FOUNDATION

1. INTRODUCTION: - Every building consists of two basic components: the superstructure and the substructure
or foundation. The super-structure is usually that part of the building which is above ground. The substructure and foundation is the lower portion of building, usually located below ground level, which transmits the load of the super-structure to the sub-soil. A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted. While the lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub-soil is called the footing. The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super-imposed loads (or live loads) & wind loads from a building to the soil on which the building rests in such a way that (a) Settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super-structure & (b) The soil does not fail. When loads are transmitted to the sub-soil it settle, If this settlement is slight & uniform throughout no damage will be caused to the building But if the settlement is excessive or unequal, serious damage may result in the form of cracked walls, distorted doors & window openings, cracked lintels, walls thrown out of plumb etc & sometime the complete collapse of the building. A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as unequal settlement. Unequal settlement or differential settlement may be caused by (1) Weak sub-soil, such as made up ground. (2) Shrinkable & expansive soils (such as clay). (3) Frost action. (4) Moment of ground water & uplift pressure. (5) Excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc. (6) Slow consolidation of saturated clays & (7) Clipping of strata on slopping sites, when designing the foundation, therefore the above factors must be taken into account.

2. Types Of Foundation
(a) Shallow Foundation. (b) Deep Foundation.

(a) SHALLOW FOUNDATION:According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. A shallow foundation is also known as an open foundation, since such foundation is constructed by open excavation. Hence those foundations, which have depth even greater then n its width, but are constructed by way of open excavation also come under shallow foundation. A shallow foundation is placed immediately below the lowest part of the super structure supported by it. The term footing is commonly used in conjunction with shallow foundations. A footing is a foundation unit constructed in brick work, masonry or concrete under the base of a wall or column for the purpose of distributing the load over a large area.

Footings are classified into four types:1. 2. 3. 4. Spread Footing Combined Footing Strap Footing Mat or raft Foundation.

1. SPREAD FOOTING:A Spread footing is the one which supports either one wall or one column. A spread footing may be of the following types:a. Isolated footing. b. Strip footing.

1(a). ISOLATED SPREAD FOOTINGS

A Spread footing for a single column is either known as the isolated footing or pad footing. Isolated spread footings are designed to distribute the concentrated loads delivered by a single column to prevent shear failure of the bearing material beneath the footing and to minimize settlement by reducing the applied bearing stress. The forces, strength and plan dimensions of the column may govern the minimum size of an isolated spread footing. For bridge columns, isolated spread footings are typically greater than 3 m by 3 m (10 feet by 10 feet). These dimensions will increase when eccentric loads are distributed to the footing. The size of the footing is a function of the loads distributed by the supported column and the strength and compressibility characteristics of the bearing materials beneath the footing. Structural design of the footing includes consideration for moment resistance at the face of the column and in the short direction of the footing, as well as shear and punching around the column.

1(b). STRIP FOOTINGS

A Strip footing is one which provides a continuous longitudinal bearing. Thus, a spread footing for a continuous wall is called a strip footing. The most commonly used type of foundation for buildings is the continuous strip spread footing. Continuous or strip footings generally have a minimum length to width ratio of at least 5 (i.e., length > 5 x width). They support a single row of columns or a bearing wall to reduce the pressure on the bearing materials. These footings may tie columns together in one direction. Sizing and structural design considerations are similar to isolated spread footings with the exception that plane strain conditions are assumed to exist in the direction parallel to the long axis of the footing. The structural design of these footings is generally governed by beam shear and bending moments.

2. COMBINED FOOTINGS
When a spread footing supports the load of more than one column or wall, it is called a combined footing or strap footing. Combination, or combined, footings are similar to isolated spread footings except that they support two or more columns and are rectangular or trapezoidal in shape .

A combined footing is provided under the following circumstances: 1. When the column are very near to each other so that their footing overlap. 2. When the bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under individual footing. 3. When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot spread I that direction. The aim is to get uniform pressure distribution under the footing. For this, the center of gravity (C.G) of the footing area should coincide with the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns. If the outer column, near the property line, carries heavier load, provision of trapezoidal column becomes essential to bring the C.G. of footing in line with the C.G of the two column loads. In other cases, a rectangular footing may be preferred. They are primarily used when the column spacing is non-uniform (Bowles, 1996) or when isolated spread footings become so closely spaced that a combination footing is simpler to form and construct. In the case of bridge abutments, an example of a combination footing is the so-called spill-through type abutment. This configuration was used during some of the initial construction of the Interstate freeways on new alignments where spread footings could be founded on competent native soils. Spill-through abutments are also used at stream crossings to make sure foundations are below the scour level of the stream. Due to the frame action that develops with combination footings, they can be used to resist large overturning or rotational moments in the longitudinal direction of the column row. There are a number of approaches for designing and constructing combined footings. The choice depends on the available space, load distribution among the columns supported by the footing, variations of soil properties supporting the footing and economics.

3. STRAP FOOTING
A strap footing comprises of two or more footings of individual column, connected by a beam, called a strap. When a column is near or right next to a property limit, a square or rectangular footing concentrically located under the column would extend into the adjoining property, which may not be permissible. In that case, a trapezoidal combined footing may be an alternative. However, if the distance between this column and the adjoining column is large, the combined trapezoidal footing will be quite narrow, with high bending moments. In that case, strap footing may be provided. The strap beam, connecting the spread footings of the two columns, does not remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil. The strap, assumed to be infinitely rigid, serves to transfer the column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings. The individual footing areas are so arranged that the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the combined C.G. of the two footing areas. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each individual footing will be uniform. The function of the strap beam is to transfer the load of heavily loaded outer column to the inner one. In doing so, the strap beam is subjected to bending moment and shear force and it should be suitably designed to withstand these. Grillage strap footings. strap footings are commonly constructed in reinforced cement concrete. However, for steel stanchions, grillage strap footing may be used, specially for the circumstance where the depth of footing has to be shallow and where soil has low bearing capacity.

4. RAFT FOUNDTION.
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy, the use of spread footing would cover more than one-half of the area and it may prove more economical to use mat or raft foundation. They are also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control. The mat or raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement. Raft foundation is also needed to reduce settlement on highly compressible soil, by making the weight of structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.