ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

1. GENERAL OF ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT, ELECTRICAL POWER APPARATUS STRUCTURE

GENERAL The Electric Equipment is composed by Electrical Apparatus. Electrical apparatus is a general term used for all kinds of electric devices. These devices can be used in control, protection and regulation of installations or for the control of nonelectrical processes. Electrical Power Apparatus (EPA) are technical systems having as purpose connection or/and disconnection (switch) of an electric circuit. Their structure contains insulators, current ways, switching elements and mechanisms and switching circuits. The construction and the apparition of these devices have seen a practical necessity to connect and disconnect receptors (loads) to/from the sources. Their evolution has started from the mechanical systems with contacts and with the improvement of the technology they have now small dimensions, high efficiency and great reliability. This lecture aims at presenting the main physical processes taking place in the switching power apparatus, their construction and also their functionality. 1.1. The classification of EPA The criteria for classifying EPA are: Voltage (A.C. line voltage)

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

- low voltage (under 1000 V) - medium voltage (1 kV - 100 kV) - high voltage (over 100 kV) Current - Direct current D.C. - Alternative current A.C. Function principle: - circuit breakers - contactors - circuit isolators - other devices - Contact principle: - Devices with mechanical contacts in - air - oil - vacuum - SF6, etc. - Devices with static switching - electronics - ionic - semiconductors - magnetic

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- cryogenic Function regime - permanent - nonpermanent - short time Purpose - Switching - Protective equipment - Starting & control - Current limiting devices - Supervisory and control equipment - Regulating equipment Protection - Opened - Shielded - Metallic case - Sealed - Explosion proof Field of application - Production of electric energy (EE) power plants - Transport of EE - Distribution of EE

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- Instrumental apparatus - Telecommunications - Automotive, etc. The materials used in the manufacture of EPA may be grouped as follows: 1. Conductor materials; 2. Magnetic materials; 3. Insulating materials; 4. Arc resistant insulating materials; 5. Electrical resistance alloy; 6. Contact materials; 7. Bimetals materials; 8. Structural materials. Fig.1.1, 2, 3 presents the principle electrical schema of production, transport and distribution of electrical energy [20]. The electrical schemes presented in Fig.1.1, 2, 3 are a model of a generally single wire scheme of a National Power System - NPS

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Fig. 1.1 General electrical single wire scheme of a power plant

Fig. 1.2 Electrical single wire scheme of transformer stations

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Fig. 1.3 Electrical single wire scheme at the consumer factory

LEGEND: 1. Generator 2. Transformer 3. Check (measuring ) point 4. High voltage power breaker; 5. High voltage power isolating

11. Double

secondary

windings

transformer; 12. Transformers circuits 13. Star connected secondary for internal

switches or isolator; 6. Double bar system 7. Transversal couple 8. Isolating switches for the transport line; 9. Earthen switches; 10. Electrical discharger for the

winding transformer 14. Medium voltage contactor 15. Medium voltage fuse; 16. Low voltage bar system; 17. Low voltage fuse; 18. Lighting bulb 19. Low voltage contactor 20. Asynchronous motor.

transport line

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Fig.1.4. High voltage, high power transformers

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Explanations: The generator (1) is a synchronous machine working at constant speed to maintain the 50 Hz frequency. The step-up transformer (2) is a transformer with over unit ratio to reduce the power losses on the line. The check (measuring) point (3) will measure the parameters (V, I, P, Q, cos ) of the electrical energy produced

Fig.1.5 Some high voltage EPA in a power station (voltage transformer, isolating switches and a circuit breaker) and its real arrangement

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High voltage power circuit breaker (4) is an EPA designed to close, support and open normal working currents and abnormal currents (overload and short circuits currents). High voltage power breaker is an EPA for switching and also for protection. High voltage power isolating switches or isolator (5) is an EPA designed to close support and open unloaded circuits in visible mode (no current passing through it). It is a protection EPA assuring safety conditions for maintenance or maneuvers.

The double bar system (6) is a bar system used to facilitate the maintenance and the maneuvers in the power plant station.

Fig. 1.6 Bars system in a medium voltage distribution panel The transversal couple (7) is a high voltage circuit breaker connecting the bars of the double bar system. It permits maneuvers in the power plant station. Line isolating switches or isolator (8) is an isolator separating the transport line by the bars system.

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Earthen switches (9) are a switching isolator connecting the electric line to the earth, for the protection reason, after the line has been disconnected and the voltage is missing. Electrical discharger of the transport line or arrester (10) is an EPA protecting the line against atmospheric or commutation overvoltages. Double secondary windings transformer (11) is a transformer with two windings in the secondary supplying two different consumers with different voltages. It is possible to use two transformers instead, each for one consumer. Power transformers for internal circuits (12). The internal circuits of a power plant or power station are supplied by the energy produced or transformed in the station by these transformers. Star connected secondary winding transformer (13). The star connection of the secondary winding of this transformer is necessary to supply the consumer with the phase (230 V) and the line to line voltage (400 V). Medium voltage contactor (14). The contactor is an EPA designed to close, support and open rated (nominal) working currents. It is generally used to supply all consumers. Medium voltages fuse (15). The fuse is a protection EPA against shortcircuits currents (710 IRegime- IR). Overload currents are over 1.2 IR. Low voltage bar system (16), is a low voltage bar system for three phases and the working zero.

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Low voltages fuse (17), is a fuse for low voltages circuits. Lighting bulb (18)- bulbs for low voltage circuits. Low voltage contactor (19), working at 230/400 V. Asynchronous motor (20).

Fig.1.7 Scheme and section in a power station

ascheme, b- section

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Fig.1.8 Picture of a section in a power station

Fig.1.9 Control room in a power station and the Scada system for their managing

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Fig.1.10 400 kV line and its inlet in the power station

Fig.1.11 Scheme and the real montage in a power station. The inlet of a high voltage line in electric power station: a- scheme, b- section. Tv voltage transformer, LS line isolating separator, Tc- current transformer, I- high voltage circuit breaker

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Fig.1.12 Medium voltage current instrument transformer

Fig.1.13 High power current and instrument voltage transformers

Mass electrical energy is produced by 3 classical systems (methods) and also renewable energy plants as: thermoelectric plant; hydroelectric plant; nuclear plant wind plants solar energy plants ocean plants, etc.

In the power plant (see fig. 1.1) Regardless of the used system, the beginning of the chain starts with the mechanical machine, the turbine generating kinetic energy. This energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator. The generator used is a synchronous type

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working in variable speed regime. The reason to use this type is to control the frequency of the voltage, keeping a constant speed of the generator rotor. The regulator is an electromechanical type controlling the water or steam flow to the turbine. Typical values for the voltage at the generator terminals are 6 to 15 kV. The electrical energy produced by the generator having the purpose of being included into the national power system must change the characteristics the voltage has to be raised at the value of the national power system. The use of the high voltage in the power system network is the method to reduce losses by the effect of the Joule Lenz Law. A transformer above one ratio is used to obtain the typical value of 220-400 kV. The produced energy is measured in the check point. The measurement is necessary to obtain the energy balance at the exit of the power plant. The next apparatus (1) is the circuit breaker. High voltage power circuit breaker is an EPA designed to connect and disconnect an electric circuit and capably to work at overload and short circuit currents. It is a switching and also a protection EPA; From this point the circuit is divided into two circuits connected to two bushbars systems. Between two bushbars systems a circuit breaker and two isolators on each side are connected. The name of this system is called transversal couple (3). This bushbars system and the transversal couple are used to facilitate the maintenance and maneuvers without disconnection of the circuit breaker. High voltage power isolating switches or isolator (2) (disconnecting switches or disconnectors in USA) is an EPA designed to connect and disconnect a circuit, working only without load, and to show visible the position of their contacts. It is also a safety EPA;

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The exit to the high voltage line is permitted by a circuit breaker and a line isolator. Line isolating switches is an isolator (separator) used to disconnect in visible mode the high voltage line. At every end of the high voltage line obligatory are mounted two EPA: Earthing switches is a isolator used to put the high voltage line to the ground; Electrical discharger is an EPA protecting the high voltage line against lightning overvoltages appeared on the line putting it to the ground.

In the power station (see fig. 1.2) Power stations are made to transform high voltages in medium or low voltages depending on the station purpose. The main EPA in the station is a transformer. The transformer is mounted between two breakers (1) and also two isolators (2). This transformer is of special construction type with two secondary windings for two different voltages. One from the secondary voltage (110kV) is necessary to supply, for instance a town or a big factory and the other, at low voltage (10kV), to supply a council estate in a big town.

In the factory (see fig. 1.3) In the factory the supply is achieved at medium voltage (10kV) by underground cable. At the inlet in the station are connected a line isolator and an earthen switching isolator before the circuit breaker. The breaker is always mounted between two isolators. It follows a bushbars system mounted between isolators and circuit breakers. A check point is necessary to measure the consumed energy in the factory. From the bushbars are supplied by contactors medium voltage consumers (for instance a synchronous motor) and a step down transformer supplying the station safety system.

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Medium voltage contactor is an EPA designed to connect and disconnect a circuit, capably to work only at rated parameters (nominal currents); The main transformer of the station is a step down type with a star connection for the secondary winding to assure the line to line voltage (0.4kV) and the phase voltage (230V). Voltage of 230 V is necessary to supply the lighting and low voltage consumers connected by sockets. The distribution panel has a 4 bars system, the three phases and the working null. From this panel are supplied by fuses and contactors all motors or other consumers. Fuses and contactors are included for current protection and switching purposes. 1.1.2. Characteristic values On the tablet of every EPA are written the main important values of the device. These values can be: Rated (nominal) values; Admissible values; Limited values.

The nominal values are the designed values of EPA. For instance the nominal current is the value of the current for which an EPA can work unlimited time. The admissible current is the value of the current for which an EPA can work only for a short time. The limited current is the value of the current for which an EPA can work only for one time. 1.1.3. Working conditions for an EPA are: Reliability; Thermal and electrodynamics stability; Good stability of the insulation;

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Weather stability; Robustness; Easy maintenance; Small price, weight and volume.

1.1.4. Romanian factories producing electrical equipment was: - Electroputere Craiova for transformers, circuit breakers, isolating switches; - Electroaparataj Bucureti for contactors, relays, switches, terminals etc.; - Electroaparataj Botoani for contactors, switches, terminals etc; - Electrotehnica Bucureti for contactors, low voltage circuit breakers, switches, limit switches, terminals etc; - Electromagnetica Bucureti for low voltage equipment and wire telecommunications devices; - IEMI Bucureti for measuring and laboratory instruments; - Electromure Tg. Mure for contactors, resistances, terminals; - Conect Bucureti for all types of low voltage terminals; - Icemenerg Bucureti for measuring and laboratory instruments for power systems; - Automatica Bucureti for automation controllers, sensors, transducers and actuating systems; - Electroprecizia Scele for electric machines, automotive electric devices, etc. 1.2. EPA STRUCTURE There are two types of EPA: Classic or mechanic type, with normal contact members; with mechanic driving system;

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Static type where contact members are supplied by a semiconductor device commanded by P. In fig. 1.3 are presented the block schemes of two types [29].

a. Fig.1.15 EPA Structure a). Classic EPA; b). Static EPA

b.

Legend: DS Signalization Device Cv Voltage Converter Dc Control Device MA Acting Mechanism K Circuit Breaker CS Quenching Chamber or Cooling System Cc Current Converter

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P - Microprocessor

Fig. 1.16 Some types of low voltage EPA

1, 3, 9 - Three phase low voltage circuit breaker, 2- Single phase low voltage circuit breaker, 4, 7- Single line D.C. Contactor, 5- Three phase A.C. Contactor, 6- Two lines D.C. Contactor, 8- Wall mounting A.C. contactor with thermal relay

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2. CONNECTION AND DISCONNECTION OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

GENERAL Generally, an EPA is designed to connect and disconnect an electric circuit. These processes are consequences of maneuvers for the management or as a result of shutdown in exploitation. The connection and disconnection of an electric circuit present particularities that will be studied in this chapter. Because in practice the majority of electrical circuits are RL type, we will study only this type of circuit. Switching processes of the EPA from the electric system appears as result of currently operational maneuvers for distribution of energy or after an emergency as overloads or short-circuits. These processes produce transient regimes defined by abnormal currents and voltages, being electrodynamic, thermal, and dielectric solicitations for the entire electric installation. Representative, as solicitations on the switching EPA are next processes: a) commutation of resistive-inductive circuits, modeling conveyable the commutation of inductive circuits, short circuit currents and reestablishing voltage from electric networks, b) commutation of resistive-capacitive circuits, modeling conveyable the commutation (connection and disconnection) of condenser batteries. b) commutation of resistive-inductive-capacitive circuits, modelling a real network.

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Regarding the transient regime and its problems, the connection of electric circuits is not so important than their disconnection. This, because at the connection the current increase slowly from zero to the regime value and contrariwise at disconnection the current having a regime value and after disjunction of contact members appear a high voltage drop with high consequences to the contacts pieces. In these conditions the electric equipments will support the electric arc. The electric arc (or discharge by arc) is an autonomous discharge in gases or vapors characterized by a high current density, low cathodic drop of voltage, high temperature and high gases pressure. It is formed by a flux of electrons and ions producing the partial volatilization of the electrodes, the ionized medium between contact members being a good conductor. The electric arc by its thermal and explosive effect is dangerous for equipments and for peoples. For these reasons is necessary the study of the arc for designing and manufacturing of electric equipment. 2.1. Connection of electric circuit 2.1.1. Connection of D.C. electric circuit Studying D.C. circuit connection, it is necessary to take in consideration different configurations of these circuits (RL, RC, RLC) [32]. - Connection of RL circuit is the most used in D.C. systems.

Fig.2.1. Scheme of RL circuit

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For a D.C. electric circuit as seen in fig. 2.1, the equation of the circuit at its connection is:
di + Ri = V dt

(2.1)

With the initial condition:

i (0) = 0 .

The solution of this equation has the form i = ip + it, composed by a transient and a member. ip is the permanent current and it is the transient current.
ip = V , R

(2.2)

And
it = Ke t / ; = L R

(2.3)

Where is the time constant of RL circuit measured in seconds. The final solution is:
i= V + Ke t / ; R

(2.4)

For i(0) =0
i (0) = V + K; R

(2.5)

Then:
K = V , R

(2.6)

and,
i= V (1 e t / ); R

(2.7)

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The representation of this solution is presented in fig.2.2.

Fig. 2.2 The current and voltage for D.C. connection of a RL circuit The final value of the current is attaints at the end of the transient regime. The duration of the transient depends by values of passive components of the circuit (R, L). - - Connection of RC circuit is a particular case of D.C. circuits.

Fig. 2.3 Scheme of RC circuit connection For a D.C. electric circuit as seen in fig.3, the equation of the circuit at its connection is:
Ri + 1 i dt = V C

(2.8)

with initial condition:

i (0) = 0 .

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 1 i dt = vC C

31

(2.9)

or,
i=C dvC dt

(2.10)

And the equation will be:

RC + dvC + vC = V , dt

(2.11)

Dividing the equation with 1/RC and integrating it,

dvC 1 1 + vC = V, dt RC RC

(2.12)

The solution of this equation has the form vC = vCp+vCt, composed by a transient and a permanent member. vCp=V, vCt=K e t / , where is the time constant of RC circuit,

= RC.

Fig. 2.4 The current and voltage for D.C. connection of a RC circuit Then the complete solution will be: vC =V+K e t / ,

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and for vC(0) =0 results K= -V. Then:

vC = V Ve t / = V (1 e t / )

(2.13)

The final solution is:

i=C dvC V t / = e ; dt R

(2.14)

The representation of this solution is presented in fig. 2.4. As remarks it is mentioned that the current will be zero at the end of transient regime, and the voltage has the regime value in the same moment. The duration of the transient time depends by the values of passive components of the circuit (R, C). - - Connection of RLC circuit is the general case considering all passive elements possible to influence the behavior of all kinds of D.C. circuits.

Fig. 2.5 Scheme of RLC circuit connection For a D.C. electric circuit as seen in fig. 2.5, the equation of the circuit at its connection is:
di 1 + i dt = V , dt C

Ri + L

(2.15)

with initial condition

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i (0) = 0 , vC (0) = 0
L d 2i di 1 + R + i = 0. dt dt C

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(2.16) (2.17)

dividing by L:
d 2 i R di 1 + + i=0 dt L dt CL

(2.17b)

The solution of this equation has the form i = ip + it, composed by a transient and a permanent member.
ip = 0

(2.18)

and
it = K 1e P1t + K 2 e P 2t ;

(2.19)

If =

R , 0 = 2L

1 LC

2 and 2 0 = ,

where is the amortization factor and 0 is the pulsation, then:

p1, 2 =

R L

4 R2 2 R R2 1 LC L 2 = = 2 0 = 2 2 2L LC 4L

(2.20)

and
it = K 1 e ( + ) t + K 2 e ( ) t ;

(2.21)

For it(0) = 0, 0 = K1+K2; K1= -K2= K; the solution for the current is: (2.22)

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it = K 1e ( + )t + K 2 e ( )t = Ke t (e t e t ) = K 2e t sh t ;

(2.23)

because:
e t e t sht = 2

For the voltage

vC = V L di iR . dt

(2.24)

Solving this equation:

vC = V L d 2 Ke t sh t R 2 Ke t sh t = dt = V + 2 LKe t sh t 2 LKe t cht 2 RKe t sh t ;

(2.25,26)

For uC(0) = 0
0 = V 2 LK K= V 2 L

(2.27)

The final solution is:

V t e sh t ; L
t

i=

vC = V [1 e ( sht + sh t )]

(2.28)

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Analyzing this solution we have three possibilities: a) > 0, b) = 0, c) < 0 a) If a) > 0 then R > 2
L . C

The current has a non periodic variation as you can see in fig. 6.

Fig. 6 The current and voltage for D.C. connection of a RLC circuit when > 0

b) If = 0 then R = 2 regime.

L (critical resistance) and this is a non periodic critical C

lim

sht

= lim

t ch t =t 0 1

and
i= V t te , L vC = V [1 t e t ]

This regime is the limit between the case a a periodic regime and b the oscillating regime. The variations are as in fig. 2.6 but more rapidly. c) If < 0 then R < 2
L . In this case C

2 < 02 = ( 2 02 ) = j 02 2 = j

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where
= 02 2 .

So the solution will be:

V t V t e jtt e jtt i= e sh jt = e = jL j L 2 V t cos t + j sin t cos t + j sin t = e = j L 2 V t 2 j sin t V t = e = e j sin t j L 2 j L

and
i= V t V t e jtt e jtt e sh jt = e = jL j L 2 V t cos t + j sin t cos t + j sin t = e = j L 2 V t 2 j sin t V t = e = e j sin t j L 2 j L

If
ch jt = cos t + j sin t + cos t j sin t = cos t 2

Then
sh t + ch t )] =

vC = V [1 e t ( = V [1 e t (

sin t + cos t )]

Now we will represent these solutions

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i= V t e sin t ; L

37

vC = V [1 e t (

sin t + cos t )]

in the next figure.

Fig. 2.7 The current and voltage for D.C. connection of a RLC circuit when < 0 2.1.2. Connection of A.C. electric circuits For an A.C. electrical circuit with RL load the electrical schema is presented in fig. 2.7. The A.C. circuits with RL load are the most used circuits in the A.C. electric systems and for this reason is studied hire.

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Fig. 2.8 Scheme of A.C. circuit with RL load connection The equation to the connection is:
di + Ri = V = V sin t dt

(2.30)

with initial condition:

i (t = ) = 0 , where = the command angle

(2.31)

The solution of this equation has the form i = ip + it, composed by a transient and a permanent member.
i p = m sin(t ) [A]

(2.32)

where:
Vm V 2 = , Z = R 2 + X 2 = R 2 + (L ) [A] Z Z

Im =

(2.33)

Then
tg = X L = R R

(2.34)

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and
L R

it = Ke t / = Ke t / tg = Ke tctg ; =

(2.35)

The final solution is:

i = I m sin(t ) + Ke ctg t ;

(2.36)

For i(t = ) = 0 .
K = I m sin( )ectg

(2.37)

And,
i = I m sin(t ) I m sin( )e ctg t ectg = = I m sin(t ) I m sin( )e ctg (t )

(2.38)

The representation of this solution is presented in fig.2.9.

Fig.2.9 Current and voltage for A.C. connection of a RL circuit

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Remarks: 1. If = i p = I m sin(t ) 2. If =

2 = , the voltage is maximum, and it = 0

3. For = 0, Im < Imm < 2Im

Fig.2.10 Current and voltage for A.C. connection of a RL circuit in the 3rd case when =0 2.2. Disconnection of electric circuit 2.2.1. Disconnection of D.C. electric circuit The disconnection of electric circuits by EPA put problems because of the electrical discharges in the moment of the disconnection of the circuit, if the load contains resistance, windings (coils), and/or electromotive forces. It is very necessary to know the processes from the disconnection of electrical circuits and to prevent or quench the electric arc or sparks.

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Disconnection of RL circuit

Fig.2. 11 Scheme for disconnection of RL circuit The circuit equation is:

L di + Ri + ua = V , dt

(2.39)

with initial condition:

i (0) = I = V . R

(2.40)

There are 3 time intervals during disconnection. - t1 is the time from the start of disconnection and the moment of the displacement of contact members; - t2 - is the time during the discharging of the arc or spark; - t3 - is the time interval after the moment of the arc or spark quenching. During t1 time the equation is:
L di + Ri + i rk = V dt

(2.41)

where: rk is the contact resistance. The initial condition is i(0) = I. During this interval takes place the modification of rk. , as result of contact pressure variation of the bridge type contacts,
Pk = Pk0 (1 t ) t1

(2.42)

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or contact surfaces to the pivoted type contacts.

t S k = S k0 (1 ) t1

(2.43)

The resistance will have the value:

rk = Rk 0 t (1 ) t1

(2.44)

where Rk0 is the contact resistance at start, and equation (2.41) will be:
L Rk 0 di + Ri + i =V , t dt (1 ) t1

(2.45)

In the last part of this interval, the voltage drop on the contact resistance is much greater than the voltage drop on the load resistance, and so:
L Rk 0 di +i V t dt (1 ) t1

(2.46)

This equation has a solution depending on t (i = f(t)). Having the current expression, the contact voltage drop Uk at the end of t1 will be approximately:
Vk S V . R (1 t1 ) L

(2.47)

This voltage depends on the source voltage; the circuit parameters and the disconnecting speed. For L/R = t1 the Vks voltage . At the end of this interval an overvoltge is generated, determining the arc or spark apparition in the moment of non-contact between the contact members.

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During t2 interval: 1. Supposing the voltage between the contact members is constant, (for quick breakers) we can write Va = ct. During t2 time, the circuit equation is:
L di + Ri + Va = V dt

(2.48)

or,
L di + Ri = V Va dt

(2.49)

With initial condition:

i (0) = = V [A]. R

The solution of this equation has the form i = ip + it, composed by a transient and a permanent member.
ip = V Va R

(2.50)

and
it = Ke t / ; = L R

(2.51)

The final solution is:

i= Va V + Ke t / ; R

(2.52)

For i(0) = V/R

V V Va = i (0) = + K; R R

(2.53)

Then:
K= V V Va Va = R R R

(2.54)

and,

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT i= V Va Va t / V Va V + e = 1 (1 e t / ) = 1 (1 e t / ) ; R V R R R

(2.55)

where = Va / V.

Fig. 2.12 For t = t0 , i = 0, result:

0= V 1 1 et S / t s = ln R 1

)]

(2.56)

That means t2 = tS 2. Supposing the voltage between the contact members depend on i (Va = f(i)), we will have:
L di + Ri + va = V dt

(2.58)

with initial condition:

i (0) = = V . R

(2.59)

We want to determine the condition of arc quenching.

L di = U Ri U a dt

(2.60)

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If di < 0 on the t2 time, Ldi/dt < 0, and the arc is quenching (see fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.13 D.C. arc. Remarks: 1. ad =V, ab = V - iR, ac = Va; 2.L di / dt 0, ab ac < 0 The necessary condition for the D.C. arc quenching is that the arc characteristic to be up to the V iR line, (ab - ac < 0) . If the arc characteristic cut the V iR line, the arc is not quenching and remains between the contact pieces. The A point is functional unstable and B point is stable. In order to quench a direct current arc, it is necessary to establish conditions under which the processes of ionization taking place in the arc gap are overbalanced by the processes of deionization at all values acquired by the arc current in the course of its variation. For the electric circuit (see fig.2.11) connected to a source of supply voltage V and containing a resistance R, inductance L and an arc gap, the voltage drop across the arc gap being Va (Fig. 2.13). At any instant of time, this circuit obeys Kirchhoff's voltage law by which

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

V=Va+iR+L Where L current. With stable burning of the arc

di dt

(2.61)

di is the voltage drop across the inductance due to variation of the circuit dt

di = 0, and J it may be written that dt

V = Va + iR

(2.62)

Fig. 2.14. Conditions for direct current arc extinction The current has to decrease continuously for the extinction of the arc. This implies that
di < 0, dt

and Va > V -iR (2.63)

The above inequality must be satisfied at any value of the current from 10 = V/R to zero. Fig. 2.13 presents a graphical solution of eq. (7.2). Straight line 1 represents the supply voltage V, line 2 is the voltage drop across the resistance (rheostatic characteristic of the circuit) reckoned from voltage V, and curve 3 is the Voltagecurrent characteristic of the arc gap. The ordinates confined between the respective lines and the curve gives the following quantities: iR - between 1 and 2; L between

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47

2 and 3; V -iR-between 2 and the axis of abscissa; Va-between 3 and the axis of abscissa. Conditions V= Va -iR and L equilibrium is reached. When the circuit current i < I a, the arc voltage Va > V -iR and term L
di is negative. dt di =0 dt

are fulfilled at points a and b where a state of

If for some reason or other the current becomes smaller than Ia it then will drop to zero and the arc will be extinguished. Whenever the current becomes slightly greater than Ia the arc voltage Va < V - iR . This means that the circuit has an excess voltage that raises the current to Ib. In all cases when i > Ia, the arc current will increase up to Ib. Term L
di is positive between points a and b. In this case, any increase in the circuit dt

current leads to storage of electromagnetic energy. When the circuit current i > Ib, we again have the arc voltage Va > V -iR and term L
di negative. Under such conditions, the supply voltage is too low to keep the current at dt

this level. In consequence, the current will decrease to Ib, i.e., maintains stable burning of the arc at point b of the characteristic curve. For reliable extinction of the arc, inequality (7.4) must be satisfied at every value of the current. This implies that the voltage-current characteristic curve of the arc must lie above curve V-iR throughout its entire length (as shown in Fig. 7.5c) and have no point in common with the latter curve. It should be borne in mind that the voltage-current characteristic under consideration is the dynamic characteristic of the arc.

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2.2.2. Disconnection of A.C. electrical circuit In the case of A.C. circuits, the electric arc is quenching every half of the period because of the natural passing through zero of electric current. If ionization state does not remain between contact members, the quenching is definitive. Because of this ionization state, between contact members the arc restarts at every half of period. The most important problem is to quench definitively the arc. This thing can be achieved if the opening of the contact members takes place in the moment of passing trough zero of the current. This type of commutation is called synchronous switching, and the switch is called synchronous breaker [32]. In contrast to D.C. arc, the A.C. arc is quenching at every half of period. Because of thermal inertia, the arc space remains ionizated, keeping some conductivity, which make possible the passing of a post arc current. This current, make possible the restart of the arc. To quench the arc is necessary to increase the dielectric rigidity of the space between the contact members, quickly after the zero passing of the current. Generally, the definitive quenching of the arc is realized after few half of period when the necessary voltage for the arc restart is higher then the contact members voltage. Because the A.C. arc proprieties depend on the medium action upon it, we take in considerations just two cases: The current of an alternating-current arc, passes through zero irrespective of the degree of ionization of the arc gap, as distinct from a direct-current arc where special measures have to be taken to bring the arc current to zero. This circumstance somewhat facilitates the quenching of an alternating-current arc, it being only necessary to prevent the current from rising again after its passage through zero. Figure 2.15a presents the variation of the current and voltage of an alternatingcurrent with time. The current begins to rise from zero and the voltage across the arc gap attains Vig (ignition voltage) where the arc is ignited. After the arc voltage

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49

gradually decreases with further increase of the current and is at a minimum when the current reaches maximum (peak) value. After that the arc voltage slowly rises and in due course attains Vex (arc extinguishing voltage) and the current becomes zero.

Fig 2.15 Characteristics of the A.C. arc: a) Static characteristics u(t) and i(t); b) dynamic characteristics u(i) Fig. 2.15.b presents the voltage-current characteristic of an alternating-current arc taken over a full cycle of the current. The temperature of the arc changes as the arc current does, but never drops to zero, because of the thermal inertia of the gas in the arc gap. The drop of the arc temperature during zero current periods promotes deionization of the arc gap and contributes to the extinction of the arc.

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As it could be seen in the photo from fig. 2.15.a the variation of the arc current does not follow a true sinusoid because of the constancy of the power When passing through zero, as can be seen from the solid curve i in Fig. 2.16, the current drops to almost zero shortly before the sinusoid reaches its natural zero and then leaps up shortly after the passage through zero. There is a certain no-current time interval ti=0 during which the arc gap is subjected to intense deionization. The time interval depends by the inductivity of the circuit (usually 0.1s). The greater the extent of deionization, the higher will be the voltage required to break down the arc gap and re-strike the arc.

Fig. 2.16 Passage of current through zero

These conditions are met in properly designed arc-quenching devices. Disconnection in the case of an open arc. In case of the arc burning in the quiet atmosphere, the column thermal inertia is so high that the thermal state of the arc space is insignificant in the half of period. As consequence, the current change the sign like in a conductor. This arc is called free arc.

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51

In the case of a high voltage free arc, between the contact members is kept a high conductivity. The arc quenching is due not to the zero passing of the current or to the increase of the electrical rigidity in the arc space, but to the length of the arc column, and so to the increasing of the necessary voltage to maintain the arc. At the high voltage circuit disconnection, in case of arc apparition between the contact members (the opening of an isolator), the current is diminished in few periods till the total quenching of the arc as result of the arc column resistance increasing.

Fig. 2.18 The arc quenching for a R type circuit For a certain length of the A.C. arc the network voltage is insignificant for the arc maintaining, become the current rising and the arc is quenched. Disconnection of A.C. electric arc in the case of a high deionization of the gap In this case the arc is subjected to a high deionization of the column by the action of a quenching medium. The methods to action against the arc are: - To blow the arc by a gas or a liquid; - To increase the arc length;

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

- To put the arc in the contact with cold walls; - To divide the main arc in few small arcs, a.s.o. In the case of a high deionization of the arc column, the arc column diameter is diminished (the current density increase) and this modification is synchronous with the current modification. At the current passing through zero the dielectric rigidity increase and in the next half of period the restart of the arc is conditioned by the penetration of the clearance between the contact members. After the passing of current through zero, the increasing of the dielectric rigidity of the arc space remains always higher then the restabilization voltage. The voltage appearing suddenly across the contact gap at the moment following arc extinction rises from the arc extinguishing value to the instantaneous value of the supply voltage occurring at that moment V rm. This process is known as the recovery of the voltage across the gap.

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53

3.ELECTRICAL ARC SUPPRESSION

3.1. General The circuit interruption, as was presented in the second chapter, because of considerable current and voltage gives rise to an electrical discharge between the separating contacts of the circuit-opening device. The air in the contact gap becomes conducting for some time due to the effect of ionization. In the period of the contact opening, the circuit current drops from its initial value to zero. It is necessary an interruption of the circuit by demonizing the air gap, i.e., and discontinuing the electrical discharge by the restoration of the dielectric strength across the contacts [20, 53]. At small currents and voltages, interrupting a.c. circuits may be opened without the occurrence of any discharge. In this case, the circuit-opening device provides for sparkles switching. Fig. 3.1 illustrates the dependence of the voltage drop across the contact gap on the gas discharge current. There are four sections [50]: Section is the initial stage of discharge; it is characterized by a high voltage drop in the vicinity of the cathode (usually 200 - 250 V) and by a light current (up to 0.1A). This is known as glow discharge with which the density of the current is only a few A /cm2 of the gap cross-sectional area. The voltage drop across the contact gap rises with increasing current and attains a value of about 300 to 400 V. Section II represents a transitional stage at which the glow discharge changes into an arc.

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Section III is the final stage of discharge; it is a pure arc discharge characterized by a low voltage drop across the gap (about 10 - 20 V) and a high current density (up to 100kA/cm2).

Fig.3.1. V(I) characteristic of gas discharge: I - glow discharge; II -transition from glow to arc discharge; III-arc discharge The arc is characterized by an extremely high temperature (up to 3000C). For this reason the arc should be considered a thermal, as well, as an electrical phenomenon. 3.2 Ionization of the gap Air in normal state is practically a perfect non-conductor at all voltage gradients below its dielectric strength. More than 30 kV is needed to cause dielectric breakdown of the 1 cm air gap. Air can be made a conductor by ionization. For this, it is necessary a certain concentration of charged particles (positive ions and, mostly, free electrons) in the air gap. Any gas can be ionized by the action of light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, high temperature, electric fields and other external ionizing agents.

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55

The most important ionizing processes between separating contacts of the arc are: thermionic emission and field emission of electrons from the surface of the contacts, thermal ionization and ionization by collision occurring within the arc gap. Table 3.1 Element H2 CO2 O2 He N2 Pt Ni Ionization potential [V] 15.4 14.3 15.5 24.5 15.8 8,9 7.61 C Al Fe Hg C W Zn Element Ionization potential [V] 7.72 6 7.86 10.43 11.26 7.98 9.35

The ionization potential of a gas mixture is determined by the lowest potential of ionization of its components and is only slightly affected by their concentration. The vapors of the electrode material inevitably present in any short arc determine the ionization potential of the gap passing such an arc discharge. It should be noted that not all electrons moving at a velocity above that required for ionization by collision come into actual impact with neutral particles and contribute to the ionization of the gas. The probability of shock ionization is zero at sub-critical velocities of the free electrons and increases with the rise of these velocities above critical value.

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3.3. Deionization of the Gap The deionization is the reverse processes of conversion of the charge carriers accompany the processes of ionization, into neutral particles. It is made by recombination, a process by which colliding negative and positive charge carriers combine into neutral particles. The processes of ionization predominate at the instant of arc ignition and the deionization processes leads to extinction of the arc. There are two types of recombination: volume recombination in which the intermediate agent is a neutral particle of the gas; surface recombination or wall effect, wherein the intermediate agent is the surface of the wall near the arc. At relatively low ion concentrations and gas temperatures surface recombination is 102 to 106 times more intense than volume recombination. Diffusion is a process by which the charge carriers drift from the arc gap into the surrounding space, thus reducing the electric conductivity of the arc. Diffusion is produced by electrical and thermal effects. The concentration of charge carriers increases progressively from the outer to the inner layers of the arc column. In the case of arcs quenched by a jet of compressed air and rapidly displaced open arcs, diffusion plays about the same part as recombination in deionizing the arc column. The deionization of arcs burning in narrow slits or in a closed chamber is brought depends largely upon their physical properties. The arc is best cooled and,

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57

consequently, most rapidly quenched by gases of high thermal conductivity and heat capacity. Physical parameters of quenching used gases and their thermal conductivity and arc-quenching capacity with reference to air are listed in Table 3.2. Table 3.2
Parameters Molar weight Molar heat capacity Temperature at which 50% of the gas molecules dissociate Heat of dissociation Average thermal conductivity within 0 - 6000K range Arc-quenching capacity Unit of meass. g cal K cal/mole Air 29 4.98 6500 1 1 N 28 4.99 6800 208000 0.8 1 O2 31 4.98 3800 117000 1.8 1.8 CO2 44 6.86 3000 99000 2.5 2.6 Steam 18 6.11 3800 70000 5 3.8 H2 -2 4.88 3800 101000 17 7.1

3.4. Characteristics of Electric Arcs The dependence of the voltage drop along the arc on the arc current, known as the arc voltage-current or volt-ampere characteristic and represented graphically in Fig. 3.3, constitutes an approved means of illustrating the properties of electric arcs. Voltage Vig is called the ignition voltage of the arc [53]. The arc current will be in a state of equilibrium in which the rate of ionization equals that of deionization. So, the resistance of the arc gap and the voltage drop along the arc may at any given instant be treated as constant and time-invariable quantities. Characteristic curve 1 obtained under such conditions (termed static conditions) is referred to as the static characteristic of the arc.

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Curves 2 represent a series of voltage-current characteristics obtained by recording the voltage as a function of the arc current while lowering the latter from 10 to zero at different rates of reduction. The quicker the current is reduced, the greater is the departure of the resultant characteristic curve from curve 1. In the limiting case when the arc current drops instantly to zero, the characteristic curve takes the form of straight line 3. The process follows the static characteristic curve only with a slow variation of the arc current. With a rapid variation of the arc current the voltage-current characteristic ceases to be static due to the fact that the accompanying change in the state of ionization of the arc gap lags behind the current. As the arc gap has not had time to deionize sufficiently in the course of the drop in the current, its conductivity remains unchanged in spite of the passage of a lighter current.

Fig. 3.2 Voltage-current characteristics of an electric arc The voltage-current characteristic V(I) is the dynamic characteristic of the arc. Voltage Vex is the extinguishing or quench voltage of the arc.

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59

In fig.3.2 are presented the dynamic characteristic curves lying between curves 1 and 3 (Fig. 3.2). The conducting properties of the arc gap are characterized by the voltage drop Va along the arc, and its insulating properties are determined by the ignition voltage Vig and the extinguishing voltage Vex as the values of the latter two voltages define the voltage that is to be applied across the given gap to strike the arc. The arc voltage is unevenly distributed along the length of a stationary arc. Fig. 3.3 illustrates how the arc voltage Va and voltage gradient grad Va vary along such a direct current arc (the voltage gradient is understood to be the voltage drop per unit length of the arc). The pattern of the curves in Fig. 3.3 clearly shows that there is a great difference between the variation of the arc voltage and voltage gradient in the immediate neighborhood of the electrodes and along the rest of the arc.

Fig. 3.3. Distribution of voltage and voltage gradient along a stationary direct current arc

The voltage is seen to drop sharply within the cathode and anode regions which usually take up about 10-4 cm of the arc length. The drops concentrated at the respective electrodes are termed anode fall of voltage or anode drop Vanode and cathode fall of

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voltage or cathode drop Vcathode. The sum of the anode and cathode drops ranges from 15 - 30 V, and the voltage gradient is as high as 105 - 106 V/cm depending on the material of the electrodes and the physical properties of the surrounding gas. The voltage drop along the remainder of the arc, known as the arc column, is practically in direct proportion to the arc length. The voltage gradient is approximately constant along the arc column and its value may vary over a wide range with an upper limit of 100 - 200 V/cm depending on several factors. The voltage drop in the electrode regions Ve (i.e., the sum of the anode and cathode drops) is independent of the arc length, and the voltage drop along the arc column varies in direct proportion to the length of the arc. Thus, the voltage drop across the gap will be Va = Ve + grad Vala Where: grad Va = voltage gradient along the arc column la = arc length Ve = Vanode + Vcathode (3.1)

3.5. Power and Energy of the Arc To calculate the power of the arc is necessary to know the arc resistance. This resistance - Ra is a purely ohmic resistance, irrespective of whether a direct or alternating current arc is dealt with. The arc resistance is given by the following equation: Ra= and then the arc power is Pa = Vai (3.3)
Va i

(3.2)

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61

The energy released in the arc will be

Wa = Vaidt ,
0 ta

(3.4)

where ta is the arc duration. The energy released in the arc set up between separating contacts is the most important factor governing the design of circuit-opening devices. So, the energy released in a direct current arc may be found as
I 02 ta Wa = R( I 0 i )dt + Lidt = l + R( I 0 i )dt = Wm = Ws 2 I0 0 0
0 ta

(3.5)

where:
Wm =L

I 02 is the energy stored in the magnetic field of the interrupted 2

circuit
Ws = R ( I 0 i )dt is the energy delivered to the arc from the source of
0 ta

supply in the course of the arc burning 10 = V / R is the initial value of the current Thus, the energy released in the arc during the process of interruption of a directcurrent circuit will be
Wa = WM + Ws = L
2 I0 ta (1 + 2k ) T 2

(3.6)

3.6 Quenching of Electric Arcs The hallmark of a properly built arc-quenching device is not just its ability to suppress the arc, but also to do so within a small region of space, with minimum noise

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and emission of light, in a short period of time and with little wear of its structural elements. [50] An electric arc is known to extinguish when the arc voltage: Va = Ve + grad Vala> V iR. (3.7)

From this equation results that the arc can be quenched by the following means: by increasing the arc length la; by raising the voltage gradient along the arc column grad Va; by taking advantage of the electrode region voltage drop Ve. Considering these methods of arc suppression based on these possibilities we will estimate their efficiency. The most efficient method of arc suppression is that which provides for the greatest voltage drop per unit length of the arc. By lengthening the arc we increase the voltage drop across it. The heat is taken from the arcs in low-voltage switches and circuit breakers by air at atmospheric pressure. A relatively small quantity of heat is removed from stationary and mechanically lengthened arcs. The voltage gradient in these cases is small. It is 8-10 V/cm in d.c. arcs heavier than 100 A (see curve v = 0 in Fig 3.4), and for long arcs it attains 12 V/cm. For a.c. arcs the voltage gradient along the column is 15 V/cm. As it was presented in chapter 2, the arc length lcrit needed for full extinction is called the critical length of the arc. The critical length is the greater, the higher the arc voltage. The arc will extinguish only after becoming of sufficient length lcrit at which grad Va lcrit > V I R Ve;

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lcrit > V-iR-Ve grad Va

63

(3.8)

Fig. 3.4 Voltage gradient in a d.c. arc, in air, for different velocities of displacement

The arc is lengthened mechanically when the contacts separate. Operating experience indicates that the critical length of the arc is practically independent of the speed of contact separation. The critical length increases with raising current, this being in total agreement with the voltage current characteristic of the arc. The time necessary for the extinguishing of the arc is:
lcrit vax

ta =

(3.9)

By using strong opening springs to raise the speed of contact separation the arc can be quenched. Because of the low voltage gradients along the column of mechanically lengthened arcs, the critical length of a 600-A 220-V arc is approximately 25 cm. Such contact gap, even using a strong opening springs, makes it practically impossible to develop a magnetic system of reasonable size. That means that the mechanical lengthening as a method of arc suppression is applicable only to switches and circuit breakers of small current ratings.

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3.6.1 The Blowing of Burning Arcs Because the burning of arc in air is sustained by thermal ionization the best method of extinction is by cooling the arc column. This cooling may be made by blowing air over it, using cumbersome auxiliary equipment or to move the arc through the surrounding atmosphere. The rate of cooling rises, with increasing velocity of the arc displacement and causes sharp increase in the voltage gradient.

Fig.3.5 Variation of current density with velocity of displacement of a free arc along parallel electrodes

Traveling arcs deionizes at a higher rate than stationary arcs do owing to the more intensive cooling. The cooling by blowing air across the arc is a most important method for easy extinction of the arc. The arc temperature rises with increasing velocity of the arc displacement. This dependence is approximated by relationship: j 2vn . The density of the current in a moving arc attains several tens of thousands of A/cm2, and in the case of a stationary arc it is 18 - 20 A/cm2. The electromagnetic forces due to the interaction between the arc current and its magnetic field tend to contract it. Because the arc is like a round conductor, the pressure produced by these forces in its center will be:

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT Pm= I2 2 *107 = I j *107 [N/cm ] 2 r

65

(3.10)

where

I = arc current, [A], j = current density, [A/cm2]

For an average short-circuit current of 40kA and a velocity of 250 m/sec, the maximum pressure in the column of the arc will be in the region of 200 N/cm2. Such a pressure rise intensifies the processes of deionization occurring in the arc column and increases the voltage gradient along the arc. In the case of the arc across parallel, the arc remains of constant length throughout its upward travel, and only increasing the voltage gradient along the arc column can bring about its extinguishments. In the case of horn type electrodes, the arc lengthens as it is moved along the horns and at a given displacement velocity extinguishes when the critical length is attained. The arcing contacts of quenching devices are customarily made in the form of horns because of the velocity of the movement at the end of arc movements. 3.6.2 Displacement of the electric arc. An electric arc can be displaced by the forces of an externally applied magnetic field, by the electrodynamics forces acting in its own circuit or by the combined effect of them. An arc could be regarded as a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field and the force will act in the direction-determined by Fleming's left-hand rule. This force per unit length of the arc will be F1=IH where I = arc current H = total magnetic field strength. (3.11)

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The magnetic field needed to set up the movement of the arc can be produced by: coils in series with the arcing contacts; coils in parallel with the power supply mains; permanent magnets. The coils and magnets usually have a magnetic circuit embracing the contacts and the horns carrying the arc. The blowout coil is generally in series with the arcing contacts and makes the direction of the electrodynamic force.

Fig. 3.6 Arc quencher with series blowout coil [50]: 1-series-connected blowout coil; 2insulating sleeve; 3-core; 4-pole; 5-arc chute; 6-horn; 7-contacts; 8-arc; (+++) dirrection of arc quenching flux

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3.6.3 Arc Quenching in Axial Slots The most circuit breakers used in present-day is made of arc-quenching chambers (arc chutes) with axial slots directed along the axis of the arc column. The slot is formed between two plates of insulating and arc-resistant material (see Fig. 3.7).

Fig.3.7 Types of axial slots: 1 axial slot, 2 wide slot There are two types of slots: wide and narrow slots. The slot is considered to be wide when its width is much greater than the diameter of the arc. The diameter of the arc depends on the level of the current, the velocity of the arc displacement and the cooling conditions, one and the same slot may prove to be wide or narrow, depending on the operating conditions. The effect produced by slots is purely quantitative. Narrow slots offer considerable resistance to the movement of the arc; alter its cross-sectional area causing an important change in the cooling conditions. 3.6.4 Arc Extinction in Oil One of the first methods of extinguishing alternating-current arcs in high voltage circuit breakers was the immersion of the arcing contacts in oil.

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The high temperature of the arc (5000-6000C) causes intense evaporation of the oil followed by decomposition of its vapors. The gas bubble (Fig. 3.8) is composed of hydrogen (7080% of the gases inside the bubble) and oil vapors. Table 3.2, shows hydrogen features the highest thermal conductivity and arc-quenching capacity. The liberation of hydrogen constitutes a major advantage of oil as a quenching medium. The gases with high pressure penetrate the arc column, causing active mixing of the cold and hot gases inside the bubble and promoting rapid cooling and deionization of the arc gap. This explosive oil decomposition of the arc causes a sharp rise of the gas pressure inside the bubble contributing to rapid extinction of the arc. The pressure is about 50 100 N/cm2.

Fig 3.8 Break of the arc in gas bubble and oil [50]: 1-fixed contact; 2-moving contact; 3-tank wall; 4-oil; A-arc column; B-hydrogen sheath; C-zone of decomposition; D-gas sheath; E-vapour sheath; F-zone of evaporation

The jet forced along the arc is axial jet, and the cross jet is projected across the arc (see Fig. 3.11) In the case of a plain break in oil, the arc is in the middle of a bubble containing a mixture of gases and vapors that are in relatively steady state. The arc-quenching effect of the oil can be intensified by enclosing the arc in a special chamber to obtain a

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controlled break of the arc current. The effect of the chamber is to ensure a close contact of the arc column with the oil during current interruption and to promote speedier cooling of the arc by generating a jet of gas, vapor, oil or their mixture.

Fig. 3.9 The cross jet projected across the arc [34] Table 3.4 presents a list of experimentally obtained data on the voltage gradient along oil-cooled arcs. Table 3.4
Types for arc cooling in oil Arc burning in a gas-vapor bubble at heavy currents Arc in the axial jet of gas-vapor mixture Arc burning in an atmosphere of hydrogen at light currents (up to 2A) Arc in a cross jet at heavy currents and a pressure of p N/cm2 Arc voltage gradient [V/cm] 70- 100 200 400 5.5 p

The arc-quenching devices of oil circuit breakers are divided into three principals groups of arc-quenching devices: 1. with self-generated jet, where the energy needed is supplied entirely by the arc itself. This system is the most commonly used, because is more efficient and less sophisticated than others.

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Fig. 3.10 The circuit breakers with self generated jet and mechanically generated jet across the arc [34] 2. with mechanically generated jet, where the jet of oil is produced by a piston of powered by a separate source of energy. 3. with magnetic extinction of the arc in oil, where the force to transverse the arc is given by a magnetic field. 3.6.5 Air-Blast Extinction of Arcs The arc is extinguished by a blast of compressed air at a certain pressure is directed along or across the arc appearing between the separating contacts of the circuit breaker. This operation with compressed air at a very high velocity (closely approaching that of sound) entrains the hot ionized particles of the arcing zone and replaces them by cold ones. Results a sharp drop in temperature, particularly during the current zero periods. High-voltage air blast circuit breakers are very widely used, continuing to displace other types of circuit breakers, including those employing oil.

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The process of quenching by a blast of air depends largely upon the distance between the arcing contacts. It may seem at first glance that the conditions for the arc extinction will be the better, the greater the separation of the contacts. The outflow velocity of the air and conditions for the arc extinction improve with the enlargement of the exhaust hole.

Fig. 3.11 Typical air-blast chambers [53]: (a) cross-blast; (b) single-side axial blast with the chamber throat; (c) single side axial blast through a metal nozzle; (d) single-side axial blast through an insulating nozzle; (e) and (f) double-side blast through nozzle-shaped contacts;1- fixed contact; 2insulating barriers; 3-arc; 4-moving contact; 5-casing; 6-metal nozzle; 7-insulating nozzle

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3.6.6 Arc-Quenching Grids The arc can be extinguished by utilizing the voltage drops in the electrode regions of the arc discharge. This method of arc extinction consists in placing a stack of stationary metal plates 5 insulated from one another and constituting the arc-quenching grid over the arcing contacts 1 and 2 as shown schematically in Fig. 3.2.13. Arc 3 drawn between the separating contacts is forced upwards and enters the grid where the plates subdivide it into a series of short arcs 4. An electrode voltage drop occurs at each plate of the grid, and the arc is extinguished by the combined effect of these drops.

Fig 3.12 Two types of grids-quenched arcs The arc in Fig. 3.12a is extinguished during the half cycle it enters the grid. In the case illustrated in Fig. 3.12b, the arc may not have enough time to enter the necessary number of gaps in the course of a half-cycle since the actual length of the arc depends upon the speed of the contact separation. The number of plates is appreciably smaller than that required for extinguishing a direct-current arc. Arc-quenching grids are widely used in alternating-current circuit

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breakers and rarely encountered in direct-current circuit breakers because of metal transportation in direct-current. These advantages have promoted the widespread employment of the grids in the arc-quenching devices of contactors and air circuit breakers. The minimum allowable spacing of steel plates is 2 mm. The displacement of an arc in a grid of magnetic material has the advantage because the electromagnetic forces arising in a grid of magnetic material (steel) tend to level of the velocity of displacement of individual arcs.

Fig. 3.13 Quenching rooms of contactors: a) 32 A A.C. contactors; b) High power contactors: in the right a D.C. contactor and in the left an A.C. contactor These aid in forcing the arc into the grid and oppose its expulsion from the grid. This advantage of steel plates has promoted the extensive use of arc-quenching devices with grids. The employment of steel plates instead of copper or brass ones cuts down the cost of the device.

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Fig. 3.14 Low voltage circuit breaker and its quenching room 3.6.7 SF6-Blast Extinction of Arcs The circuit breaker with SF6 use sulphur hexafluoride because it is a very stable inert gas of high arc-quenching capacity and featuring a higher dielectric strength than air. The sulphur hexafluoride gas blown into the arcing zone absorbs electrons from the arc column and promotes energetic deionization. The pressure of the gas in the quenching chamber is about 20 N /cm2. The capability of this gas derives from the ability of its molecules to capture electrons. The negative ions formed in this manner are of much lower mobility in an electric field than free electrons.

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3.6.8 Vacuum Quenching Rooms The arc-quenching chamber of vacuum circuit breakers is essentially a sealed glass vessel containing the fixed and moving contacts in high vacuum. The full stroke of the moving contacts required for reliable interruption is not more than a few millimetres at a peak voltage of 100 kV and higher. The circuit interruption occurs in a hermetically sealed chamber from which the air has been evacuated to a pressure as low as 10-6 to 10-8 N/cm2. As can be seen from the curves shown in Fig. 11.16, the breakdown voltage of the electrode gap is much higher in vacuum than in air.

Fig. 3.15 Dependence of breakdown voltage OR distance between 9.5 mm diameter electrodes [50]: 1 - in air at normal atmospheric pressure; 2 - in vacuum Vacuum also has the advantage of rapidly restoring the dielectric strength of the arc gap. At a relatively small spacing of the electrodes, the gap regains its initial

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dielectric strength equal to that of vacuum in about 10 microseconds after the passage of the arc current through zero. Such a flashover may result from gradual deposition of vaporized contact metal on the walls of the vessel in the course of service. Because of the vacuum are not subject to contact members oxidation. A disadvantage of vacuum circuit breakers is that the manufacture of sealed high vacuum chamber vacuum presents some technological design problems.

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4.ELECTRIC CONTACTS
General A contact of a switch for instance has two pieces of metal called contacts that touch to make a circuit, and separate to break the circuit. Contact materials are chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity. Contacts are sometimes plated with noble metals. An electrical apparatus is an assembly of electrically interconnected parts. The point at which the circuit current passes from one current-carrying part to another is called a point of electrical contact, and the co-operating parts involved are referred to as contact members or contacts. 4.1. Types of contacts The contacts, according to their arrangement and possible relative displacement may be classified as: stationary contacts - permanent electrical connection (bus joints, conductor terminal connections, etc.); switching contacts make, break or change the connections of circuits carrying or liable to carry an electric current, (the contacts of circuit breakers, knife switches, etc.); sliding contacts are a version of switching contacts where one of the contact member, is slid over the other one without interrupting their electrical contact and, consequently, the continuity of the electric circuit (contacts of rheostats, the brush contact of d.c. motor commutator, etc) and wet contacts are a solution where the connection between contacts members is realized by mercury

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Fig. 4.1. Wet contact: 1 - glass tube, 2 - terminals, 3 - mercury There are nominal contact area, sometimes referred to the apparent contact area and actual contact area. Even microscopically, a well polished contact surface appears as peaks, ridges and other irregularities. When the contacts are brought together, metallic contact is established only at point, where individual microscopic surface elements or spot, touch each other (Fig. 4.le) rather than over the entire nominal area of the contact member, (Fig 41c). The number of the contacting surface element and their disposition depend on the shape of the contact faces.

Fig.4.2. Types of contacts [50]

According to the shape of the contact faces, electrical contacts are classified as: point contacts - contact, in which the current-carrying members come into contact only at one surface element, i.e., at a single point (sphere to-sphere, sphere-to-plane, cone-

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to-plane and other similar contacts); line contacts - contacts in which the currentcarrying members nominally come into contact along a line (cylinder-to-plane, turn-toturn etc.); plane contacts - contacts in which the current-carrying members nominally touch each other over a plane of some configuration. The contact area of the contact members increases with the increasing the pressing force between contact members and depends upon the crushing resistance of the contact material. Appreciatively, the area of the single surface element is given by the equation:
A= F

(4.1)

where:

F is the pressing force to the contact members together and is ultimate

crushing resistance of the contact material. Table 4.1 [49]

Material Hard copper Soft copper Aluminum Silver Platinum Zinc Lead Tin [N/cm2] 52000 39000 29000 31000 78000 43000 2300 4500 Material Gold Graphite Molybdenum Nickel Bismuth Vanadium Antimony Tantalum [N/cm2] 53000 13000 169000 225000 3600 372000 10600 90000

Increasing the pressing force the increase in the area of the contacting surface elements slows down, and the entire contact surface begins to set. It is impossible to increase the contact pressing force beyond a definite limit value. It is obvious that the multipoint contacts are always of higher service reliability than single-point contacts.

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3.2. Contact Resistance The contact resistance is similar to the resistance of any metallic conductor, a specific feature in this case being that the conductor responsible for the contact resistance is in the form of a microscopic peak at which two conductors come into physical contact [49]. The contact resistance may be considered as resulting from a drastic narrowing of the cross-sectional area of the conductors at such peaks, causing a sharp increase in the density of the current passing through the contacting surface elements as compared with the current density in the body of the conductors (see fig.4.2). Dependence of contact resistance by applied pressing force. This dependence is represented graphically in fig 4.2a. Curve 1 corresponds to the case of increasing contact pressing force and curve 2 applies to the case of diminishing contact pressing force. The difference in the course of the curves is due to the residual deformation of individual contacting peaks of the contact members. The contact resistance is not the same upon each closure of the contacts and is liable to vary within a wide range which narrows with large contact pressing forces (more than 100 N). This effect is due to the difference in the number and size of the surface elements coming into contact during each closure. The dependence of the contact resistance on the contact pressing force is practically represented by a region between two curves. Evidently, the contact resistance will depend by the number of points at which the contact members touch each other.

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Fig. 4.2. Dependence of contact resistance on the contact pressing force [53]

Dependence of contact resistance on temperature The contact resistance is the electrical resistance of the material of the contact face peaks. The contact resistance varies with temperature by physics law. The contact resistance increases initially with rising temperature as shown by section I of the curve in Fig. 4.3. Then the mechanical properties of the conductor material worsen abruptly when a certain temperature is reached (200 to 300C for copper and silver). Upon this temperature, the contact area enlarges and the contact resistance drops sharply (section II). Further on, the contact resistance rises again in direct proportion to the temperature (section III) and eventually drops almost to zero at the melting point of the conductor material is reached (section IV) [53].

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Fig 4.3 Dependence of contact resistance on temperature

Dependence of contact resistance on surface quality The polishing increases rather than reduces the contact resistance and that better results are obtained by filing the contact faces. This is possible because the polishing makes the surface peaks flatter and more resistant to crushing. Dependence of contact resistance on the properties of contact materials The contact resistance depends on the oxidation of the contact surfaces because their oxides are poor conductors. Oxidation causes the increase of the contact resistance of contact member (see experimental results from table 4.2) [36]. The contact surfaces are oxidized by the oxygen contained in the air. Oxidation progresses more rapidly with the rising temperature of the contacts. Silver oxides have an electrical conductivity closely approaching that of pure silver and are disintegrated at high temperatures. So, the contact resistance of electrical contacts made of silver is practically independent of time. It may even drop with time owing to the gradual plastic deformation of the contacting surface elements.

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Table 4.2 [50] Time of oxide film formation -, in days at = 70C 22 36 38 46 57 Increase in contact resistance 5- fold 150 000- fold 1755- fold 1820- fold 900- fold

Contact material Silver- silver Copper-copper Copper-brass Brass- brass Steel- steel

The increases of the contact resistance sometimes cause an inadmissible temperature rise of the contacts. For the copper contacts, working at high currents, special measures must be taken to prevent oxidation of contacting surfaces. The contacting surfaces of permanent contact joints are usually given an anticorrosive coating by silvering, tinning, and cadmium-plating or, sometimes, nickelplating and galvanizing them. It is also customary to cover the contacting surfaces with a layer of neutral lubricant after having cleaned them by filing. Switching contacts for continuous duty in closed position are generally made of silver or silver-base cermets. The arc set up across the separating contacts burns their surface oxides, thus lowering the contact resistance. The contact system of electrical apparatus (contactors, air circuit breakers, etc.) provides for a wiping action whereby one of the contacts slides over the other during the time of closure and removes the oxide film formed on their surfaces. Materials of high hardness exhibit a high contact resistance and require application of a considerable contact pressing force. The contact resistance of conductor materials is the lower, the higher their electrical and thermal conductivity.

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4.3. Temperature of Surface Element The current passing through a contacting surface element of contact resistance generates heat energy according JouleLenz law. Since this is much greater than the heat energy generated in the body of the contact member and is given up to the surrounding medium from the surface of the contact member, the temperature of the contacting surface element will be higher than the average temperature of the contact member. 4.4. Cooled Contacts An increase of the permissible load current of cooled apparatus leads to an increase of the voltage drop across the contact resistance and causes a sharp rise in the temperature of the contacting surface element. A five to six-fold increase in the load may produce a voltage drop of 80 to 100 mV across the contact resistance and raise the temperature of the contacting surface element so that it will be 140 to 180C above the average temperature of the contact members without causing any significant rise in the average temperature. It is possible to improve the situation by bringing the contacting surface element as close to the liquid or air-cooled surface as possible. Indeed, the temperature of the contacting surface element rises above the maximum temperature of the cooled surface within the contact region and diminish closer to the cooled surface. By experimental researches the silver contacts can safely carry a load at which the temperature of the contacting surface elements does not exceed 200C. The temperature rise of the cooled contacts must be measured relative to the average temperature of the cooling fluid and not to that of the surrounding air. Copper contacts are probably the best to be avoided in the water-cooled equipment.

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4.5. Types of Contacts Stationary contacts are inseparable electrical connections made for permanently joining current-carrying parts. The joint must ensure a reliable and tight contact along with a low contact resistance [50]. Figure 4.6 shows some typical stationary contacts. It is easier to join the buses by means of several small bolts (Fig. 4.6b) instead of a single large bolt (Fig. 4.6a) since the multi-bolt connection provides for a greater number of contact points. The joint shown in Fig. 4.6c affords a still greater number of contact points. The contact resistance is lower when the buses are joined together by using special straps (Fig. 4.6d) instead of through bolts. It is recommended to join laminated buses as shown in Fig. 4.6e where the number of contact points is about three times greater arid the conditions for cooling are much better than in the arrangement shown in fig. 4.6.

Fig 4.4 Types of stationary contacts [53]

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Also round conductors can be joined together or fastened to a flat conductor either by flattening their ends or by fitting them with terminal lugs that may be fixed in place by soldering, welding or clamping. Round conductors carrying only up to a few tens of A can be terminated by twisting their ends into a loop which is then pressed against another conductor with a bolt passed through the loop. How to connect round conductors it is possible to find to using solutions from fig. 4.4 g-j, Switching contacts These types of contacts are the working elements of any switching apparatus. Figure 4.5 shows some commonly systems of this type used for switching small currents. Contact systems intended for making and breaking currents of greater magnitude must provide a multi-point contact. Contact systems used for switching medium and heavy currents can be classified as pivoted bridge, wedge, rolling, butt, and side cylinder-finger and may have a singlestage, or many-stage contact arrangement.

Fig. 4.5. Contact systems for small currents

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In the case of a single-stage contact arrangement, the contact pair serves both for carrying the circuit current continuously in the closed position and interrupting the arc during the opening of the circuit. For the two-stage contact arrangement each pole of the air circuit breaker is furnished with main and arcing contacts connected in parallel. The main contacts are made of silver and are designed to withstand the continuously rated current and shorttime rated currents of the circuit breaker without excessive heating.

Fig. 4.6 Many-stages contact arrangements [50]: 1-1 main contacts; 2-2 auxiliary contacts; 3-3 arcing contacts

The arcing contacts are made of an arc-resistant material and deal with the whole current when opening and closing the circuit. The main and arcing contacts open and close in the following order. The main contacts are the first to open and the last to close, so as to avoid arcing across them; the arcing contacts, being the first to close and the last to open, are thus subjected to all the arcing and sparking effects. In the cases a three-stage contact arrangement the arrangement provides for the use of auxiliary contacts in addition to the main and arcing ones. The auxiliary contacts make it easier for the circuit current to be drawn from the arcing contacts over to the main contacts (when closing the circuit) and vice versa (when opening the circuit).

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Pivoted contacts, or hinged-arm contacts (Fig. 4.7), are used in electrical apparatus with a rotary moving system. The system permits for the moving contact to roll or to slide over the fixed one when opening and closing the electric circuit. In this way, the contact point continuously carrying the circuit current and determining the contact resistance is separated from the point at which the arc appears. Moreover, the moving contact accomplishes a wiping action that has the effect o removing the oxide film and all traces of contamination from the contact face when a sufficient pressing force is applied to it. Such contacts are called wiping or selfcleaning contacts and can be made of copper.

Fig. 4.7 Copper pivoted contacts in a Low Voltage Interrupter Recently developed contact systems are made to operate without any sliding or rolling motion by combining the axis of rotation of the contact with that of the moving system. With frequent operation of the circuit breaker, the contacts of such systems are

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cleaned regularly of oxide films by the action of the arc, thus allowing them to be made of copper. With not very frequent operation, the temperature of copper contacts will exceed permissible limits as a result of surface oxidation, and then silver or silver-base contacts must be used. I this case the faces of pivoted contacts are usually of plane-tocylinder or cylinder-to-cylinder shape. Bridge contacts (Fig. 4.8a) are mostly used in contact systems in a rectilinear travel of the moving contacts.

Fig. 4.8. Bridge contacts [50]: a) butt contacts b)

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Bridge contacts have the advantage of being without any flexible shunts but, on the other hand, employ twice more contacts and, consequently, require a twice greater contact pressing force than in the case of pivoted contacts. Anyway the electric arc will be divided in two and it is one condition for its extinction. Wedge contacts (see fig. 4.9). The simplest contact system of this type used for switching relatively light currents (figs. 4.9 a, b and c) consists of moving contact blade 2 that is inserted into and withdrawn from fixed contact jaws 1 of appropriate shape. The pressing force is provided by the resilience of the contact jaw material (hard-drawn copper, bronze alloys). Consequently, with the same contact pressing force, the contact pressure here is higher and the contact resistance is lower than in the former case. This system is, however, also sensitive to skewing of the contact blade.

Fig. 4.9 Wedge and side cylinder-finger contacts [53]

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Figure 4.9 shows a lot of wedge contact types. Required contact pressure is ensured by steel springs 3. The line contact of this system is unaffected by any possible skewing. The resilience of wedge contacts deteriorates and the contact worsens with rising temperature and frequent operation of the system. Therefore, the wedge contacts of switches and circuit breakers intended for making and breaking heavy currents are fitted with supplementary steel springs 3 that maintain a high and reliable contact pressure throughout the service life of the apparatus (Fig. 4.9d). The wedge contacts described above are widely used in single and double-throw knife switches, ferrule and knife-blade cartridge fuses and other cut-in devices. High-voltage circuit breakers employ segmental wedge contacts of the types shown in Figs. 4.9g and h. The moving contact is made up of several pairs of segments, and the fixed contact is of a triangular or semi trapezium shape. The moving contact segments may be either non-self-aligning (Fig. 4.9g) or self-aligning (Fig. 4.9h). Self aligning segments inevitably sit in a position wherein at least two points of contact are established, thus providing for minimum contact resistance. Contacts of this type can be built for very heavy currents by including any required number of parallel-connected segments [36, 49]. Side cylinder-finger contacts (Fig. 4.9i). This contact system consists of moving contact finger 1 and an assembly of segments 2 and springs 3 constituting the fixed cluster-socket contact. Wedge and side cylinder-finger contacts are used for breaking heavy currents as the arc set up between the separating contacts melts and destructs the contact faces. Rolling contacts (Fig. 4.10). This contact system operates so that moving contact 2 completes the electric circuit by rolling into the gap between two fixed

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contacts 1 and thus bridging them. A multi-point contact for handling heavy currents can be obtained by employing several rollers connected in parallel. Rolling contacts may serve only as the main contacts of the contact system since the contact surface of the roller is easily burnt by the arc.

Fig. 4.10.[50] Rolling contacts

Butt contacts (Fig. 4.11b). These contacts are usually made in the form of solid metal bars or hollow tubes and establish a plane-to-plane, plane-to-sphere, or sphere-tosphere contact.

Fig. 4.11 Frontal contacts used for pneumatically circuit breakers [20] 1 fixed contact, 2 mobile contact, 3 plate, 4 spring, 5 - tulip contact, 6 support

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Butt contacts offer a high contact resistance to the circuit current and call for a great contact pressing force. Therefore, they are hardly ever used for carrying heavy currents continuously and serve generally as arcing contacts. Butt contacts require a flexible lead, roller or some other device for electrical connection to the currentcarrying parts of the circuit breaker. Sliding contacts are designed to switch the current over from the moving contact to different fixed contacts during the travel of the former without interrupting the continuity of the circuit being controlled.

Fig.4.12 Tulip contacts

a,b,c trapeze segments, d Z segments, e plane segments; 1 fixed contact, 2 mobile contact

Fig. 4.13 Tulip sliding contacts used in oil circuit breaker

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This system of contacts may employ pivoted, bridge, rolling, and other contact members. Sliding contact systems are widely used in low-voltage apparatus, particularly, in all kinds of rheostats and controllers. 4.6. Contact Parameters Contact clearance is the shortest distance between the contact faces when the fixed and moving contacts are fully open (see Figs. 4.8 and 4.9). The contact clearance is selected on the basis of its capability to interrupt small currents. Contacts are subject to electrical and mechanical wear during service. In order to ensure reliable contact over a long period of time, the contact system must be designed so that the contacts touch before the travel of the supporting member of the moving contact is arrested. For this, the moving contact is spring-mounted on the supporting member. As a result, the supporting member continues to move as far as it will go after the moving contact has been stopped by the fixed one, and during this movement the contact spring builds up an additional contact pressure. The distance through which the moving contact would travel from its point of final contact in closed position, if the fixed contact were to be removed is called the contact follow-through [50]. The follow-through determines the wear allowance of the contacts for a given number of switching operations of, the contact system. All other things being equal, a greater follow-through provides a higher resistance to wear or, in other words, a longer service life of the contacts. As a rule, a greater follow-through calls for a higher capacity of the magnetic system of the electrical apparatus. Contact pressing force is the force pressing the contact members together when they meet. The follow-through and, hence, the additional compression of the spring diminish as the contacts wear down in the course of service. Thus, the force applied at

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the instant of initial closure is seen to be of primary importance for reliable operation of the electrical apparatus. 4.7. Wear in Contacts Wear is understood to be gradual erosion of the contact causing irreversible changes in the shape, size and follow-through of the latter. Mechanical wear is due to mechanical effects (impacts, friction, rolling, etc.). The quantitative and qualitative estimation of this wear depends by used metals and strength of materials. Wear produced by electric attack is known as electrical wear. Contacts are subject to wear both when making and breaking electric circuits. Interruption of the circuit gives rise to arcing or sparking across the contacts. When breaking any appreciably heavy current, arcing is preceded by the appearance of a bridge of molten metal between the contacts. Due to the high temperature developed by the arc or spark some of the bridge metal is evaporated, some is splashed and ejected from the gap, and some of it is removed from one contact and deposited on the other.

Fig. 4.14. Electrical erosion (the dashed line shows the initial shape of the contact members)

The directional transfer of metal from one contact to the other caused by the electric discharge set up between separating contacts is termed electrical erosion.

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Arcing transfers the bridge metal from the cathode to the anode and sparking, on the contrary, transfers it from the anode to the cathode. This phenomenon leads to the formation of a pip on one contact and a crater in the other contact (Fig. 4.14), and, with small clearances, may even lead to welding or freezing of the contacts due to their being bridged while open. Electrical erosion increases parallel with rising current, voltage, and arc duration and depends on the material of the contacts. Some corrosion-resistant materials, such as silver and gold are easily eroded, whereas copper, tungsten, and molybdenum are of higher resistance to erosion. Erosion can be minimized by providing for rapid displacement of the arc from the spot of its initial striking. In this case, the temperature of the contact at the spot of arcing will be lower, a smaller amount of metal will be melted and, consequently, the contact face will be less eroded. Naturally, the use of erosion-resistant materials and cermets is also an effective means of improving the resistance of the contacts to electrical erosion. Contacts intended for breaking comparatively light currents could be protected against erosion by shunting them with a capacitor. If this is done, there will be practically no electric discharge across the separating contacts since nearly all the energy needed to initiate and sustain the arc is expended in charging the capacitor. This method of protection is known as capacitive arc quenching. It should be noted, however, that when a considerable shunting capacitance is used for this purpose, the capacitor is liable to discharge through the contact gap as soon as the latter becomes sufficiently small in the course of the contact closure and may lead to the welding of the contacts. Wear produced in contacts when opening an electric circuit is due to the action of the resulting arc and depends upon many variable factors as: the number of contact

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openings, the magnetic field strength, the voltage and the current, the speed of the contact separation, on contact width, the closure, and the magnetic field strength. 4.9 Bouncing Such excessive electrical wear during closure results from the fact that the contact make is not always finished at the first touch, but, as a consequence of bouncing, the members make and break their contact several times before they reach a permanent state of contact. The reason for this is that the moving contact approaches the fixed contact with a certain speed. But the circuit is quickly reclosed owing to the pressure exerted by the contact spring on the moving contact. The moving contact may however, bounce away again several times in succession with gradually attenuating amplitude before the final closure is achieved. When the contacts close under load conditions, each bounce gives rise to arcing that wears down the contact faces. The electrical wear due to the armature impact may be greater than that produced by the contact impact since the bouncing occurs at much higher values of the instantaneous current. As all contact materials exhibit certain elasticity, it is in principle impossible to avoid bouncing during contact closure. Therefore, special measures must be taken in designing the electrical apparatus and its contact system to bring the bouncing of contacts to a safe level by making the rebound amplitude as small as possible. The time of bouncing should not exceed 0.5-1 s. The bouncing can be brought down to a safe level, at which the continuity of the electric circuit will not be interrupted during the process of contact closure, both by increasing the force applied to the contacts at the initial moment of closure and the stiffness of the contact spring, and by reducing the mass (weight) of the moving contacts and the speed of closure.

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The bouncing caused by the impact of the armature during closure is usually lessened by making use of special shock absorbers. The resistance to electrical wear of bridge contacts can be improved by providing for simultaneous closure of both pairs of contacts. This is brought about in self-aligning contacts (Fig. 4.15). Here the contact bridge is clamped between two spherical parts so that after a few switching operations it occupies a position in which both moving contacts simultaneously touch the fixed contacts of the system. Fig. 4.15 Self-aligning bridge contact [50]: 1-sleeve; 2-bridge contact; 3insulating guide block; 4-contact spring

4.10. Short-Circuit Duty of Contact Systems Short circuits impose severe duty conditions on inseparable stationary contacts. The most vulnerable of stationary contacts are the bolted joints. The bolt clamping the current-carrying parts together does not carry any noticeable current and, in view of the short duration of the short circuit, it may be considered that its temperature remains constant. The thermal expansion of the current-carrying parts of the joint gives rise to mechanical stresses eventually cause residual deformation of the bolt and weakening of the electrical connection after the joint has cooled down to normal temperature. Therefore, it is recommended to test stationary contacts for the additional mechanical stresses arising in bolted joints during the passage of shortcircuit currents.

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Switching contacts operating under short-circuit conditions are liable to weld in the closed position and this is even more likely when they close at the instant of the short circuit occurrence. The thermal energy released at the point of contact
tc

W = i 2 Rcrdt ,
0

(4.2)

rises abruptly and may cause melting and welding of the contacts. This, however, rarely happens in practice owing to the short duration of the fault. Contact welding usually results from the effect of the electrodynamics forces of repulsion in cases when these forces are equal to or greater than the force pressing the contacts together. The arc drawn between the contacts during electrodynamics repulsion melts the contact faces and welds them during closure. Wear of the arcing contacts of a two-stage contact system is lessened by making use of arc-resistant materials and by providing for rapid displacement of the arc over the contacts. 4.13 Contact Materials The service life and reliability of electrical contacts depend largely upon the properties of the materials used for their manufacture. Contact materials must have a high electrical and thermal conductivity, a high resistance to corrosion and a currentconducting oxide film must be arc-resistant, i.e., have a high melting and evaporating point, and must be readily workable and comparatively inexpensive. As some of these requirements are evidently in contradiction to one another, it is almost impossible to find a contact material fully equal to the job. In the table are presented the most commonly materials used for contact purposes:

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Table 4.3
Material Specific Hardness [Hv] Gravity [g/cm3] 19.32 20.0 10.5 21.45 12.0 8,89 25.0 40.0 40.0 89 Electrical Conductivity [%] 71.0 106.0 17.0 17.0 100 Features

Au

Ag

Pt

Pd

Cu

Stable metal without forming oxide films, soft and has the highest ductility High electric and thermal conductivity, low sulfurization resistance, typical contact material High melting point, superior resistance to arcing, used as a substitute for Pt High melting point, high contact reliability, forms polymer in organic gases High electric and thermal conductivity, high oxide resistance, typical contact material for high currents

Copper meets nearly all of the above demands, an exception being its resistance to corrosion. It should also be borne in mind that copper oxides are of low conductivity. Copper the most widespread contact material - is used extensively both for stationary and switching contacts. As mentioned previously in Section 3.2, the working surfaces of stationary contacts are usually given an anticorrosive coating for protection. Switching contacts made of copper are suitable for any duty, except continuous, at contact pressing forces above 3 N. If, however, copper contacts have to carry the circuit current continuously, specific measures must be taken to prevent oxidation of their working faces. Copper may also be used for arcing contacts breaking currents up to 30000 A. It is not recommended to use copper contacts at contact pressing forces below 3 Newton. Silver is a very good contact material from all points of view, except that it is of low arc-resistance when heavy currents are dealt with. Silver contacts are of high

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resistance to wear in light current applications. The electrical conductivity of silver oxides is about the same as that of pure silver. Silver is used for the main contacts of switches and circuit breakers handling heavy currents, for all contacts operating under continuous duty conditions, and for contacts switching light currents at small contact pressing forces (relay contacts, contacts of auxiliary circuits, etc.). Silver is mostly applied in the form of contact tip facings welded to the working surface of the contact member that is made of copper or some other material. Aluminium has a much lower electrical conductivity and mechanical strength than copper and is always covered with a hard oxide film of poor conductivity that imposes a certain limitation on its field of application. Modern practice is to employ aluminium in stationary contacts (bus joints, wiring conductor joints, etc.), the contact areas of the joints being usually silver or copper plated. It should be remembered that these joints are liable to weaken and, consequently, worsen the electrical contact in the course of time due to the low mechanical strength of this material. Aluminium is quite unsuitable for use in switching contacts. Platinum, gold and molybdenum are used for the manufacture of switching contacts designed for very light currents and small contact pressing forces. An advantageous feature is that platinum and gold are free of oxide films. Contacts made of these metals have a low contact resistance. The resistance to wear can be greatly improved by alloying platinum with iridium, the hardness and resistance to arcing being very marked when the iridium content is high. Alloys materials are very used combining the qualities, but also disadvantages, of many materials. The alloy Ag-CdO is a contact material with superior welding and wear resistance, stable contact resistance and excellent electric and thermal conductivity, which are important factors for contacts. Due to these characteristics this alloy is

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widely used for contacts with medium to high currents, and has become one of the leading materials among precious metal contacts. Ag-Ag alloy Cu rivets (nit). The process facilities enabled header processing with post-oxidation materials. The results are a shorter delivery time and lower costs for the supply of contact materials for electromagnetic switches, breakers, etc., with a high breaking current. Cadmium Free Electric Contact Materials - Ag-SnO contact materials. This type of contact materials are produced with a technology, scatting highly concentrated fine SnO uniformly into silvery, despite a pre-oxidation method. Tungsten alloys combine high hardness and melting point with high resistance to electrical wear. Tungstens melting temperature is 3410C. Tungsten alloys: tungsten-molybdenum, tungsten-platinum, tungsten-platinum-iridium and other tungsten alloys, is used in light current applications for contacts of electrical apparatus featuring a high frequency of switching operations. In medium and heavy current applications, these materials are used for arcing contacts breaking currents of up to 100 kA and more. Table 4.4 [78]
Material Specific Hardness Electrical Gravity (Hv) Conductivity [g/cm3] (%) 18.0 30.0 27.8 Features

Au-Ag8% Au-Ni5% Au69%Ag25%-Pt6% Pd-Ru10% Ag-Pd30% 10.9 60.0 11.5 18.3 16.1 12.0 135.0 60.0 180-280 12.9 11.0 4.0

Au rich alloys have superior corrosion resistance, used mainly in micron current regions. Over 70% Au is needed for sulfurization resistance. Large mechanical strength, used as a countermeasure for Au adhesion. Large corrosion resistance, low and stable contact resistance. High hardness, low transfer and wear, suitable for applications for frequent make and break. High hardness, good abrasion resistance. Addition of Ag reduces catalytic

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10.5 Ag-Ni0.03%

40.0

106.0

10.3 Ag-Cu10%

62.0

86.0

Ag87.6%CdO Ag84%CdO15% Ag90.7%-SnO

10.2 10.0

70 95

75 55~65

10.0

120

73

activation. Addition of over 30% Ag lessens sulfurizating resistance. Annealing material excepting Ag0.03%NI. Ag-0.03%Ni is used as a countermeasure for a change on standing of Ag. Low contact resistance. Good abrasion resistance, but less welding resistance than Ag-CdO. Good electric and thermal conductivity, large mechanical strength and low cost. Prone to change chemically, lacks in resistance to oxidation and corrosion. Suitable for make and break contacts and sliding contacts with large contact force. Manufactured by post-oxidation method, have superior welding resistance. Alloys are stamped to discs and brazed. Contact materials with a greatly increased welding resistance due to the addition of superior heat resistant elements and manufactured by a post-oxidation method. The materials have superior welding and wear resistance and are adopted widely in multi-purpose relays and switches, etc, as well as for various automotive uses.

Cermets (sintered contact materials) are solid mechanical mixtures of two metals which do not combine to form true alloys, but by special processes belonging to the technique of powder metallurgy are made to form compounds with the object of combining the high electrical conductivity of one component metal with the high mechanical strength melting point and arc-resistance of the second component. The metals generally employed are silver and tungsten, silver and molybdenum, silver and nickel, silver and cadmium oxide, silver and graphite, silver-graphite-nickel, copper and tungsten, copper and molybdenum, and others. Cermets are used for the manufacture of arcing contacts (silver compounds are employed mainly in a.c. circuits) for breaking medium and heavy currents as well as for main contacts rated at up to 600 A.

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A normal open contact is the contact being open when the contacts are in free position. The change of this state is made by acting of contacts. A normal closed contact is the contact being close when the contacts are in free position. Acting the mechanism of the specific equipment the contacts will be opened. Symbolization of contacts:
Type of contact Normal open contact NO Normal closed contact NC Commutable contact German symbols English symbols USA, CANADA Symbols

Time normal open contact with delay at closure Time normal close contact with delay at closure Time normal open contact with delay at opening Time normal close contact with delay at opening

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5.ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCES
5.1. General Any conductor in a set of current-carrying conductors interacts with the magnetic field produced by the currents in all the other conductors of the set or, to state this differently, mechanical forces develop between conductors surrounded by a common magnetic field [53]. A straight conductor of length l placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B and carrying current i (Fig. 5.1) is submitted to a mechanical force:

Fig 5.1 The electrodynamic force F = Bil sin (5.1)

where is the angle between the direction of the flux density vector and that of the current in the conductor. The mechanical forces arising in magnetic fields are referred to as electrodynamic forces, thus telling that this displacement is a dynamic process caused by these forces.

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Fig. 5.2. llustrating the calculation of electrodynamic forces between two current-carrying conductors Similar forces act between a current-carrying conductor and a ferromagnetic body.

Fig. 5. 3. Electrodynamic forces between two parallel conductors

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107

Fig. 5.4 Electrodynamic forces acting upon different parts of electric circuits [53]:
a) oil interrupter; b) parallel conductors; c) electrical conductor or arc adjacent to a magnetic wall; d) electric arc upon opening contacts; e) closed contacts; f) normal or wall mounted separator; g) plasma compression; h) fuse; i) winding of a coil; j) two adjacent windings; k) coil; l) electric arc between insulators.

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The direction of such a force is determined by Fleming's left-hand rule. It may also be found proceeding from the fact that the forces applied to a current-carrying loop tend to change its configuration so as to increase the magnetic flux threading the loop. A very convenient method of establishing the direction of the electrodynamic forces is based on the concept of the lateral thrust and strain exerted by the magnetic field lines. On superimposing the patterns of individual fields set up by the currents in two parallel conductors as shown in Fig. 5.3d, it may be seen that the forces developed between the conductors are directed towards the region where the resultant field is weakened (i.e., where the field lines are in opposition to one another). Under normal duty conditions the electrodynamic forces are generally quite small and do not cause deformation of any parts of the electrical apparatus. The forces arising under short-circuit conditions are, on the contrary, of exceedingly high value and may cause permanent deformation of or severe damage to not only individual components, but to the whole apparatus. This circumstance calls for proper calculation of the electrodynamic stability of the apparatus. Such calculations are evermore important as they allow one to determine the minimum permissible distances between the current-carrying parts, thus making the electrical apparatus as small as possible. Electrodynamic forces are usually calculated on the basis of the laws governing the interaction of a current-carrying conductor with a magnetic field or from the change occurring in the stored magnetic energy of a system of current-carrying circuits. 5.2. Calculation of Electrodynamic Forces from the Laws of Interaction of a Current-Carrying Conductor with a Magnetic Field [50] The forces acting between two conductors 1 and 2 carrying currents i1 and i2 are represented in Fig. 5.1b. The magnetic field produced by element dy of conductor 2 will, within the region occupied by element dx of conductor 1, be of the following strength:

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT dH dx = i 2 dy s2 sin

109

(5.2)

where is the angle between vector s and the direction of the current in element dy. The strength of the magnetic field developed at element dx by the entire conductor 2 is
H dx = dH dx =
i2

i 2 dy s3

sin

(5.3)

i2

The elementary force exerted upon element dx carrying current i1 will be

dF dx =

0 H dx i1 dx sin 4

= i1 dx sin

0 4

i2

i 2 dy s2

sin

(5.4)

where: = angle between the vector of the magnetic induction B=

0

H and the vector of current i1

0 dx

= permeability of free space

The full value of the force F between conductors 1 and 2 is obtained by integrating dFdx over the entire length of conductor 1 F= d Fdx = i1 dxsin
l1 l1

i 2 dy sin 4 i 2 s 2

(5.5)

Assuming that currents i1 and i2 are constant throughout the entire length of the conductors, Eq. (5.5) may be expressed as the following product: F= i1 i 2
0 dy dx sin 2 sin 4 l1 l2 s

(5.6)

The first term of the product depends solely upon the magnitude of the currents carried by the conductors. The second term is only determined by the geometrical arrangement of the conductors. It is a dimensionless quantity often referred to as the

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

circuit factor and denoted by the small letter c. Consequently, Eq. (5.6) may be rewritten as F= c i1 i 2
0 4

(5.7)

Stated in words, Eq. (5.7) shows that the force between two conductors carrying currents i1 and i2 is proportional to the product of the currents (or to the squared current when i1 = i2) and depends on the geometry of the conductors. Substituting = 4 10-7 in Eq. (5.7) and expressing the force between the
0

conductors in N, it may finally be written that F = 10-7 i1 i 2 c (5.8)

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111

6. HEATING OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

The losses in a conductor represent the dissipated power by heating. For an conductor of resistance R carrying a constant current I this power is given by relation:
P = I 2R

(6.1)

which expresses Joule's law in mathematical form. The resistance offered by the conductor to the passage of a direct current is called its direct-current resistance (Rdc) (also known as the real or ohmic resistance of the conductor) and may be found from the relation :
R = Rdc = l A

(6.2)

where = resistivity of the conductor; l = length of the conductor ; A= cross-sectional area of the conductor. The resistance of the conductor to alternating current is greater than it is to direct current and, consequently, produces higher losses. This increase in power losses is due to the so called skin and proximity effects and is accounted for in calculations by additional-loss factor kadd equal to the sum of the skin-effect factor kskin and proximityeffect factor kprox. The additional-loss factor is always greater than unity, i.e.,
k add = k skin + k prox > 1

(6.3)

The alternating-current resistance of the conductor

Rac = k add Rdc

(6.4)

is sometimes referred to as the active resistance of the conductor. The active resistance of the conductor is a fictitious quantity which, on being multiplied by the mean-square value of the alternating current carried by the conductor, gives the actual power loss occurring therein.

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Skin effect. The magnetic field surrounding a conductor carrying an alternating current (Fig. 6.1a) induces therein an e.m.f. in opposition to the applied voltage. The layers closer to the centre of the conductor link more flux and, therefore, experience a greater counter e.m.f. As a result, current density f will be higher in the layers nearer to the surface of the conductor (Fig. 6.1b). This concentration of alternating current at and near the surface of the conductor - known as the skin effect is tantamount to an increase of the conductor resistance, since the alternating current passing through the conductor will be smaller than the direct current set up by a voltage of the same value. The skin effect is the more pronounced the higher the frequency of the alternating current, the greater the diameter of the conductor, the higher the conductivity and the magnetic permeability of the conductor material and the greater the ratio of the perimeter of the conductor to its cross-sectional area [50]. Fig. 6.1. The increase in resistance of a current-carrying conductor due to the skin effect. Heating of the conductor lowers its conductivity and, consequently, weakens the skin effect.

When dealing with alternating currents and, especially, high-frequency currents, it may prove to be advantageous to use hollow rather than solid round conductors in view of the poor utilization of the central part of the solid conductor. The gain in the conductor material and weight will be the higher the greater the ratio of the perimeter of the conductor to its cross-sectional area.

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113

Proximity effect. So far we have considered the effect of alternating current in an isolated conductor. Now let us examine the case of two conductors arranged closely parallel to each other. When the alternating currents carried by these conductors flow in opposite directions (Fig. 6.2a), layers a and a1 nearer to the other conductor link less flux than the more distant layers b and b1 (1 < 2 ) [50]. The inductances and in consequence, the resistance of the layers linking the smaller flux are evidently lower than in the case of layers of different conductors spaced at a greater distance apart. It follows that the current will be of higher density in the layers closer to the parallel conductor (Fig. 6.2c).

Fig. 6.2 The proximity effect: a), b) - Current distribution in busbars spaced at an infinite distance apart; c), d) - Current distribution in busbars mounted close to each other

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

When the alternating currents flow in the same direction (Fig. 6.2b), the more distant layers link less flux (1 < 2 ) . In this case, the current will be of higher density in the layers of different conductors spaced at a greater distance apart (Fig. 6.2d). This redistribution of alternating current over the cross section of a conductor brought about by the presence of another current-carrying conductor is known as the proximity effect. As in the case of the skin effect, this effect tends to increase the power dissipated as heat in the conductor. 6.2. Core Losses A ferromagnetic material placed in a magnetic field of varying flux density is known to give rise to a core or iron loss Pc which is the sum of hysteresis loss Ph and eddy-current loss Pe in the material. These losses manifest themselves in heating up of the ferromagnetic material and are minimised by stacking the magnetic cores of electrical sheet steell laminations 0.2 to 0.5 mm thick with an insulating layer (surface oxide or varnish) between them. The laminations of the core stack must be orientated along the field lines as shown in fig. 5.3 so as to limit the eddy currents and reduce the power losses. The hysteresis losses are reduced by employing special alloy steels having a narrow hysteresis loop.

Fig. 6.3 Orientation of core lamination

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115

6.3. Heat Transfer A body of higher temperature always gives up heat to a body of lower temperature until their temperatures become equal. The higher the temperature of the heated body, the higher the rate of heat transfer. Heat may be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. Heat conduction. Heat is transferred by conduction from the point of higher temperature to the one of lower temperature within a single body, between two abutting bodies, or between two bodies separated by a third one. The amount of heat dQ transferred per unit time dt from the part of higher temperature to that of lower temperature is proportional to area (section) dA through which the heat passes and the temperature drop d/dx in the direction perpendicular to the area, and depends on the heat conductivity of the medium:
dQ = d dAdt dx

(6.6)

The minus sign indicates that the heat is transmitted from the point of higher temperature to that of lower temperature. The heat conductivity of the medium is characterized by its coefficient of thermal conductivity numerically equal to the quantity of heat transferred per second per square metre of the heat transfer area at a difference in temperature of one degree per metre. The coefficient of thermal conductivity is denoted by the Greek letter A and is measured in W/m deg. Heat convection. The boundary layer of any fluid (gas or liquid) in direct contact with the surface of a hot body is heated by conduction. The hot layer of the fluid becomes lighter than the adjacent layers of lower temperature and rises, thus carrying off a certain amount of heat. As a result, the lighter layer is replaced by the

116

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

heavier layers, thereby setting up a continuous process of circulation. This physical process is referred to as heat transfer by convection. If the velocity of the cooling fluid depends only on the temperature acquired by its particles on the surface of the heated body, the being the velocity and heat only OR the temperature acquired by its particles on the surface of the heated body, the heat transfer is said to be by natural convection. When the particles of the cooling fluid move at an arbitrary velocity set up by a ventilating fan, pump or by any other means, the transfer of heat is said to be by forced convection. The movement of the fluid by natural or forced convection alike may be either laminar or turbulent. The flow is laminar when the particles of the fluid move in layers (lamina) parallel to one another, such a flow being usually of low velocity. The flow changes its pattern with increasing velocity of the fluid, the layers cease to be parallel to one another and become eddying. Such a movement of the fluid is called turbulent. The velocity which marks the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is called the critical velocity of the fluid. With laminar flow of the fluid, the heat is conveyed only by conduction. Turbulent flow causes intensive and erratic mixing of the particles of the fluid, and the heat is removed from the boundary layer at a much higher rate than in the case of a laminar flow. The heat transferred by convection is :
Q = k c ( 1 0 )A

(6.7)
2

where

k c = coefficient of heat transfer by convection, [W /m .C]

1 = temperature of the heated body, [C] 2 = temperature of the cooling medium, [C]

A = heat transfer surface area, [m2]

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117

The coefficient of heat transfer by convection k c is determined by the amount of heat given up by convection per second per square metre of the heated surface at a temperature difference between the hot surface and the cooling medium of 1C. The value of this coefficient depends on many factors, the most important being the velocity and heat capacity of the cooling medium, the temperature of the surface and medium, the shape and size of the heated surface. Heat radiation Radiation is a physical process by which energy is transmitted from a heated body to other bodies in the surrounding space. Transmission of heat in this case takes place by virtue of the fact that all bodies raised to a temperature above their surroundings radiate heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves of different length. Most of the energy is carried by infrared radiation of 0.8 - to 40 - micron wavelength, and to a smaller extent by visible light of 0.4 to 0.8 - micron wavelength. Thermal radiation and light are of the same physical nature. Both travel at the same velocity and may be absorbed, refracted, reflected, scattered or transmitted by encountered surfaces of solid bodies. A surface which reflects all the radiation of any wavelength falling upon it is called an ideal white surface, and a surface which absorbs all the radiation and reflects, transmits or scatters none is referred to as an ideal black surface (body) or ideal radiator. A close approximation to an ideal black body are lamp black, asbestos slate, black mat paint. A heated black body radiates the same amount of energy as is absorbed by it. Such a body exhibits a maximum intensity of radiation for any given temperature and wavelength. Thermal radiation from the surface of a solid is, for engineering purposes, best expressed as a ratio to the radiation from a black body taken as a, standard of radiation.

118

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

The quantity of heat radiated per second per square metre of the surface of a heated body is
1 4 2 4 Q = k r 1000 1000

(6.8)

where k r = coefficient of radiant heat transfer, W/m2.(oK)4 ( k r = 5.7 , where is the radiation constant given in reference tables)
1 = temperature of the radiating body, K, 2 = temperature of the irradiated body, K.
o o

6.8. Liquid (Water) Cooled Electrical Apparatus The rapid increase in unit power of numerous industrial and marine electrical installations calls for the development of small-size circuit breakers (non-automatic, automatic and fast-acting) capable of interrupting currents of up to 25 kA. The electrolysis installations of chemical and aluminium-producing plants stand in need of circuit breakers having a current-breaking capacity of up to 50 kA and in the near future-of up to 100 kA. The circuit breakers used with 500 and 1000 MW turbogenerators and water-wheel generators must have a current rating of 25 to 50 kA. Surface hardening installations operating at frequencies of up to 10000 Hz require control apparatus capable of handling currents from 2 to 3 kA. All these and many' other types of circuit breakers and electrical control equipment would be of prohibitively large size, if they were not cooled by some means. The most

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119

advantageous method has proved to be that of cooling the current-carrying parts with a suitable liquid, in particular, with water . 6.9. Temperature Rise of Coils The operating coil of electrical apparatus is, essentially, a non-homogeneous body of stratified structure built up of insulated conductors and intermediate layers of air or impregnating compound (varnish, filler). The heat developed inside such a body is given up to the surrounding atmosphere after passing through materials of different thermal conductivity. Naturally, dissimilar layers of the coil will be at different temperatures, and the temperature inside the coil will be higher than at its outer surface. The more monolithic the structure of the coil, the better the thermal conductivity between successive layers and the smaller the difference in temperature between the outer surface and the internal layers. Impregnation and solidification raises the overall thermal conductivity, and, in consequence, the heat transfer by 5 to 10 per cent. The amount of heat given up to the surrounding atmosphere varies for different parts of the coil surface. Most of the heat is removed mainly by natural convectionfrom the outer side surface of the coil which, as a general rule, is exposed to air. The middle of the coil is occupied by the core of the magnetic circuit. The gap between the core and the coil winding is too small to expect any appreciable transfer of heat by convection. If the coil is fitted tightly on the core, the heat will be removed from the inner surface of the winding by conduction. The actual rate of heat transfer depends, however, on how closely the winding adjoins the core and, also, on the area of the heat transfer surface of the magnetic circuit. The end surfaces of the coil are usually covered with insulating parts of low thermal conductivity. The removal of heat from the end surfaces may be ignored in the case of long coils, but should be taken into consideration when calculating the temperature rise of short coils.

120

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Thus, the heating of coils during operation is seen to be of a rather complex character, the temperature being unevenly distributed both radial and along the height of the coil. Calculation of the exact temperature rise of different parts of the coil often runs into great difficulties. The actual temperature distribution along the coil radius follows the curve shown in Fig. 6.13a. As can be seen from this drawing, the temperature rise attains its maximum value m inside the coil winding at a certain distance rm from the axis of the coil, and is 1 and 2 at the outer and inner surfaces, respectively. The maximum temperature is much higher than that of the outer surface, but only slightly above the average temperature of the coil. If the heat given up by the end surfaces of the coil is neglected, the isothermal lines will be straight lines parallel to the axis of the coil. With the heat emitted by the end surfaces taken into consideration, the isothermal lines will be as presented in Fig. 6.13b.

Fig. 6.13. Temperature distribution inside a coil

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121

6.10. Graphic Determination of the Coil Steady-State Temperature The direct measurement of the steady-state temperature rise of an electrical apparatus is often a rather cumbersome and time-consuming procedure needing from ten to twelve hours for its completion. In such cases it is more advantageous to determine the steady-state temperature proceeding from a section of the temperature curve (Fig. 6.15). This method is based on the fact that the function = f (d/dt) is graphically represented by a straight line. Starting from the general equation of the heating
t Ti

= (1 e

),

(6.14)

deriving it
d Ti = e , dt Ti
t

(6.15)

we obtain:
d Ti ) dt

= (1

(6.15)

or
d Ti . dt

(6.16)

If:
a = b= d dt

(6.17)

We obtain an equation of a line:

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

= a b Ti ,

(6.18)

represented in the figure 6.19. The steady-state temperature rise is found as follows: determine the change in temperature rise i for several equal and sufficiently short intervals of time t ; plot sections 1/ t, 2/ t, etc. , (to an arbitrary scale) at the respective levels of to the left of the axis of ordinates; draw a straight line through the ends of the above sections.

Fig. 6.19 Graphic determination of steady state temperature rise

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

123

The point of intersection of the straight line with the axis of ordinates gives the steady-state temperature rise ss, and the length of the section cut off by the straight line on the axis d/dt equals ss /T . Thus, the values of ss and T are easily and quickly found from a section of the temperature curve. 6.12. Methods of Temperature Measurement The temperature of the components of an electrical apparatus can be measured by means of a thermometer, thermocouple; it can also be found proceeding from the change in the conductor resistance or can be estimated by the degree of softening of certain reference materials or by the change in their colour. Thermometer method. According to this method, the temperature is measured by applying a mercury or alcohol thermometer to the point whereat the temperature is to be measured. To minimize possible errors the thermometer must be brought in close contact with the part under test and protected against radiation of heat into the surrounding atmosphere. To this end, the bulb of the thermometer should be covered with asbestos cloth or paper. Care, however, should be taken to see that the bulb does not become overheated because of the covering, for this may distort the measurement results. Mercury thermometers are unsuitable for use in the presence of alternating magnetic fields as the latter give rise to eddy currents in the mercury that cause its additional heating and raise the thermometer readings above the actual value of the measured temperature. In such cases use should be made of an alcohol thermometer. Thermometers in general give a considerable measurement error and, therefore, are rarely used for establishing the temperature of electrical apparatus.

124

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Thermocouple method. Application of heat to the point of contact (junction) of two electrical conductors of dissimilar metals will produce a potential difference across the free ends of the conductors. This potential difference (or thermo - e.m.f.) increases with increasing difference in temperature between the hot junction and the free ends. The thermo-e.m.f. obtained in this way can be used to measure the temperature difference, i.e., the hot-junction temperature rise above the ambient temperature at the cold ends of the couple. The magnitude of the thermo-e.m.f. varies with different metals forming the couple. The couple is usually made up of metals developing a higher thermo-e.m.f. under equal conditions of use, say, of copper and constantan. The thermo-e.m.f. e is a nonlinear function of the temperature difference . In consequence, individual thermocouples have to be calibrated before being put to use. This means that it is necessary to plot an experimental curve representing the dependence e = f () from which the sought temperature may be found as = f (e) . Both the measuring instrument and the thermocouple possess an internal resistance that influences the instrument readings. Therefore, the calibration and measurements should be done with the thermocouple connected to one and the same instrument (galvanometer). In order to eliminate errors introduced by the measuring instrument, it is preferable to determine the value of the thermo e.m.f. by the opposition method of measurement. In this case, different instruments may be used for the calibration and measurements. It is essential to make sure that the thermocouple is in close and reliable thermal contact with the hot part throughout the temperature measurement. The thermocouple method is most commonly used for measuring the temperature of the current-carrying parts of electrical apparatus (with the exception of operating and holding coils).

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125

Resistance method. This method is mainly used for determining the temperature of coils by measuring their hot and cold resistance. The average temperature of the coil is then found from the change in the winding resistance. If the winding was initially at the ambient temperature relation :
R = R0 (1 + )
cold

and had resistance

Rcold and eventually became of resistance Rhot, it may be written from the well-known (6.12)

that
Rcold = R0 (1 + cold ); R hot = R0 (1 + hot );

wherefrom
hot =
R 1 R hot 1 1 [ (1 + cold ) 1] = hot ( cold + ) Rcold Rcold

(6.13)

Determination of temperature by the change of their color. In the case of short circuits it is impossible to measure the temperature of the parts and conductors of electrical apparatus in view of the inertia of the measuring instruments and devices needed for the temperature measurement by the methods described above. This difficulty can be overcome by applying a meltable substance or a streak made by a stick of colored material to the part in question. The temperature of the part can then be estimated by the degree of softening of the substance or by the change in the colour of the streak, since the temperature at which the given substance melts or changes its color is known beforehand. This method makes it possible only to establish whether the temperature is above or below a specific level. Thermovision

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Thermovision is a new system for power diagnostic capabilities using infrared thermal imaging technology within reach of a wider range of industrial applications. The equipment is fully radiometric for detailed temperature analysis and tracking of critical components.

Fig. 6.20 Some Termovision instruments [79] In the table are presented some general characteristics of these types of instrument. Table 6.2 Characteristic Measuring range Detector type Precision Thermal sensitivity Resolution Values -10C 1200C Mycrobolometer 2% 200 mk 0.1c

Typical applications in Electrical distribution/power generation, electrical plants are: Applications for Thermal Imagers: Creating successful reports

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127

Applications for Thermal Imagers: Inspecting substations and switchgear

Applications for Thermal Imagers: Inspecting transformers and other electric equipments

Fig. 6.21 Easy measurement of temperature in a motor case and the image on the screen for an EPA circuit isolator Basics of Predictive/Preventive Maintenance Developing an Inspection Program Implementing an infrared thermography maintenance program Maintenance Routing Qualitative versus Quantitative Inspections

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7. ELECTROMAGNETS
7.1. General Electromagnets are used to actuate all kinds of apparatus. They are manufactured in a large variety of types and may be classified in many ways. There are portative electromagnets and tractive electromagnets, shunt electromagnets and series electromagnets, direct-current and alternating-current electromagnets, rotary (clapper-type or hinged) and plunger electromagnets. 7.2. Magnetic Field Energy For an electromagnet with the stationary armature and the coil connected to a source of direct-current supply the energy stored in the field will be determined [50]. Supplying the coil from a D.C. source, the current increases gradually with time as shown in fig. 7.1 from zero to the rated value, and the voltage V applied to the coil during the transient period is balanced by the voltage drop across the coil resistance ir and by the induced e.m.f., i.e. V = ir + e The e.m.f. induced in the coil is
d dt

(7.1)

e=

(7.2)

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129

Fig. 7.1 Transient current in a coil connected to a d.c. source Multiplying Eq. (7.1) by idt and integrating the product, we get the energy balance equation of the electromagnet for the transient period as
2 Vidt i rdt = id 0 0 0 t t t

(7.3)

where: Vidt = energy delivered to the coil by the source of supply;

0

i rdt = energy losses in the coil;

2 0

id = Wm is the energy stored in the magnetic field produced by the coil.

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Thus, the magnetic field energy is seen to be equal to the energy delivered by the source of supply minus the energy losses occurring in the coil. When the coil current attains its steady-state value Vidt = i2rdt, i.e., the energy drawn from the source of supply is spent entirely in covering the coil conductor losses. Speaking of the flux linkage , it should be borne in mind that its exact value is a rather involved function of the coil current. The curve shown in Fig. 7.2 gives a graphical representation of dependence, = N = f (i) . This dependence accounts for the nonlinearity of the core magnetization curve and depends on the coil current, core material and dimensions, as well as on the gap size. The magnetic field energy is proportional to the shaded area bounded by the curve = f (i ) and the axis of ordinates.

Fig. 7.2 Dependence = f (i ) 1-air-cored; 2-iron-cored coil It is well known that

=L I

(7.4)

where I = coil current L = inductance of the system

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131

In the case of an iron-cored coil (curve 2 in fig. 7.2), the inductance is a variable quantity that depends upon the degree of magnetic saturation of the ferromagnetic material. Each value of the flux linkage corresponds to a specific value of the inductance and, consequently, of the stored magnetic energy, i.e.
Wm = id = iLdi =
0

LI 2 2

(7.5)

wherefrom the inductance L = 2WM / I2. 7.4. Force and Torque An amount of work W is done by the armature of an electromagnet in the course of its movement from position 1 to position 2 , i.e., in covering distance . Consequently, the average force of attraction Fav experienced by the armature over this distance is
Fav = W

(7.14)

In the limit, the force of attraction and the torque developed by the armature will be
F= dW dW ;T = d d

(7.15)

where d is the angle through which the armature rotates when the air gap changes by
d .

Substituting the value of dW from Eq. (7.11) into Eq. (7.15), the force may be found for the general case as
1 d dI F = (I ) 2 d d

(7.16)

In the case of electromagnetic systems operating with a constant m.m.f., I = const and
dI = 0 . Therefore, d

132

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT F= 1 d I 2 d

(7.17)

By Eq. (7.4) = LI , hence

d dL dI dL =I +L =I d d d d

As

dI = 0 = 0 with I = const, it may be written that d F= 1 2 dL I 2 d

(7.18)

The force of attraction developed by an electromagnet may be calculated from Maxwell's formula as
F= B2 A 2 0

(7.25)

where B0 = flux density in the air gap A0 =equivalent cross-sectional area of the air gap
0 = permeability of free space

Equation (7.25) applies only to air gaps of uniform flux density. With uneven distribution of the flux, the air gap may be divided into individual parallel sections A taken to be of uniform flux density. Under this assumption, the pull developed by the electromagnet may be found as the sum of the forces due to the effect of individual sections. Equation (7.25) may be used directly when the mean flux density in the gap is known to a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. In the case of a homogeneous magnetic field, we have
2 20 A

F=

(7.26)

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133

7.5. Alternating-Current Electromagnets The magnetic flux produced by a sinusoidal alternating current (Fig. 7.4a) varies by the following law
= m sin t

(7.27)

In this case, the tractive force of the electromagnet will be

2 sin 2 t F= m 20 A

(7.28)

Fig. 7.4 Pull vs time curves of an a.c. electromagnet without a shading coil Denoting

134

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 2 m Fm = 2 0 A

(7.29)

we get
F = Fm sin 2 t = Fm (1 cos 2t ) 2

(7.30}

where force F is seen to pulsate at twice the supply frequency without changing its direction (Fig. 7.4b). The force may be treated as the sum of two components, namely, time-invariable component F' = F m/2 and variable component F" =
Fm cos 2t . 2

With the force needed to pull the armature inwards being equal to Fa (Fig. 7.4 c), the armature will drop out at point A and be pulled in again at point B of the curve, i.e., twice in the course of a full period of the force change. In other words, the armature will vibrate with a double frequency. This vibration gives rise to a humming noise and causes considerable wear of the magnetic system. Vibration of alternating-current electromagnets is eliminated by fitting a single closed turn of copper or brass on the end of the magnet pole so as to embrace about 70 to 80 per cent of the pole cross section (Fig. 7.5a). The effect of the shading coil is based on splitting the total flux of the electromagnet into branch flux 1 not encircled by the coil and flux 2 passing through the coil. This leads to the induction of an e.m.f. esc in the shading coil and gines rise to a coil current isc lagging behind the e.m.f. by phase angle 0 due to the slight inductance of the coil. For the sake of simplicity, angle 0 will be taken to be zero. Current isc produces magnetic flux sc that links with the closed turn and together with a part of the main flux constitutes flux 2 passing through the coil and displaced from flux 1 by phase angle (Figs. 7.5b and c).

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The magnet pull F is the result of the combined action of two pulsating and phase-shifted forces F1 and F2 (Fig. 7.5d). The phase displacement of constituent forces F1 and F2 greatly reduces the pulsation of the net force F. Moreover, the minimum value of F is greater than Fa, thus excluding the vibration of the armature.

Fig. 7.5 Effect of shading coil on the operation of a.c. electromagnets Each of the constituent forces F1 and F2 may be represented as the sum of two components
F1 = F1m F1m cos 2t 2 2

(7.31)

and
F2 = F2 m F2 m cos 2(t ) 2 2

(7.32)

The net force will be

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F=

F1m F2 m F1m F cos 2t + 2 m cos 2(t ) + 2 2 2 2

(7.33)

invariable component

variable component

The peak value Fum (Fig. 7.6e) of the variable component equals
F12 m F F F F = 1m + 2 m 2 1m 2 m cos 2 2 2 2 2
2 2

(7.34)

At this value of the variable component the net force will be

F F F F F F F = 1m + 2 m 1m + 2 m + 2 1m 2 m cos 2t cos 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2

(7.35)

As it can be seen from Eq. (7.35) the pulsation depends on the angle of phase displacement of fluxes 1 and 2 . By force pulsation is meant the ratio between the peak values of the variable and invariable components, i.e.,
=
F12 m F1m F2 m + 2 2

(7.36)

There will be no pulsation at all when F12m = 0, this being possible with simultaneous fulfillment of the following two conditions: (1) Flm/2 = F2m/2, i.e., when 1 = 2 (2) 2 = , i.e., fluxes 1 and 2 must be displaced by a phase angle of 90.

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It is practically impossible to attain a phase displacement of 90 in system with a shading coil, the best actual value of angle being within 50 to 80. The pulsation is minimized by observing the first condition.

Fig.7.6 Shading coils 7.6. Three-Phase Electromagnets Figure 7.7 shows the connection diagram of three-phase electromagnets, where the pole windings are seen to be connected to different phases of the power supply mains. Such an electromagnet may be considered as being built up of three electromagnets with coil currents and, consequently, magnetic fluxes displaced by a phase angle of 120.

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With the coil currents of equal magnitude, the forces between each electromagnet and the armature will be:
1 1 dP 2 F1 = 2 m sin 2 t 4 P d 1 1 dP 2 F2 = 2 m sin 2 (t 120o ) 4 P d 1 1 dP 2 F3 = 2 m sin 2 (t 240o ) 4 P d

(7.37)

Fig.7.7

Connection

diagram

of

threephases electromagnet Under such conditions, the net force of attraction F experienced by the armature will be time-invariable and equal to
1 1 dP 3 2 F = F1 + F2 + F3 = 2 m 4 P d 3

(7.38)

A specific feature of three-phase electromagnets, however, is that the point of application of the net force moves along the armature: at the instant when one of the extreme phase currents passes through zero, the net force is applied to a point at a distance a/2 from the axis of the extreme pole (points A and B in Fig. 7.7). When the middle phase current passes through zero, the point of application of the net force produced by the electromagnet will be on the axis of the middle pole. Thus, the point of application of the net force is seen to move continuously between points A and B during the operation of the three-phase electromagnet. 7.4. Induction Systems The essential features of an induction system are shown diagrammatically in Fig.7.7 [50]. The alternating magnetic flux 1 set up by the Fig.7.7 winding fitted on core 1 induces e.m.f.

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The principle of induction and current I in metallic disc 2 that is free system to rotate between the poles of the system. The interaction of the alternating magnetic flux with the induced current gives rise to a force acting in the plane of the disc at right angles to the flux and the current. In consequence, the disc will rotate in the direction determined by Fleming's left-hand rule. This effect is at the basis of the performance of all induction instruments and devices wherein the actuating force or torque results from the interaction between an alternating magnetic flux and the current induced thereby in the moving part of the system. The magnitude and direction of the force varies with time by the same law as the current and flux. If the conductor (disc) is of low inductance, the current induced therein is but slightly displaced in phase from the e.m.f. and, consequently, angle 11 is close to 90. In this case, the average force is very small and tends to zero. Therefore, it is customary to set up several alternating magnetic fluxes shifted in space and in phase with respect to one another. Such an arrangement produces a traveling magnetic field similar to the revolving field of inductor motors, and makes angle 'I\J differ substantially from 900. By this means actuating force Fav is raised to the required value. The disc begins to cut the magnetic flux as soon as it is set into motion and a new current le is induced therein (due to the movement of the current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field) (Fig. 7.7).

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Fig. 7.7 Diagram of currents in induction system

Fig. 7.8 Timing maximal current relay use the principle of induction disc

The interaction between this newly induced current and the flux establishes a braking force the direction of which is given by the right-hand rule. The motion of the moving part of an induction system is seen to result from the combined action of the actuating and braking forces developed in the system. As is evident from the principle of their operation, induction systems can only be used in alternating current circuits.

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REFERENCES FOR 1-7 CHAPTERS

1. Bartosik M. Concepts of Direct Limitation and Interruption Current Limiting and Interrupting Technique, Warsaw 2001; 2. Bdulescu, N. : Linii i staii electrice. Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 1962. 3. Besrest R., Sellier P., Zimmermen C. New Hybrid Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter with Parallel Commutation Assistance, 2005; 4. Bitoleanu A., Ivanov S., Popescu M. Convertoare Statice Editura Infomed Craiova, 1997; 5. Carroll E., Klaka S., Linder S. IGCT A New Approach to High Power Electronics, IGCT Press Conference, May 20, 1997; 6. Cnescu, T., a.s.o. Aparate electrice de joas tensiune, ndreptar, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti,1977; 7. Cernat M., Aparate electrice, Editura Universitii Transilvania, 2003. 8. Cernat, M., Matlac, I. Aparate electrice, Universitatea din Braov, 1981; 9. Dibner, Bern (1961). Oersted and the discovery of electromagnetism. Blaisdell Publishing Company. ISSN 99-0317066-1 ; 18. 10. Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-018388-0. 11. E.C. Sakshaug, J.S. Kresge, and S.A. Miske, Jr., "A New Concept in Station Arrester Design," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 2, March/April 1977. 12. Electric Power Research Institute, "Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above/Second Edition,"1982.

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13. GE Capacitor and Power Quality Products, 381 Broadway, Ft. Edward, NY 12828-1000, www.geindustrial.com/industrialsystems/products/capacitors.shtml 14. Gheorghiu, N.: Aparate si reele electrice, E.D.P. Bucureti,1971. 15. Griffiths, David J. Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, 1998. 16. Herscovici, B., a.s.o. Aparate electrice de nalta tensiune, ndreptar, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti,1978; 17. Herscovici, B.: Teoria si ncercarea aparatelor electrice. Universitatea din Craiova, 1976. 18. Holaus W. Ultra Fast Switches Basic element for Future Medium Voltage Switchgear, Thesis ETHZ no. 14375, 2001; 19. Horopan Gh., Aparate Electrice, EDP, Bucureti, 1967,1972,1980; 20. Hortopan Gh.: Aparate electrice, EDP Bucureti, 1980; 21. Iacobescu, Ghe.: Instalaii electroenergetice. Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1984. 22. IEEE Working Group of the Lightning Protective Devices Sub-committee, Lightning Protection in Multi-line Stations, IEEE Transactions, June 1968, pp 1514-1521. 23. International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 99-4(1991), "Part 4: Metal Oxide Surge Arresters Without Gaps for A.C. Systems". 24. Iordache, M., Conecini, I. : Calitatea energiei electrice. Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 1997. 25. Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed., Wiley. ISBN 0471-30932-X. 26. Keitch, Paul, Magnetic Field Strength and Magnetic Flux Density, <http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm 27. Lupu, I. : Exploatarea staiilor de transformare. Piatra Neam, Editura CRY SERV, 1999.

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28. magnetic field strength converter, <http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html>. 29. Matlac I. Aparate electrice, Note de curs personale; 30. Matlac I., a.s.o. Aparate electrice, lucrri de laborator, vol. 1 i 2, Reprografia Universitii Transilvania Braov, 1985 31. Matlac, I. Aparate electrice, Elemente de comutaie, Universitatea din Brasov,1971. 32. Matlac, I. Convertoare electrice, EDP 1986. 33. Matlac, I.: Aparate electrice, Reprografia Univ. 1982 34. Matlac, I., Cernat M., Neagoe M., Marinescu C., Comnac V., Szabo S.: Aparate electrice, Indrumar de lucrri de laborator, Vol. I i II, Reprografia Univ. 1985 35. Mayer J.M. Etude et ralisation dun disjoncteur hybride ultrarapide a base de thyristors IGCT, Thesys EPFL, 2000; 36. Nagel A., Bernet S., Bruckner T., Steimer P.K., Apeldoorn O. Characterization of IGCTs for Series Connected Operation; ABB Corporate Reaserch, Rome 2000; 37. Nave, R., Magnetic Field Strength H, <http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html\ 38. Oedegard B., Stiasny T., Carroll E., Rossinelli M. An Application-Specific Asymmetric IGCT, ABB Semiconductors, USA November 2001; 39. Oppelt, Arnulf (2006-11-02), magnetic field strength, http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html 40. PE111-1/92. Instruciuni pentru proiectarea staiilor de conexiuni i transformare. ntreruptoare de nalt tensiune. Bucureti, ICEMENERG, 1993. 41. PE111-4/93. Instruciuni pentru proiectarea staiilor de conexiuni i transformare. Conductoare neizolate rigide. Bucureti, ICEMENERG, 1994.

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42. PE111-9/86. Instruciuni pentru proiectarea staiilor de conexiuni i transformare. Elemente de construcii din staiile exterioare. Bucureti, ICEMENERG, 2000. 43. PE126/82. Regulament de exploatare tehnic a echipamentelor electrice din distribuia primar. Bucureti, ICEMENERG, 2003. 44. Peicon A., Tualiu P. Aparate Electrice Proiectare i Construcie Ed. Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova 1988 ; 45. Pietrreanu, E. : Agenda electricianului. Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 1986. 46. Popa A. Aparate Electrice de JT i T Ed. Didactic i Pedagodic, Bucureti 1977; 47. Power System Engineering Research Center Control and Design of Microgrid Components, january 2006; 48. Preda, L. s.a.: Staii i posturi electrice de transformare. Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 1988. 49. Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-948746-8. 50. Rodstein L.: Electrical Control Equipment, Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1974; 51. Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael J. (2001). Electromagnetics. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1397-X. 52. Solidstate Controls, INC. New Current Sensing Scheme for Static Transfer Switches 2004; Spectra Gases 53. Suciu Iacob: Aparate electrice, EDP Bucureti, 1968; 54. Suciu, Iacob: Echipamente electrice, I. P. Timioara, 1978. 55. Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and Magnetism, 4th ed., W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6. 56. Wangsness, Roald K.; Cloud, Michael J. (1986). Electromagnetic Fields (2nd Edition). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-81186-6. 57. www.ge.com/capacitore

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58. "SF6 in the Electric Industry, Status 2000", (Cigr Study committee No. 23) P.OConnel et al, Electra No. 200, February 2002, pp 16-25 59. ABB POWER TECHNOLOGIES S.p.A. Application Note of PASS M0, 2006; 60. ABB POWER TECHNOLOGIES S.p.A. Application Note of PASS M00, 2006; 61. ABB SEMICONDUCTORS SWITZERLAND Applying IGCT Gate Units Application Note, December 2002; 62. AIEE Working Group of the Lightning Protective Devices Sub-committee, Simplified Method for Determining Permissible Separation Between Arresters and Transformers, AIEE Transactions, Special Supplement, pp. 33-57, 1963. 63. ANSI C2-1984, National Electrical Safety Code. 64. ANSI C29.9-1983, - American National Standard for Wet-process Porcelain Insulators - Apparatus, Post-type. 65. ANSI C57.12.00-1980, General Requirements for Liquid-immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers. 66. ANSI/IEEE C62. 11-1993 - Standard for Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating Current Power Circuits. 67. ANSI/IEEE C62.1 - 1989, Standard for Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits. 68. ANSI/IEEE C62.2-19xx, Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Systems. 69. Application Guide - THE Station Surge Arresters, GET-6460. 70. *** Catalogs, prospects of BBC, ABB, EA, ET, EC, a.s.o. 71. *** Machine Design, Reference issue,1975; 72. ***GE Arresters 73. http://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/sulfurhex_sf6.htm 74. http://www.cigre.org 75. http://www.concordest.com/sf6.html

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76. http://www.spectra-gases.com/default.htm 77. http://www.spectra-gases.com/PureGases/sf6/SulfurHex.htm 78. http://www.tanaka-precious.com/catalog/material.html 79. http://www.fluke.html

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8. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
8.1. General The American National Standards Institute defines a circuit breaker as a mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions. Also capable of making and carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions, such as those of a short circuit [32]. A circuit breaker is a complex device for the control and protection of an electrical circuit and people operating the utilization equipment. This is an electrical power apparatus - EPA automatically operated designed to protect a circuit against short circuit or overload. The circuit breaker has to be able to accomplish the following tasks: break both normal and abnormal currents; manage the high-energy arc associated with current interruption; effect current interruption by the contact of a relay; rapid and successive automatic quenching; autoreclosing arrangement. In addition to these making and breaking capabilities, a circuit breaker is required to do so under typical conditions as short-circuit interruption or interruption of inductive or capacitive currents 8.1.1. Classification of Circuit Breakers

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The main types of circuit breakers with different constructional details regarding quenching medium and modus operandi are the following: Air-break circuit breaker Oil circuit breaker Minimum oil circuit breaker Air blast circuit breaker SF6 circuit breaker Vacuum circuit breaker Hybrid circuit breaker Liability means the circuit breaker has to works conforming the conditions pescribed and garanted by the manufacturer. Under liability circuit breakers are classified as follows: Vacuum circuit breaker Air-break circuit breaker SF6 circuit breaker Oil circuit breaker Gas generating circuit breaker 8.1.2. Principles of circuit breaking The arc-quenching medium of the arc has to deionize the contact gap as fast as possible at the instant of the first zero-crossing of the current (current zero) after contact separation. Other possibility is to change the arc-quenching medium. SF6 circuit breakers operate according to this principle. However, homogeneous arc cooling throughout the total duration of current flow i.e. also during the maximum, automatically increases arc power and arc energy, and thus the chamber stress.

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Depending on the current intensity and on the medium in which it is burning, every arc has a specific temperature and a specific internal arc resistance. Intensive cooling reduces the arc temperature but increases the resistance. In its attempt to maintain the current flow the arc voltage rises. This results in increased arc energy. Other arc-quenching principles use the energy of the arc-quenching medium. This is called a current dependent arc-quenching effect. The problem with these arc-quenching principles is, however, to attain the correct balance between the flow of the arcquenching medium and the strength of the arc in order not to increase the quantity of energy unnecessarily. However, in practice, there is no time relation between the moment of contact separation and a current zero which coincides with sufficiently large contact separation (tripping is not synchronized with the current half wave). Thus, for most break operations, the flow of the arc-quenching medium is larger than necessary. As mentioned above, this leads to unnecessarily high arc energy. The strength of flow of the arc- quenching medium is particularly critical when switching small inductive and capacitive currents: General methods of arc suppression are: by decreasing of current and increasing the arc length; by raising the voltage gradient along the column arc; by extending the voltage drops by the division of the arc column by taking advantage of the electrode region voltage drop; by cooling the arc column (to reduce thermal ionization); by current chopping 8.1.3. Construction of a circuit breaker All circuit breakers, independent of the arc-quenching principle comprise of the following main components: Arc-quenching device with a fixed and a moving contact to extinguish an arc;

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terminals to connect cables or busbars; insulators to insulate the arc-quenching device from the grounded operating mechanism; mechanical operating mechanism to drive the moving contact piece by an insulated coupler. Traditionally, circuit breaker devices are mechanical, in other words the only way to cut off the current is to open a mechanical switch element. This type of mechanical switch element comprises two conducting parts making contact that are in mechanical contact when the switch element is closed (normal operation) and that separate mechanically when the switch element is open (abnormal operation in the case of an overcurrent). There is usually one mobile contact and at least one fixed contact in these conducting parts making contact. These mechanical circuit breaker devices have several disadvantages, particularly when high currents pass through them. The mechanical cutoff results in setting up an electrical arc due to the high energies accumulated in the circuit in which the circuit breaker device is installed and that it protects. This electric arc degrades firstly the conducting parts making contact by erosion and secondly the medium surrounding the switch element by ionisation. Thus, the current takes a certain time before it is interrupted due to this ionisation. This electrical arc degrades conducting parts making contact and requires restrictive and expensive maintenance operations [2]. To reduce the damage due to the inevitable electrical arc and to reduce maintenance, conducting parts making contact are placed in a breaking chamber, in other words a chamber filled with a specific medium that might be air, a vacuum, or a particular gas for example sulphur hexafluoride SF 6 which will probably be banned in the future for environmental reasons. This specific medium is capable of resisting the overpressure created by the formation of the electric arc and is designed to facilitate its extinction.

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This type of circuit breaker device with a mechanical switch element has a high breaking time. The time taken by the mechanical switch element to open is of the order of 1 ms to several ms [19]. Another disadvantage is that they are voluminous because of dimensions of the breaking chamber whitch are larger for higher voltages. 8.1.4. Properties to be taking in consideration to solve the arc-quenching problem: The electromagnetic force due to the interaction between the arc current and its magnetic field is directed towards the centre of the arc and tend to contract it. The diameter of the arc diminished, the current density increases and the arc temperature rises with increasing velocity of the arc displacement. The arc may be considered as a current carrying conductor. An electric arc can be displaced by: the forces due to the interaction with an externally applied magnetic field; the electrodynamics forces acting in its own circuit; the combined effect of both kinds of forces.

The hallmark of a properly built arc-quenching device is to suppress the arc within a small region of space, with minimum noise and emission of light, in a short period of time and with little wear of its structural elements. In Romanian national energetic system, for high and medium voltage, the next types of circuit breakers are used [41]: bulk and minimum oil circuit breakers; compressed air circuit breakers; hard gas circuit breakers SF6 circuit breakers; vacuum circuit breakers.

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8.2. Air circuit breakers This type of circuit breaker is manufactured in range of 30-110 kV. They use compressed air for the arc quenching and are used as interrupters for generators, locomotives, arc fournaces, and other equipments with few ten of connections per day. They have small weigt and volume, are reliable in exploitation and with easy maintenance. Inconveniences are the complexity and the necessity of a compressed air station. For low voltages circuit breakers the external magnetic field needed to set up the movement of the arc can be produced by: coils in series with the contact members; coils in parallel with the contact members; permanent magnets. One other method is to extend the voltage drops dividing the arc column. This method consists in placing metal plates insulated from one another and constituting an arcquenching grid. It is desirable to make the distance between the grid plates as small as possible to keep a small chamber. 8.3. Oil circuit breakers They are two types of oil cicuit breaker: with bulk oil and with minimum oil. Those with bulk oil are from the old generation and are not manufactured in present. Those with minimum oil are manufactured in the range of 6; 10; 15; 20; 25; 27.5 (for electric railway); 35 kV and currents of 400, 630, 1250A [22]. Arc quenching in oil medium is a long standing and widely used method of extinguishing alternating current arc in high voltage circuit breakers.

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The high temperature of the arc (5000 6000C) causes intense evaporation of the oil and its decomposition surrounded by a gas bubble from hydrogen and oil vapours.

Fig.8.1. View and section in bulk oil circuit breaker: 1 fixed contact; 2 action rod; 3 - oil; 4 quenching chamber; 5 moving bridge contact; 6 - insulator The arc will be enclosed in a quenching chamber to obtain a controlled break of the arc current. The chamber generates a jet of gas, vapour and oil in the purpose to increase the voltage gradient, to reduce the ionisation. Arc-quenching chamber can be by: self generating jet cross jet chamber with cross blast; axial jet chamber with axial blast. mechanically generated jet magnetic extinction. In the minimum oil circuit breaker the arc is extinguished by an oil flow. This oil flow is

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either initiated by the arc itself or it is forced by the operating mechanism of the breaker with the help of suitable supplementary devices. Current dependent oil flow is caused either by a special diversion of the gas bubble or by a differential piston.

a)

b)

Fig.8.2. Oil Circuit Breakers: a) 110kV and b) 400kV high voltage minimum oil circuit breakers (3 x 110kV circuit breakers series)

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Current independent oil flow is achieved either by pumping devices or by making use of the volume compensation of the moving contact (rigid arc chamber}, but this is only possible when the contact moves downwards. The most favorable result is achieved with a combination of the current dependent and the current independent air flow systems (as in Siemens T Breaker 3AC) [39]. Radial pressure on the arc (transverse flow) is generally more effective than axial pressure (longitudinal flow). However, the radial flow has the risk of artificially elongating the arc and having it cooled down too much, before reaching the minimum quenching distance. These two factors lead to a high increase of arc power.

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Fig.8.3. Tipical medium voltage minimum oil crcuit breaker section and details: 1 case support; 2 gase box; 3 oil tank; 4 gase exit; 5 breaker cylinder; 6 tulip fixed contact; 7 earthed screw; 8 oil level; 9 terminal; 10 insulator; 11 oil unisense valve; 12 tulip fixing system; 13 - quenching chamber; 14 mobile contact.

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Fig.8.4. Minimum oil high voltage circuit breakers [53]: 1 gase chamber; 2 fixed contact part; 3 - case; 4 lever; 5 moving contact part; 6 quenching chamber

8.4. Vacuum Circuit Breakers For these types of circuit breakers the main characteristic is the missing of ionization in vacuum. They are used generally for medium voltages. The switching frequency is higher than for others circuit breakers. They have low dimensions, minimum noise, extended lifetime and easy maintenance. As disatvantage is the high price of the technology of vacuum cell manufacturing. Vacuum circuit breakers are a widespread technology used in regional distribution level at medium voltage (10-40 kV) [57].

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The main function of a medium voltage vacuum circuit breaker is to interrupt short circuit fault currents, in order to protect connected equipment from high stress, resulting from the short circuit. The breaker must perform this function for all values of currents within its rated capability, starting from small inductive and capacitive currents, up to the full short circuit current, which can reach up to 80 kA in special applications such as generator breakers, with maximum safety and reliability.

a).

b).

c).

Fig.8.5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker[53]: a). general view: 1 fixed support, 2 - special form of the electrodes, 3 fixed contact parts, 4- moving contact parts,5 vacuum cell, 6 terminal, 7 support, 8 lever, 9 pneumatic cilinder,10 mobile support, 11 mechanical system; b). vacuum cell; c). Special form of contact members An AC arc is interrupted by taking advantage of the natural sinusoidal current zeros (current zero quenching). Accordingly the main duty of the arc-quenching system: is to deionise the gap between the contacts at the instant of current zero in order to restore the dielectric strength of the gap as quickly as possible.

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An additional aim of every arc-quenching principle is to keep the arc energy low, so that the arc chambers are stressed as little as possible by the effects of heat and pressure. Different technologies have been developed in recent decades for interrupting current and voltage in the network. When an electrical current is interrupted, the formation of an arc between the contacts is iminent, no matter which medium fills the gap. The principal methods of extinguishing such an arc and safely isolating the two contacts can vary. The quenching chambers extensive in use are with axial slots directed along the axis of the arc column. Today, commercially available vacuum interrupters mainly cover rated voltages in this range (0-40 kV), with short circuit currents of up to 80 kA. For lower ratings air is still the most economic solution, whereas for higher ratings SF6 is more suitable. The interruption occurs in vacuum in a hermetically sealed chamber at a pressure as low as 106 to 10 8 N/cm2.

Fig. 8.6. Dependance of breakdown voltage on distance between 10 mm diameter electrodes: 1 in air at normal atmosferic pressure; 2 in vacuum

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A typical vacuum interrupter consists of two copper-chrome contacts, one fixed and the other movable. The contacts are located inside a vessel that is evacuated to a pressure below 10-15 Pa. The vessel consists of a ceramic insulator, metal bellows for the movable contact, and a shield between the ceramic and the arcing region. As soon as the contacts are separated, an arcing process starts. This arc is sustained by the external supply of energy until the next current zero. It is a metal vapour arc fed by so-called cathode spots from the contact material of the interrupter. By means of special contact geometry, the burning of the arc is prevented from concentrating in one place. Are used spiral shaped contacts, generating a radial magnetic field. This results in a rotary movement of the arc on the contact surface at a speed of a few hundred meters per second. This velocity reduces the erosion of the contact surface, thus extending the lifetime of the interrupter. As the current approches zero, the production of new plasma slows down. In a well-designed interrupter, no new plasma is produced at current zero. The remaining ions and electrons recombine quickly and condensate on the contacts and shield. The gap between the electrodes has to become insulating as soon as possible to prevent a re-ignition of the arc. During this time, the excellent dielectric strength of the vacuum helps recover the arcing path much faster than in any gas breaker. With a contact distance of just one centimeter, a withstand voltage of more than 150 kV can be achieved within microseconds. Unfortunately the dielectric withstand strength of a vacuum is not linear with electrode distance. This is the reason the vacuum circuit breakers are mainly used at distribution levels and only rarely for higher voltages. Vacuum interrupters and embedded poles have as few movable and fixed connection elements as possible, eliminating maintenance over the entire lifetime and leading to very compact and robust designs. The main advantages of embedded poles are: high dielectric strength without any further external precaution, applications in a wide range of climatic conditions and optimum protection of the breaker from dust and moisture.

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This hydrophopic epoxy platform has outstanding material properties. In climatic conditions down to - 60 C, where other materials would start cracking, this type of epoxy exhibits no deterioration. However, the primary goal in pursuing this platform technology was not primarily low temperature behavior but long-term outdoor behavior for widely used product. Vacuum interrupters, whether embedded or naked are the core switching element for circuit breakers. They are operated either by spring or magnetic drives. Magnetic drive technology is offered at 12 kV for up to 50 kA short-circuit current and at 24 kV for up to 25 kA. Vacuum interrupters, whether embedded or naked are the core switching element for circuit breakers and are operated by either spring or magnetic drives. ABB also offers a smaller and lighter circuit breaker called Vmax. It covers ratings up to 17 kV/25 kA and consists of either a naked or silicone embedded vacuum interrupter and a spring drive, customized for low duty applications. A completely new innovative concept was shown at different fairs, introducing integrated sensing and control to the medium voltage circuit breaker landscape. Application of the vacuum breaker over the past 20 years has proved its strengths over other technologies. It now enjoys about 60 per cent of the world market share, and this share is growing.

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Fig. 8.7. Toshiba VK and ABB VD4 circuit breakers 8.5. SF6 Circuit Breakers The development of the synthetic SF6 gas brought in a very efficient arc quenching medium. It has been applied to the whole voltage range of the transmission and distribution systems, working in medium voltage for maximum 110kV. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is a gas used in electrical power equipment. It is colourless, odourless, non-flammable and chemically stable. It does not react with any other substance. It is an excellent gaseous dielectric for high voltage power applications. It has been used extensively in high voltage circuit breakers and other switchgear employed by the power industry. Applications of SF6 include gas insulated transmission lines and gas insulated power distribution substations. The combined electrical, physical, chemical and thermal properties offer many advantages when used in power switchgear. SF6 is a non-flammable and non-poisonous gas.

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Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 which make its use in power applications desirable are: high dielectric strength, unique arc-quenching ability, excellent thermal stability and good thermal conductivity. SF6 has a global warming potential of 24,900 times than CO2. The actual price of SF6 gas has been increased by up to 600%. Due to these reasons, SF6 is used in applications that require release of the gas, only to be re-filled with pure SF6. SF6 is one of the most popular insulating gases. It has a number of advantageous properties: it's not flammable, non-toxic, and not so expensive, it's a good insulator (being an electronegative gas), with a breakdown strength of about 3 times the air strenght. This means that the gas molecules catch free electrons and build heavy negative ions, which travel with relative low speed. This is effective against the creation of electron avalanches which may lead to flashovers. At normal temperatures it is non-corrosive, and fairly inert, although at temperatures above 500C it decomposes and the decomposition products react with just about anything, especially any water vapour. The molecular weight is 146.05, the melting point is -50.8 C and the density (gas at 1 bar and 20C) is 6.164 g/L. SF6 has excellent cooling properties at temperatures (1500-5000 K) at which the arcs extinguishes (dissociations of the gase produces a cooling effect). The amount of SF6 that escapes in the atmosphere is minute, compared with emissions of carbon dioxide (the main greenhouse gas). Even though SF6 has a global warming potential 25000 times greater than carbon dioxide, SF6 probably accounts only for about 0.1 % of contribution to the greenhouse effect. The gas has excellent insulating and arc-quenching properties, which enable much more compact equipment designs than would otherwise be possible. Land use, energy consumption, losses and waste are all considerably reduced, while recyclability is increased.

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SF6 is only used in sealed and safe systems which under normal circumstances do not leak gas. SF6 is collected and recycled if a piece of equipment or a substation needs to be opened. The substations with SF6 reduce the magnetic field and remove the electrical field completely. This is a real advantage for installers, maintenance personnel and people who live in the vicinity of substations. The price in 2006 was approximately 40 EURO/kg. It is typically sold by weight in medium pressure tanks at 320 psi, as a liquid. Without SF6, we would have a bigger impact on the environment as the alternatives require more space, are less safe and affect the environment more for installers, service personnel and people who live in the area. SF6 is used in the electrical industry as a gaseous dielectric medium for high-voltage (1 kV and above) circuit breakers, switchgear, and other electrical equipment, often replacing oil filled circuit breakers (OCBs) that can contain harmful PCBs. SF6 pressured gas is used as an insulator in gas insulated switchgear (GIS) because it has a much higher dielectric strength than air or dry nitrogen. This property makes it possible to significantly reduce the size of electrical gear. This makes GIS more suitable for certain purposes such as indoor placement, as opposed to air-insulated electrical gear, which takes up considerably more room. Gas-insulated electrical gear is also more resistant to the effects of pollution and climate, as well as being more reliable in longterm operation because of its controlled operating environment. Vacuum circuit breakers surclass SF6 breakers in industry being safety and requiring less maintenance. The SF6 molecule is very reflective and contributes to the greenhouse effect. But the concentration of the gas is extremely low (3x10-12 by volume). This should be compared with carbon dioxide CO2 which contributes by about 60%.

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140 120 Arc Current in Amps 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

SF6

50%air 50%SF6

air 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Pressure in Bars

Fig.8.8. The effect of SF6 in quenching chamber In large concentrations, the decomposition products are corrosive and poisonous. The solid decomposition products are mainly metal fluorides in the form of a fine grey powder. The powder only appears where arcing has occurred, for instance in used circuit breakers. The powder can be easily taken care of as separate waste. The decomposition products are reactive, which means that they will decompose quickly and disappear without any long-term effect on the environment. SF6 apparatus is compact and almost maintenance-free and is extremely safe in operation and for users. SF6 can easily be destroyed.

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The arc will be quenching in an atmosphere Sulphur stable of compressed is a Sulphur Hexafluoride gas. The Hexafluoride inert gas possessing

excellent deionising and arcquenching properties and a high dielectric strength as compared with air or nitrogen. The quenching chamber will be of very small size. In Fig.8.9 is presented a comparison between an electric arc in N2 and in SF6. The arc-quenching will be done by axial or cross or blast, even mechanical blast

magnetic blow out. The design of these chambers is the same as the one for air blast Fig.8.9 Comparison between an electric arc in N2 and in SF6. chambers.

SF6 is used by the electricity industry as an insulator for high-voltage (100 kV and above) circuit breakers, switch gear, and other electrical equipment. Gas is used as insulator because it makes it possible to reduce the size of electrical gear significantly, thus making it more suitable for certain purposes such as indoor placement, as opposed to air-insulated electrical gear, which takes lots of room because of the long insulating distances required at high voltages.

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Fig.8.10. SF6 breakers with pneumatic systems, schematic and general view [53]: 1 - quencig chamber; 2, 4 electrovalves; 3 limit switch; 5 tank; 6 filter; 7 compressor; 8 high presure tank

Fig. 8.11. Mechanical type of SF6 breakers, schematic and view: 1 SF6 tank; 2, 9 flanges; 3, 4 fixed contact member; 5, 6 mobile contact member; 7 support; 8 mobile stick.

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Fig. 8.12. SF6 circuit breakers for 400kV (series of 4x110kV CB) and 110kV. Gas-insulated electrical gear is also more immune to the effects of pollution and climate, as well as being more reliable in long-term operation because of the more controlled operating environment. It has been used successfully as a tracer in oceanography to study diapycnal mixing and air-sea gas exchange. It is also emitted during the aluminum smelting process. Because SF6 is relatively slowly absorbed by the bloodstream, it is used to provide a long-term tamponade (plug) of a retinal hole in retinal detachment repair operations. According to the US Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, SF6 is the most potent greenhouse evaluated gas, with a global warming potential of 22.200 times CO2 over a 100 year period [62]. However, because its mixing ratio in the atmosphere is lower than that of CO2 (about 0.005 ppm/365 ppm), its contribution to global warming is relatively low. Sulfur hexafluoride can affect the sound of a person's voice if it is inhaled in small quantities. When SF6 is inhaled, the pitch of a person's voice decreases dramatically because the speed of sound in SF6 is considerably less than it is in air. Sound travels through air at about 340 m/s but through SF6 at only about 120 m/s. This is the opposite of what is heard when a person inhales helium (about 900 m/s).

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Although this is a novel amusement, it can be somehow dangerous as, like all gases other than oxygen, the SF6 displaces the oxygen needed for breathing (asphyxiation). The high flow rate can fatally overpressure the lungs and rupture the alveoli in a fraction of a second, without time to react. 8.6. High voltage SF6 gas insulated assemblies Utilities must be able to guarantee high quality power delivery and reduce the number and duration of outages. ABB has developed a new family of switching devices: a circuit breaker combining one or more disconnectors and control gears. This combination works for both indoor and outdoor installations [76]. The assemblies can be based on traditional air insulated switchgear (AIS), on advanced SF6 gas insulated switchgear technology (GIS) or on a hybrid of both technologies featuring the benefits of both AIS and GIS techniques. The most important advantages of hybrid modules are: compact design, easy transportation and quick assembly in the factory, low maintenance, low lifecycle costs due to low equipment cost, low energy losses and low spare redundancy costs, easy replacement in case of failure, environmentally friendly due to smaller dimensions [38]. ABB Company has developed in the 1990s the hybrid switchgear called PASS (Plug and Switch System) for voltages between 72.5 and 170 kV, and breaking currents of 31.5 to 40 kiloamps. This is a multifunctional module, which integrates and combines several functions. For example, the disconnector/earthed switch can be combined with a breaking chamber for better reliability. The breaking chamber guarantees the earth connection of a line in conditions where a short circuit is likely to appear. Outdoor transformers mounted on SF6 bushings will measure the current.

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Fig. 8.13. Station Brazi for 400/110 kV equipped with SF6 circuit breakers for 110kV

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Fig.8.14. Inside SF6 circuit systems: 1 busbars; 2 insulators; 3 earthed insulator; 4 - circuit breaker; 5 test point; 6 line isolator; 7 - current transformer; 8 cable PASS system is a very modular and flexible switching bay. The circuit breaker is equipped with a disconnector/earthed switch and current transformers suitable for most standard designs of high voltage substations. Standard functions of the system include current measurement, disconnecting, current interruption and earthed. The number of functions can be increased depending on the requirements of the substation. The use of hybrid switchgears has enabled the development of new and simpler substations with very compact design, fast installation, and easy replacement in case of failure, lower maintenance and lifecycle costs and higher reliability than comparable AIS-configurations.

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Fig.8.15. 110 kV ALSTOM SF6 cell view and its section: 1circuit breaker; 2circuit isolator; 3earthed isolator; 4current transformer; 5voltage transformer; 6cable output

Fig.8.16. Other example of SF6 insulated substation [84]

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8.7. Compact Prefabricated Air-Insulated High Voltage Substations - AIS Air-insulated substations are available for up to 170 kV rated voltage. They are both suited for indoor and outdoor applications [78]. Customer Benefits: Fast and simple erection. Reduced costs on site. Required space reduced up to 50% compared with conventional outdoor substations. Short commissioning time of the whole substation. The transport of the pre-fabricated bays can be conducted with ordinary vehicles. Short cable-ways. No foundations for bus bars necessary. Low cost of necessary civil works. Easy maintenance and inspection. Low total life-cycle cost. Main Features: Thoroughly type-tested. Bays pre-fabricated. Bus bars pre-fabricated and self-supported. Control and protection system based on bay-computers and digital protective relays. Control and protection system pre-wired and pre-tested in factory before shipment.

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Appropriate design of the earthed grid in order to obtain a global consistency of the substation as a whole. Flexibility in terms of circuit-diagram as well as layout. Mobility. Minimum impact on the environment. 8.8. Hard Gas Circuit Breakers The interruption is brought about by a jet of gas that is self-generated by sublimation of a solid material under the action of the arc [8]. They are used only for internal services for maximum 25kV. 8.9. Magnetic Blow-Out Circuit Breakers The interruption is achieved by the action of a magnetic field that forces the arc into a specially designed arc-quenching chamber. 8.10. Air-magnetic circuit breakers They are widely used for short-circuit protection in dc electric railways or industrial plants. The well-known drawbacks of these breakers are mainly a slow breaking action, a short lifetime, and high maintenance costs due to the destructive effects of the arc. The use of power semiconductors in a full-static circuit breaker configuration allows the elimination of these disadvantages but is limited by excessive conduction losses. This type of hybrid breaker is drawing its name from the combination of a high-speed mechanical switch and a thyristor assembly connected in parallel. 8.11. Reclosers Reclosers are circuit breakers equipped with mechanisms to automatically close them after they have been opened due to a fault. They are used to protect the overhead lines and power distribution circuits. Their role is to eliminate transitory faults (nearby lightning strikes, wind-borne debris, squirrels climbing insulators, a.s.o.). With a conventional circuit breaker or fuse, a transient fault

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would open the breaker or blow the fuse, disabling the line until manually reclosing of circuit breaker or replacing of fuse. The autorecloser is programmed to make some preprogrammed attempts for the reenergizing the line. If the transient fault has cleared, the autorecloser will remain closed and the power line being in normal operation or, if the fault is permanent fault (downed wires, tree branches lying on the wires, etc.) the autorecloser remain tripped expecting a manually command. Autoreclosers are equipments very used in our National Energy System in supply and distribution of overhead lines for medium and low voltage because of their capability to protect and monitorize the entire line. One other advantage is their wireless working system.

Fig.8.18. Field mounted wireless autoreclosers The ratings of reclosers run from 2,4-38kV for load currents from 10A-1200A and fault currents from 1-16kA. Autoreclosers are made in single-phase and three-phase versions, and use oil, vacuum, or SF6 interrupters. Controls for the reclosers are monitorized and commanded by SCADA functions.

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The autorecloser succeeds in restoring power after a transient fault has cleared. If the fault is on an adjacent circuit, some dips in voltage will appear as the heavy fault current flows into the adjacent circuit and is interrupted one or more times. Autorecloser action produces in electronic devices loss of time settings, data in volatile memory, halting, restarting, or suffering damage due to power interruption. Such equipments need to be protected against the consequences of power interruptions. GVR autorecloser is composed by two pieces, one sealed aluminum recipient containing a three phases vacuum circuit breaker with their acting mechanism and the control box connected by a special cable (called by manufacturer umbilical cable) [79]. The recipient contains SF6, realizing a controlled medium for mechanical and electrical components.

Fig.8.19. GVR Autorecloser System [53]: 1terminal insulator; 2current transformer; 3case; 4pressure valve; 5ON/OFF indicator; 6manual acting lever; 7 vacuum circuit breaker; 8solenoid.

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Fig.8.20. Block scheme of GRV POLARr wireless autorecloser. Relay has also distance command interface (I/O interface) to command or transmit the recloser state. The communication support is GPRS service from GSM Mobifon operator. This feature permits: unlimited scalability, small investition, reduced costs (1USD/1MB), for communication in all country, security and very quikly activatiation. SCADA System for Romanian application was realized by ETA Industrial Automation using Genesis32 product of ICONICS, the world lider in SCADA. 8.12 Static interuptors Practicaly to realize a static interuptor is necessary to use a semiconductor element to disconnect a short circuit current and quench the electric arc. The semiconductor elements taking in considerations the current and the voltage possible to be interrupted are presented in the following chart:

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Fig.8.21. Semiconductor elements possibilities [15]:

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier or Thyristor; GTO Gate Turn-Off thyristor; HPBT High Power Bipolar Transistor; SIT Static Induction Transistor; IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor; MOSFET Metal Oxid Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

It is observed the thyristor is the element used for high currents and voltages. Disavantages of semiconductor elements are the low values of current and voltages possible to be commutated. General model of a static intreruptor is presented in the figure below: Recent progress in power electronics have made it possible to replace electromechanical breaking by an electronic breaking using power semiconducting components. Th e system uses power thyristors in low voltage (<1 kV), IGBT or IGCT for alternating current at medium voltage. These fully static circuit breaker devices have the advantage of a high breaking speed (< 1 ms), but have the major disadvantage specific to semiconducting components of the high losses in direct conduction. Circuit breaker devices have Joule effect losses in the conducting state and a cooling device has to be provided. It is also important to include an energy dissipation system at the time of the break.

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Fig.8.22. General model of a static circuit breaker The maximum current that they resist and the maximum voltage that they can maintain are limited. The circuit breaker device cannot be timed because the semiconducting component that is conducting cannot resist the maximum fault current, therefore it is essential to break the current before this destructive value is reached. This breaking is made in less than half of alternation in the case of alternating current. Therefore the use of static circuit breaker devices based solely on semiconducting components for voltages of several kV and currents higher than 1 kiloampere are still problematic. The semiconductor breaking cell comprises one serial assembly with a diode and an IGCT type thyristor. It is possible to use a thyristor and a diodes bridge. A series inductance may be mounted in series with the capacitor. To be fast, the mechanical switch element may comprise a Thomson type mobile contact with electromagnetic drive.

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The use of static circuit breakers for high and medium voltage is not a viable solution for the moment in the world. 8.13. Hybrid circuit breakers Hybrid circuit breakers are a combination between two tipes of circuit breakers [42]. There are a multiple possibilities of combinations. One other possibility is to combine a static semiconductor system with a classic quenching system. The ideea behind the research done in this domain is the possibility of material consumption reduction and a switching process reliability increase. Principally there are two methods to realize this: current quenching in one step or in two steps. The current interruption in one step is more difficult to be obtained because the switching element is oversolicitated especially in the case of overcurrents or overvoltages with extreme values. In the case of two stages in the first stage permits the reduction of current at a reduced value possible to be total quenced in the second step. Specifications of hybrid circuit breaker are: The energy of the arc has to be minimmum to keep a long life for for the The circuit breaker must open the circuit with a delay necessary for to Losses by thermal efect must to be minimum and solved by natural Mechanical parts of circuit breaker will be made by resistant materials for breaker; assure the selectivity of the protection system; convection; the agresive medium. 8.13.1. Hybrid circuit breakers between two known classic circuit breaker systems

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Hybrid circuit breakers combine SF6 and air quenching systems. A new revolutionary developing system for high voltage circuit breakers is combining the air and SF6 principles. This hybrid configuration permits a compact design without moving parts and special safety measures [60]. A hybrid circuit breaker consists in a vacuum interrupter connected in series with an SF6 interrupter and has a zinc oxide varistor connected in parallel with the vacuum interrupter. The capacitance to ground of the SF6 interrupter is higher than the capacitance to ground of the vacuum interrupter. The system prevents the generation of high frequency discharges from the vacuum interrupter. These devices combine the high dielectric strength of compressed SF6 with the rapid dielectric recovery characteristics of a vacuum interrupter following a current zero. Thus, in the first few tens of microseconds following a current zero, the system recovery voltage is sustained by the vacuum interrupter. This period of time allows the proper deionization of the SF 6 gas in the SF 6 interrupter, so that the SF 6 interrupter becomes capable of sustaining high voltage. In the 1990s, ABB developed the hybrid switchgear called PASS (Plug And Switch System) for voltages between 70 and 160 kV, and breaking currents of 30 to 40 kiloamps. It is a multifunctional module, which integrates and combines several functions. For example, the disconnector/earthed switch can be combined with a breaking chamber for better reliability.

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a)

b)

Fig.8.23. Schemes and construction details of ABB PASS M0 de 170kV circuit breaker a) with one way and b) with two ways from the transfer busbars: 1 isolator with earthed separator; 2 current breaker; 3 current transformer. The breaking chamber guarantees the earth connection of a line in conditions where a short circuit is likely. Outdoor transformers mounted on SF6 bushings will measure the current. PASS modules are pre-engineered bays whose introduction has markedly enhanced the module-based approach to substation design [57]. The substation is divided into modules in which design engineers can test both structure and design with great precision. Price and technical feasibility of a substation can be determined at the start of a project. Alternatives can be generated and evaluated quickly, and the value of a potential investment estimated without exhaustive design studies. Results come in days,

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even hours, compared with months often required for conventional systems. Other models are equipped with a disconnector/earthed switch and current transformers suitable for most standard designs of high voltage substations.

Fig.8.24. Hybrid ABB 170kV circuit breaker for distribution stations Standard functions include current measurement, disconnecting, current interruption and earthed. The number of functions can be increased depending on the requirements of the substation. Rotation of the mobile contacts enables line disconnection, busbar disconnection, and earthed of the line and busbar through the closure of the circuit breaker - all with a single drive. The advantages of this modular system include the flexibility to adapt to the most common substation layouts. This ABB hybrid switchgear has enabled the

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development of new and simpler substations with very compact design, fast installation, and easy replacement in case of failure, lower maintenance and lifecycle costs and higher reliability than comparable Air-insulated High Voltage Substations AIS configurations. Comparing the hybrid circuit breaker with air classical circuit breaker the first has advantages: SF6 quantity reduced with 80%, maintenance prices reduced with 38%, dimensions reduced with 70% and life cost reduced with 60% [77]. 8.13.2. Hybrid circuit breaker device with static circuit breakers using semiconductor elements. This technology is a combined topic of semiconductors with mechanical circuit breakers. This technique tries to keep advantages from positive point of all circuit breakers system. A hybrid circuit breaker device comprises a mechanical switch element and a semiconductor breaking element capable of carrying a direct or alternating current and in which there is no electrical arc when the mechanical switch element is open, even if the current is high. Another quality of a hybrid circuit breaker device is its low maintenance. The circuit breaker device comprises a main branch with a mechanical switch element and an auxiliary parallel branch containing a semiconductor breaking cell. The main branch comprises a serial switching assistance module in series with the mechanical switch element, comprising a semiconductor breaking cell controllable in opening in parallel by impedance. Switching circuit is connected in parallel with the main interrupters. This circuit contains also an overvoltages protection circuit (snubber) or at least one capacitor type element. The main circuit breaker works in parallel with a static circuit breaker and the isolation switch assure the electric separation of the load after the circuit interruption. In figure is presented a principle schematic of a hybrid circuit breaker [83]:

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Fig.8.25. Scheme of a hybrid circuit breaker and the control system In normal operation the snubber and the voltage has high impedance values. Switching way is necessary for the static switching element and works only in the breaking circuit. In normal operation the snubber has high impedance. All interrupters are controlled by electronic circuit. The working time of static interrupters is smallest then those of the mechanic interrupters, that means the mechanic part of a hybrid interrupters will be as quickly as possible. The best mechanical interrupter is the vacuum type for its properties after the zero passing of the current. Another concept for medium voltage commutation is hybrid circuit using semiconductor elements in parallel and in series [81]. Generaly the medium voltage commutation devices are electromagneticaly. In such configuration, the quenching device is realised to extend the electric arc to the extinction [83]. They have the great disadvantage of high losses in conduction. The principle scheme is presented below:

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Fig.8.26. Principle scheme of a hybrid circuit breaker For a voltage of 12,5kV are necessary four IGCT. The voltage drop on the arc must to be minimum 16V achieved in very short time to minimize the energy of the arc [45]. All breakers are controlled by electronic circuits. The reaction time of the mechanic breaker is very slow as the electronic breaker working time means that the mechanic breaker must be very quickly. The problem is that the working time of the mechanic is greater with the mass of the breaker depending of the value of the current breaking. For that reason the vacuum breaker is indicated to maintain insulation at the first passing of the current through zero. The major problems concerning power semiconductor circuit breakers are the excessive heat losses and their sensitivity to transients. However, conventional breakers are capable of dealing with such matters. Hybrid breakers use separate parallel branches for conducting the main current and interrupting the short-circuit current. This type of breakers is used for protecting direct current traction systems. A hybrid breaker composed by a vacuum breaker is the main breaker in the main conducting path; and a commutation path was connected across the vacuum breaker providing current limitation and interruption [87]. The commutation path operates only during current pass.

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Currently, hybrid circuit breaker devices (mechanical and electronic) that use semiconductors and a mechanical switch element are currently under development. 8.14. Perspectives of circuit breakers In Fig.8.27 is presented a comparison between current types of breakers and their evolution [15].

Fig.8.27. Trend of circuit breaker in UE in the last years As it seen in Fig.8.27 actualy only few types of circuit breakers remains in use:

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The Vacuum Circuit Breakers are the most reliable because of the short course of contact pieces, the quick quenching of the arc and the high switching frequency 1000 - 2000 disconnections at shortcircuit current. The Compresed air Circuit Breakers are comparable with the Vacuum Circuit Breakers with the inconvenience of the necessity of the compressing air station. Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers are still in use even their bad reliability because of its cheapest price. The oil change is necessary to be done after a maximum of 20 disconnections at short circuit currents. The maintenance is very easy. The mechanical parts are complicated with long course and solicitated at wearing and corozion. The SF6 Circuit Breakers have low dimensions, minimum noise, long life and easy maintenance. Vacuum circuit breakers are used for medium voltage. The technology of vacuum cell manufacturing is expensive increasing the total price of circuit breaker. The hybride circuit breakers present a big interest but are still in researche because of bad characteristics of semiconducting devices at high voltages and currents and high price. Semiconductor based circuit breaker technology is feasible and has been demonstrated, but such solutions are still too expensive to compete with vacuum circuit breakers. The use of semiconductors for electric power circuit breakers instead of conventional breakers remains a utopia when designing fault current interrupters for high power networks.

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9. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONTACTORS
9.1. General A contactor is a remotely controlled electrical power apparatus (EPA) designed for repeatedly establishing and interrupting an electric power circuit in nominal conditions (at nominal current). Electromagnetic contactors, the subject of this chapter, are actuated by electromechanical means. A contactor is a type of electrical relay. Contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-current load devices, not other control devices. Relays tend to be of much lower capacity and are usually designed for both Normally Closed and Normally Open applications. Devices switching more than 10 amperes or in circuits rated more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Unlike a circuit breaker a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. They make and break power circuits to such loads as electric furnaces, lights, transformers, capacitors, heaters, and-when overload relays or inherent protectors are used-motors, heating systems, capacitor banks, and others. The general description of the contact systems, arc chutes, operating mechanisms and other units of electromagnetic contactors applies equally to pneumatic and hydraulic contactors. Electromagnetic contactors have found wide application and are the main power control elements of modern automatically controlled electric drive systems. When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced which attracts ferrous objects, in this case the moving core of the contactor is attracted to the stationary core. Since there is an air gap initially, the electromagnet coil draws more current initially until the cores meet and reduce the gap, increasing the inductive impedance of the circuit.

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Contactors are also classified as: d.c. contactors for use in direct-current circuits; a.c. contactors for use in industrialfrequency (50 or 60 Hz) alternatingcurrent circuits; high-frequency contactors for use in high-frequency circuits ( > 10 kHz). The magnetic system (operating circuit) of the contactor may be designed for a current differing from that of the power circuit (main contacts). For example, the operating coil of an a.c. contactor may be designed for d.c. supply, and that of a high-frequency contactor may be designed for d.c. or 50-Hz a.c. supply.

Fig.9.1. Elementary circuit diagram for starting and reversing a d.c. motor: a1handler; efuses; R1-R3 resistances; C1-C3 speed control contactors; C4contactor for forward rotation sense; C5contactor for back round rotation sense; Md.c. motor

n the Fig.9.1 the handler interrupter a1 assure the circuit supply, C1-C3 are contactors regulating the d.c. motor speed, and C4 and C5 are contactors for sense changing.

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Depending on the conditions of power circuit operation there many categories of a.c. and d.c. contactors are manufactured. Others categories are designed for conditions when the motor is disconnected from the supply source while running at full speed. Normal conditions of operation of the contactor are the starting of electric motors (at a starting current of up to 2.5Irated in the case of d.c. motors and up to 61rated in the case of a.c. motors) and their disconnection from supply at the rated load (I = Irated) and speed

Fig.9.2. General views of a.c. contactors The restriking voltage across the contactor contacts equals V-, i.e. is about 10 per cent, and at overloads, attains 20 per cent of the rated value. The contactor operates without difficulty even when frequently disconnecting from supply an electric motor running at the rated speed under heavy overload conditions. In this case, the power factor is taken to be cos = 0.35 (alternating current), and the time constant, T /10 milliseconds (direct current). Many electric drives, particularly those of rolling mills, hoisting devices and other mechanisms, operate under conditions of frequent starting (up to 1200 starts per hour), reversing and reverse-current braking, as well as under duty conditions and locked-

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rotor duty conditions. In the latter two cases, the electric motor moves only in slight jerks or is at full standstill. Under such conditions of operation, the contact or has to interrupt starting currents when the counter e.m.f. is equal or practically equal to zero. The re-striking voltage is equal to the rated voltage. Such duty conditions, under which the contactor has to make and break starting currents (6 I rated, cos = 0.35; 2.5 Irated, T = 10 milliseconds) with the contacts at the rated voltage, are considered to be heavy-duty conditions. Contactors consist of a system of main contacts, an arc-quenching and electromagnetic system, and auxiliary contacts. Time-lag accelerating contactors are also fitted with a device producing the required delay in operation. The main contacts serve for making and breaking the power circuit. They must be designed for continuous flow of rated current and for a high frequency of opening and closing operations. At a low frequency of operation, the rated current of the main contacts is determined mainly by the temperature conditions prevailing under continuous and intermittent periodic duty. At a high frequency of operation, the rated current is also determined by the additional temperature rise of the contacts due to the arc burning during interruptions of the current-carrying circuit. Depending on the normal position of the main contacts, contactors may be with making, breaking, and mixed contacts, also referred to as normally open, normally closed, and normally open and closed contacts. The contacts are considered to be in their normal position when the operating coil of the contactor is deenergized and all its mechanical latches are released. The main contacts may be of a lever or bridge type. Lever-type contacts are used in rotary moving systems, and bridge-type contacts are used in straight-travel moving contact systems. The arc-quenching system serves for extinguishing the arc burning between the main contacts when they separate.

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The method actually employed for extinguishing the arc and the constructional embodiment of the arc-quenching device are determined by the kind of current (a.c. or d.c.) flowing in the power circuit under control and by the duty conditions of the contactor. The electromagnetic system provides for remote control (opening and closing) of the contactor. The design features of the electromagnetic system are determined by the kind of current that is used for the control circuit of the contactor and by the functional diagram of the system. The electromagnetic system may be designed to attract the armature and hold it in the attracted position or, alternatively, only to attract it. In the latter case, the armature is held in the closed position by a latch. In the former case, the contactor opens when the operating (holding) coil is deenergized, the opening being brought about by the action of the tripping spring, by the moving system dropping out under the effect of gravity, or by both means. Depending on the normal position of the main contacts, contactors may be with making, breaking, and mixed contacts, also referred to as normally open, normally closed, and normally open and closed contacts. The contacts are considered to be in their normal position when the operating coil of the contactor is deenergized and all its mechanical latches are released. The main contacts may be of a lever or bridge type. Lever-type contacts are used in rotary moving systems, and bridge-type contacts are used in straight-travel moving contact systems. The arc-quenching system serves for extinguishing the arc burning between the main contacts when they separate. The method actually employed for extinguishing the arc and the constructional embodiment of the arc-quenching device are determined by the kind of current (a.c. or d.c.) flowing in the power circuit under control and by the duty conditions of the contactor.

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The electromagnetic system provides for remote control (opening and closing) of the contactor. The design features of the electromagnetic system are determined by the kind of current that is used for the control circuit of the contactor and by the functional diagram of the system. The electromagnetic system may be designed to attract the armature and hold it in the attracted position or, alternatively, only to attract it. In the latter case, the armature is held in the closed position by a latch. In the former case, the contactor opens when the operating (holding) coil is deenergized, the opening being brought about by the action of the tripping spring, by the moving system dropping out under the effect of gravity, or by both means. In all cases, the contact springs take part at the first stage of the process of opening. The system can provide for undervoltage and zero-voltage protection, depending on the connection diagram of the contact or and the pull of the electromagnet. Undervoltage protection means that the contactor opens automatically when the voltage across the coil drops below a specified value, and zero-voltage protection means that the contactor opens automatically when the voltage closely approaches zero (usually Vtrip < 10% Vrated). Besides the electromagnetic system designed to pull the armature inwards and bring the moving system up to the latch, contactors with a mechanical latch are provided with a second electromagnetic system that trips the contactor, i.e., releases the moving system from the latch. As these electromagnetic systems operate for a very short period of time, they can be made of a small size and their coils can carry heavy overload currents. The electromagnetic system of time-lag accelerating contactors also provides the necessary time delay before closing the contacts. Auxiliary contacts are used to switch over the control, interlocking and signaling circuits of the contactor. They are designed to carry a continuous current of not more than 20A, and to interrupt currents of not over 5A. Auxiliary contacts may be making and breaking and are mostly of a bridge type, though they may also be of a lever type.

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Contacts: Contactors specifically designed for d.c. currents are usually single-pole devices. Because d.c. is widely used for adjustable speed motor control, dc contactors find frequent application in steel-mill controllers, crane controls and continuousprocess controls. A d.c. arc considerably more sustaining than an arc from an equivalent alternating current. Also most dc loads are highly inductive, which further sustains the arc. Therefore, an effective arc-quenching means is necessary for dc contactors. Specials contactors are available with a normally closed power contact. 9.2. Direct-current contactors Direct-current contactors are, as a general rule, of a single-pole type for currents of up to 40A. Contactors of individual series rated at up to 100-150A are made in multipole versions with different combinations of the main contacts. The main contacts are in most cases of a lever type. The contacts usually rotate on a prism and, less frequently, on an axle, and are connected to the power circuit by a flexible tie made either of thin stranded copper wires or of an assembly of 0.1-mm thick copper buses. A typical feature of direct-current contactors is that the contacts are carried by an arm greater than that of the armature of the magnetic system. The contact clearance ranges from 8 to 20 mm, and the magnetic system travel corresponding to this clearance is from 3 to 8 mm, respectively. Contactors of high current ratings have a two-stage contact system consisting of main and arcing contacts. In recent years, certain contactors (such as those used on ships) employ straight-travel electromagnetic systems and bridge contact systems. The arc-quenching systems rely for their operation on the extinction of the arc by a transverse magnetic field inside an arc-quenching chamber (arc chute). In the majority of cases, a series blow-out coil produces the arc-quenching magnetic field devices

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confining the arc to the volume of space occupied by the arc-quenching chamber. Wide use is made of arc-quenching chambers with narrow slots and also of arc-quenching Fig.9.3 shows some of the most commonly used arc quenchers of direct-current contactors. A characteristic trend is to raise the breaking capacity of these contactors and to limit the dimensions of the arc and its flame. In Fig.9.3 are presented few types of contact members which increase the pressure between them and to limit the dimensions of the arc and its flame. Other solution is to divide the slot of the chute into several sections. Under the action of the magnetic field, the arc forms loops lengthening the column of the arc. Contact of the arc with the walls of the chamber causes its intensive deionization.

Fig.9.3. D.c. contactors, details of main contacts All this greatly improves the arc-interrupting capacity of the arc chute. The dimensions of the arc and its flame are slightly reduced when interrupting circuits of a

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comparatively low inductance. When interrupting circuits of a high inductance, the arc loops leave the chute, join together and form a single loop. In Fig 9.4 the air pockets (free spaces in the quenching chamber) are provided in the arc chutes to speed up the movement of the arc. In these cases, the magnetic blast is confined to a limited part of the chute, and the foot points of the arc column are rapidly displaced into the narrow space forming the air pocket. The high temperature of the arc must raise the temperature and, consequently, the pressure of the air inside the pocket. The hot gases, on being ejected from the pocket, blow over the arc, speed up its movement and, as a result, promote its quicker extinction. The effectiveness of this blast, however, drops sharply as soon as the arc leaves the chute.

Fig.9.4. Details of the arc quenchers chambers of d.c. contactors using blow out coils

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Beginning from this moment, the arc is practically lengthened solely by the electrodynamic forces acting within the current circuit. The arc and its flame become of very great dimensions beyond the arc chute, and it takes more time to extinguish the arc. The slower extinction of the arc upon its leaving the arc chute gives rise to slight overvoltages at the instant of extinction, this being a definite advantage of such a system. The inclusion of an arc-quenching grid made up of V-shaped plates in the magnetic blow-out system improves the breaking capacity of the contactor. The additional electrodynamic forces arising in each circuit speed up the arc movement. The grid is, how-ever, of rather complicated design. Arc chutes with narrow slots that may be straight or of a zigzag configuration greatly improve the breaking capacity and limit the dimensions of the arc and its flame beyond the arc chute. However, they also do not guarantee full extinction of the arc within, the limits of the arc chute. Electromagnetic systems are mostly of the clapper type with the armature rotating on a prism, though in certain cases it may rotate on an axle. The rotation on a prism provides for a much higher wear resistance of the system than in the case of the rotation on an axle. Along with the clapper-type systems described above, d.c. contactors currently in serial production are quite often equipped with universal magnetic systems designed for connection both to d.c. and a.c. sources of supply. The use of such systems calls for the inclusion of series resistor Rs in the circuit of the operating coil On beeing connected to supply, the coil operates under forced conditions, and the resistor is inserted into the circuit towards the end of the magnetic system travel so as to limit the magnitude of the current in the coil. The advantages of such a system are its small size and high speed of action.

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Disadvantages of the system are the extra elements of the coil circuit (i.e., the resistor and auxiliary contact), and the power loss in the series resistor that may be from 200 to 400 per cent of the coil power consumption. Using a double-section coil connected as shown in the circuit diagrams can eliminate the latter disadvantage. Further development of the construction of direct-current contactors must be aimed at improving: the mechanical service life by using prismatic self-adjusting bearings for the moving parts of the contactor, and by bettering the correlation of its mechanical and tractive characteristics; the electrical service life by minimising or fully eliminating the slipping and rubbing of lever-type contacts (while retaining their rolling), reducing the moment of inertia of the moving parts, using cermets contacts, and preventing any bouncing of the contacts; the breaking capacity through further improvement of the arc-quenching systems. 9.2.1. Construction of d.c. contactors The 9.5 figure present a d.c. contactor with two phases in opened construction. Bs are the blow out coils to push the arc against the walls of the quenching chamber. Ra is a resistance to reduce the consumption of the current in the closed position. Ra resistance is designed to reduce the current through the circuit in the closed position of the contactor. When the coil is supplied the current is high because the attraction force generated by the coil is depending with the distance between armatures. This current is maybe 5 times higher then the normal current in the closed position but only for very short times. When the mobile armature is attracted 7-9 contacts are opened and the supply of the coil will be done through the resistance Ra. This gives economy of

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copper and current. The quenching chamber is made of insulation material (ceramic, asbestos, fiberglass, a.s.o.), with narrow slots that may be straight or in zigzag configuration. Direct-current contactors are manufactured in a wide variety of designs, some of which will be described below.

Fig.9.5. Two way d.c. contactor: views, details and schematic The contactors for heavy duty are available in 50, 100, 150, and 300A current ratings. The 50A contactor is of a monoblock type fully assembled on the core holder. The armature and contacts rotate on prisms, the arc is quenched in a chute with a narrow

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zigzag slot, the operating coil is bobbin-wound. The contactors have a long mechanical and electrical service life, high breaking capacity, are simple construction and meet all up-to-date requirements. Contactors for greater current are manufactured for 100, 160, 250, and 630A and in voltage ratings of up to 600V. They are of a single-pole type with making or breaking main contacts. The contactors are intended for heavy duty, operating normally with 1200 closures per hour. Their mechanical service life equals 20 million cycles of operation. 9.3. A.C. Contactors The alternating-current contactors are constructed for currents of industrial frequency (50 or 60 Hz) generally with three-pole type making main contacts. The electromagnetic systems of these contactors are stacked from 0.35 to 1 mm thick electrical sheet steel laminations insulated from one another. The contactors employ a low-ohm coil having a small number of turns. The main part of the coil resistance is due to its inductive reactance that depends upon the magnitude of the gap. Therefore, the coil current with the magnetic system open (the starting current) is 5 to 10 times greater than the current flowing when the magnetic system is closed (the working current).

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Fig.9.6. A.C. Contactor magnetic core system The magnetic systems may be of a rotary type (E-shaped, U-shaped, clapper-type, etc.), or of a plunger type (T-shaped, E-shaped, solenoid-type). Rotary magnetic systems are employed in contactors intended for heavy duty, and plunger magnetic systems are used in contactors designed for normal conditions of operation. An a.c. contactor operates in the same manner as an d.c. contactor. However, while an a.c. magnet is laminated steel, a d.c. magnet is made of solid steel. Electromagnetic systems of all types of A.C. contactors consist of a core, armature, shading coil, operating coil, and fasteners. The most vulnerable link as concerns the resistance to wear is the shading coil of the system. Whenever the armature strikes the core, the protruding parts of the shading coil are set in vibration and eventually break down. The wear resistance of the shading coil can be improved by securely fastening all the protruding parts of the coil. The magnetic core design of an ac contactor consists of a stationary core and a movable armature. Some contactors are of the horizontal design; others have a hinged or pivoted clapper magnet.

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Coils are available in any voltage up to 600 V. The most readily available coil voltages are 110, 120, 220, 240, 380, 440, 480, and 550 V for 25, 50, and 60Hz. Selecting a contactor with the proper coil is imperative for maximum life and reliability. A coil must operate satisfactorily from 85 to 110% of its rated voltage. In addition, the higher voltage causes higher magnet impact, which reduces mechanical life. Therefore, it is advisable to measure the control voltage rather than estimate it. Continuous overvoltage operation is a frequent cause of coil failures. Overvoltage can also cause excessive contact bounce, which will burn contact tips rapidly and could cause them to weld together. Ac contactors with tapped coils may be used as d.c. relays. Contact design and material depend upon the size, rating, and application of the contactor. Contactors with double-break contacts usually have silver cadmium-oxide contacts to provide low contact resistance, and improved arc rupturing capability, and antiwelding characteristics. Large contactors with single-break contacts frequently have copper contacts for economy. The single-break contacts are designed with a wiping action to remove the copper oxide film which forms on the copper tips. Since copper oxide is a nonconductor, it must be eliminated for good circuit continuity. When the contacts open, an arc is t drawn. The longer the arc remains, the f more the contacts are consumed, and the shorter the contact life. The arc can be extinguished by lengthening or by using a blow-out means. For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is surrounded with a shading coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the alternating pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice line frequency.Most motor control contactors at low voltages (600

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volts and less) are "air break" contactors, since ordinary air surrounds the contacts and extinguishes the arc when interrupting the circuit. The magnetic poles can be prevented from upsetting and the armature laminations can be prevented from getting loose by using thicker laminations (up to 1 mm thick for the middle, and from 2 to 3 mm thick for the outer parts of the stack). These measures, however, lead to an increase in power losses and result in a higher temperature rise of the core and magnetic system. Therefore, thicker laminations can be used only on condition that the lamination material is of improved magnetic characteristics. When all the parts of the magnetic system are fastened rigidly, the kinetic energy of the moving parts is absorbed by the system at the instant the armature strikes the core, thus worsening the mechanical condition of both the armature and the core. The impact is transmitted to the contacts and makes them bounce (secondary bouncing). The mechanical service is improved by absorbing (damping) the mechanical shock. The shock may be absorbed by the moving part, by the fixed part, or by both of them. When shock absorbers are used, the kinetic energy of the moving parts is spent in displacing the core or armature and is suppressed by the shock-absorbing springs.

9.3.1. Construction of a.c. contactors The use of arc-quenching grids provides multibreak interruption of the arc during passage of the arc current through zero fully eliminated the spreading of the arc beyond the limits of the arc chute. This made it possible to reduce the overall dimensions of the contactor by bringing the poles closer together. In recent years, the vast majority of contactors have been made for double-break interruption of current (by means of a bridge-type contact) within a closed combined arc chute of the type. In this case, arc suppression is also based on the utilization of the phenomena occurring in the cathode region during passage of the arc cur-rent through zero.

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Fig.9. 7 General view, scheme and terminals of a low power a.c. contactor The arrow indicates the sense of moving when the coil is energized. Terminals are: 0-1 coil; 2-4 and 6-8 normal open contacts; 3-5 and 7-9 normal closed contacts, aso.; R-A, S-B and T-C main normal open contacts. The following most important circumstance should be borne in mind when dealing with the contact system of contactors. In contrast to d.c. contactors, the closing duty conditions of a.c. contactors are much heavier than the opening duty conditions. This is due to the fact that the a.c. contactors under consideration are used to control squirrelcage induction motors, the starting current (periodic component) of which may be as high as 6 to 8 and sometimes even 10 times the rated current. With due account for the aperiodic component, the peak value of the starting current during the first half-cycle may be 14 to 15 times the rated current under normal conditions of operation. Under such conditions, bouncing of the contacts during closure causes great wear of the contacts, often several times greater than their wear occurring during opening.

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Therefore, it is most important to minimise or fully eliminate the contact bouncing during closure.

Fig.9.8. AC contactor with bridge contacts and the quenching chamber Initially, a.c. contactors employed the same magnetic blow-out chutes with wide slots as d.c. contactors. To prevent the arc, that spreaded far beyond the chute, from flashing over the contactor phases, the poles of the contactor had to be spaced at a considerable distance apart. Thus, the poles of a 150A contact or were spaced at 100 mm apart. Normalduty a.c. contactors can be further improved by the following means: suppression of contact bouncing during closure. employment of combined methods of arc quenching inside a closed arc chute with multiple (two) breaks of the arc per pole; use of metal-plastic frictional pairs; large-unit assembly, wherein all the, components of the contactor are mounted on a single or, at most, three basic, preferably plastic, parts with a minimum number of fasteners or nearly without any at all; all this will provide for quick and easy assembly and disassembly of the contactor. Heavy-duty a.c. contactors can be further improved by taking measures to:

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suppress the bouncing of contacts during closure and raise the breaking capacity; lengthen the mechanical service life of all constructional parts-by eliminating impacts in bearings and employing a rotary moving system and contacts on prismatic self-adjusting bearings; provide for unitised assembly, wherein each pole, the magnetic system and the inter-locking contact unit constitute a single unit. This will make it possible to manufacture contactors with any number of poles up to five and, also, to quickly replace any damaged part. Normal-duty a.c. contactors differ in constructional features from d.c. contactors. Heavy-duty a.c. contactors built by the same manufacturing plant are of universal design. Some series are made for use both in d.c. and a.c. circuits, thus providing for large-scale production. In Fig.9.9 is presented a command scheme to connect a consumer using an a.c. contactor.

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Fig.9.9. Frequently used motor command schematic using a.c. contactor and the compact case containing it: Ccontactor (main contacts), OLoverload thermal relay, I start button, 0stop button, 1C(2-4) automaintainig contact, 01 coil terminals, On the left side of the scheme is presented the force three phases circuit composed by the main contacts of the contactor and the thermal relay. In the right side is the command scheme. Contactors are available with auxiliary control contacts. In this typical control circuit, the contactor is controlled by pushbuttons. When the on button is pressed, the contactor coil is energized, the main power contacts close and the auxiliary control contact change the state. All opened contact will be closed and all closed contacts will be opened. The main contacts (force contacts) closed will put the motor in operation and the 1C will hold the coil supplied if the start button will be released. This auxiliary is a holding contact; it maintains the control circuit when the on button is released. When the stop button 0 will be pushed the coil supply will be cut-off and all contacts returns to their normal state. The motor stops and the holding contact is deactivated. If

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the current is more than 1.2 of the nominal current the thermal relay works and opens BRT contact mounted in series with the stop button stopping the motor. Auxiliary control contacts have ratings at least sufficient to carry the coil current of the contactor.

9.4. Vacuum contactors The vacuum contactors are fitted with electrical latching or mechanical latching in the fixed (fuse holder application on request) or withdrawable versions.

Fig.9.10. Vacuum Contactors produced in China (Wuxi Lanhong Electric and Zhejiang Zheng Guang) under ABB licence They are suitable for control and protection of motors, transformers, power factor correction banks, switching systems, etc. Modern medium-voltage motor controllers use vacuum contactors.Fitted with suitable fuses, they can be used in circuits with fault levels up to 1000 MVA. They are very widely. They can be also used in coal mines, metal smelters, chemical industry, electric power, petroleum, cement industries.

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10. ISOLATING SWITCHES, CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS AND EARTHING SWITCHES

10.1. General Isolating switches or, simply, isolators (disconnecting switches or disconnectors according to American usage) serve for connecting and disconnecting parts of an electric circuit from live conductors when no load current is passing. Isolators are used in all kinds of high voltage installations to provide a visible break between the disconnected part and the live part of the circuit and, also, to make operative changes in the circuit connections. Isolators are also employed in low voltage installations for safety reasons, (in particular, to provide a visible, break), their function being in most cases performed by ordinary knife switches.

Fig.10.1. Positions tacked by circuit isolators in a power plant (see chap.1)

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In Fig.10.1 position 5 represent a circuit isolator, 8 represent a line isolator and 9 represent an earthed isolator. Usually the both position 8 and 9 are parts of the same equipment. An isolator is a switch connected after a circuit breaker. When a circuit or a busbar is taken out of service by tripping the circuit breaker, the isolator is then open circuited and the isolated line is earthed through earth switch so that the trapped line charges are safely conducted to ground. Isolators are manufactured in indoor and outdoor versions for all standard currents and voltages. They are usually of a three-pole type for voltages of up to 35 kV, and of a single pole type for higher voltages. At voltages over 35 kV, the interphase spacing become too large to justify the installation of all three poles on a single mounting frame. The pole of any isolator consists essentially of fixed and moving contacts (blades) carried by respective support insulators, a mounting frame or plate, and an operating mechanism. The contacts are the most important elements of the isolator and must be made so as to operate reliably under overload and short circuit conditions, as well as under normal rated conditions. The expected temperature rise of the contacts, the short time duty performance of the isolator, and the required electric and mechanical strength of the insulation govern the general design and constructional features of high voltage isolators. As a general rule, isolators operate with high contact pressures. Heavy-duty isolators usually employ laminated contacts built up of several (up to eight) parallel bars of rectangular, channel shaped, or circular cross section. Heavy-duty isolators are also provided with mechanical or electromagnetic latches to prevent their being blown open by the electrodynamics forces due to short circuit currents. The electromagnetic latch comprises two steel bands superimposed on the copper bars of the knife blades at the point of their contact with the fixed contacts of the isolator. During the passage of

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heavy currents through the blades, the steel bands will be attracted to each other and press against the blade bars, thus raising the contact pressure. Isolators are equipped with manual, electric motor, or pneumatic operating mechanisms. Isolators of small current capacity for voltages of up to 35 kV my be opened and closed by means of a special hook stick, Manually operated lever mechanisms are the most commonly used with isolators for currents of up to and including 3000 amperes, and at higher current ratings preference is given to worm gear mechanisms. Electric motor and pneumatic mechanisms are used to open and close heavy isolators when this cannot be done manually, and also serve for remote and automatic control purposes. Isolators are always interlocked with the associated circuit breaker to avoid erroneous on load closure as this may cause severe damage and fatal accidents. The interlock allows the isolator to be operated only when the circuit breaker is fully open. The interlocks may be mechanical, mechanically latching, electromagnetically latching, and of other types. As regards their constructional features, isolators differ mainly in the motion performed by the moving contact.

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Fig.10.2. Low and medium voltage isolators Fig.10.2 shows a typical knife blade isolator for indoor use. Isolators of similar design are available in single and three pole versions for voltages of up to 35 kV and currents of up to 6 kA. The pole of this isolator comprises fixed contacts and terminal pads mounted on support insulators. Moving contact (knife blade) is made up of two parallel rectangular bars embracing the fixed contacts and free to rotate about pivot and is fitted in bearings. The required contact pressure is supplied by springs that press against steel bands. The pressure is sufficient to give the contacts a self-cleaning action. The moving contact is linked with the operating mechanism of the isolator by means of a coupler. All the poles are mounted on a common steel plate or frame and are ganged by a single operating shaft. The magnetic flux set up around the moving contact during the passage of current is confined to these bands and tends to draw them together..

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Fig.10.3. Outdoor medium voltage knife circuit isolator and high voltage rotary isolator for three phases circuit. Fig.10.3 shows a rotary isolator where the moving contacts are rotated in a horizontal plane. Isolators of this type are designed for voltages from 10 to 500 kV and currents of up to 2 kA. The isolator incorporates two insulator columns mounted on bearings carried by steel frame. The number and size of the column insulators depend on the current and voltage rating of the isolator. The columns carry arms terminating a wedge and finger contact arrangement.

Fig.10.4. Detail of rotary isolator contacts The isolator is equipped with earthed blade 6 and is provided with pertinent interlocks. The opening and closing operations are performed by rotating both columns around their own axes through an angle of 90 in opposite directions with the aid of operating mechanism and an associated transmission gear. Isolators of lower voltage ratings may be with only one rotating column.

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Fig.10.6. 110 kV line isolators and earthing switches for 110 kV and 400 kV. 10.1.1. Circuit interrupters are circuit-opening devices used primarily for the purpose of rapidly isolating faulty sections of electric circuits from live parts when no current is passing, i.e., for opening automatically in the reclosing time of the supply circuit breaker. 10.1.2. Earthed switches are used for rapid automatic earthed of faulty sections of the electric circuit, in particular for medium or high voltage electric substations, able to perform the functions of circuit-breaking, isolating and earthed is described. The device comprises: a casing; at least one circuit-breaker; at least one line isolator having a fixed isolator contact; a line isolator actuating shaft for actuating the at least one line isolator; at least one earthed isolator; a circuit-breaker actuating shaft for actuating at least one circuit-breaker; and a lever connected to a conductor rod cooperating with movable circuit-breaker contacts.

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Fig.10.7. 110 kV circuit interrupters with earthed switches opened and closed. Circuit interrupters and earthed switches are basically similar in construction to isolating switches with a high speed operating mechanism controlled by protective relays. Fig.10.7 shows the main components of an earthed switch.

Fig.10.8. Low voltage circuit isolator: a) closed, b) open

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The low voltage isolator from Fig.10.8 is equipped with three fuses switching the circuit by a manual system.

Fig.10.9. Capsulated isolators with SF6 [68]. In Fig.10.9 are presented capsulated isolators used in high voltage SF6 gas insulated assemblies. The motor from the driving system will move by rotary insulator the

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moving contact to the tulip. The earthed shield, by its lever assures the visibility of connection or disconnection state.

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11. ARRESTERS
11.1. General The arrester was invented and introduced in 1976 [110]. It was metal oxide arrester. An arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal oxide varistors have been used for power system protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth.

Fig.11.1. Different types of arresters The arresters connected to the open-end of switched lines can reduce the magnitude of switching surges along the entire line. In the case of new lines, a further reduction in switching surges is possible with additional arresters at intermediate locations

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The objective of arrester application is to select the lowest rated surge arrester that will have a satisfactory service life on the power system while providing adequate protection of equipment insulation. An arrester of the minimum practical rating is generally preferred because it provides the greatest margin of protection for the insulation. The use of a higher rating increases the capability of the arrester to survive on the power system, but reduces the margin of protection it provides for a specific insulation level. Thus, arrester selection must strike a balance between arrester survival and equipment protection [113]. The rating of the arrester is defined as the rms voltage at which the arrester passes the duty-cycle test as defined by the referenced standard. To decide which rating is most appropriate for a particular application, consideration must be given to the following system stresses to which the arrester will be exposed: Continuous system voltage Temporary overvoltages Switching surges Lightning surges

Fig.11.2. Schematics showing the symbol and few mounting places for arresters: a) for medium and high voltage overhead lines; b) for medium voltage cables [16] In Fig.11.1 are represented two schematics showing the place of arresters in the energetically power distribution system. In the electroenergetic system there are two or

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three levels of insulation, which are: protected level, intermediary level and protection level. The former one id fixed in the arrester. The level of keeping the insulation is fixed at (2.72.9) UN. The tendency is to keep the level at minimum possible in order to reduce the cost of the device. That means to design very sensitive arresters, capable to withstand high currents for several milliseconds. The electrical solicitations of the electrical insulation are commutation voltages, temporary overvoltages, and atmospheric overvoltages. The solicitation of electrical devices and machines depends by the values of overvoltages, duration of solicitations or impulse overvoltages for short solicitations. The standard arrester consists of a stack of metal oxide disks mounted in a sealed housing. Each disk is wedged in place offering protection against physical damage during shipment and installation. On the each disk, a conducting surface is applied to assure proper contact and uniform current distribution. The surge arresters range is dedicated to the protection of the high voltage transmission grids up to 1050 kV against atmospheric and switching over-voltages. The arrester provides temporary overvoltage capability. The arresters absorb minimum energy to protect equipment insulation.The gapless construction provides a design which is simple and reliable while remaining economical. Polymer and porcelain arresters are also designed for the most demanding service conditions. Under normal system conditions, the arrester conducts less than 1 mA. When a surge reaches the arrester, the arrester conducts only the necessary current to limit the overvoltage.

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Fig.11.3. Characteristic of insulation: 1 - rated voltage of the instalation, 2 volt/time curve of the arrester; 3 - volt/time curve of the insulation; 4 overvoltage curve. In Fig.11.3 the 0 point represent the moment when the arrester breaks down. After the break down (curve 4) the voltage remains at a fixed value called residual voltage. The arresters are mounted between active conductors and the ground. The arrester has a disruptive space named eclator that separates the conductor under voltage from the ground. The main body of the arrester is mounted in series or parallel with the eclator and it reduces the amplitude of the overvoltage to a value of voltage allowed by electrical installations. The breakdown must take place in a minimum time, shorter than the action time of the protection. The characteristics of the arresters are: Nominal voltage; The voltage of ignition at the impulse wave; The voltage of ignition at industrial frequency; The adjacent current; Residual voltage; Leakage capacity. Arresters offer considerable advantages because of their operating mode, high energy absorption, and low protective level, in a variety of situations where other types of arresters have been difficult to apply. Such situations include the protection of shunt

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capacitor banks, cable circuits, switch-connected equipment, SF6 substations and transmission lines. In high voltage installations, two types of arresters are used (tubular and with variable resistance). The tendency is to use only arresters with variable resistance.

11.2. Arrester working mode At relatively low resistances, a residual current flows though the arrester, current called conduction current of the arrester or running current. This current is determined by the voltage applied to the arrester and by the values of the resistances in parallel with the spark gap and also by the non-linear resistance [135]. The role of the resistances in parallel with the spark gap is to divide as uniformly as possible the voltage over the spark gap chain. The schematic is represented in Fig.11.4.

Fig.11.4. The safety gap (eclator) when the shunt resistors are missing As it can be noted, the voltage distribution on the disruptive intervals is uniform due to the parasite capacity. As a consequence, the superior interval has the tendency to ignite before the others and after the ignition the voltages applied to the other disruptive intervals are increased. Thus, a cascade breakdown takes place. Adding resistances in parallel with the disruptive intervals settles the running current and reduces the parasite capacity effect. As it can be noted, the voltage distribution on the disruptive intervals is uniform, which means that the breakdown takes place simultaneously.

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Fig 11.5. Construction of arresters: 1 Case insulator; 2 Gases leakage flange; 3 Seal ring; 4 Diaphragm for pressure reduction; 5 Spring; 6 Nonlinear resistance with metallic oxides In case of atmospheric overvoltages, the current through the arrester has a high amplitude and low span. The intensity of the discharging current is influenced by the arrester location relative to the protected device and to the network constants [130]. The maximum intensity of the discharging current appears when the thunder strike is in the vicinity of the arrester. The statistics show that this maximum intensity can only rarely excel 100 kA. After dissipation of the overvoltage wave energy, in the arrester remains a low intensity current, called, as shown before, adjacent current. The arrester represents now a path between the high voltage line (found at nominal voltage) and ground. It is necessary

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that this path is interrupted as quickly as possible. The impedance that limits the adjacent current is a non-linear resistance. The adjacent current is in phase with the voltage and the returning voltage contains only the industrial frequency component. The intensity of the adjacent current is determined by the characteristics of the nonlinear resistors, by the speed of growing of the dielectric rigidity of the disruptive spaces, by the amplitude and by the duration of the discharging current. In many cases, after the arrester is ignited there will be no adjacent current. In the case of internal overvoltages also discharging currents can appear. The internal overvoltages differ from atmospheric overvoltages by their relatively high span and relatively low amplitude. The source of energy is the system itself. The internal overvoltages appear as traveling waves. Theoretically, in this case, the arrester functions in the same manner as in the case of atmospheric overvoltages, as the equivalent schematic is the same. The intensity of the discharging current is very low, so that the residual voltage given by this current never approaches the insulation level of the protected device. 11.3. Variable resistance arresters An arrester has to satisfy two apparently contradictory functional conditions: the leakage capacity is relatively high, and the maximum value of the residual voltage is relatively low and after the disappearing of the overvoltage, the arrester to interrupt the current and ceases to function. For that reason they use some non-linear resistances made of semiconductor materials: resorbit, tirit, vilit, etc. The construction of an arrester with variable resistance is presented in Fig.11.6.

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Fig.11.6. The variable resistance arrester: aelectric schematic; bsection: 1terminal; 2discs forming non-linear resistance; 3spark gap column; 4 airing lid; 5 lid; 6 resistors for uniform distribution of the potential on spark gap; 7ground terminal; 8hygroabsorbing disc; 9socle. The arrester is made of a column of spark gaps, that have shunt resistances, and a column of resistors with non-linear resistance capsulated in an insulator. The materials from which the discs that form the non-linear resistance resistors are hygroscopic, thus keeping them in a dry place is absolutely necessary. By introducing the china envelope of a hygroscopic substance (calcium chloride), the atmosphere in the arrester will

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always have the same state of reduced humidity. The envelope has a safety valve in order to avoid the break of the insulator in case of malfunctioning of the arrester. The active part of the arrester is formed of spark gap and non-linear resistors made of discs connected in series. The spark gap permits the current flow when the overvoltage attains the ignition value and interrupts the adjacent current after the discharging process is finished. The non-linear resistance does not limit the intensity of the discharging current, but limits the intensity of the adjacent current, so that it can be interrupted when needed. The current-voltage characteristic of the non-linear resistance, for a constant temperature, in case of atmospheric overvoltages, can be expressed by: u = C i (arctg ) where the C constant takes values in the (650-750) (arctg 1) interval and the exponent, called passing coefficient or non-linearity coefficient, takes values in the (0.16-0.32) interval [8]. The materials used for building the non-linear resistance are made of metal oxide discs. The intensity of the electric field in this layer attains values in the 104-105 V/cm range, values sufficiently high to increase the mobility and concentration of electrons in the silicon oxide layer that leads to an increase in the conductibility. The maximum value of the current that the semiconductor disc can support without being deteriorated cannot be strictly determined. For the materials used for making the discs, the thermal coefficient of the resistance is negative. It results that, in case of emission of high quantities of heat without a proper dissipation, a continuous increase of the intensity of the current will take place, which will produce a thermal breakdown. 11.3.1. Metal Oxide Disks Metal oxide valve elements are composed of a specially formulated compound of zinc oxide and small amounts of other selected metal oxides mixed in powdered form,

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pressed to form a disk, and fired at high temperatures, resulting in a dense polycrystalline ceramic. The basic molecular structure is a matrix of highly conductive zinc oxide grains surrounded by resistive intergranular layers of metal oxide elements. Under electrical stress, the intergranular layers conduct, resulting in a highly nonlinear characteristic. Metal oxide elements in arresters maintain stable their characteristics and equipment protection is never compromised. The metal oxide disks are constructed with the edge technology by electrical equipment manufacturers around the world. They are designed in accordance with IEEE and IEC Standards and are available in a voltage range from 3 to 6kV in five diametric sizes; 33mm, 41mm, 51mm, 62mm and 76mm [135].

Fig.11.7. Arresters metal-oxide discs 11.3.2. Disk Collaring The collaring system used on varistor disks, has two purposes: to provide an insulating collar preventing the flashover at high currents, and to prevent the disk watts because of surface oxygen reduction. The high dielectric insulating collar system is a nonporous, non-lead ceramic crystalline, sealing completely the circumference of the disk and preventing oxygen depletion from the zinc oxide grains. This system maintains stable aging characteristics in the surrounding atmosphere; gas, liquid or solid.

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In the case of very high voltage networks and in continuous current networks the magnetic blowout arresters are used. The special request imposed to these arresters is the limitation of internal (commutation) overvoltages when the electric charges that must be led to ground are important, which is made by diminishing the current using both non-linear resistances, but mostly by a strong stretching of the arc. The construction of a magnetic blowout arrester is presented in Fig.11.8.

Fig.11.8. Construction of a magnetic blowout arrester module: 1spark gap; 2 magnetic blowout coils; 3shunt resistors connected in parallel with the blowout coils; 4non-linear resistance resistor; 5shunt resistance for leveling the distribution of the voltage. The spark gap is made of two electrodes introduced in quenching chamber mad of plate discs, placed at certain distances. The spark gap column has at each end a magnetic blowout coil.

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The disruptive spaces between the electrodes of the safety gap, intensely ionized due to the discharging current, do not recover the dielectric properties at the end of the discharging process. The magnetic blowout coil is crossed by current and generates a magnetic blowout field. As the intensity of the discharging current decreases, the resistance of the arc space between the spark gap increases and the adjacent current is forced to cross the magnetic blowout coils. The magnetic field forces the adjacent current to choose a current path that avoids the field lines. The electric arc is pushed at the edges of the chamber discs. Thus, the resistance of the arc column is increased, which diminishes the intensity of the adjacent current. The interruption takes place before the moment of natural passage through zero of the adjacent current. The burning of the electrodes in the ignition points is avoided by the displacement of the arc. The non-linear resistance is dimensioned so that when the adjacent current passes, the residual voltage doesnt exceed the maximum impulse ignition voltage of the spark gap, and thus the apparition of unwanted overvoltages is avoided. 11.3. Polymer Surge Arresters The polymer surge arresters are constructed utilizing a rugged field-proven silicone alloy housing placed over a unique high-strength fiberglass woven assembly of stacked metal oxide elements. In order to prevent moisture ingression, the air space between the housing and fiberglass housing is filled with hydrophobic dielectric grease. As additional protection, the cast metal end fittings of the arresters are tightly sealed around the polymer housing. This state-of-the-art assembly yields an arrester that is stronger and more rugged than any polymer arrester in the industry [134]. The polymer arresters offer exceptional electrical characteristics such as low protective levels, high energy handling capability. The electrical performance of the polymer

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arresters is enhanced by its ability to easily transfer heat from the metal oxide elements to the outside environment. Porcelain Arrester is also a polymer arrester which incorporates a heat transfer system utilizing silicone-rubber material wedged between the metal oxide disk and internal porcelain wall. Heat generated in the valve element from steady state, temporary, or transient conditions is transferred through the silicone-rubber material to the porcelain housing and then dissipated to the outside environment. This construction protects against internal arrester damage during shipment and installation. In the event that the capability of an arrester is exceeded, the metal oxide disks may crack or puncture. Such damage will reduce the arrester internal electrical resistance. In the unlikely case of complete failure of the arrester, a line-toground arc will develop and pressure will build up inside the housing. This pressure will be safely vented to the outside and an external arc will be established provided the fault current is within the pressure relief fault current capability of the arrester. This low-voltage arc maintains equipment protection. All ratings of metal top porcelain station arresters will withstand a system available short circuit current of at least 65 Ka rms. Fig.11.9. Polymer Arrester

Once an arrester has safely vented, it no longer possesses its pressure relief/fault current capability. An arrester that has vented should be replaced immediately. The arresters are designed to operate at a weighted average temperature of 4560C.

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The arresters are designed for altitudes under 3000 m. Generally, the insulation design of the substation will dictate the arrester clearances. For each 100 m above a 3000 m altitude, arrester clearances should increase approximately one percent [139]. 11.4. Extra High Voltage (EHV) polymer surge arresters have provided excellent protective characteristics, temporary overvoltage capability and switchingsurge energy withstand to power systems of 500kV and for more than 20 years [128]. The Extra High Voltage surge arrester consists basically of two parallel columns of highly non-linear metal oxide resistors, which are hermetically enclosed in porcelain containers. Each column is comprised of metal oxide disks connected in series. The discharge current, and thus the energy, is essentially equally distributed between the two columns. The improved metal oxide disks have better volt-ampere characteristics, lower power dissipation, and a non-porous glass-ceramic insulating collar around the disk which ensures long-term stability in any environment. The new porcelain housings shed profile has outstanding capability to withstand the effects of very severe external contamination. Extra High Voltage arresters are designed to be self-supporting for base mounting in a vertical position. The rated cantilever strength of the standard arresters is 22 600 Nm. High voltage polymer surge arresters are designed for protecting high voltage systems up to 420 kV. Thei are suitable for indoor and outdoor applications, and are designed to protect transformers and switchgear against switching and atmospheric overvoltages. The gapless arresters are housed in glass fiber reinforced resin tubes with silicon rubber sheds. This construction is ideally suited for use in highly contaminated environments. The lightweight composite polymer design reduces the cost of installation and the risk of damage during transportation.

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The arrester housing is made of silicone alloy that resists tracking from surface leakage currents. When exposed to high fault currents the epoxy/fiberglass wrapped modules either rupture or burn through to relieve internal pressure. The polymer housings then split to relieve the pressure. Polymer Arresters are not susceptible to cracking or breaking like porcelain arresters, so the possibility of damage from mishandling in packing, shipping and installation is virtually eliminated. The polymer housing material excels in tolerance to weather extremes, and resists damage from ultraviolet rays and ozone. The polymer arresters are less than half the weight of an equivalent porcelain arrester. This lighter weight makes transportation, handling and installation much easier. The polymer housing is 50 to 60% shorter than the housing of an equivalent porcelain arrester. For a typical 10 kV rated arrester, the basic polymer housing is only 15 cm long50 to 60 percent shorter than the porcelain equivalent. Likewise, the arresters are less than half the weight of an equivalent porcelain housed arrester. Another significant advantage of the polymer arrester construction is that fault withstand capability can be maintained throughout the voltage range.

11.5. Protection of the Arrester against Explosions In order to avoid the explosion of the arresters due to overcharging, they have pressure limitation device. Such cases of overcharging can be: Drop of an electric line with greater nominal voltage on an electric line with smaller nominal voltage. Violent atmospheric discharging directly on a line. In such cases it is possible that the electric arc wont be quenched anymore, meaning that the adjacent current wont be interrupted anymore. The electrodes and the

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resistances heat and electric arches that exhaust ionized gases may appear. In most of the cases a generalized arc appears in the interior of the arrester, along it. Such situations are extremely rare, though. The exploitation statistics of the arresters at very high voltages show that faulty functioning happens in only 1 to 5000 arresters [132]. If the arrester is overused, the china envelope is overheated and submitted to inadmissible high pressure. As a consequence, it is destroyed before the switcher interrupts the faulty current. In order to prevent such accidents, the china insulator is protected by a cylindrical screen disposed in interior, and the pressure increase is limited by safety devices placed at the ends of the insulator. Valves made of lids having big surfaces are used as pressure limiters, the lids being maintained closed using springs. There are also fault signaling devices, to that the personnel can move away from the dangerous place. The lids must remain closed also after the explosion danger has passed. In the network where the neutral point is treated by direct connection to ground, the overusage of a arrester usually produces a single-phase short-circuit. A great pressure is introduced in the china envelope and the lids are opened in a few milliseconds. The ionized gases and the electric arc are exhausted from the arrester. The switcher of the device has the role to interrupt the short-circuit current before damage occurs.

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12. LOW VOLTAGE AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS (INTERUPTERS)

Low voltage automatic circuit breakers are interrupters doing the same thing as fuses: they open a circuit as soon as current climbs to unsafe levels, but it is possible to be used over and over again. For this reason it is the purpose of this separately chapter and is not treated in the chapter of circuit breakers. They are a combination between circuit breakers and fuses generally know as automatic fuses. The basic circuit breaker consists of a simple switch, connected to either a bimetallic strip or an electromagnet. The electricity magnetizes the electromagnet. When the current jumps to unsafe levels, the electromagnet is strong enough to pull down a metal lever connected to the switch linkage. The entire linkage shifts, tilting the moving contact away from the stationary contact to break the circuit. The electricity shuts off.

Fig.12.1. Usually low voltage circuit breakers In Fig.12.1 are presented few air circuit breakers named Low Voltage Automatic Circuit Breakers or Interrupters (ACI) with a current rating of 100 A. It is made in two

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pole versions for d.c. voltages of up to 220 V and in three-pole versions for an a.c. voltage of 400 V of 50, 60 and 400 Hz frequency. A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits.

Fig. 12.2. Inside views of single phase LVACB

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These air circuit breakers are fitted with electromagnetic over current tripping elements (with settings ranging from 0.6 to 1.0 of the rated current) for instantaneous operation or for delayed action brought about by means of a hydraulic damper. It has also a low voltage disconnection system, and an interlock exterior disconnection system. Commercially ACI has different names as AMRO, USOL, ASRO, OROMAX, OTOMAX a.s.o. The thermal-magnetic circuit breaker operates the same as the thermal breaker up to its instantaneous-tripping point. At this point, the magnetic feature either takes over or assists the bimetal to cause tripping of the mechanism. As the bimetal heats up because of I2R, a magnetic field is also created by the current. At high overloads, this field attracts the magnetic plate.

a)

b)

Fig. 12.3. Overload bimetal system: a) closed; b) open

a)

b)

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Fig. 12.4. Short-circuit magnetic working system: a) closed; b) open The instantaneous-trip point of a magnetic breaker usually is fixed for a certain current value-regardless of the current rating of the breaker. If a coil in series with the bimetal is used in place of the magnetic plate to produce the magnetic tripping force, the instantaneous-trip point will be at a fixed percentage of the breaker current rating. Thermal compensation is obtained the same way as in thermal breakers. Thermal element with magnetic plate through the solenoid, and heat has no effect. However, the time delay between the minimum and instantaneous trip points is affected, since ambient temperature has an effect on the viscosity of the silicone fluid.

Fig. 12.6. 500A automatic circuit breaker: a. view; b. schematic

Their breaking capacity equals 4500 A when used in d.c. circuits, and in a.c. circuits of 50 and 400 Hz frequency it amounts to 9000 and 12 000 A, respectively. All types have a mechanical service life of 50000 opening - closing cycles and an electrical service life of 6000 cycles when interrupting the rated current at the rated voltage. All the units of the circuit breaker are enclosed in a plastic casing. The AMRO series automatic circuit breaker shown in Fig.12.6 is available for rated currents of 50, 100, 200 and 600 A and voltages of 220 V d.c. and 380 and 500 V a.c. of 50 and 60 Hz frequency and, also, for rated currents of up to 160 A of 400 and 2400 Hz frequency for use in 400 and 500 V

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high-frequency circuits, respectively. Their breaking capacity attains 50 kA (maximum asymmetric short-circuit current value when used in 50-Hz circuits). All the components of 400 and 1000 A air circuit breakers are assembled on a mounting base of insulating material, and those of 1500-2000 A circuit breakers are carried by a metal frame provided with insulating mounting racks. These air circuit breakers may be of an open type for stationary installation with front connection of lead in busbars, or designed for incorporation in switch gear units on a draw out truck with plug-in disconnecting contacts ar- ranged on the back side of the breaker. The air circuit breaker is enclosed in a molded plastic casing. The contacts have silver-base cermet tips, which do not weld together and need no servicing. The operating mechanism of the circuit opening breaker and provides of for the closing

breaker contacts with a constant speed irrespective of the effort applied to the handle. Owing to the action of the tripfree mechanism, the circuit breaker is opened automatically in the event of an overload or short circuit position Fig 12.7. Tripping characteristic of an automatic occupied by the operating handle interrupter (OROMAX): a protection curve of at this instant. circuit breaker; b equipment safety curve whatever the

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They may be manually operated, lever-operated, or motor-operated. The OROMAX series air circuit breakers (see Fig.12.8) are made for rated currents from 400 to 2000 A. Three-pole versions are manufactured for rated voltages of up to 500 V a.c. of 50 Hz frequency, and two-pole versions are for voltages of up to 460V d.c. The breaking capacity of air circuit breakers rated at 2000 A is up to 75 kA (maximum asymmetric short-circuit current value) at a voltage of 400 V a.c., amounts to 45 kA at 220 V d.c., and is equal to 40 and 30 kA at voltages of 500 and 460 V, respectively .

Fig.12.8. OROMAX schematic: D maximal current disconnector; M electric motor; CF, - limit switch; CS ,CSD signalizing contacts; XL, ED- closing and opening electromagnets; DTm minimum voltage disconnecting electromagnet;

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PFS, PFD plug and sockets for auxiliary contacts. The contact system of all the circuit breakers is of a three-stage type with cermet main contacts and arcing contacts. The main contacts are silver base, and the arcing contacts are copper-base. The arc is quenched in chutes fitted with arc-quenching grids. Air circuit breakers of this series have found extensive application in all kinds of industrial installations. In Fig.12.9 is presented a single-phase automatic interrupter or commonly named automatic fuse. This type is used in apartments or houses to protect electrical circuits of light and sockets against short circuits. The advantages are their small volume and the posibilty to restore quiqly the voltage.

a.

b.

c.

Fig.12.9. Single phase automatic interrupter: a. view, b. dimensions, c. schematic

Some circuit breakers use an explosive charge to throw the switch. When current rises above a certain level, it ignites explosive material, which drives a piston to open the switch. More advanced circuit breakers use electronic semiconductor devices components to monitor current levels rather than simple electrical devices. These elements are a lot

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more precise, and they shut down the circuit more quickly, and they are not so expensive. All the wiring in a house runs through a central circuit breaker panel (or fuse box panel), usually in the basement or a closet. A typical central panel includes about a dozen circuit breaker switches leading to various circuits in the house. One circuit might include all of the outlets in the living room, and another might include all of the downstairs lighting.

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13. ELECTRICAL FUSES

13.1 General The simplest circuit protection device is the fuse. A fuse is just a thin wire, enclosed in a casing that plugs into the circuit. When a circuit is closed, all charge flows through the fuse wire.

Fig 13.1. Different types of usual fuses 13.2. Fuses compared with circuit breakers Fuses have the advantages of often being less costly and simplest than circuit breakers. The blown fuse must be replaced with a new device and it is an inconvenient than

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simply resetting a breaker. The replacing of a fuse without isolating the circuit first can be dangerous if the fault is a short circuit [138]. High rupturing capacity fuses can be rated to safely interrupt up to 300 kA at 600 V AC. Special current-limiting fuses are applied ahead of some molded-case breakers to protect the breakers in low-voltage power circuits with high short-circuit levels. These fuses clear the fault in less than one cycle of the AC power frequency. Circuit breakers cannot offer similar rapid protection. In a three-phase circuit, if only one of the fuses opens, the remaining phases will have higher than normal currents, and unbalanced voltages, with possible damage to the coils of motors or solenoids. It is possible for medium-voltage distribution to combine fuses with a fusible element with a relay protection system adding a pyrotechnic device operated by external protection relays

The fuse is designed to disintegrate when it heats up above a certain level if the current climbs too high, it burns up the wire. Destroying the fuse opens the circuit before the excess current can damage the building wiring. The problem with fuses is they only work once. Every time you blow a fuse, you have to replace it with a new one. Fuses are simplest protective devices used especially for short-circuit protection and sometimes for overload of low-voltage or high voltage installations and equipment. Fuse protection is based upon a simple principle consisting in the use of a fusible element-known as the fuse link-that gets heated to its melting point when a

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predetermined maximum current is exceeded. This opens the circuit and disconnects the protected installation or equipment from supply. Each type of fuse (and all other overcurrent devices) has a time-current characteristic which shows the time required melting the fuse and the time required to clear the circuit for any given level of overload current. Fuses are often characterized according to the time they take to respond to an overcurrent condition. Fast-blow fuses open quickly when the rated current is reached. Ultrafast fuses are used to protect semiconductor devices that can tolerate only very short-lived overcurrents. Slow-blow fuses can tolerate a transient overcurrent condition, but will open if the overcurrent condition is sustained. Breaking capacity is the maximum current the fuse can safely interrupt. Miniature fuses may have an interrupting rating only 10 times their rated current. Fuses for low-voltage power systems are commonly rated to interrupt 10 000 A. Fuses for larger power systems must have higher interrupting ratings for 300k. Fuses for highvoltage equipment, up to 115 kV, are rated by the total apparent power of the fault level on the circuit. Smaller fuses often have a glass body with nothing but air inside so that the fuse wire can be inspected. Fuses for high energy circuits have a strong ceramic body which prevents arc over, and are filled with sand to quench any arcs. Small fuses may be held by metal clips on their end ferrules, but larger fuses (100A and larger) are usually bolted into the fuse holder.

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Sub-miniature fuses for instruments may be rated as little as 50 mA. These may have wire leads or may be fitted into small two-pin sockets. Sub-miniature and pico fuses used in electronic devices may be directly soldered to a printed circuit board [139] High-voltage fuses used outdoors may be of the expulsion type, allowing arc byproducts to be discharged to the air with considerable noise when they operate. Plug-in fuses (called blade fuses), with a plastic body and two prongs that fit into sockets, are used in automobiles. Fuses for power circuits are available in a wide range of ratings. Critical values in the specification of fuses are the normal rated current, the circuit voltage, and the maximym currents. Large power fuses use fusible elements made of silver or copper to provide stable and predictable performance. High voltage expulsion fuses surround the fusible link with gas-evolving substances, such as boric acid. When the fuse blows, heat from the arc causes the boric acid to evolve large volumes of gases. The associated high pressure (often greater than 100 atmospheres) and cooling gases rapidly extinguish (quench) the resulting arc. When the fusible link blows, the sand absorbs energy from the arc, rapidly quenching it, creating an artificial fulgurite in the process. So-called "self-resetting" fuses use a thermoplastic conductive element that opens the circuit on overload, and then restores the circuit when they cool. These are useful in aerospace applications where replacement is difficult. Common kind is the Polyswitch self-repairing fuses. A "thermal fuse" is used in consumer heating equipment such as coffee makers or hair dryers; it contains a fusible alloy which opens when the temperature is too high due to reduced air flow or other fault.

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13.3. Characteristic parameters of fuses [148]: - Rated current IN is a maximum current that the fuse can continuously conduct without interrupting the circuit. Speed - The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current flows through it and the material of which the fuse is made. Fuse selection depends on the load's characteristics. The fast or ultrafast fuses are used to protect semiconductor devices. I2t value is a parameter that is provided by charts in manufacturer data sheets for each fuse family. This is a measure of energy required to blow the fuse element, in fact measuring damaging effect of overcurrent on protected devices . Breaking capacity is the maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the fuse. Rated voltage of the fuse must be greater than or equal to what would become the open circuit voltage. Rated voltage should be larger than the maximum voltage source it would have to disconnect. Voltage drop. A voltage drop across the fuse is usually provided by its manufacturer. Resistance may change when a fuse becomes hot due to energy dissipation while conducting higher currents. Temperature derating is necessary because the ambient temperature changes fuse's operational parameters.

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Extensive application of fuses in all types of industrial equipment and household appliances has led to their manufacture in a very wide variety of types.

After the fuse has opened the circuit and the cause of interruption eliminated, the blown fuse link should be replaced by a new one of the same current rating. This operation is performed by hand. Fuses appeared at the same time as electrical networks and right away found wide use owing to their simple design, ease of maintenance, small size, high breaking capacity and low cost. Low-voltage fuses are made for currents ranging from a few milliamps to thousands of amps and are rated for 250, 500 and 660 volts. Fig.13.2. Fuse time-current characteristic

Nevertheless, all the fuses available have the following basic components in common: a cartridge or casing; fuse link; contact arrangement; arc-quenching device or medium. The most important operating characteristic of a fuse is the dependence of the time required for the fuse link to melt on the magnitude of the current passing through the fuse. This dependence is known as the time-current characteristic (Fig.13.2).

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Fuses operate under two distinctly different kinds of duty conditions, namely, normal conditions and short-circuit conditions. In drops sharply the first case, the fuse carries the circuit current continuously, and the fuse link acquires a steady temperature at which all the heat developed by the current is given up to the surrounding atmosphere. Under these conditions of operation, all other parts of the fuse also remain at a steady temperature. The current that the fuse link is designed to carry continuously without melting determines the Ir of the link. The temperature of the fuse link and other components of the fuse rise with increasing load current. The maximum current carried by the fuse link for a long period of time without melting is called the melting current I. The value of the melting current depends on many factors, such as the cross-sectional area, shape, material and length of the fuse link, the constructional features of the fuse the ambient temperature, etc., and is usual; standardized. When calibrating fuses it is common practice to specify the minimum melting current which the fuse link can carry time to spread for one to two hours without melting (as a the link is pracl general rule, this current I.min = 1.3 to 1.4 Ir, and the maximum melting current Im. (usually, Im = 1.5 to 1.6 Ir) at which the link melts in less than two hours. With currents greater than the melting current i.e., when I > I., the fuse link must melt in the shortest possible time [3].

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a)

b)

Fig. 13.3. Current limiting effect of fuses: a). typical oscillograme of a d.c. and b). a.c. interruption To this end, the link is made up of several parallel wires with small beads of tin soldered on the middle of each wire. The bead is quickly melted by the overload current and penetrates into the base metal, thus causing a local rise in electrical resistance and drop in melting temperature at this point of the link. As a result, the fuse blows at a temperature greatly below the melting point of the base metal. With the rated current, the bead has little or no effect on the temperature of the fuse link. This method of obtaining the required time-current characteristic is suitable for thin links when soldering beads of, say, 1-mm diameter on 0.3-mm diameter wires and beads of up to 2 mm in diameter on thicker wires. The effect of the metal liquefier weakens drastically with increasing diameter of the link wires and is of no practical use in large size fuses. The methods of speeding up the interruption of overload and short-circuit currents described above endow the fuse with the most important property of limiting the rise of the circuit current. In all the examined cases, the fuse link melts before the short-circuit

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current attains its steady-state value. The value of the short circuit current ib,, interrupted at instant t1 is two to five times lower than the steady-state value iss (dashed line) that would have been reached by the current in an unprotected circuit. Restriction of the current rise limits the increase in the magnitude of electrodynamic forces. Thus, the interruption of a 8000 A short-circuit current that would otherwise attain a steadystate value of 25 kA provides for a nine-fold limitation of the possible increase in the electrodynamic forces. Fuse links with metal liquefiers exhibit a weaker currentlimiting effect than links of other types. The arc set u p after the fuse link has melted must be extinguished as quickly as possible. The time needed for suppressing the arc depends on the constructional features of the fuse and the method of arc quenching employed. The maximum current that can be interrupted by a fuse without any injurious effects rendering it unfit for further service after the blown link has been replaced is called the fuse interrupting current. The arc burning in open fuses (without a cartridge) is interrupted mainly by the electrodynamic forces developed in the current-carrying circuit. In the ease of fuses with a semiclosed cartridge, this is achieved by expulsion of the arc out of the open end of the tubular cartridge and its expansion in free air. The arc arising in fully enclosed cartridge type fuses is extinguished owing to the high pressure built up inside the cartridge when the fuse blows. In the case of fuses containing filler, the arc is quenched as the result of its intensive cooling by the filler and the high pressure produced by the arc in the narrow ducts of the filler. Under such conditions, the arc is extinguished within the limits of the internal space of the fuse cartridge and 10 flames or ionized gases are expelled from the fuse. The combined effect of the improved conditions for the arc extinction and of the current-limiting action of the fuse link makes the fuses of practically unlimited interrupting capacity. This, however, does not mean that the fuse is capable of interrupting short-circuit currents of infinitely high value. The fuses are said to be of

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unlimited interrupting capacity in the sense that they can be used to protect circuits in which the steady short-circuit current would otherwise attain extremely high values (up to 200-500 kA in large up-to-date electrical installations). Fuse links are made of lead or lead alloyed with tin, and also of zinc, copper, silver and other metals. Fuse links of low-melting metals (lead or zinc having a melting point of 200 and 420C, respectively) allow the overall temperature of the fuse to be kept at a low level but, on the other hand, they are of relatively low electric conductivity and have to be of large cross-sectional area for fuses of high ratings. Exclusive use is made of zinc fuse links. The vapors of zinc possess a high potential of ionization and, consequently, contribute to speedy extinction of the arc. Copper and silver links can be made of comparatively small cross section, but they have a high melting temperature and, consequently, are subject to a high temperature rise causing rapid destruction of the fuse components. Moreover, the copper links should be given an anticorrosive coating to prevent oxidation that gradually reduces their cross-sectional area and leads to untimely blowing of the fuse. The use of two or more parallel fuse links for the interruption of heavy currents increases the cooling surface of the link and ensures more efficient utilization of the filler.

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Fig. 13.4. Types of fuses

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Fig.13.5. Types of fusible inside cartridges Cartridge fuses with renewable links and no filler (Fig.13.4) are designed for use in 230V and 500V circuits. Their cartridges are rated from 15 to 1000 A, and the fuse links, from 6 to 1000 A. The interrupting capacity ranges from 1.2 to 20 kA, depending on the voltage and current rating of the fuse. The contact posts are sets of current carrying parts with clip contacts and fastenings. In 15to 60-A fuses the required contact pressure is ensured owing to the resilience of the contact material. In 100to 350-A fuses additional pressure is provided by means of steel snap rings or clamps fitted on the contact jaws, and in 600 to 1000-A fuses the contact pressure is established by means of special plastic-handled screws mounted on the contact post. Plug fuses are used for protection of direct current circuits rated at up to 350 V and alternating-current circuits of 50-Hz frequency rated at up to 380 V. They are available for rated currents of up to 600 A and are of high mechanical strength.

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Fig.13.5 shows a typical fusible inside cartridges of contact screw sleeve on porcelain or steatite base and fuse link. The fuse link is pressed against contact by cap screwed on the contact sleeve. The second external connection terminal is riveted or soldered to the base contact of fuses rated at up to 60 A, and is made as a terminal bolt in the case of fuses for heavier currents. The fuse link consists of hollow porcelain cylinder. The contact caps are bridged by fusible elements 6 and a blowout indicator wire attached to aluminum indicator 3. The cylinder of the fuse link is filled with quartz sand 8. When the circuit current rises above the permissible value, the indicator wire melts together with the fusible elements and the indicator is ejected, thus showing that the fuse has blown. The blowout indicator is clearly visible through glass window 1. The arc is rapidly extinguished due to the high pressure developed inside the cylinder and intensive cooling of the arc within the pores of the sand. The fuse link of a blown fuse is discarded and replaced by a new one of the same rating. Non-renewable element fuses of the type shown in Fig. 13.5 are intended for use in power circuits operating at up to 500 V a.c. and 440 V d.c. and are available in current ratings of 100, 250, 400 and 600 A. They exhibit a current-limiting effect and are of high interrupting capacity. Shell 1 made of glazed high-voltage porcelain is in the form of a rectangular tube with a circular bore and with four threaded holes in each end face. The shell contains an assembly consisting of fusible element 2 spot-welded to discs carrying contact blades 3. The assembly is held in place by covers 4 screwed to the ends of the shell, asbestos liners 5 being placed under the covers for proper sealing.

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Fig. 13.6. High Breaking Power fuses MPR, soket, handling glove and short-circuiter The shell is filled with clean and dry quartz sand 6 surrounding the fuse link throughout its length. Sand with quartz content of not less than 98 % and consisting of 0.2 to 0.3 mm diagrams is most suitable for this purpose. The arc sinters smaller grains, whereas larger ones increase the amount of air within the shell and worsen the conditions for the arc extinction. The sand is treated with a 2-percent solution of hydrochloric acid, washed and then dried at a temperature of 120 to 180C before being put to use. The sealing liners prevent penetration of moisture into the shell and its absorption by the sand. The use of thin parallel strips makes it possible to cut down the effective crosssectional area needed for reliable interruption of the given current and, consequently, to reduce the amount of metal vapors in the arc. The development of several small arcs burning in parallel ensures better dissipation of the arc energy within a greater volume of the filler than would be likely in the case of a single arc. All these factors contribute to quicker interruption of the circuit current. The metallurgical effect produced by tin bead 8 soldered on each strip of the fuse link is utilized to lower the temperature of the fuse in the case of slight overloads. As a result, the melting point of the strip drops down to 475C, and the temperature rise of the fuse components remains within permissible limits. The interrupting capacity of 100-A fuses is 50 kA, and that of 600-A fuses is up to 100 kA. Quick-break non-renewable element fuses filled with quartz sand are manufactured in current ratings ranging from 40 to 600 A and are designed for protecting semiconductor rectifier installations. The time-current characteristics of the fuses lie below the rectifier time-current characteristics. These fuses may be installed both on the a.c. side (rated 380 V) and on the d.c. side (rated 400 V) of the rectifier being protected.

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Fuses of this type are essentially similar to the previously described ones, differing only in the fuse link which is made of silver strip and varies in cross section according to the time-current characteristic required for adequate protection of the given rectifier. 13.4. High-voltage fuses High-voltage fuses operate in the same way and are used for the same purpose as low voltage fuses [140]. The main difficulty in developing high-voltage fuses is that of providing for reliable and rapid extinction of the arc. The present trend is to quench the arc in narrow ducts under high pressure (i.e., in fuse tubes with a fine-grained filling), or to extinguish it by a jet of liquid or self-generated gas. Fuses with a fine-grained filling are made for rated voltages of 3,6,10, and 35 kV and rated currents of 400, 300, 200 and 40 A, respectively. The maximum interrupting capacity of power circuit fuses is in the region of 200 MA, and that of small-current fuses designed for protection of voltage transformer circuits mounts up to 1000 MA and higher. Interrupting capacities of such a high order are attainable due to the currentlimiting effect of the fuses. The total operating time of power circuit fuses interrupting heavy short-circuit currents ranges from 5 to 7 milisecond. Fuses of this type are available for indoor and outdoor use.

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b electric contact, 2insulator, 3base plate, 4fuse

Fig. 13.7. High-voltage quartz-filled fuse: a and b general views; c - schematic: 1

The fuse consists of contact clips and latches mounted together with the bus-connection terminals on support insulators carried by a steel base, and of cartridge (Fig. 13.7). The cartridge is made up of insulating tube terminating in brass contact ferrules and hermetically sealed at both ends by caps. The cartridge contains fusible elements and is filled with quartz sand. A visible indication that the fuse has blown is given by an indicator which is ejected from its recess by a spring as soon as the holding link melts together with the fusible element. Fusible elements for light currents are made of thin wires wound on ribbed ceramic bar. Fusible elements for heavy currents are in the form of parallel helical coils wound of silvered copper or constantan wire. Such an embodiment of the fuse link allows sufficiently long fusible elements to be conveniently arranged inside cartridge tubes of limited length. The length of the fusible element of such fuses may be calculated from experimentally obtained equation: l = (160 + 70Vr) mm, where Vr is the rated voltage in kV. Tin beads are soldered onto the wires of the fusible element to lower the temperature of the fuse in the case of slight overloads. Fusible elements for currents equal to and

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below 7.5 A are made of variable cross section so as to reduce the overvoltages occurring at the instant of interruption of the circuit current. The overvoltage is brought to a minimum due to consecutive rather than simultaneous rupturing of different sections of the element. These fuses rely for their operation on the lengthening of the arc gap brought about by the action of special springs or the pressure of gases produced when the fuse link melts (the steel element melting immediately after the copper one). During this process, the arc is drawn into an arc-quenching or gas-generating medium and extinguished by a jet of gas or liquid. The expulsion fuse shown in Fig.13.8a incorporates flexible cable 3 which is drawn out of the cartridge by the spring of a blade coupled with contact tip 1. The gases produced by the arc drawn into tube 2 of a sublimable material sharply increase the pressure inside the tube (up to 1000-1200 N/cm2) and blow axially over the arc. The flexible cable is fully expelled from the tube, thus ensuring effective extinction of the arc. Blowing of the fuse is accompanied by ejection of hot gases and a loud noise.

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Fig. 13.8. High voltages fuses, views and construction of typical (a) expulsion and (b) liquid filled fuse: 1 indicator; 2 tube; 3 flexible cable; 4, 5 connection; 6, piston; 7 holes; 8 spring The liquid-filled fuse shown in Fig.13.8b comprises spring 8 which lengthens the arc, pulls piston 6 inwards and expels the liquid through holes 7 from the tube into the arc gap. All this ensures effective axial-jet quenching of the arc. Expulsion and liquid-filled fuses are designed for service in 110 and 220-kV power supply systems and have an interrupting capacity of up to 1500 MA.

13.5. Semiconductor fuses are used to protect against over-current conditions in semiconductors devices. Because of their fast action, semiconductor fuses help to limit the short circuit current significantly. Semiconductor fuses are available in several different enclosures and at least two different ranges

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14. ELECTRIC RELAYS

14.1. General A relay is an electrically controlled device that opens and closes electrical contacts to operate other devices in the same or another electrical circuit. There are many different styles of relays, each having unique mechanical construction and electrical characteristics. At the same time, operating characteristics of many relay types are adaptable to wide range of applications and, therefore, they may be known by several names. This chapter does cover general-purpose relays used in the control circuits of most industrial, commercial, and consumer products. Only, major design considerations are discussed for representative relay types used in product design. The study of the electrical scheme of electric relays presents the role of each component: the input element (the sensitive element), the comparator element and the execution element (the output element). As seen in Fig. 14.1, from the structural point of view, the simplest relays have an input element (I), a comparator (K) and an execution element (E) [3]. The relays with two or more input elements have a complex structure. These are for example: the directional and distance relays. In some cases, in order to adapt the input signals to the comparing element parameters, relays must have converters (C1, C2) and for the delays of the output signals, the relays have a dwelling element (time relay). Other definition for a relay is a commutation electrical apparatus, which produces a sudden variation of the output magnitude at a certain value of input magnitude, to command other elements (contactors, switchers etc.). Regarding the input magnitudes, there are: current relays

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voltage relays power relays impedance relays frequency relays time relays thermal relays

Fig.14.1. Block schemes of electric relay: I-input element; C-converter; K-comparing element; T-delayed element; E-execution element; X-input size; Y-output size After the domain of the input magnitude values at which the relay functions, we have: maximal relays (relays for which the running up takes place for values greater or equal to the adjustment value)

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minimal relays (relays for which the running up takes place for values differential relays (relays for which the running up takes place when the

lower or equal to the adjustment value) difference of two input magnitudes values, in absolute value, is greater then the adjustment value)

Fig.14.2. The relay hysteresis At maximal relays the following relations are valid: X1=Xr; And at minimal relays we have: X1 = Xa; X2 = X r . The area between the two branches of the input-output characteristic represents the corresponding magnetic or electric hysteresis losses as well as the losses due to frictions in bearing boxes. The recovery coefficient has the expression: Kr = Xr / Xa, values lower then one at maximal relays and greater then one at minimal relays. X2=Xa,.

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Own running-up time ta is defined as the duration between the moment in which the input magnitude is applied and the moment in which the value of the output magnitude is modified with jumping: ta = tp + tm where: ta= running-up time tp= starting time from the moment of the input signal application until the mobile piece of the contact start to move tm = moving time, from the moment of the starting of the movement of the contact mobile piece until the change of the output magnitude value with the jump. After the running-up time the relays can be classified in: without inertia (ta<=1ms) quick (1ms<=ta<=50ms) normal (50ms<=ta<=150ms) slow (150ms<=ta<=1s) dwelled (ta>1s). The protection characteristic of a relay is the dependency between the running up time and the input magnitude. Such characteristics can be seen in Fig.14.3 [3].

Fig.14.3. Characteristics of electric relay: a) independent; b) dependent; c) limited dependent

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14.2. Reed switching devices Reed relay with its speed, freedom from contamination, and limited number of moving parts of a relay provide industry with a bridge between electromechanical relays and solid-state switching devices. The major component of a reed relay is the reed switch, which are both the magnetic circuit and the contact path of the relay. Reed switches are classified into two categories: dry-reed and mercury-wetted contact [31]. 14.2.1. Dry-reed switches The basic reed switch is a normally open contact. These contacts have the same rating as the normally open switches. The standard reed switch has a glass envelope that is typically 23 cm long, less than 0,5 cm in diameter. Contacts typically are rated at 15 VA (1A max, 250V max) noninductive switched. The switch withstands 500V rms, 50 Hz, and insulation resistance is 1011 ohms minimum. Contact resistance is initially under 50m .

Fig.14.4. Reed switches, view and the working mode: a) with single magnet; b) with rotating magnet; c) with electromagnet (electric reed relay)

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14.2.2. Mercury-wetted reed The mercury-wetted reed switch differs from mercury-wetted contact switches in that there is no bias magnet or break contact. The mercury-to-mercury contact with a replenished supply eliminates bounce and provides higher switching ratings of up to 50 VA resistive. The standoff voltage is in excess of 1,500 V ac rms, 50 Hz with a contact resistance of 50m . 14.3. Dry-reed relays A reed relays is basically an assembly of reed switches within an operational coil. The reeds can be any type or configuration, but the quantity is limited by the coil size. To obtain additional contacts, relay coils are connected in parallel. Reed relays are available with contact forms from 1A to 12A. The power required to operate the relay is determined by the numbers and configuration of the contacts and the speed required. A typical one Form A relay requires approximately 125mW and a five Form A, approximately 450 mW. Although heat dissipation of the relays varies with construction techniques, a typical open printed-circuit-board type relay dissipates approximately 4 W in a 25C ambient. The load to be switched should not exceed switch rating. Inductive loads must be suppressed and high inrush loads such as lamps should be current-Limited. Performance under ac loads is generally far superior to that of the dc rating such that a 15-VA capsule can typically carry a 30-W rating at 50 Hz. The speed of the reed relay enables it to follow the discontinuities of some of the most commonly used input switches. Inputs to reed counters or registers should be buffered by devices that do not generate bounce, such as mercury-wetted contact relays.

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The reed switch should not be used to switch loads. The basic dry-reed switch consists of two flattened ferromagnetic reeds sealed in a glass tube. The reeds are sealed, one at each end of the tube, so that their free ends overlap in the center of the tube.

Fig.14.5. External view of an electric reed relay During the sealing operation, dry nitrogen gas is forced into the tube, creating an inert atmosphere for the contacts. When the switch is introduced into a magnetic field, the reeds become flux carriers, and the overlapping ends become opposite magnetic poles which attract each other, completing the magnetic circuit and making electrical contact. Many different contact platines are available, but the most widely used are diffused gold and rhodium. 14.4. Mercury wetted contact switches When two contacts wetted with mercury are joined in this type switch, the area of contact between the surfaces is relatively large because a fillet of mercury surrounds the mated surfaces. When the two surfaces are separated, the mercury stretches into a thin filament and then breaks at two points that isolate a thin rod of mercury in the middle. The thin rod then snaps into a ball and drops to the bottom of the switch.

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The loss of mercury from the contacts disturbs the equilibrium of the capillary system, and more mercury is fed up the armature from the pool. In some cases the current being switched by the relay causes sufficient contact heating to vaporise some of the mercury. This loss, too, is replaced through the mercury capillary path [31]. Thus, in effect, the mercury-wetted contact relay provides a new contact surface for every operation. Mechanical relay contacts have a tendency to rebound when they strike causing contact bounce or chatter. The underlying metal contacts of a mercurywetted contact switch also bounce.

Fig.14.6. Standard mercury wetted contact switches Mercury-wetted relay contacts are usually made of platinum or a platinum alloy. Platinum is very slow to form oxides and, therefore, readily wets with mercury. If the load being switched by the relay causes sufficient heating of the contact surface to

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vaporize the mercury film, platinum is the metal least likely to form surface contamination. Hydrogen gas, under at least 150-psi pressure, is the internal switch atmosphere. It provides a reducing environment that removes oxide films from the parts so that they readily wet with mercury. Because it is a good conductor of heat, the hydrogen gas also cools the contact region. The high gas pressure increases the voltage-breakdown characteristics of the small contact gap. In addition, the boiling point of the mercury is elevated, thus reducing the amount of mercury that vaporizes from the contacts when they carry heavy loads. 14.4.1. Mercury-wetted contact relays Basically, a mercury-wetted contact relay consists of one or more glass switch capsules surrounded by a coil. These relays maintain their original resistance to within 2 m through their life. Currently, the most popular relay packages are small modules for direct, individual mounting on printed-circuit boards. The relay must be mounted so that the switch is within 30 of a vertical. This angle may be exceeded somewhat if slight variations in timing can be tolerated. The contact circuit resistance of mercury-wetted contact relays can be from 15 to 50 m. The resistance of the switch capsule is low and unvarying however, the types of connectors and the length of internal wiring cause resistance variations. The low-temperature limit for these relays is the freezing point of mercury, -38.5C. Freezing does not damage the relay. The maximum hot-spot temperature is 106.15C. 14.5. Armature

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Relays Armature relays refers to a large class of relays with pivoted armatures that carry or actuate electrical contacts in response to small control signals. They are also called clapper relays. When the coil is energised, the spring-loaded pivoted armature is attracted to the coil core. As the armature pivots, the common contact attached to the armature by a flat spring separates from the stationary normally closed contact. The armature continues to pivot about its bearing against return-spring force until the movable contact meets the normally open contact, followed by the armature bottoming out on the face of the coil core. The return spring returns the contacts to their normal position upon removal of coil power.

Fig.14.7. View and schematic of an armature relay Contact form and the number of poles are dictated by the requirements of the control circuit. Once these have been determined, the electrical load on each set of contacts

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much be analyzed. Open-circuit voltage, ac or dc, must be specified. If the contacts are handling ac, the frequency should be noted.

Fig.14.8. Miniature types relays If the load is inductive, several characteristics must be observed: size, horsepower ratin Hz ac to dc and using a dc relay motor. Packaged relays containing rectifiers are available. 14.6. Thermal relays with bimetal In order to realise the thermal protection of an electrical device it is necessary to have an electrical protection device of which thermal protection characteristic is below the thermal protection characteristic of the protected device. The protection will act before the admissible temperature is overcome [3].

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Fig.14.9. The principle of thermal relay The thermal protection characteristic represents the function of the action time and the action current, i.e. t a = f ( I s ) or t a = f (I s / I reg ) , where I reg is the controlled value for full-load and locked-rotor current, number of phases. If the load is a motor, determine size, horsepower rating, full-load and locked-rotor current, and number of phases. Contacts closing the circuit to the cold filament of a tungsten lamp must handle a current ten times or more the steady-state current. Hot and cold tungsten filament resistance may differ by a factor of 30. A 5A contact that is adequate to operate 500W from a 230V ac source is completely inadequate for a 500W lamp, since the initial starting current would be on the order of 50A. Duty cycle and frequency of operation should also be specified in connection with contact performance. Shortened life at high operational frequency may result from heat developed at the contacts. AC relays: Alternating current is the most readily available but least flexible power source for relay operations. However, most ac relays designed for 230V. Most ac applications are for 50-Hz current. Relays for 25-Hz operation usually have the same construction as 50-Hz relays except that the coil impedance is different. Some telephone relays operate on 20-Hz current. For 400-Hz current, a radical departure from the 50-Hz relay construction is necessary. Although the construction can be modified, it does not provide the reliability of performance that can be attained by

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rectifying the 400-r the production of the action, and I s is the intensity of the overload current. For the electric devices it is necessary a protection against the thermal strains and a protection against the electrodynamics strains. The protection characteristic can be: Independent, if the action does not depend of the current value Dependent, if the time of action depends of the current Limited-dependent, if we can distinguish two parts Limited-dependent with instantaneous action at short circuit, if for a

certain value of the current we have an instantaneous acting.

Fig. 14.10. External view of thermal relay and explanation of overloads protection. The electromagnetic relays have an independent protection characteristic, the thermal relays and the fusible fuse have a dependent protection characteristic and the induction relays have a limited-dependent protection characteristic. Most of the devices need a limited-dependent protection characteristic with instantaneous action, and it is necessary to do relay combinations as presented in the Fig.14.11.

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Fig.14.11. Different protection characteristic: a) independent; b) dependent; c) limited dependent; d) limited dependent with instantaneous action at short circuit The bimetal is a conducting lamella made by plating of two transformer sheets made of different materials with different dilatation coefficients. The transformer sheet made of the active material is a Ni-Fe-C-Mn-Cr alloy with a high dilatation coefficient. The transformer sheet from the passive material Ni-Fe 36 has a low dilatation coefficient.

Fig.14.12. The result of some compounded protection characteristic: a) thermal relay electromagnetic relay; b) thermal relay fusible resistance; c) induction relay electromagnetic relay. The elements of the bimetal can have different constructive forms. After the heating mode the bimetal can be done by:

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Direct heating when the controlled current flows directly trough the Indirect heating when the controlled current flows trough a resistance

bimetal, solution which is met at relatively low currents (below 10 A) winded on the bimetal, which heats up and transmits heat to the bimetal, solution met at currents greater then 10 A. Combined heating using both methods described above in the case of controlled currents and high intensity. When a bimetal lamina is heated, the lamina will bow and the arrow will depend on the intensity of the current and the temperature of the ambient medium. The opening of the contacts of the command circuit isnt done only by the bowed lamina of the bimetal but also for a truss opening there are given some elastic elements (resorts, lamina). For the construction of a thermal relay we have to know the variation of the arrow of the bimetal depending on time, given by the mechanical characteristic. The necessary arrow to release the mechanism cant exceed two hours for an overload current.

Fig.14.13. Thermal relay for high currents connected by a current transformer

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In stationary regime the super temperature of the bimetal must be equal (or proportional) with the super temperature of the protected object. Every increase of the object temperature is received by the bimetal element, which determines after a longer or shorter time, in function of the overload current the release of the thermal relay. The maximum temperature of the bimetal lamina is limited under 400C for conserving over a long period the physical properties. The bimetal touches the determined super temperature depending on the preheating of the lamina, in conclusion also depending on the temperature of the ambient medium. For high temperatures of the ambient medium the bimetal releases quicker and in opposite direction and for low temperatures the release will be done in a longer time. In Fig.14.14 is presented the adjustment mode of the bimetal for a three phase thermal relay. The lamina of the active bimetal 1, 2, 3 acts towards the direction of the arrow against the piece, which transmits the shifting of the compensation lamina of the bimetal 4. At temperature variations of the ambient medium the active lamina of the bimetals 1, 2, 3 and also the compensation lamina begins to bow in the same direction and as a conclusion no mechanical impulse is send to the contact system.. In the case when the lamina of the bimetal has a superior temperature to that of the ambient medium the bow is greater to that of the compensation lamina and it will follow a rotation around its edge overcoming the resistance force of the resort 6. So the piece 7 will push the elastic lamina 8, which switches the contact from position A to B. The contact element that lies on the lamina 8 is connected to the terminal C. Acting the piece 9, which contains the oscillation edge m, makes the release action.

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Fig.14.14. Inside a thermal relay: 1, 2, 3 active bimetal lamina; 4 compensation bimetal lamina; 5 - isolation device; 6 resort; 7- elastic lamina; 8 spring; 9 insulation; u, v, w, x, y, z input and output terminals.

The relay with bimetal lamina is sensible while remaining in two phase of an asynchrony motor because in this case at nominal load the currents on the two phases are very high. The three phases thermal relays are done by manual timbering or self-timbering, the shifting from one to another is made by moving a screw. In the automatic installations in some cases it is difficult to make the timbering. In this case it is used the controlled relay with self-timbering which doesnt need manual timbering. Both manual timbering and self-timbering are possible after a certain time for insurance the cooling of the bimetal.

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14.7. Stepping Switches Relay A stepping switch is basically an electromechanical device used to rapidly connect one or more input circuits to an output circuit chosen from a sizable group of such circuits. The switch responds to current pulses supplied by an external source, or operates by interruption of its circuit through interrupter springs on the switch. Stepping switches are widely used to count, sequence, program, select and control. They are often applied in machine-tool controls, conveyor systems, test equipment, and communication switching.

Fig.14.15. Stepping relay

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Rotary stepping switches are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, primarily dependent on the number of contact points in the bank assembly. 14.8. Cam switches relay Stepping-switch mechanisms have been adapted for use as cam switches. Cams are cut to provide operation or restoration of the associated contact assemblies per the customers specification. Cam switches with 30, 32 or 36 steps per rotation and with up to 8 cams are available. Cam switches have the advantage that the program is determined by the way the cam is cut, so wiring is usually simplified. Also, cam contacts can switch larger loads (up to 5A) than can standard stepping-switch contacts.

Fig.14.16. Cam switches relay Generally, the time of driven switch is approximately 20 to 25 ms. Minimum dielectric or voltage breakdown value which can be expected from a standard rotary stepping switch is 500 Vac at 50-60 Hz between all mutually insulated points for a period of 1 sec.

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Standard rotary-switch bank and wiper contacts are commonly rated at 3-A carrying capacity. 14.9. Time Relays Timing devices are used in industry to control, protect, and monitor processes and machine operations. Timers can be divided into groups based on the time source used: 1Mechanical or escapement. 2Dashpot. (Pneumatic amortization) 3Thermal. 4Electronic. 5Motor-driven. Functionally, timers can be divided into two basic classes; reset timers and cycle timers. Reset timers that control the time that a load is energized are called interval timers, and those that provide a delay before the load is energized are called delay timers. Cycle timers open and close switches according to a set program. Continuousrunning and single revolution versions are available. 14.9.1. Reset timers A reset timer is one which returns to its starting position at the end of the timing cycle. Timer actuation may be either sustained contact or momentary contact. In the sustained-contact type, a relay or toggle switch keeps the motor and clutch energized during the timing cycle. Auxiliary switches, which are standard on some reset timers, are not needed in this case. In the momentary-contact type, the timer must operate from a pulse, such as that produced by a momentary-contact pushbutton. In this case, a timer with auxiliary contacts should be used. Some reset timers are designed with as many as a dozen or more internally wired terminal connections. The user can wire the timer as an interval or delay timer, and for

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sustained or momentary-contact actuation. Where a timer is not a part of the styling of a control panel, savings can be achieved by selecting a timer designed for behind-thepanel mounting.

Fig.14. 17. Electric and electronic reset timers Clutch motor reset timers: In a typical clutch-motor reset timer, the clutch motor drives the actuator until the switch is actuated. Turning the knob mounted on the front panel makes the time setting. When used as an interval timer, a relay is wired so that it activates the load and the motor at the same time. At the end of the time interval, the switch is actuated, opening the relay-coil circuit, which switches off the load and the timer motor. The timer then resets. As a delay timer, the timer is wired so the switch closure starts1the motor. When the time delay is over, the switch is closed, activating the load. The actuator then hits the stop, and the motor stalls. A slip friction is usually placed between the motor and the load-switch actuator to allow the motor to run after the switch is tripped. Because of gear-train life limitations, this provision is usually made only for time ranges of 1 min or less. In these ranges, gear life is excellent-especially if hardened gear trains are used.

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14.9.2. Motor-driven timers In motor-driven timers, the speed of the a.c. or d.c. motor is reduced through a gear train. Standard gear cups available are pear-shaped and round. Direct-current motors are available in governed and ungoverned versions.. The speed of ungoverned dc motors is affected by load and voltage fluctuations. Governing is possible down to 1% using an escapement mechanism, The speed of ac motors is as constant as the frequency of the ac line, which makes the ac motor-driven timers more accurate than the other timing devices described in this chapter. Clutching mechanisms are used in timing devices to disengage the drive motor from the actuator to allow the timer to reset to its start position. One of the most widely used clutching methods is the clutch motor. To reset a timer driven by a clutch motor, the gear train must be reset by a spring. The reset time is small for ranges of 2 min or less, but increases to about 20 sec for clutch motors with a 10-min range. External clutches are actuated by solenoid mechanisms. The clutch most commonly used is the jaw clutch, which is positive and has a high torque-to-size capacity. The use of teeth introduces a possible error of 1/2 tooth. If there is no gear reduction between the clutch and the load-switch actuator, this error can be several percent of full-scale setting. Considerable gear reduction is used in the more accurate timers, thereby reducing the error to about 1/4 or 1/2 of full scale. Two other clutch mechanisms are the friction clutch and the spring clutch. Friction clutches generally consist of a serrated or toothed member engaging an O-ring held by the other half of the clutch.

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The spring clutch consists of a spiral spring held by one-half of the clutch. To actuate the clutch, the other end is wrapped around the other half of the clutch. Once engaged, the clutch is self-energizing the greater the load resistance, the greater the wrapping action of the clutch. The clutch is deenergized by electromechanical unwrapping the spring [31].

Fig.14.18 Motor driven timer

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14.9.3. Hydraulic-magnetic timers: Silicone fluids are commonly used because their viscosity is fairly stable from 30 to +120 F. when the coil is energized, the core is drawn into the coil at a rate controlled by the displacement of the fluid. At the end of the time period, the core touches the pole piece. The resulting reduction in air-gap permeance causes the armature to move into contact with the poles, thereby actuating the switch. When the coil is deenergized, the spring returns the core to its initial position; The one-way ball valve allows the fluid to escape rapidly. Accuracy is 50%. Most timing is factory set, but some units can be field adjusted. Time ranges offered are 0.25 to 120 sec. These timers are lower in cost and generally more compact than electromechanical timers. 14.10. Electronic Relays At electronic relays the input circuit can have different schemes. Its role is to adapt the input signals to the comparator parameters. Manufacturing elements are contacts and semiconductor devices. The principal element in the structure of the relay is a comparator. Its function is carried out at electronic relays by level detectors. Level detectors (amplitude detectors) compare the value of the input magnitude with the reference value. The function of the level detector can be obtained with circuits with Zenner diodes, with bistable trigger circuits with baffle, with discrete or integrated components (CDB 416), with operational amplifier with positive reaction (Fig.14.19) or with integrated comparators (M 339).

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a)

b)

Fig.14.19. Level detector with Zenner diode a) Zenner diode in the base circuit; b) Zenner diode in the emitter circuit The input circuit performs the redressing and filtering of the alternative voltages, applying a continuous voltage to the comparator proportional with the effective value of alternative voltage. The diode DZ1 limits the voltage applied to the comparator element at safety values.

Fig14.20. Schematic of minimum voltage electronic relay The comparator is a trigger Schmitt circuit (bistable trigger / flip-flop circuit with coupling through the emitter). Time relays are used for the dwelled command in

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automating installations producing a delay of the variation of the input magnitude with respect to the moment of connecting/disconnecting of the input magnitude. In Fig.14.21 it is presented the main electrical scheme of an electronic time relay used for producing circuits supplied with 42V a.c., 48V d.c., 110 and 220V d.c & a.c.( at continuous tension circuits the rectifier bridge is missing).

Fig.14.21. Electronic time relay The alternative tension is rectified by diodes D1D4, filtered with capacitor C1 and stabilised with Zenner diodes DZ1 and DZ2. In the moment of the supply the tension on the capacitor C0 is zero, so, transistors T1 and T2 are blocked and transistor T3 is polarized by the divider formed by the resistances R6 + R7 and R8 is at saturation. Because UGK=UCE
sat,

thyristor T is blocked. The tension of capacitor C0 increases

exponentially with a time constant =(R0 +R3)C0 and in the moment in which it equals the tension established by the resistive divider R6, R7 + R8 in point A, transistors T1, T2 start to conduct, the collector currents of the two transistor quickly increases through a process that develops in avalanche. Because of the quick saturation of the transistor T2,

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transistor T3 is blocked and tension UGK suddenly increases, determining the passing into conduction of thyristor T which supplies the intermediary relay. The modification of dwelling is continuously produced in a certain domain with potentiometer R0. We suppose that T1 is blocked and T2 to be saturated (the input voltage of flip-flop circuit Ui=0). At an increase in the input voltage, when UBE1 becomes positive, the transistors T1 begins to conduct. The increase in voltage in T1s collector, is transmitted through the resistive divider R-Rb to the T2 transistor, decreasing its base current and thus the collector one. The flip-flop is accelerated due to the positive reaction produced by the common emitter resistance RE and by the condenser C, which produces a quick leaving of T2 form the saturation zone.

Fig 14.22. External view of an electronic relay 14.11. Relay selection factors Contact form and the number of poles are dictated by the requirements of the control circuit. Once these have been determined, the electrical load on each set of contacts much be analyzed. Open-circuit voltage, ac or dc, must be specified. Also if the contacts are handling ac, the frequency should be noted.

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If the load is inductive, indicate power factor, amount of inductive reactance, or at least to describe the load. If the load is a motor, determine size, horsepower rating, full-load and locked-rotor current, and number of phases. Duty cycle and frequency of operation should also be specified in connection with contact performance. Shortened life at high operational frequency may result from heat developed at the contacts. AC relays: Alternating current is the most readily available but least flexible power source for relay operations. Most ac applications are for 50-Hz current. Relays for 25-Hz operation usually have the same construction as 50-hz relays except that the coil impedance is different. Some telephone relays operate on 20-Hz current. For 400-Hz current, a radical departure from the 50-Hz relay construction is necessary. Although the construction can be modified, it does not provide the reliability of performance that can be attained by rectifying the 400-Hz ac to dc and using a dc relay motor. Packaged relays containing rectifiers are available. DC relays: Relays operated on direct the pull characteristic, load possibility and speed of operation. A resistance tolerance of 10% is commonly applied. When specifying coil resistance, the temperature at which this measurement is made should be indicated. When such a specification is not given, measurements are generally assumed to be made at 23C. Mass and inertia of the armature and movable contact elements, and electrical losses of the circuit affect operating speed. Some small relays operate in 2 to 3 ms, while larger units have pickup time in the 15 to 25-ms range. The greater current or power over that required a faster action of the relay. Release time is usually faster than the operate time, and is almost entirely dependent upon parameters of the relay, such as spring rates and residual gaps.

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Often a certain amount of operational delay is desired. Within limits, this

can usually be introduced by incorporating a heavy, short-circuited winding on the same core with method. Diode: A diode connected across the load blocks the applied voltage at contact closure; but provides a path for the energy stored in the load when the contacts open. 14.12. Environment Ambient temperature affects operation of the relay motor, and the ability of the contacts to switch and carry the circuit load. Since the coil of an electromagnetic relay is usually wound with copper magnet wire, compensations for the change in resistance because of change in temperature must be made. the energizing coil. This winding resists both the built-up and decays of the magnetic flux for a short period. This method can be applied only to dc relays, and effects both the operate and release time of the delay. If release delay alone is needed, either a diode or capacitor across the coil quite often can provide ample delay, but may also affect contact life. 14.13. Measures for contacts protecting Arcing erodes the surfaces of switching contacts, increases contact resistance, and radiates or conducts radio-frequency voltage transients that can damage or cause malfunction in sensitive logic or communication networks. Various methods are used to prevent contact arcing. Any arc-suppression device, however, tends to increase deenergizing time of an inductive load. Generaly are used: Resistor: Peak transient voltage developed upon opening the contact depends on the size of the resistor across the inductive load. However, the resistor wastes power while the load is energized.

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Resistor and capacitor: Initial values of resistance and capacitance for an

R-C network may be calculated from: R = E / 10 / (1+50 / E ) , and C = I 2 / 10 ,where R = resistance, ohms; E = voltage before closing; C = capacitance, F ;and I = current before closing, mA. Peak rather than rms values of voltage and current must be used to calculate arc suppression of ac loads. To ensure adequate suppression on ac or dc, the R-C network should be tested. If necessary, resistance and capacitance values can be adjusted to eliminate arcing at the contacts. Zener diode: Back-to-back zener diodes work similar to the resistor-only A relay operated from constant-current source will have nearly constant operating time regardless of temperature, while a relay operated from low-impedance voltage source will have a variable operating time directly dependent upon temperature. A military specification requires that a relay be capable of operating at a maximum ambient temperature of 125C.

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15. SWITCHES
15.1. General An electrical switch is a device that makes, breaks or changes the connections in an electric low voltage circuit. In a mechanical switch, this action ultimately is accomplished by bringing together or separating the surfaces of two or more metallic contacts. Electronic switching is in the domain of semiconductor devices. Mechanical switches are operated manually or electromagnetically as in relays [31]. A clean contact resistance is directly proportional to volume resistivity of the contact material and inversely proportional to the contact area. This resistance typically is in the order of a few milliohms for pure metal-to-metal contact. Mechanical, electrical and chemical phenomena that occur during switching can deteriorate the interface and greatly increase contact resistance. Also, because of build-up of surface contaminants, however, this value decreases with age in normal temperature and humidity. The ability of insulation to withstand high voltage without arcing occurring across the surface of the material is called dielectric strength. This value usually is expressed in rms volts and typically exceeds 1500V a.c. for new switches. Like insulation resistance, dielectric strength reduces with age due to surface contaminant build-up. Mechanical life ratings of switches are based on accelerated life testing. In order to make sure that a given switch can meet specific requirements, it is best to contact the switch manufacturer and provide the following data: Required life in number of cycles to specified failure mode. Load voltage, current, power factor, and frequency. Duty cycle. Type of application.

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Environment temperature range, altitude, humidity, pollutants, shock and

vibration. Most switch manufacturers have documented the results of exhaustive testing and usually can provide guidance for both normal and unusual switch applications.

15.2. Manual switches Manual switches can be divided into three classes: industrial. 15.2.1. Commercial switches Commercial switches generally are designed for an office type environment. These switches usually are not sealed to resist entry of liquids. Actuating means should be the operators hand, rather than a tool. Typical uses are on computers, laboratory equipment, office machines, communication equipments, aircraft and military field and shipboard equipment. Most of the electrical factors governing the selection and application of manual switches can be grouped into two areas: contact arrangement and electrical load. Contact arrangement could be: Single-pole, single-throw switches and single pole double-throw switches are suitable for most applications. However in more complex equipment, switches having two separate circuits may be required. Multiple-circuit switches can usually replace two single-pole switches or eliminate relays. Double-pole, double-throw switches simultaneously make and break two independent circuits. Each pole has a normally closed contact. commercial, appliance and

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A make-before-break switch provides a momentary overlap of circuits when switching from one position to another. This feature is useful where circuits must be switched with no interruption, as with timing and other sequential operations. A pulse switch provides a single electrical pulse each time the actuator is depressed but not released. Other special designs include a split-contact, double-pole switch which is suitable for controlling two isolated circuits and a double-break switch which makes and breaks a circuit at two points, thus enabling it to interrupt greater inductive loads than is possible with single-break switches. Electrical loads controlled by switches should not exceed published switch ratings. For example, manual switches should not be selected according to the continuous current rating of motors and solenoids without proper consideration for inrush capacity. Regardless of the type of switch, electrical life decreases with load increase. Electronic equipment often requires reliable switching of low-energy current in the mV, mA range. Special types of switches generally of subminiature size have been developed for such use. Special contact materials and designs are used to minimize and stabilize contact resistance for extended and reliable life. With direct current, several types of manually operated switches serve well on loads up to 30V. However, not only are dc inductive load difficult to interrupt, but switch performance is often impossible to predict except by tests. Satisfactory performance on substantial loads may often be obtained with capacitor and resistor combinations. These arrangements reduce the arc and lessen the transfer of contact materials, which tend to reduce the separation distance between contacts. Rectifiers are also used to assist in arc interruption. Control of d.c. loads up to 10 A at 230V without the use of capacitors is provided by switches with permanent magnets to extinguish the arcs. For applications of typical commercial-grade manual switches, sealing properties are secondary and are considered mainly for accidental, rather than intentional exposure.

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Therefore most seals take the form of rubber boots over the control, internal rubber diaphragms, or simple, low-force O-rings which easily resist short exposure. Since much of styling involves personal preference, specific rules are difficult to establish. Certain general considerations, however, cover most applications of manual switches to machines. In some cases, the switch must act as an accent to the styling. Banks of lighted pushbutton switches with vivid colors can be used as a styling highlight to contrast with a pastel color on the machine and panel. Often rocker-button toggle switches in various colors can serve as a section divider. Color accents and shapes used as styling features give the look of international and planned design. 15.2.2. Appliance switches Appliance switches are low-cost devices for use where actuation is not abusive. Typical uses are on vending machines, toasters, vacuum cleaners, washers, garbage disposals, television sets, and automobile dashboards. Although, the basic steps for selecting and applying appliance switches are similar to those for commercial switches, there are two major differences. Reliability of the switching function in an appliance is not as critical as cost. A switch failure on a commercial switch could mean the loss of an important communication link, the destruction of a missile, or costly delay in a data-processing operation. Failure of a switch on an appliance means, at the very worst, an inconvenience to the user until repairs can be made. The second major difference is that appliance switches are customized to give a certain image or appearance to the appliance. The appliance-switch market is filled with an almost numberless variety of customized controls, each with a unique look and application.

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15.2.3. Industrial switches Industrial switches are used in control circuits to actuate magnetic contactors or other remote-operated controllers which handle power circuits. These switches, which are pilot devices, must be ruggedly constructed to withstand operator and mechanical abuse. They are frequently exposed to oils, coolants, chemicals and dusts. An relatively heavy electrical loads must be handled by the contacts due to high inrush current drawn by the ac electromagnets of the controllers. Various types available include illuminated push-buttons, push-pull operators, rotary selectors, and selector-push switches. They are generally available in five basic types: standard-duty, heavy-duty oiltight, miniature oiltight, and multilight-control oillight. Switches are available either on open mounting plates to be incorporated into equipment or in several types of enclosures to meet varying environmental conditions. 15.3. Major switch types 15.3.1. Toggle switches Toggle switches generally have two types of action-momentary and maintained and are usually available with two or three operating positions. A two-position toggle typically has these positions at equal angles on each side of the axial centerline of the mounting bushing. A three-position toggle has two extremes positions plus a center position. The center position is generally for the off condition, with the two extreme positions representing on conditions. Several types of actuators are available in the toggle-switch family. All manual switches-pushbuttons, toggle, or rotary-may have any one or a combination of several types of switching actions.

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Type Standard lever: Operation mode Picture

297

The actuating lever usually has a heavy top, tapering to a narrow lower section, hence the name bat handle. Lever length thickness and degree of taper varies with different styles, ranging from short to flat blades.

Rocker or lever:

button Used generally as a styling feature, the rocker toggle

button bridges the gap between the pushbutton, with its ease of actuation, and the toggle switch with its positive indication. In illuminated switches, light from and edge-lighted panel is directed into half of the rocker button to provide a lighted indication of position.

Slide switch:

Two and three-position actions are most common in these switches, but up to six stations are available. Switch actions may be either momentary or maintained, with or without detents. The tendency to overshoot the center position of a three-position action from an outboard position requires heavy detenting.

Pull to unlock As a safety feature, a special lever is available which lever:

requires the operator to pull the lever before it can be moved. This arrangement prevents accidental actuation. Other guards are also available to accomplish the same thing.

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT Pushbutton switches are actuated by a direct thrust in line with the button travel and are available with momentary, maintained, or sequential switching action. A lighted pushbutton switch often has a legend or code on the face.

Pushbutton switches

Rotary switches

Rotary switches are generally available with either momentary or maintained actions. Rotation can be either unlimited (turned thtoughmore than one complete circle) or limited to 360, after which the direction of rotation of the knob must be reversed.

Thumbwheel switches

These switches are rotary types in which the switchwafer axis is parallel to the control panel. Like rotaries, switch terminals may be mounted in a circular array for direct wiring to external circuits, or switch wafers may be printed-circuit cards with pin terminals for soldering to PC boards.

15.4. Sensing switches. This chapter discusses devices that perform a switching function upon application of a particular input. Five classes of switching devices are covered, each actuated by a different input. All these devices are used in pure form, in various combinations, or modified to meet performance specifications of industrial, consumer and military products. 15.4.1. Precision snap-acting switches. A precision snap-acting switch is a small switch with closely spaced contacts that are snapped together or apart by a spring mechanism operating within the same close limits all the time. The switch must operate consistently upon application of the same force moving through the same distance.

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Applications for precision snap-acting switches range from simple door switches to the highly critical control of vital functions in military and aerospace equipment [168]. For thermostatic controls, the low operating force and close movement differential permit a temperature-sensitive element to act directly on the operating button to the switch. Thus heater loads and motor loads can be controlled without use of relays. For timing controls, the ability of the switch to operate within close limits of repeatability assures accuracy of controlled time-intervals In house-hold appliance, control is simplified by the ability of the switch to operate directly in fractional-horsepower motor circuits. In machine tool service, the switch generally in a cast-metal housing with an adjustable actuator is widely used as a limit switch. A typical snap-acting switch has three electrical contacts, the normally open, normally closed and common contacts. With no force applied to the switch plunger, a spring holds the common contact tightly against the NC contact. As the plunger is depressed, the force holding the common and NC contacts together diminishes to zero, but some energy is stored in the spring. At the operating point, the stored energy drives the common contact across the gap and forces it tightly against the NO contact. When the switch plunger is released, the NO contact force diminishes, approaches zero, and the common contact snaps back at the release point. thus the common contact cannot be stalled part way across the gap by manipulating the plunger. The switch mechanism maintains an appreciable contact force until the common contact transfers, and this force makes the switch resistant to mechanical shock and vibration. In addition to standard switch types shown in the table, other styles are available for special applications.

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Fig.15.1. Section in a snap acting switch The first thing to consider in selecting a precision snap-acting switch is the nature and magnitude of the load it must control. The temperature depends on a combination of factors including steady-state current, interrupting current, and in rush current. The wear on switch contacts increases with an increase in current. Because of arching and welding at the contacts, most heating occurs on making and breaking the circuit. Hence, the rate of operation also affects switch life. For ac loads, 60 operations per minute is generally considered the maximum rate at which full current capacity of the switch is available. The switch can, however be

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operated at higher rates if the current is reduced, or if a decrease in switch life is acceptable. Published catalog ratings are normally based on continuous steady-state current. Maximum voltage rating depends on the air gap, or contact separation. A gap of 0,1 mm to 0,2 mm permits a 250Vac rating. A gap of 0,25 to 0,35 mm permits a 480 Va.c. rating, and a gap of 0,5 to 1,5 mm permits a 600 V a.c. rating. Switches controlling motors, relays and solenoids must handle inrush currents. These currents in motors and solenoids may be ten times the steady-value. And since a lamp filament has very low cold resistance, in comparison to its hot resistance, inrush current may be as high as twelve times the steady state current. To handle these type loads the switch must have enough energy stored in its spring mechanism to assure breaking the welds produced by inrush currents. Thus the switch must have higher operating force and movement differential than a switch used for resistive loads. Contact welding is more severe in d.c. current than in a.c. current. Switch failure caused by mechanical interlocking of contacts may result from contact material transferred during making and breaking. To overcome contact arcing, magnetic blowout devices are used in switches designed for dc service. Magnets are positioned in the switch so that their magnetic field opposes the field created by the arcing current, thereby extinguishing the arc. An alternate method to extinguish the arc is to increase contact gap at the sacrifice of shorter switch life and increased operating force and movement differential. Most precision snap-acting switches are enclosed in molded plastic housings. If hermetic sealing or high-temperature operation is required, the housing is metal. If the switch needs extra mechanical protection as in machine-tool service the basic switch is installed in a

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castmetal outer housing having a threaded hub to fit standard electrical conduits. The actuator mechanisms used with switches of this type are integral with the housing.

15.4.2. Limit switches A limit switch interlocks a mechanical motion or position with an electrical circuit. A good starting point for limit-switch selection is contact arrangement. The most common limit switch is the single-pole contact block with one normally open and one normally closed set of contacts; however, switches are available with up to four poles [178]. Other contact arrangements include neutral-position and two-step. The neutralposition or center-off type transfers one set of contacts with movement of the lever in one direction. Lever movement in the opposite direction transfers the other set of contacts. With the two-step arrangement, a small movement of the lever transfers one set of contacts, and further lever movement in the same direction transfers the other set. There are two types of limit-switch contacts: positive-drive and snap-action. Positivedrive contact mechanisms may use springs for contact pressure, but at some point in the operation there is a solid mechanical connection between the operator and the movable contact member. Operating force may be applied mechanically by the linear vector of a rotating cam or a sliding wedge; or it may be applied by direct linear motion acting on the operating pin or other actuating mechanism of the switch. A variety of actuating mechanisms are available [181]. For most industrial relay loads, an oiltight limit switch should give the best life10 to 30million operations or more. A heavy-duty limit switch should be suitable for high-current loads in very simple circuits.

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Cam design affects switch life (see annexes). Cams should be designed for maximum rise of 30 on push types and 45 on rotary-lever types. If the cam is of the overriding typethat is, if it goes beyond the switch the trailing surface should also be sloped to prevent snap-back of the operator. Where extremely high-speed operation is required, limit-switch life can be improved by using a concave cam so the curved surface will not impart high impact loading on the switch. With proper care in selecting and applying limit switches, a life of 10 million operations can be expected, and a life of 20 million operations is not unusual. 15.4.3. Proximity switches. This switch senses and indicates the presence or absence of an object without requiring physical contact. Both moving and stationary objects can be sensed. The indication provided may be an electrical signal, or a mechanical or an electronic switch closure. The sensing range (actuating distance from the sensing head) of proximity switches depends on: 1. Shape, size, and type of material to be sensed. Flat, large materials can normally be sensed at the greatest distance. 2. Shape, size, and internal component design of sensing head. 3. Type and amount of energy radiated or received by the sensing head. This includes sensitivity-adjustment effects. 4. Speed and direction of material to be sensed.

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The resolution (ability to sense small objects) depends on speed and target size. Resolution normally decreases as the sensing distance increases. Maximum resolution can usually be obtained by using the smallest possible probes at minimum possible sensing distance. The repeatability (the ability to sense like parts at a precise location) depends on the size of the target and the probe, and the sensing distance. Repeatability is also affected by the stability of the electronic circuitry. Temperature changes at the head on the control may affect sensing distance stability. However, recent advances in the state of the art have virtually eliminated temperature-variation problems. Simple proximity switches usually consist of: 1. A sensing, head. 2. A circuit to receive the sensing information. 3. An output to initiate switching action. 4. A relay or solid-state switch. For switching action, an object my be sensed from distances of a fraction of an cm to 300 m, depending on the type of sensing system used, and the physical size and composition of the object. Relay contact ratings range from 2 to 25A noninductive at 230 V. Solid-state output switching is available for currents in the order of 100 mA to 5 A and voltages from 9 to 48 Vdc are typical. Completely transistorized proximity switches with static switching approach the goal of infinite life and maximum reliability. With all electronic type proximity switch (electronic switching in place of an output relay), part sensing and counting at rates in excess of 25000 counts/sec are possible. With

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this type switch, an electronic counter can be used for read-out or to batch the counts, or to control. Another proximity device for highly specialized type of counting and operator protection systems is the photoelectric light curtain This system consists of several vertically stacked transmitter/receiver units which are integrally housed together Each transmitter/receiver operates independently, yet is synchronized with the others to create, in essence, a vertical "sheet" of light. Solid-state units use gallium-arsenide diodes as the light source and silicon photodiodes as receiver elements is. The system rejects all light signals except those of its own GaAs diodes which emit approximately 5,000 pulses per second of infrared energy with pulse duration of about 10 sec. A proximity switch with a mercury wetted contact relay can switch up to 200 Hz, which permits operation of electromechanical counters at their maximum capability. For rates below 10 counts/sec, proximity switches with conventional relays and electromechanical counters may be used. Counting and control system costs are usually proportional to the speed at which parts are to be sensed. Certain proximity switches are available with delayed relay action. This time delay can be: 1. On delay, where the relay closes at some set period of time after the object is sensed. 2. Off delay, where the relay opens at some set period after the object leaves the sensing field. 3. On-off delay or a combination of the two. An on delay can be used, for example, to discriminate between different size objects moving on the same conveyor belt. If the on delay is adjusted to a time period slightly longer than the dwell time of the smaller object, then actuation will be obtained only

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when the larger part goes by. The off delay could be used to detect missing parts on an assembly line. As long as parts continue to enter the sensing field before expiration of the off period, the relay remains closed. When a part is missing, and the delay period expires without the part being sensed, the relay opens, initiating the desired control action. The combination, of course, offers additional flexibility. Time-delay options range from 5 ms to 10 sec or more. In pulse-width-control (PWM) modules, the output pulse starts when the object enters the sensing field and stops at the end of a preset period, regardless of whether the object is still in the sensing field or not. Another type of control unit is the comparator module which digitally compares the state of two or three input probes and provides a relay actuation when the probes are not all in the same state. Most functions can be provided with a latch feature requiring either a manual reset or a synchronizing pulse reset. In some operations, an object passes through the sensing field so fast that, although the electronic circuitry has been able to detect the part, it has not had enough time to deliver sufficient energy for relay pull-in. Under these conditions, a pulse-stretching circuit assures proper relay operation. Logic AND and OR circuit functions are available for applications where several sensing heads are required. With the OR circuit feature, presence of material at any one sensing head location provides an output signal. With the AND circuit, material must be present at each sensing head before an output signal is obtained. There are basically four types of standard proximity switches.

1. R-F inductive: This type of proximity switch uses an r-f oscillator, with the inductive coil of the oscillator circuit located in the sensing head. When no metal is present, a small r-f field radiates from the sensing head, and the oscillator functions normally. The oscillator output holds the relay control stage in an off condition,

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hen in the field of the sensing head, metal absorbs r-f energy. This lowers the activity of the oscillator circuit and allows the relay control stage or output circuit to conduct and operate the output relay or static switch. Some units have a built-in provision for an external gating signal which can be logically combined with the signals from internal oscillators.

Fig.15.2. Inductive contactless switches

By selecting the proper oscillator frequency, ferrous and nonferrous metals can be sensed. In a few instances, r-f switches have been used to detect the levels of saline solutions or acids. Most r-f proximity switches sense ferrous metals at greater distances than nonferrous metals. This difference in sensitivity to metal should be seriously considered when applying these switches. Operating frequencies can range from 10 kHz to 3 MHz or more. 2. Magnetic bridge inductive: In one version of this proximity switch the sensing head contains a four-arm impedance bridge which is normally balanced for null output. When ferromagnetic material is brought near the sensing head, the balance is upset, thus producing a signal for actuating a relay or static-switching circuit. Another version uses a differential transformer balanced for a null when no metal

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is present. With metal present, an unbalance results in a voltage magnitude change to actuate the output switching. Operating frequencies used with this type of proximity switch range from 60 Hz to approximately 5,000 Hz. 3. Photoelectric: Commonly called photoelectric relays or controls, photoelectric switches are composed of a light source, a receiver, and an amplifier with an output device. A low-voltage incandescent lamp is usually used in combination with a lens to provide a beam of light for operation at a distance, or a concentrated spot of light for scanning nearby objects. Prefocused lamps and other special optical lamps maintain the shape and location of the filament within close tolerances. Photoelectric systems with light emitting diodes rather than incandescent light sources have complete freedom from burnout. The solid-state light source also is considerably less susceptible to vibration and shock damage. Common photosensitive detectors or light sensors include photovoltaic cells, photoconductive cells, photo emissive tubes, and photo multiplier tubes. Because of the widely different output signal and impedance levels of these detectors, the choice of detector and amplifier must be carefully coordinated. Usually the amplifier is suitable for use with only one type of detector, although a variety of sensors within this class will work with the same amplifier. In retroreflective units, the light source and sensor are contained in a single unit which can also house an amplifier and relay. The sensed object passes between the light source and a reflective target whose alignment is not critical. The scanner can be mounted up to 30 ft away from the target. Small retroreflective code patterns can be used for carton identification with far greater reliability than with diffuse reflection from printed codes. 4. Ultrasonic beam: This type uses two sensing heads, one to transmit an ultrasonic signal through the air and the other to receive this signal. Transmitting and

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receiving heads are selected for matched resonant frequencies above the audible range. A high-gain amplifier feeds back the generated frequency output from one head to the amplifier input from the other head. A portion of the output signal is fed to an output stage which keeps the relay de-energized as long as no object breaks the ultrasonic beam. When an object to be sensed is placed in the field of the beam, the signal is reduced, removing the output bias and actuating the relay. 5. Permanent-magnet (Hybrid): In this switch, a moving steel armatureusually a dry-reed switchis positioned between two permanent-magnet fields. One field is slightly stronger than the other. Thus, it attracts and holds the armature. When a ferrous metal object approaches the sensing area, the stronger field is shunted away, allowing the weaker magnet to attract the armature and provide the switching action. In other hybrids of this type, the armature and magnetic biasing are rearranged, but the action is similar. One version of this type switch operates from the specific mass of a rotating cam or dog, and ignores smaller material such as falling metal chips. The cam or dog can be steel or magnetic stainless, and the unit can be mounted on ferrous metal.

15.5. Pressure switches A pressure switch opens or closes an electrical circuit as result of a pressure change. It may be used either as a controller, an indicator, or a safety device. The mechanical assembly consists of connecting rods or levers which accurately transmit the force from the power element to the electrical-contact assembly. The force generated by the power element is generally much larger than that required to operate the switch. To balance this force, a positive rate load spring whose force opposes that of the power element is used. This spring is adjustable so that the pressure switch can be calibrated to the desired setting.

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Since the positive-rate load spring is active at both cut-in and cut-out, it affects the calibration of both points equally. Alternately, a disc spring with a negative rate is often used to provide the force bias. Because of the negative rate characteristics when the force generated by the sensor becomes sufficiently large to overcome the maximum force of the spring, the sensor effectively snaps to a second position. As the pressure decays, it will again snap in the opposite direction to the original position. Life of a pressure switch is generally proportional to the motion of the sensor and resulting life is inherently low. The simplest and lowest cost switches use only a single-pole, single-throw, normally open or normally closed set of contacts, and a slow-moving diaphragm to break or make continuity. For d.c. loads exceeding 12 V, or a.c. inductive loads slow-moving contacts are unsatisfactory and can result in welded contacts. Pressure switches often are the critical interface between pressurized systems and the low current, computer-type process controllers. Low currents are generally switched. Enclosed mercury switches have high sensitivity, reasonable current ratings, and freedom from contamination. Usage is limited to passive environments because of vibration, position sensitivity, and temperature problems. The pressure generates the actuating force. This force is opposed by the spring forces of the mechanism, including the force of the switch element The spring force assures a called reference pressure. When the actuating pressure generates sufficient force to overcome the opposing forces, a motion occurs. This motion is used to operate the switch element. The actuating pressure must then be reduced to permit the switch to return to its original position. The difference between these actuating pressures is called dead band, or sometimes pressure differential.

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Accuracy of pressure switch control is typically 1% of the maximum operating pressure for industrial instruments, and up to 5% for more economical designs. The retarding effect of hysteresis because of internal friction in flexing members has a negligible effect on accuracy in a properly designed pressure switch. The primary consideration for pressure switch selection should be repeatability. Diaphragm and bellows types are recommended if 1% or less repeatability is required. Where 1% is satisfactory, consider a piston or Bourdon tube unit. It is generally (and sometimes erroneously) assumed that if a switch is rated at an amperage greater than the system requires, the switch will work. With the advent of digital logic and computer-type controllers, many circuits now involve loads much lighter than 0.1 A. When this is the case, low current switches should be used. Contact material is another factor. The usual result of incorrect contact material is a loss of circuit continuity, which appears as either a premature actuation or no apparent actuation of the switch. Most pressure switches respond to frequencies up to 1000 Hz. One of the most corrosive atmospheres for a pressure switch is salt water. Where corrosive media is involved, a diaphragm, Bourdon-tube, or bellows unit is preferred. If vibration is present in a system, determine its nature and magnitude, and either consider remote mounting or contact the manufacturer for recommendations. 15.6. Temperature switches Temperature-actuated switches provide a control action in response to temperature changes. Usually, the object is to maintain a specified temperature within the system. However, the devices are also used for over or undertemperature protection [171].

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Pneumatic controllers increase or decrease the flow of a vapor or gas to the control body, such as a valve designed to accept variable-input pressure. Gas, vapor, or liquids are the active elements in these controls. As in the liquid-filled, local bulb thermostat, the fluid expands when heated, creating a pressure against a bellows or other responsive device to actuate electric contacts. However, the sensing bulb is connected to the controller mechanism by a thin capillary tube filled with the same fluid. This permits the controller mechanism to be mounted some distance from the temperature-sensing element. Gas-filled units require a large sensing bulb to produce enough power to actuate the switch mechanism. They are mainly used in laboratories for calibrating industrial temperature controls and thermometers, or as controls for actuating light electrical contacts. They are also applied in high-temperature processes. Vapor-pressure units are used in three types of controls for temperatures below or above normal ambient. The vapor-pressure system consists of a bulb containing a volatile fluid, a capillary tube and bellows, and a switch mechanism in a remote controller housing. Actuating pressure is applied through the capillary, either directly or through a transmitting liquid. Bulb fills include propane, butane, acetone, benzyl chloride, and proprietary fluids which match the service-temperature range of the application. For controlling temperatures below normal ambient, as in a refrigeration system, a limited-fill system is used. The change from liquid to vapour produces an appreciable increase in volume and applies working pressure to the bellows. Beyond this point only gaseous expansion occurs, and reasonable temperature over-shoot will not damage the bellows. For above-ambient temperatures, the bulb is almost completely tilled with a liquid which vaporizes slightly below the desired control temperature. The vapour exerts pressure through a liquid-filled capillary against the control bellows. Over temperature protection is provided by limiting the bulb size. For temperatures both above and below

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ambient, the so-called universal type is charged with a precisely measured volume of liquid. When the capillary is completely filled, enough liquid remains in the bulb to generate the necessary vapour pressure for operation. Liquid-filled controllers are a variation of the liquid-filled local controller. The sensing bulb is filled with a liquid deter- mined by the application and is connected to the controller by a capillary tube filled with the same liquid. Because the capillary tube and bellows contain an appreciable volume of fluid, variations in ambient temperature along the capillary length can introduce sensing error. The most sensitive and fastest responding temperature controllers are the electrical types. These employ temperature-sensing elements whose electrical characteristics vary with changes in temperature. This variation is applied to measuring, indicating, and control circuits located in a remote controller case. Electrical controllers may be divided into two groups, according to the type of sensing element used: 1. Thermoelectric elements. 2. Resistance elements. Representative of the thermoelectric element is the thermocouple; typical resistance elements are the resistance bulb and the thermistor. Thermocouples consist of two dissimilar metal wires which are joined at their extremities. When a difference in temperature exists between two of these junctions, the couple generates a voltage proportional to the temperature differential. This voltage can be measured and calibrated in terms of temperature, with the temperature of the cold junction used as a reference. Several combinations of metals cover various temperature ranges and service conditions.

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In most controllers, the dc voltage generated by the thermocouple is applied to a millivoltmeter. The indicating pointer provides temperature indication, and its motion is often used to provide switching action to control relay or triac output. Nonindicating, solid-state controllers are also available. Thermocouples are calibrated against a standard reference junction temperature, usually 0C. Resistance bulbs usually consist of a finely wound coil of pure nickel, platinum, or some other wire chosen for its particular resistivity or temperature properties, enclosed in a protective metal shell or bulb. Changes in resistance of the bulb are converted to a voltage which, when compared to a reference voltage, provides a signal level proportional to the temperature at the bulb. This signal is amplified and may be used for various switching functions. Indication is normally provided through standard meter movements. The resistance bulb is a highly reliable, precision, temperature-sensing device within its range. To make use of the resulting small signal, the resistance bulb is usually used with multistage electronic amplifiers or sensitive meters. Thermistors are semiconductors whose resistance decreases with increasing temperature. One big advantage of thermistors is their large change in resistance per degree change in temperature. The thermistor element is connected to one leg of a null-type ac bridge whose output may be fed to an amplifier, and then to a relay in the control circuit. For temperature indication, the amplified signal drives a milliammeter calibrated in degrees. The thermistor change in resistance per change in temperature is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the resistance bulb. The output of the thermistor per degree temperature change is 30 to 50 times greater than that of the thermocouple. This greater electrical sensitivity provides greater signal differences. A high signal gives the control instrument a high sensitivity-that is, the ability to detect and respond to very small temperature changes.

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15.6.1. Local thermostats Local thermostats are temperature controllers whose sensing element and control contacts are mounted in a single mechanical assembly.

Fig.15.3. Thermostats 15.6.1.1 Differential-expansion types thermostats are: Fused-bimetal thermostats use two strips of dissimilar metals bonded together. When the temperature changes, unequal expansion of the two metals causes the strip to bend into an arc to make and break electrical contacts.

Fig.15.4. Thermostat for iron flat

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Snap-action bimetal-disc thermostats formed into a concave shape. When the temperature of the disc changes, expansion of the metal on one side is much greater than on the opposite side. Stress created by this unequal expansion overcomes the biasing stress formed in the disc, causing it to invert with a snap. When the temperature changes in the opposite direction, the process is reversed. The bimetal-disc thermostat has a fixed temperature setting and a relatively large operating differential. This large differential makes it useful where a substantial dead zone (10 to 20C) is desirable. 15.6.1.2. Liquid-filled thermostats These thermostats combine a temperature-sensing bulb and control switch in a single assembly. The type of liquid fill is determined by the temperature range of the unit. As the volume of the liquid changes with temperature variations, the resulting motion is transmitted hydraulically through a bellows or a diaphragm to operate a switch. The sensing liquid may be inside or outside the bellows. Most liquid-filled local thermostats use commercially available switches and are limited in temperature range by the limitations of these devices.

Fig.15.6 Fridge thermostat

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REFERENCES FOR 8-15 CHAPTERS General

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Matlac, I. Aparate electrice, Reprografia Universitii Transilvania, 1982 Matlac, I. Aparate electrice. Elemente de comutaie. Universitatea din Brasov,1971. Matlac I., a.s.o. Aparate electrice, lucrri de laborator, vol. 1 i 2, Reprografia Universitii Transilvania Braov, 1985 Hortopan Gheorghe: Aparate electrice. Editura Didactica i Pedagogica, Bucureti, Ed.1 1967, Ed. a V-a 1996 Suciu, Iacob. Echipamente electrice.I.P.Timisoara,1978. Suciu Jacob: Bazele echipamentelor electrice. Editura "Facla", Timioara, 1980 Suciu Jacob: Aparate electrice. Editura Didacticii i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1968 Rodstein L.: Electrical Control Equipment, Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1974; Cividjian Grigore A.: Aparate electrice. Izolaie i arc, Ed. Avrameanca, Craiova, 1996 Deleega luliu: Aparate electrice. Universitatea tehnic din Timioara, Timioara, 1993 Gheorghiu Nicolae .a.: Echipamente electrice. Editurii Didactica i Pedagogica, Bucureti, 1971 Tualiu Petre: Tehnica tensiunilor nalte. Reprografia Universitii din Craiova, 1991 Vasilievici Alexandru: Aparate i echipamente electrice. Vol. I i vol. II. Ed. MIS, Sibiu, 1995 Gheorghiu,N. Aparate si reele electrice.E.D.P.,Bucuresti,1971. Matlac I. Aparate electrice, Note de curs; Cernat, M., a. Maini i aparate electrice, Editura Universitii Transilvania Din Braov ,1998 Cernat Mihai, Matlac Ioan: Aparate electrice. Universitatea din Braov, Braov, 1983 Canescu, T. .a. Aparate electrice de joasa tensiune, ndreptar, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1977. Hercovici, B. Teoria i ncercarea aparatelor electrice. Universitatea din Craiova, 1976 Herscovici,B.,.a. Aparate electrice de nalta tensiune, ndreptar, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti,1978. Hecovici Bercu: Aparate electrice. Teorie i ncercri. Reprografia Universitatii din Craiova, Craiova, 1974

318

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT Mathe Balasz, Curelaru Alexandru, Ogrezeanu Stefan: Aparate electrice de nalta tensiune. Montare, ntreinere, exploatare. Editura tehnica, Bucureti, 1973 Mathe Balasz .a.: ncercarea aparatelor electrice. Editura tehnica, Bucureti, 1976 Richard c. Dorf (ed.) The Electrical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, ISBN 0-8493-0185-8 Edwin Bernard Kurtz (ed), The Lineman's and Cableman's Handbook' 9th edition, McGraw Hill, New York 1997, ISBN 0-07-036011-1 B. M. Weedy, Electric Power Systems Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, London, 1972, ISBN 0471924458 Kurtz, "Lineman's and Cableman's Handbook" Kuchler Andreas: Hochspannungstechnik: Grundlagen- Technlogie-Anwendungen. VDI Verlag, Diisseldorf, 1996 L. W. Brittian Electrical Circuit Breakers, lwbrittian@hot1.net Mau H.-J.: Elektrische Apparate. In Taschenbuch Elektrotechnik, Bd.2, VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin, 1968 Machine Design Revue, 1975-1988 The American National Standards Institute, revue 2000-2006 Catalogs, prospects of BBC, EA, ET, EC, a.s.o. 1998 - 2007 Brown Boveri I, Rev. ABB Revue, 1989 1994 RGE Revue 1993-1995 ROE Revue 1990 1995 http://www.abb.com.ro/product/ro http://www.siemens.com/ro/ http://www.made-in-china.com/ http://www.electroputere.ro/

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Chapter 8: Circuit Breakers

42. Flurscheim C.H., ed.: Power Circuit Breaker. Theory and Design. Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, Revised Edition 1982

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

319

Lindmayer Manfred, Hsg.: Schaltgeriite. Grundlagen, Aujbau, Wirkungsweise. SpringerVerlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, 1987 Schulze Hermann: Technik der Wechselstrom- Hochspannungsschalter. VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin, 1961 Sirotinski L.I.: Hochspannungstechnik. VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin, 1958; Kukekov G.A.: Vikiuciateli peremenovo toka visokovo napriajenia. Izdatelstvo Energhia, Leningrad, Moskva, 1972 Popa loan: ntreruptoare de nalt tensiune cu hexafluorur de sulf Probleme fundamentale. Modelare. Ed. Reduta, Craiova, 1998 Ryan H.M., Jones G.R.: SF6 Switch gear. Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, 1989 Proceedings I.E.E., Vol. 110, No.4, April 1963 Lafferty J.M. (Ed.): Vacuum arcs theory and application. Willey,1980. SladeP.G., LongR.W.: Vacuum Technology for Switchingard Protection MVEquipment. Power Technology International, 1993 Greenwood Allan: Vacuum Switch gear. TEE, London, 1994 Catalogs, prospects of Wankong Group Co. Ltd a.s.o. T. Milek, Sulfur Hexafluoride-Data Sheets DS 140. Air force systems command Contr. AF 33 (615) - 1235 (Oct. 1964) AD 607 949 Chem. Soc. (A) revue, 1792-96 Electra 32 revue (Jan. 1974) 61-82 High voltage assembly, Roberto Cameroni, roberto.cameroni@it.abb.com, ABB T&D S.P.A., Via Pavia, Lodi, Italy, Kleberg, W. Shang, Understanding arcing - Simulation of high-current vacuum arcs, ABB Review 1/2004 E. Dullni, H. Fink, M. Heimbach, C. Reuber, A Family of Vacuum Circuit Breakres with Worldwide Applications using common Components, CIGRE 2001 ABB Power Technology, Kurt Kaltenegger Zrich, Switzerland, kurt.kaltenegger@ch.abb.com, Gerhard Salge, Dietmar Gentsch, ABB CMS GmbH, Ratingen Germany, gerhard.salge@de.abb.com, dietmar.gentsch@de.abb.com

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT E. Dullni, H. Fink, M. Heimbach, C. Reuber, A Family of Vacuum Circuit Breakres with Worldwide Applications using common Components, CIGRE 2001 Ryan H.M., Jones G.R.: SF6 Switch gear. Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, 1989 Proceedings I.E.E., Vol. 110, No.4, April 1963 Lafferty J.M. (Ed.): Vacuum arcs theory and application. Willey,1980. SladeP.G., LongR.W.: Vacuum Technology for Switchingard Protection MVEquipment. Power Technology International, 1993 Greenwood Allan: Vacuum Switch gear. TEE, London, 1994 GVR Catalog High voltage assembly, Roberto Cameroni, roberto.cameroni@it.abb.com, ABB T&D S.P.A., Via Pavia, Lodi, Italy, Kleberg, W. Shang, Understanding arcing - Simulation of high-current vacuum arcs, ABB Review 1/2004 E. Dullni, H. Fink, M. Heimbach, C. Reuber, A Family of Vacuum Circuit Breakers with Worldwide Applications using common Components, CIGRE 2001 GVR Company, Product catalog Electra Revue No. 200, February 2002 Solway Revue 2003-2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorecloser http://www.spectra-gases.com/PureGases/sf6/SulfurHex.htm http://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/sulfurhex_sf6.htm http://www.concordest.com/sf6.html"SF6 in the Electric Industry, Status 2000" http://www.cigre.org http://www.gvrusatechnics.com/ ABB Power Technologies S.p.A. Application Note of PASS M0, 2006; ABB Semiconductors Switzerland Applying IGCT Gate Units Application Note, December 2002; Bartosik M. Concepts of Direct Limitation and Interuption Current Limiting and Interrupting Technique, Varshau 2001;

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93.

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Besrest R., Sellier P., Zimmermen C. New Hybrid Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter with Parallel Commutation Assistance, 2005; http://www.scribd.com/doc/12716363/112-SF6GasInsulated-Switch-Gear-GIS Carroll E., Klaka S., Linder S. IGCT A New Approach to High Power Electronics, IGCT Press Conference, May 20, 1997; Holaus W. Ultra Fast Switches Basic element for Future Medium Vomtage Switchgear, Thesys ETHZ no. 14375, 2001; Mayer J.M. Etude et realisation dun disjoncteur hybride ultrarapide a base de thyristors IGCT, Thesys EPFL, 2000; Nagel A., Bernet S., Bruckner T., Steimer P.K., Apeldoorn O. Characterization of IGCTs for Series Connected Operation; ABB Corporate Reaserch, Rome 2000; Oedegard B., Stiasny T., Carroll E., Rossinelli M. An Application-Specific Asymmetric IGCT, ABB Semiconductors, USA November 2001; Popa A. Aparate Electrice de joas i nalt tensiune Ed. Didactic i Pedagodic, Bucureti 1977; Peicon A., Tualiu P. Aparate Electrice Proiectare i Construcie Ed. Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova 1988 Power System Engineering Research Center Control and Design of Microgrid Components, January 2006; Solidstate Controls, Inc. New Current Sensing Scheme for Static Transfer Switches 2004;

Chapter 9: Contactors
94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. Catalogs, prospects of Wankong Group Co. Ltd a.s.o. http://www.wankong.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contactor http://www.made-in-china.com/Electrical-Electronics-Catalog/Relay-Contactor.html http://www.abb.com.ro/product/us/9AAC30200168.aspx http://www.repcoinc.com/e-contacts_fld/e-contacts.asp http://www.qsl.net/ki7cx/Coilrewind.htm

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT http://www.made-in-china.com/Electrical-Electronics-Catalog http://www.cnzgva.com/showprd http://facultate.regielive.ro/referate/energetica/ http://www.mediumelectric.ro/catalog5.html

101. 102. 103. 104.

Chapter 10: Isolators

105. 106. 107. 108. http://www.abb.com.ro/product/ro http://www.siemens.com/ro/ http://www.made-in-china.com/ http://www.wankong.com

Chapter 11: Arresters

109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. Application Guide - THE Station Surge Arresters, GET-6460. ANSI/IEEE C62. 11-1993 - Standard for Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating Current Power Circuits. International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 99-4(1991), "Part 4: Metal Oxide Surge Arresters Without Gaps for A.C. Systems". ANSI/IEEE C62.1 - 1989, Standard for Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits. ANSI/IEEE C62.2-19xx, Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Systems. Electric Power Research Institute, "Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above/Second Edition,"1982. ANSI C2-1984, National Electrical Safety Code. ANSI C29.9-1983, - American National Standard for Wet-process Porcelain Insulators Apparatus, Post-type. ANSI C57.12.00-1980, General Requirements for Liquid-immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers. IEEE Working Group of the Lightning Protective Devices Sub-committee, Lightning Protection in Multi-line Stations, IEEE Transactions, June 1968, pp 1514-1521.

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 119.

323

AIEE Working Group of the Lightning Protective Devices Sub-committee, Simplified Method for Determining Permissible Separation Between Arresters and Transformers, AIEE Transactions, Special Supplement, pp. 33-57, 1963.

120. 121. 122. 123. 124.

E.C. Sakshaug, J.S. Kresge, and S.A. Miske, Jr., "A New Concept in Station Arrester Design," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 2, March/April 1977. TRANQUELL catalog GE Arresters catalog http://www.ge.com/capacitoreneral Electric Corporation http://www.geindustrial.com/industrialsystems/products/capacitors.shtml

Chapter 12: Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. http://www.engineersedge.com/instrumentation/components/low_voltage_circuit_breaker.htm http://library.abb.com/global http://www.schneider-electric.com/ http://www.circuitbreakersales.com/breakers.htm http://www.nationalswitchgear.com/engineering.htm http://ro.farnell.com/circuit-breakers-miscellaneous http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker http://www.electricityforum.com/forums/breakers_onsite.html http://www.askmehelpdesk.com/ http://www.askmehelpdesk.com/ http://books.google.ro/ http://www.inspect-ny.com/electric/badbreaker.htm http://www.relectric.com/

Chapter 13: Fuses

138. Wright A., Newberry P.G.: Electric Fuses. Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, 1984

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ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT Richard C. Dorf (ed.) The Electrical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, ISBN 0-8493-0185-8 http://www.elfa.se/en/ http://edison.rutgers.edu/patents/ http://thefusewarehouse.com/pages/product_markings http://www.hager.com.sg/menu/product/ http://www.knukonceptz.com/ http://www.made-in-china.com/ http://edison.rutgers.edu/patents/ http://elfa.se - datasheet of mini type fuse (.pdf) http://edn.com/archives/1996/092696 http://littelfuse.com/data/en/Product_Catalogs/ http://bussmann.com/2/ApplicationTools wiki.diyfaq.org.uk - Fuses vs MCBs http://swecheck.com.au/pages/product_catalog http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)"

139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152.

Chapter 14: Electric relays

153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. http://www.europages.ro/ http://www.adf.ro/home/produse/solid-state-relay.html http://ro.farnell.com/jsp/search/productListing.jsp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_5/1.html http://www.alibaba.com/showroom/Electric_Relay.html http://www.relayelectric.com/ http://www.ehow.com/about_5124901_electric-relay.html http://www.serelays.com/ http://www.chnze.com/ http://www.tradekey.com/ks-general-electric-relay/ http://www.lineelectric.com/ http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/relay.htm

ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 166. 167. http://www.maplin.co.uk/searchtemplate.asp http://www.magazin-electric.ro/relee.php

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Chapter 15: Switches

168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. American Electricians Handbook, New York : McGraw-Hill, 2009. Machine Design, 1975-1990; http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_1/3.html http://books.google.ro/books http://www.sciencedirect.com/science http://www.techno-stuff.com/limit.htm http://www.switch-china.com/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_theory http://www.toodoc.com/electronic-switches-ebook.html http://images.google.ro/images http://www.europages.ro/ http://www.lacon-electronic.ro/ http://www.proboats.ro/ http://www.alibaba.com/showroom/electric_switches/

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Annexes
Annex nr. 1

Conventional Signs and Symbols

Conventional signs for single line schemes Pos. 1 or 2 or 3 Turbogenerator Transformer Check (measuring) point Isolating switch (close and open) Conventional sign Explanations High voltage circuit breaker (close)

Arrester

Transformer with two secondary windings Fuses Contactor

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Transformer with star windings connection in the secondary side Bushbars with four lines (R,S,T,N) Bulb lamp Asynchronous motor

Conventional signs for connections representation Pos. 1 2 or 3 or No connections Conventional sign Explanations General sign for connecting elements Connections

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Conventional signs for electrical connections

Pos. 1 Conventional sign Explanations Reversion push button: a) normal open contact; b) normal close contact

Auto blocking push button: a) normal open contact; b) normal close contact Arm interrupters: a) Single phase b) Double phases c) Three phases Single phase commutator with three positions

5 Single phase plugs and sockets

Contacts: a) normal open contact; b) normal close contact Time relay contacts working at coil connection: a) normal open contact; b) normal close contact Time relay contacts working at coil disconnection: a) normal open contact; b) normal close contact Limit switch

10 Normal open contact of thermal relay

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Conventional signs for diverse electrical equipments

Pos. Conventional sign Explanations

1 2

Signalization lamp Flicking signalization lamp

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Alarm horn Bell Buzzer Fuse Single phase thermal relay Coil of electromagnetic relay Panel terminals Coil of timers (time relay) a) Delay at coil connection b) Delay at coil disconnection

11 a) Earth connections b) Bonding connection 12 Electric breakdown

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Conventional signs for electric machines

Pos. 1

Conventional sign

Explanations

Asynchronous motors a) Squirrel cage b) Winding rotor 2 D.C. motor (with permanent magnets in rotor) 3 Single phase transformer 4 Autotransformers Single phase a) b) Three phases

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Annex 2 Literal symbols for electric devices Pos. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Symbol a b c D E F G H k M p r s u y v Explanations Circuit isolators, automat breakers, interrupter, etc. Button, push button, limit switches, etc. Contactor Relays, auxiliary relays Fuse, thermal relay Instrument transformers Measurement instruments Optical and acoustical signalization Condenser, inductances and filters Electric machines, converters, transformers Amplifier, semiconductors.. Resistors Acting devices Complexes devices Logic elements Different mechanical devices