt

glassfibre reinforced epoxy 250 kW rotorblade 2,47 Pt

Weighing factors may differ from country to country. Political views may affect the weighing process as well due to different opinions concerning the relative importance of local or regional impact categories. At the moment there is no general accepted method regarding the use of weighing factors for pesticides. Pesticides are used with the goal to protect the crop i.e. to kill insects. Therefore one can doubt wheter it is justified to incorporate the negative effects (killing insects) of pesticides in the outcome of an LCA. This is why we made a distinction between flaxfibre rotorblades with and without the use of pesticides in table 4.2.

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5.

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MATERIAL SELECTION

The term eco-design refers to the process of systematic incorporation of environmental life cycle considerations into product design. Eco-designed products should be distinguished from 'green products' which are niche market products with improved performance (actual or claimed) in relation to one or more environmental attributes, but where no systematic incorporation of life cycle environmental factors has taken place. Eco-design should also be distinguished from 'sustainable product design' in which products are designed to contribute to socially and economically as well as environmentally sustainable development. Eco-design should be a fully integrated part of companies product development process. A fundamental difficulty with life cycle assessment is that most companies cannot afford the time and cost of full LCA exercises. Abridged approaches have been developed to address this problem, but there is still a lack of simple design tools, although developments are taking place. The aim of the project environmentally sound material selection is to formulate some general rules which can be used in the eco-design process when dealing with composites, without performing an exhaustive LCA. These general rules are summarized in a matrix. This matrix method results in a indication of the relative environmental impact. This method can assist designers in making decisions regarding environmental aspects, when they have to choose between functionally equivalent materials. From the results and experience dealing with LCA, a general ranking in aspects which have an impact on the LCA results is given below in descending order of importance: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. energy consumption production material use waste/recycling packaging

It is well known [Marissen, 1993] [ Goedkoop, 1995] from environmental assessments of many products, that when during the use phase energy or material input takes place this phase is dominant. From these products it is known that the environmental impact is not determined by the production phase or the disposal phase but by its use and design should be directed towards efficient operating/use. On the other hand when for instance 80% of energy consumption for the product takes place in the material production phase, effort should focus on a design for material recycling strategy. From the previous study [Haperen and Haije, 1997] we may draw the conclusion that the environmental impact during the life-cycle of a composite (e.g. coated steelplate) is determined by the longevity of the composite. Based on the aforementioned rules one can compose a matrix with the most important classification factors: the production-, use- and disposal phase. Based on general experience the designer can fill in this matrix. Special care should be taken when hazard and toxic materials play a goal. Within each life cycle phase we can judge for each possible composite material with the same function, its environmental impact with a minus sign, zero (neutral) or plus sign

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material: production phase*:

-energy requirement

composite x

product application composite y

composite z

use phase*:
-longevity -energy consumption -maintenance

disposal*:
-landfill -combustion -recycling

Total:
*

Special care should be taken when hazard and toxic materials play a goal.

After adding the vertical colums the designer obtains a relative indication of the environmental impact. Incorporating of a weighing factor for each phase may refine this model. Based on this relative indication the designer can decide to choose for the most environmental sound option when he has to make a choise between two or more materials, without performing tedious LCA exercises. We can illustrate this method with two examples. The first example deals with three different coatings. PVC, PUR and polyester applied on a steelplate, which were subject of the previous study [Haperen and Haije, 1997]. product application: coating on a steelplate PVC PUR polyester _ 0 0 + ++ +

material: production phase:

- energy requirement

use phase:
- longevity - energy consumption - maintenance

disposal:
-landfill -combustion -recycling

0 0

0 2+

0 +

Total:

Filling in this matrix indicated that a steelplate with a PUR coating is the best option from an environmental point of view, due to the longevity of a PUR coating on a steelplate.

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The second example deals with the three composite rotorblades which were subject of this study. product application: rotorblade (inc. steel) flaxfibre rotorblade carbonfibre rotorblade glassfibre rotorblade 0 0 0 0

material: production phase:

- energy requirement

use phase:
- longevity - energy consumption - maintenance

disposal:
-landfill -combustion -recycling

0 0

0 -1

0 -1

Total:

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6.

DISCUSSION

When we mutually compare the three types of fibre reinforced composites, in order to make an honest environmental comparison we have to determine what the influence of the amount of steel applied in each rotorblade is. In table 6.1 the eco-indicator of one m3 composite is given. The composition of a typical composite is 70 w% fibre and 30 w% resin [Lee,1991]. Table 6.1 Eco-indicator of one m3 composite Composite carbonfibre reinforced composite flaxfibre reinforced composite glassfibre reinforced composite Eco-indicator 11.8 6.6 3.4

In table 6.1 we can see the impact of the application of the product. In this case the environmental impact of the production of carbonfibre is larger, as compared to the other two composites due to the energy consumption needed for carbonfibre production. In the case of the glassfibre reinforced rotorblade half the eco-indicator is determined by the amount of steel applied in the rotorblade. From an environmental point of view we can conclude that for application in for instance a container, a glassfibre reinforced composite may be preferred, and in a rotorblade application a flaxfibre reinforced composite may be preferred. The consulted sources are considered as reasonably reliable. Only for some of the materials no data was available and therefore they are estimated on the bases of comparable materials. Regarding the production of pesticides no data was available. According to a study of IMSA [Oegema, 1994] this is justified by the fact that the emissions during pesticide production are neglected compared to the emissions during the use of pesticides. It is also important to note that weighing factors have a subjective nature. Therefore one should be careful in drawing far-reaching conclusions.

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7.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this LCA study the environmental impact of the three fibre reinforced rotorblades are of the same order of magnitude. The eco-indicator of the flaxfibre reinforced rotorblade was slightly lower (1.8) than the others (2.4). It is important to keep in mind that the environmental impact is determined by the products function during its lifetime. The environmental impact of a product turns out to be determined in general by the amount of energy used in the three phases of the life cycle. From the study concerning different coatings on a steelplate [Haperen and Haije, 1997] we may draw the conclusion that the environmental impact during the life-cycle of a composite (coated steelplate) is determined by the longevity of the composite. In this study we present an outline of a method which results in a relative indication of the environmental impact of a composite material, whithout performing an exhaustive LCA. The method can assist designers in making decisions regarding environmental aspects. The method is not intended to push aside the Life Cycle Assessment method.

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8.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Performing an LCA is a tedious job. From the present and a previous study [Haperen and Haije, 1997] it is clear that it must be possible to refine the choice matrix model to a working tool that can easily be incorporated in software packages. Keeping track of performed comparative LCA studies in literature may help in this fine-tuning process.

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REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Biekart J.W., Nigten A., Stopplenburg D., Duurzame Chemie, 1997. Communication Mr. T. v.d. Wekken, Lagerwey. Communication Mrs.P.Doelman, Ceres BV. Fleckenstein, H., Wirtschaftlichkeitsbetrachtung fuer ein Standardprodukt aus Faserverbundwerkstoff im Vergleich zu Stahl, VDI-Z ,Vol. 125, pp. 123-131, 1983. Fritz H.G., Seidenstcker T., Blz U., Juza M., Production of Thermo-Bioplastics and Fibres based mainly on Biological Materials, European Commision report EUR 16102 EN, 1994. Goedkoop M.J.,The Eco-indicator 95,NOH report 9523; Pr Consultants; Amersfoort (NL), 1996. Goedkoop M.J., Manual Simapro 3,Pr Consultants; Amersfoort, 1995. Goedkoop M.J., Ecodesign experience with Hylite, Pr Consultants; Amersfoort, 1995. Haperen J. van, Haije W.G., Milieubewuste materiaalkeuze: mono-versus niet monomaterialen, januari 1997, ECN-I-97-001. Haije W.G., Evaluatie van de mogelijkheden voor recycling van windturbinebladen, Petten, ECN-Energie Engineering 6206-GR1, juni 1994. Heijungs R. et al., Achtergronden Milieugerichte Levenscyclusanalyses van produkten,Leiden, Centrum voor milieukunde, NOH rapport 9253, 1992. Kok I.C., Milieugerichte levencyclusanalyses van windturbines, februari 1996, ECN-C-95050. Kortekaas, S., Augustijn, M. and Nigten, A. Preliminary investigation of flax, LMO, Utrecht, 1991. Lee S.M., Jonas T., Disalvo G., The beneficial energy and environmental impact of composite materials- an unexpected bonus, SAMPE Journal, vol. 27, No. 2, 1991. Marissen R., Some Environmental Aspects of the application of FRPs in Structures, Delft University of Technology, 1993, Delft. Oegema T., Postma G., Rapportage Biodiesel, Milieuanalyse, Economie van de bedrijfstak, IMSA, 1994. Overbeek, J.P., LCA van windturbinebladen, ECN---96-xxx Potting, J., Blok, K., Life-cycle assessment of four types of floor covering, J.Cleaner Prod., Vol. 3, No. 4, pp.201-213, 1995. Pesink B.J., Ven van der B.L., Hooftman R.N., Palsma A.J., LCA Smeermiddelen, publicatiereeks productenbeleid nr.1996/18. Remmerswaal, Idemat 1996, TU-Delft. Tempelman E., Design for Sustainability: the Advent of Hybrid Materials, Delft University of Technology, 1994, Delft. Worrel, E, Heijningen, R.J.J, Castro de, J.F.M., Hazewinkel, J.H.O., Beer, de J.G., Faaij, A.P.C., Vringer, K., New gross energy-requiremenents figures for material production, Energy, Vol. 19, (6) pp. 627-640, 1994.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

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APPENDIX A ECO INDICATOR

Table A.1 Eco-indicator 95 impact categories and their weighing factors (source [Goedkoop, 1996])
Environmental effect Greenhouse effect Ozone layer depletion Acidification Eutrophication Summer smog Weighing Criterion factor

2.5 0.1C rise every 10 years, 5% ecosystem degradation

100

10
5 2.5

Winter smog Pesticides Airborne heavy metals Waterborne heavy metals Carcinogenic substances

5 25 5 5 10

Probability of 1 fatality per year per million inhabitants 5% ecosystem degradation Rivers and lakes, degradation of an unknown number of aquatic ecosystems (5% degradation) Occurrence of smog periods, health complaints, particularly amongst asthma patients and the elderly, prevention of agricultural damage Occurrence of smog periods, health complaints, particularly amongst asthma patients and the elderly 5% ecosystem degradation Lead content in childrens blood, reduced life expectancy and learning performance in an unknown number of people Cadmium content in rivers, ultimately also impacts on people (see airborne) Probability of 1 fatality per year per million people

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APPENDIX B IMPACT TABLE

SimaPro 3.1M ----------- Substances -----------Date: 09/10/97 Method: SimaPro 3.0 Eco Ind. Substance category: Raw material air azodicarbonamide barrage water bauxite (ore) blast-furnace gas boron oxide (B2O3) CaF2 clay coal cobalt coke breeze copper (ore) crude oil derived gases energy from hydro power energy from uranium feldspar ferro-manganese flotation agent glass cullet hydrochloric acid iron (ore) K2O (potassium oxide) kaolinite (chinaclay) land use lignite lime limestone mineral magnesia (MgO) methylene chloride natural gas natural gas kg nitrogen oil organic compounds other energies oxygen oxylime sludge peroxide rock salt sand secondary fuels silane Carbonfibre Un. Rotor bl. kg g ton g MJ kg kg g kg g kg kg g MJ MJ MJ kg mg g kg g kg kg kg m2 kg kg kg kg kg m3 g kg kg kg MJ m3 kg g kg g MJ kg 19.0 0 42.2 267 82.3 1.30 0.087 7.31 252 500 3.51 683 0 3.02 14.0 359 0.435 35 19.7 1.14 360 80.6 0 0 7.41 44.1 1.82 32.2 0 0 765 0 0 332 0 19.9 4.22 1.25 150 31.7 12.2 95.1 0 Glassfibre Rotor bl. 41.0 60 3.27 149 332 22.3 1.48 6.52 266 43.1 16.0 0 0 0.205 0 0 7.44 0 0 0 153 368 0 1.18 0 0.147 0 198 0 90 524 0 5.19 217 0 91.2 19.3 5.74 0 58.9 3.01 435 0 Flaxfibre Rotor bl. 6.06 0 6.89 141 6.05 1.30 0.087 2.59 174 500 3.51 683 477 3.02 12.7 324 0.435 35 19.7 1.14 360 80.6 0 0 6.69 3.93 1.82 32.2 0 0 411 28.6 0 124 0 19.9 4.22 1.25 150 30.4 12.2 95.1 0

ECN-I--97-050

33

silica steel steel scrap unspecified energy uranium ore? water wood zinc-poor residue category: Airborne emission acetone Al aldehydes ammonia As B2O3 benzene benzo[a]pyrene Ca Cd Cl2 CO CO2 cobalt Cr Cu CxHy CxHy aliphatic CxHy aromatic CxHy chloro deltamethrin dichloromethane dioctyl phthalate (DOP) dust (coarse) dust (SPM) epichlorohydrin ethylbenzene Fe fluoranthene fluorine formaldehyde formic acid (CH3OH) H2 H2S HCl HCN HF KCl manganese mercury metals methane methyl ethyl ketone Mg N2

kg g kg kWh kg kg kg kg kg mg mg g mg g g mg g mg g kg kg mg mg mg kg g kg g mg kg g kg mg g mg g mg g g mg g g g mg mg g mg mg mg kg g mg g

13.0 759 9.71 127 2.59 1608 8.39 0.259 0.112 69.1 472 0.294 4.76 42.0 36.4 12.7 0.811 17.2 0.833 3.16 1673 2.27 5.91 72.9 3.49 910 1.32 15.9 0 0.000174 0 0.905 495 65.7 0 3.84 33.8 15.2 0.159 0 33.0 8.17 72.8 32.8 38.2 11.6 162 12.9 730 2.60 131 88.8 0

161 0 44.4 459 0.751 647 6.96 1.18 2.97 316 1.47 6.93 21.8 719 1.53 55.9 3.71 79.0 2.66 11.1 1389 0.09 27.0 43.2 2.89 48.3 0.0665 2.80 0 30.0 23.7 1.19 0 2.77 0 17.5 154 32.0 2.80 631 7.13 26.1 16.8 149 3.39 53.2 741 19.4 311 2.68 5.54 406 6

13.0 759 9.71 113 0.847 1255 8.26 0.259 0.112 69.1 67.3 5.51 4.76 42.0 36.5 12.7 0.811 17.3 0.833 2.56 911 602.27 6.01 69.2 1.51 910 1.31 15.9 815 0.000174 0 0.432 605 65.7 46.3 3.84 33.8 15.2 0.225 0 0.00163 5.99 64.3 32.8 35.1 11.6 162 11.4 512 1.82 131 88.8 0

34

ECN-I--97-050

N2O naphthalene nickel non methane CxHy NOx organics (other) parathion Pb Pb-210 pentane phenol phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Po-210 radioactive substances SO2 soot SOx styrene toluene V vinylchloride VOS Zn category: Waterborne emission acid Acid as H+ Ag ammonia anorg. suspended subst. base BOD Ca Cd Cl2 cobalt COD cooling water Cr Cu CxHy CxHy aliphatic CxHy aromatic CxHy chloro deltamethrin di-amine (R1R2NH) dichloromethane dissolved organics dissolved substances E-glass polymer coating Fe fluorine formaldehyde H2 Hg

g mg mg g kg mg mg g kBq mg g mg kBq kBq kg g kg kg g mg kg g g

43.1 0 4.46 132 6.32 237 0 0.570 1.04 0 1.80 0 1.04 78151 5.83 17.3 0.0432 1.05 6.35 782 0 50.5 0.336

53.7 0 20.4 0 5.02 9.41 0 2.46 4.78 0 2.30 2.34 4.78 0 3.23 0 1.20 0.455 0.267 0 0 180 1.15

67.7 7.94 4.46 119 3.71 18.7 827 0.570 1.04 165 1.80 0 1.04 70641 3.33 2.64 0.0441 1.05 6.54 707 0 50.5 0.335

g g g g g g g kg mg kg kg kg m3 mg mg g g g mg g g kg g g g g g mg mg mg

27.9 7 23.2 1.13 35 0 12.3 0 0.418 2.99 0 4.74 14.3 6.09 10.7 23.3 17.5 0.757 118 0 0 0 40.7 187 34.8 7.66 0.961 0 0 0.401

52.5 0 396 0.192 0 36.2 5.77 0 1.97 0.401 0 0.259 70.7 27.9 49.0 24.0 0 1.86 11.2 0 2.38 0 11.7 188 595 35.7 5.33 46.8 0 4.17

13.2 7 23.2 0.778 35 0 5.82 0 0.418 2.82 0 4.70 14.3 6.09 10.7 7.15 17.5 0.684 118 3.78 0 0 33.2 94.0 34.8 7.66 0.372 0 13.8 0.401

ECN-I--97-050

35

Kjeldahl N linuron MCPA metallic ions Na NH4+ Ni nitrate Ntot oil other PAH parathion Pb Pb-210 peroxide phenol phosphate Po-210 process water quarry water radioactive substances S SO4 suspended substances treated water Zn category: Solid emission CaF6 (nw) epoxy resin fiber E-glass final waste (inert) firestone fly ash (tw) glass Hg high active nuclear waste industrial waste low,med. act. nucl. waste mineral waste non-toxic chemicals polyester resin produc. waste (not inert) PUR PVC PVC foam secondary suction dust Silex slag steel tailings toxic chemicals unspecified waste

g g mg g g g mg g g g g mg g mg Bq kg mg mg Bq l l kBq g kg g m3 g mg kg kg kg kg g kg mg cm3 g cm3 kg kg kg kg g kg kg g kg kg g g g kg

19.3 0 0 115 971 1.85 6.42 0.446 0 60.6 4.59 1.61 0 11.4 10.8 0 700 0.928 21.3 0 1.16 722 1.18 1.25 128 0.0721 2.27 720 8.52 0.1 51.8 0 184 0.174 47.5 11.1 106 36.7 4.32 2.12 0 3.03 0 0 0 15.9 0 1.18 150 17.4 157 5.74

74.0 0 0 98.5 284 1.52 33.5 0.303 0 36.1 21.4 7.40 0 54.8 49.7 0 105 15.8 97.6 176 19.8 0 0.0155 0.265 62.0 2.76 0.308 221 0.52 12.1 0 0 545 2.97 30.1 3.37 10.9 0.844 2.03 0.257 22 0 200 0 1 73.1 0 0.777 150 51.7 13.3 16.1

17.2 1.51 472 71.1 971 0.763 6.42 570 463 32.4 4.59 1.61 4.57 11.4 10.8 0 412 0.928 21.3 0 1.16 653 0.0938 1.15 78.2 0.0721 2.05 33.7 8.52 0.1 46.8 0 87.0 0.174 21.7 0.651 105 30.8 2.95 1.90 0 2.74 0 0 0 15.9 0 0.710 150 8.25 157 5.60

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ECN-I--97-050

wood zinc-rich residue

kg g

1.32 180

1.32 824

1.32 180

ECN-I--97-050

37