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    Archaeologists are learning new lessons from the Vasa--a warship monumental in its ambition, its failure, and its role in maritime archaeology. A newly discovered burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings provides a rare glimpse into the life of an ancient Egyptian singer. Plus: butchering mammoths, roman secret cargo, paleolithic fire starter under London's Olympic park.

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    Archaeologists are learning new lessons from the Vasa--a warship monumental in its ambition, its failure, and its role in maritime archaeology. A newly discovered burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings provides a rare glimpse into the life of an ancient Egyptian singer. Plus: butchering mammoths, roman secret cargo, paleolithic fire starter under London's Olympic park.

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    668 views72 pages

    Archaeology 20120708

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    ARCHEOMACEDONIA
    Archaeologists are learning new lessons from the Vasa--a warship monumental in its ambition, its failure, and its role in maritime archaeology. A newly discovered burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings provides a rare glimpse into the life of an ancient Egyptian singer. Plus: butchering mammoths, roman secret cargo, paleolithic fire starter under London's Olympic park.

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    of 72

    July/August 2009 www.archaeology.

    org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America July/August 2012


    Digging in Northern Mexicos Narcotics War Zone
    PLUS:
    tzis Illness, Butchering
    Mammoths, Roman Secret
    Cargo, Paleolithic Fire Starter
    Under
    Londons
    Olympic
    Park
    What Sank the
    17th Centurys
    Mightiest Warship?
    Lost Tomb
    of an Egyptian
    Chantress
    YA Pla
    A y
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    M a
    24 London 2012
    Archaeology and the Olympics
    BY NADIA DURRANI
    28 Tomb of the Chantress
    A newly discovered burial chamber
    in the Valley of the Kings provides a
    rare glimpse into the life of an
    ancient Egyptian singer
    BY JULIAN SMITH
    33 Te Birth of Bureaucracy
    At the site of Iklaina, excavations are
    revealing new evidence of how the
    Mycenaean state functioned
    BY AMANDA SUMMER
    40 Automated Site Mapping
    Computational analysis of satellite
    images detects previously
    overlooked human settlements
    BY ALDO FOE
    42 Vasas Curious Imbalance
    Researchers are learning new lessons
    from the majestic Vasaa warship
    monumental in its ambition, its failure,
    and its role in maritime archaeology
    BY LUCAS LAURSEN
    46 Uncovering Sidons
    Long Life
    For the first time, archaeologists are
    revealing the 4,000-year history of
    one of ancient Lebanons oldest ports
    BY ANDREW LAWLER
    CONTENTS
    JULY/AUGUST 2012
    VOLUME 65, NUMBER 4
    features
    46 Among the graves excavated
    at Sidon was one containing the
    remains of a child who was buried
    in a large pottery jar.
    3
    Cover: Inside a wooden coffin,
    archaeologists found the 3,000-year-old
    mummy of an Egyptian chantress.
    COURTESY UNIVERSITY OF BASEL KINGS
    VALLEY PROJECT
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    departments
    More from this Issue To see a slideshow with
    more images of the Pilling gurines, go to
    www.archaeology.org/pilling
    Interactive Digs Read about the latest discoveries
    at the Minoan site of Zominthos in central Crete; at
    Johnsons Island, a Civil War site in Ohio; and at
    El Carrizal, in Veracruz.
    on the web www.archaeology.org
    Archaeological News from around the
    worldupdated by 1 p.m. ET every weekday. And
    sign up for our e-Update so you dont miss a thing.
    Stay in Touch Visit Facebook and like
    ARCHAEOLOGY or follow us on Twitter at
    @archaeologymag
    16
    6 Editors Letter
    8 From the President
    10 Letters
    An ax capable of felling a tree, the purpose of the
    Donner Partys westward travels, and the Nebra
    sky disc.
    11 From the Trenches
    A set of 1,000-year-old clay gurines are reunited
    after nearly 40 years, Homo erectus was a re-
    starter, a Greek murder court, and tzi the
    icemans illness.
    22 World Roundup
    A mass grave in the South Atlantic is a grim reminder
    of the slave trade, Lucys tree-climbing hominin
    friends, scientists look for elite archers in a medieval
    shipwreck, and when it snowed in Baghdad.
    53 Letter from Mexico
    An archaeologists daughter surveys the rich
    cultural heritage of northern Mexicoand the
    impact of violence on researchers working there.
    68 Artifact
    At one of the earliest Anglo-Saxon Christian burial
    sites in Britain, archaeologists nd a young girls
    rare gold and garnet-jeweled cross.
    14
    13
    5
    13
    The Value of Persistence
    T
    his issues cover is an image of a womans co n from the rst unlooted tomb
    found in Egypts Valley of the Kings since 1922. Her name was Nehemes-Bastet
    and hieroglyphs on the co ns side reveal that she was a shemayet, or chantress,
    of the sun god, Amun. In Tomb of the Chantress (page 28), contributing editor Julian
    Smith discusses her life and the signicance of the nd.
    The Birth of Bureaucracy (page 33), by archaeologist and writer Amanda
    Summer, focuses on the Mycenaean site of Iklaina, located in Greeces southwestern
    Peloponnese. Since the late 1990s, excavation work there has focused on the manner in
    which government functioned in towns and villages, on the lives of the ordinary people
    who lived at Iklaina more than 3,000 years ago, and on how widespread literacy may
    have been in the Mycenaean world.
    The wreck of a seventeenth-century Swedish warship, pulled nearly intact more
    than 50 years ago from Stockholm Harbor, has long concealed a
    mystery about why it sank on its maiden voyage. In Vasas Curious
    Imbalance (page 42), science journalist Lucas Laursen explains
    that archaeologists are now coming up with answers thanks, in
    part, to their ability to digitally render Vasas contours.
    As the 2012 Summer Olympics approach, journalist Nadia
    Durrani has led a report on the challenging archaeology of the
    Olympic Park site in East Londons Lea Valley. London 2012:
    Archaeology and the Olympics (page 24), oers a 12,000-year
    timeline, maps the location of six of the most signicant
    nds, and tells us what people have been up to there from
    prehistoric times until the present day.
    Contributing editor Andrew Lawler, in Uncovering
    Sidons Long Life (page 46), traces the history of the port
    city of Sidon in Lebanon. The extraordinary site sits directly
    beneath the modern-day city and has been under excavation
    by a multinational team for more than a decade. Sidon has
    been occupied for some 4,000 years, and archaeologists are only
    now beginning to trace the long history of a city so ancient that it is
    mentioned in the Book of Genesis.
    Letter from Mexico (page 53), tells a dierent story, one in which archaeology
    must proceed sporadically because of the danger to researchers often caught in the
    ongoing drug war south of the United States border. Writer Kathleen McGuire details
    the importance of the region known to some as El Norte de Mxico, and talks with
    archaeologists who are committed to studying and preserving its important heritage.
    That, of course, isnt all. Dont miss a very special Artifact, and do look for a
    mystery or two to be revealed in From the Trenches and World Roundup.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 6
    EDITORS LETTER
    Editor in Chief
    Claudia Valentino
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    David Freidel, Tom Gidwitz, Andrew Lawler,
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    Jennifer Pinkowski, Heather Pringle,
    Angela M. H. Schuster, Neil Asher Silberman
    Correspondents
    Athens: Yannis N. Stavrakakis
    Bangkok: Karen Coates
    Islamabad: Massoud Ansari
    Israel: Mati Milstein
    Naples: Marco Merola
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    Rome: Roberto Bartoloni,
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    ARCHAEOLOGY MAGAZINE
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    T
    HAT ARCHAEOLOGY AND human heritage are present everywhere across the
    globe is amply demonstrated by the case of Easter Island (Rapa Nui). One of the
    most remote places on earth, this tiny island in the Pacific is home to the famed
    monolithic statues called moai. The colossal moai have near-iconic status as testaments to
    humanitys early technological achievements.
    Yet not even so remote a location can protect an archaeological monument from damage
    and so, in 2008, the Archaeological Institute of America proudly awarded its second-ever
    Site Preservation grant to Jo Anne Van Tilburg of the University of California, Los Angeles
    Cotsen Institute of Archaeology for her conservation work on the moai of Easter Island.
    A 30-year veteran of Easter Island archaeology, and director of the Easter Island Statue
    Project, Van Tilburg is currently working to arrest the deterioration suffered by the statues
    as a result of weathering, vandalism, mass tourism, and encroaching development.
    This spring I visited Easter Island in order to see Van Tilburg and her team in action.
    Working with conservators such as Mnica Bahamondez,
    director of the Chilean National Center for Conserva-
    tion and Restoration, and geologist Christian Fischer
    of UCLA, Van Tilburg has overseen the cleaning, lichen
    removal, and application of protective chemicals in an
    effort to save the statues.
    During my weeks visit, I also met a number of local
    professionals who have been trained by Van Tilburg and
    others. Living full-time on the island, they work as archae-
    ologists, archaeological draftsmen, preservationists, and
    conservators. They also play a vital role in educating
    their fellow islanders about the importance of the moai.
    Without such local support and ongoing education, most
    preservation efforts will ultimately fail.
    Among Van Tilburgs principal collaborators is the talented archaeologist Cristin Arvalo
    Pakarati. In addition to codirecting the Easter Island Statue Project with Van Tilburg,
    Arvalo Pakarati is an artist and graphic designer. He designed a gallery several years ago
    with Johannes Van Tilburg, Jo Anne Van Tilburgs architect husband, and built it with his
    own hands. While serving as project headquarters, the attractive gallery earns a modest
    income by hosting exhibitions by local artists and artisans celebrating the islands archaeology.
    Along with community involvement, economic development can be critical to the success
    of preservation initiatives.
    The AIAs Site Preservation Program, founded in 2007, has so far awarded funding to 19
    projects around the globe. The Program funds small but significant projects that typically
    include education and public outreach and also emphasize best practices in conservation.
    Worldwide, the threats to archaeological monuments show no sign of abating. Support fom
    the AIA will help ensure that irreplaceable monuments such as the moai continue to inspire
    and educatefuture generations. For more information, visit www.archaeogical.org/sitepr eservation
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 8
    FROM THE PRESIDENT
    Elizabeth Bartman
    President, Archaeological Institute of America
    Archaeological
    Institute of America
    Located at Boston University
    OFFICERS
    President
    Elizabeth Bartman
    First Vice President
    Andrew Moore
    Vice President for Outreach and Education
    Pamela Russell
    Vice President for Professional Responsibilities
    Laetitia LaFollette
    Vice President for Publications
    John Younger
    Vice President for Societies
    Thomas Morton
    Treasurer
    Brian J. Heidtke
    Chief Executive Officer
    Peter Herdrich
    Chief Operating Officer
    Kevin Quinlan
    GOVERNING BOARD
    Susan Alcock
    Michael Ambler
    Carla Antonaccio
    Cathleen Asch
    Barbara Barletta
    David Boochever
    Julie Herzig Desnick
    Michael Galaty
    Greg Goggin
    Ronald Greenberg
    Michael Hoff
    Jeffrey Lamia
    Lynne Lancaster
    Deborah Lehr
    Robert Littman
    Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
    Heather McKillop
    Shilpi Mehta
    Naomi Norman, ex officio
    Maria Papaioannou
    Eleanor Powers
    Paul Rissman
    Glenn Schwartz
    David Seigle
    Chen Shen
    Charles Steinmetz
    Douglas Tilden
    Claudia Valentino, ex officio
    Shelley Wachsmann
    Ashley White
    John J. Yarmick
    Past President
    C. Brian Rose
    Trustees Emeriti
    Norma Kershaw
    Charles S. LaFollette
    Legal Counsel
    Mitchell Eitel, Esq.
    Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP
    Archaeological Institute of America
    656 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02215-2006
    www.archaeological.org
    Saving Easter Island
    W
    p
    W
    p
    AmongVanTilburgs principal c
    Gala
    Archaeological Institute of America | 25 April 2012
    The trustees, gala committee, and staff of the Archaeological Institute of America
    extend our deepest appreciation to the following sponsors for their support of our
    2012 gala, which honored Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr. with the Bandelier Award for
    Service to Archaeology, and celebrated the sights, sounds, and flavors of Turkey.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 10
    LETTERS
    Crashing the Donner Party
    Letter from California: A New Look
    at the Donner Party (May/June 2012)
    asserts that the Donner Party was a
    self-serving expedition for land and
    wealth. Most of the pioneers migrat-
    ed west because of religious persecution
    and/or economic deprivation, not greed.
    David K. Rogers
    Walnut Creek, CA
    Author and archaeologist Julie
    Schablitsk y responds:
    Members of the Donner Party moved west
    for a variety of reasons, including inexpen-
    sive land and even a healthy climate. The
    view that the pioneers migrated for greed is
    not necessarily my opinion, but, as I say in the
    piece, a perspective that was shared with me.
    An Ax to Grind
    Your recent article on Ancient Ger-
    manys Metal Traders (May/June 2012)
    describes an ax head weighing 8 ounces
    as being something you could fell a
    tree with. The smallest hammer that a
    carpenter uses is 16 ounces and is used
    for nish work. An ax of that size, much
    less an ax weighing 8 ounces, would not
    be suitable for felling trees. A hatchet is
    three times that weight.
    Jaenia Mikulka
    Cambridge, MA
    Senior editor Zach Zorich responds:
    We live in a world with relatively cheap and
    abundant steel. That was not the case for the
    people at Dermsdorf. An 8-ounce ax head was
    probably a very expensive tool and was used
    for a variety of jobs. It may seem unsuitable
    by modern standards, but people were chop-
    ping down trees with stone tools long before
    metal axes were invented. Trees also come in
    different sizes. It is not hard to imagine small
    and medium-sized trees being cut down with
    a small ax.
    ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from
    readers. Please address your comments
    to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,
    Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
    3051, or e-mail letters@arch a eology.org.
    The editors reserve the right to edit
    submitted material. Vol ume precludes
    our acknowledging individual letters.
    Sun or Moon?
    I noticed the Nebra sky disc in the
    sidebar to Ancient Germanys Metal
    Traders is described as depicting the
    sun, moon, and 32 stars. I believe its
    the full moon, half moon, quarter moon
    phases, anchored by the strip of horizon
    shown on the right. Obviously the sun
    isnt out at night, and the moon phase
    representations seem straightforward.
    Andi Willman
    Flushing, MI
    The Real Oldest Handbag
    The German researchers in your story
    Dogtooth Is the New Black (May/
    June 2012) claim a reconstructed (not
    preserved) probable bag that is 4,200
    to 4,500 years-old may be worlds old-
    est handbag. The Germans may not
    be aware of the bags from Spirit Cave,
    Nevada, dated to 9,400 years ago. The
    Spirit Cave bags and the shrouds wrap-
    ping corpses are the oldest complete,
    preserved textiles in the world.
    Alice B. Kehoe
    Marquette University
    Milwaukee, WI
    Corrections
    In Letter from California: A New Look
    at the Donner Party (May/June 2012),
    we incorrectly stated that the wagon
    train set o from Springeld, Missouri.
    It left from Independence, Missouri.
    In Rethinking the Thundering Hordes
    (May/June 2012), the caption accompa-
    nying the map is incorrect. As indicated
    in the map itself, Begash is actually in
    Kazakhstan. Sarazm is in Tajikistan.
    The Nebra
    sky disc
    ARCHAEOLOGYS
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    LATE-BREAKING NEWS AND NOTES FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
    I
    n 1973, Deseret Magazine showed a photograph of 11 pre-
    historic gurines on exhibit at the Zions First National
    Bank, Carbon-Emery Division, in Utah. By 1974, when
    the College of Eastern Utah (CEU) Prehistoric Museum
    included the gurines in their centennial celebration display,
    there were only 10. What became of the 11th gurine has
    been a mystery ever since.
    The unred clay gurines, created by the Fremont
    culture that inhabited parts of Americas Great Basin be-
    tween A.D. 400 and 1300, had originally been found by
    ranchers Clarence, Art, and Woodrow Pilling, and two
    ranch hands, Dusty Pruit and Tony Finn, in a rock shel-
    ter in eastern Utahs Range Creek Canyon in 1950. After
    their discovery, Geneve Howard Oliver, a Pilling family
    friend, brought the gurines to the Smithsonian and then
    to Harvards Peabody Museum for examination. At the
    Peabody, anthropologist Noel Morss studied the collec-
    tion (which has since been dated to
    A.D. 9951000) and concluded the
    gurines all had been made by the
    same artist. Later that month, Oliver
    returned home with the collection,
    and for more than two decades, it
    was displayed at the CEU museum
    and in banks, courthouses, and a ho-
    tel in Utah, becoming an uno cial
    yet much beloved state symbol.
    L
    ast November, Utah State Uni-
    versity anthropologist Bonnie
    Pitblado opened a small box
    that had arrived in her o ce. Inside
    she found a ceramic gurine wrapped
    in leather and an anonymous typed
    note expressing the senders wish that
    the artifact be returned to its proper
    place. Pitblado knew instantly that
    it was the missing gurine. First, my
    colleagues and I went to the computer
    to check the gurine against old pho-
    tos of the Pilling collection when it
    was complete. And then we immedi-
    ately thought about what we could do
    to demonstrate scientically that he
    matched at least one of the other 10
    gurines so I could reunite him with
    the group, says Pitblado. I also wanted
    to be sure it wasnt a fake, she adds.
    Pitblado assembled a multidis-
    ciplinary team to test whether the
    gurine was in fact the artifact that
    had disappeared. First, archaeologist
    and prehistoric textile expert James
    Adovasio from Mercyhurst College
    looked at the backs of the gurine
    and his mate (the assemblage was ar-
    ranged as ve pairs of male and female
    gures and an additional eleventh
    gure). He examined impressions
    made by the baskets the gurines sat
    Investigating a Decades-Old Disappearance
    www.archaeology.org 11
    Prehistoric clay female and male
    figurines (left and right) from
    Utahs famous Pilling collection.
    The male figurines
    back preserves
    impressions of the
    basket on which
    it dried.

    FROM THE TRENCHES
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 12
    Located in the province of Jujuy in
    northern Argentina, Pucar de
    Tilcara is the site of a pre-Inca
    fortification built around the
    twelfth century. Situated on a hill
    outside the small town of Tilcara, it
    was built by the ancestors of the
    Omaguaca tribe, renowned
    warriors who were also experts in
    agriculture, weaving, and pottery.
    Though the region of Humahuaca
    has evidence of occupation going
    back 10,000 years, it reached its
    peak around the fourteenth
    century A.D., when Pucar de
    Tilcara was an important
    administrative military center that
    covered 15 acres and housed more
    than 2,000 people. In addition to
    living quarters, the pucara
    (Quechua for fortress) contained
    corrals, sites for religious
    ceremonies, and burials. The tribes
    in the region were later conquered
    by the Incas just decades before
    the Spanish arrived in 1536.
    Constanza Ceruti, the only female
    high-altitude archaeologist in the
    world and Director of the Institute
    of High Mountain Research at the
    Catholic University of Salta, made
    Pucar de Tilcara her home, living
    in an adobe house at the foot of
    the site for five years while she
    studied the Inca shrines in the
    Andean peaks nearby.
    The site
    From the town of Tilcara, the
    pucara is accessible by foot, and
    you will see many llama and cacti
    along the way. Just be sure to wear
    good walking shoesit can be a
    rather exhausting climb. The site
    was strategically chosen by the
    Omaguaca to be easily defensible,
    and it provides good views over the
    surrounding UNESCO-listed valley,
    Quebrada de Humahuaca. The
    remains of many structures can still
    be seen today, though part of the
    site was reconstructed in the 1950s,
    when excavation was taking place.
    The small square stone buildings,
    pirkas, were constructed without
    mortar and roofed with grass, known
    locally as ichu, and cactus wood. The
    houses were built without windows
    and with very narrow doorways
    to conserve heat at night, when
    temperatures drop in the high-
    altitude desert. Visitors are free
    to enter the houses, but be sure
    to treat them with care. You can
    see the highlights of the pucara
    including the ceremonial ruins
    known as the church and some of
    the reconstructed householdsin a
    one-hour visit. However, if you have
    time, it is worth wandering beyond
    the reconstructed areas and into
    the necropolis and corrals.
    While youre there
    The village of Tilcara is the
    archaeological capital of Quebrada
    de Humahuaca. There is an
    archaeological museum in the
    village that is considered one
    of the most important for the
    region, in addition to a paintings
    museum, sculpture museum, and
    Carnival museum. (Carnival time
    is one of the best times to visit!)
    The adventurous can book four-
    wheel drive excursions and go
    hiking, horseback riding, and even
    sandboarding in the surrounding
    dunes. The village is also the
    starting point for pilgrimages to
    nearby mountain shrines. Ceruti
    says that joining one of these
    modern Andean processions can be
    a life-changing experience.
    MALIN GRUNBERG BANYASZ
    on while they dried, and concluded
    these two were from the same basket,
    and that the impressions could not
    have been faked. The team then used
    X-ray uorescence
    to characterize the
    geochemical signature
    of the clay and pig-
    ments of the gurine
    and mate. They were
    able to match trace
    elements in both
    gurines and found
    that not only did the
    clay used for all the
    gurines come from
    the same source, but
    that the signatures of
    the unknown gurine
    and its mate were
    more similar to each
    other than they were to any other pair.
    Finally, knowing that Morss had coat-
    ed the gurines in an organic lacquer
    called Alvar in order to stabilize and
    protect them, Brigham Young Univer-
    sity geochemist Steve Nelson suggest-
    ed that the team use a scanning elec-
    tron microscope to check if the newly
    returned gurine was coated with the
    substance. It wasand that was all the
    proof they needed.
    Now, after almost 40 years, visitors
    to the recently renamed Utah State
    University-Eastern Prehistoric Museum
    can see the Pilling gurines displayed
    together as envisioned by the Fremont
    people who made them almost a thou-
    sand years ago. With all the lines of
    evidence that we have, our research
    team is 100 percent sure he is the miss-
    ing gurine, says Pitblado. There is no
    way that anyone could duplicate all the
    elements we have found. For more im-
    ages, visit archaeology.org/pilling
    JARRETT A. LOBELL
    The missing figurine (top row, second from left) has been
    reunited with the collection for the first time in decades.
    T
    housands of years before the rst bagpipe was
    ever played in the Scottish highlands, a prehistoric
    musician on the remote Isle of Skye played a type
    of lyre. During excavations at High Pasture
    Cave, which contains evi-
    dence for 800 years of
    human activity between
    the Late Bronze and
    Iron Ages, archaeolo-
    gists discovered the wooden remains of what they believe is
    the bridge of the earliest stringed instrument ever found in
    Europe. According to archaeomusicolo-
    gist Graeme Lawson of the University
    of Cambridge, the nd pushes
    the history of complex music
    [in western Europe] back more
    than 1,000 years.
    JARRETT A. LOBELL
    A Little Scottish Ditty
    S
    ome paleoanthropologists believe that people have been eating
    cooked food, and therefore making res, for millions of years.
    The evidence for this, so far, has been evolutionary changes
    in hominin skeletons, such as decreasing tooth and jaw sizes. But
    there has been very little direct archaeological evidence of re use
    prior to 700,000 years agountil now. Francesco Berna of Boston
    University and a multinational team of researchers have uncovered
    evidence that Homo erectus was using re about one million years ago
    at Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa.
    Using a technique that allows researchers to conduct microscopic
    analysis of the chemical composition of a sample, Berna was able to
    identify burned pieces of bone and plant material in the caves sedi-
    ments. The sediment came from an excavation unit that is roughly
    100 feet inside the cave, which makes it unlikely that the material was
    burned by a lightning strike or wildre. According to Berna, learn-
    ing to use re was an important turning point for our speciesboth
    evolutionarily and culturally. Control of re is a tool for adapting
    to dierent environments, he says. It provides warmth, it provides
    lightand it keeps away wild animals.
    ZACH ZORICH
    We Didnt Start the Fire...
    Homo erectus Did
    Roman Ships
    Secret Cargo
    I
    talian archaeologists have
    uncovered evidence of smug-
    gling between North Africa
    and Italy on a third-century A.D.
    shipwreck o the west coast of Sicily. The
    most complete Roman ship ever found,
    the 52-by-16-foot merchant vessel was
    carrying amphorae lled with walnuts, gs,
    olives, wine, oil, and sh sauce from Tunisia
    to Rome when it sank.
    Intriguingly, among the ships o cial cargo were
    hidden stashes of so-called tubi ttili (ctile tubes).
    According to Sebastiano Tusa, Sicilys Superinten-
    dent of the O ce of the Sea, Basically they are
    small terracotta cylinders open at one end and
    closed at the other. Rows of these hollow tiles were
    used in vaulting and other construction.
    The tubes, which were used from the mid-
    Imperial era to the end of the Byzantine period,
    worked by tting the narrow end, or nozzle, of
    one tile into the larger end of another. Because
    they were joined loosely, series of the lightweight
    tiles could be arranged in curves, making it easier
    to form arches and vaults.
    In North Africa, especially Tunisia, the
    valuable tubes were manufactured and cost a
    quarter of what builders paid for them in Rome.
    To augment their poor salaries, sailors bought
    these vaulting tubes cheaper in Africa, hid them
    everywhere on the ship, and resold them in
    Rome, Tusa explains.
    ROSSELLA LORENZI
    www.archaeology.org 13
    he remote Isle of Skye played a type
    avations at High Pasture
    ns evi-
    rs of
    ween
    nd
    o-
    Europe. Ac
    gist Grae
    of Ca
    the
    [in
    th
    archaeologists have
    red evidence of smug-
    etween North Africa
    on a third-century A.D.
    o the west coast of Sicily. The
    plete Roman ship ever found,
    16-foot merchant vessel was
    mphorae lled with walnuts, gs,
    e, oil, and sh sauce from Tunisia
    when it sank
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 14

    N
    ext to the Acropolis south
    slope, archaeologists have dis-
    covered possible evidence of
    one of ancient Athens murder courts.
    During several years of excavation,
    archaeologist Xristos Kontoxristos
    uncovered artifacts dating from the
    prehistoric through late Roman periods.
    He was particularly intrigued by a ped-
    estal formed of sculpted lions legs, upon
    which sat two marble slabs forming a
    very large table or podium that he dated
    to the late Classical or early Hellenistic
    period (about 400300 B.C.). Near the
    podium, Kontoxristos found a piece of
    copper of the type that citizens may
    have used to record legal verdicts.
    Kontoxristos suggests that the podi-
    um may be part of a complex that
    includes a very large building founda-
    tion and portico dating to the same
    periodrst identied in the 1960s
    as the Palladium. According to second-
    century A.D. geographer Pausanias, the
    Palladium was the court in which cases
    of involuntary homicide and killing of
    noncitizens were tried. Kontoxristos
    stresses that the identication of pedes-
    tal and building is not denitive, but he
    hopes to uncover additional evidence.
    YANNIS STAVRAKAKIS
    Athens Murder Court
    I
    ts well known that ancient hunters all over the world took down big game. Recent nds and analyses of remains of extinct
    megafaunaincluding a massive ground sloth and juvenile mammothhave stories to tell about how early humans secured
    and butchered these long-gone species. SAMIR S. PATEL
    Butchering Big Game
    FROM THE TRENCHES
    AT THE SITE OF PRERESA, near Madrid,
    Spain, archaeologists uncovered 82 bones
    from an elephant or mammoth alongside
    hundreds of stone tools. Dating to around
    80,000 years ago, the bones show cut
    marks and percussion fracturesthe first
    evidence that humans, in this case Nean-
    derthals, cracked open thick pachyderm
    bones to get at the fat-rich marrow inside.
    NEW ANALYSIS SHOWS that
    the remains of a Jeffersons
    ground slothwhich would
    have weighed nearly 3,000
    poundsfound in a wetland
    near Cleveland, Ohio, are
    the only known evidence of
    humans eating ground sloths
    outside of South America.
    More than 40 incisions on one of the sloths femurs were caused by humans
    filleting the overlying muscle. At more than 13,000 years old, the finds are
    the oldest evidence of human occupation in the state.
    PRESERVED IN
    PERMAFROST
    for at least
    10,000 years,
    the remains
    of a juvenile
    mammoth,
    called Yuka,
    show signs that
    humans in the
    region may have
    stolen the car-
    cass from lions
    before carefully
    butchering it
    and then stashing the rest of the remains for cold storage. The incredibly pre-
    served remains show scratches and bite marks from lions, after which humans
    had removed the organs, vertebrae, ribs, and portions of the upper legs.
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    FROM THE TRENCHES
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 16
    I
    ts been more than 20 years since
    tzi, the 5,300-year-old Neolithic
    iceman, was found in the Italian
    Alps. Since then, researchers have
    gured out what he likely ate as his
    last meal (wild einkorn wheat bran)
    and how he died (an arrow to the back
    that pierced an artery). They have also
    sequenced his maternal DNA, deter-
    mining that his lineage was genetically
    rare and has since gone extinct.
    Now researchers have investigated
    the rest of tzis genome, thanks to
    the Y-chromosome DNA found in
    bone from his left hip. tzis paternal
    ancestors moved into Europe from the
    Near East more than 6,000 years ago.
    Further, he was lactose intolerant, had
    type O blood, had brown hair and eyes,
    and may have had Lyme diseasehis
    DNA carries sequences from the bac-
    teria responsible for the illness, which
    is tricky to identify even today.
    We think that the iceman must
    have had at least some early symptoms,
    such as fever and temporary weakness,
    says Albert Zink, head of the Institute
    for Mummies and the Iceman at the
    European Academy of Bolzano in
    Italy. In a later stage, Lyme disease
    can aect the joints and the nervous
    system, but we dont have any proof of
    that for the iceman.
    In other recent work, scientists
    probed thin tissue slices from the arrow
    wound and a laceration on tzis hand.
    They used an atomic force microscope
    to trace the surface of the tissue and
    create a 3-D rendering. The resulting
    images included doughnut shapes that
    are the hallmark of red blood cells.
    Zink says nding blood cells and the
    clotting protein brinand no sign
    of healingat the arrow wound site
    indicates that tzi died within minutes
    of being shot.
    NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
    What Ailed the Iceman?
    A
    series of stones carved with images of snakes, war-
    riors, and headless prisoners has been found at the
    sacred Aztec site of Tenochtitlan in Mexico Citys
    historic center. The 25 images,
    carved from gray and red volca-
    nic rock, were embedded in the
    oor of the plaza in front of the
    Templo Mayor complex, where
    the Aztecs performed thousands
    of ritual killings before the Span-
    ish conquistadores
    arrived. The stones
    date to between 1440
    and 1469, during the
    reign of Moctezuma
    I, and describe the
    birth of Huitzilo-
    pochtli, the Aztec
    god of war and the
    sun. Bas-relief images
    of serpents with gap-
    ing mouths, a warrior
    carrying a shield and
    dart thrower, and a
    weeping captive on
    his knees with his
    hands bound behind
    his back, all tell the
    story of a cosmic war between the sun, moon, and stars
    that preceded the birth of the supreme Aztec deity and the
    beginning of Aztec culture. Raul Rodrguez Barrera, who is
    leading the excavation for the Mexican National Institute of
    Anthropology and History and the Mexican National Coun-
    cil for Culture and the Arts, says, It is a historic document
    in stone, a narrative of war, sacrice, and death.
    JULIAN SMITH
    Dawn of the Aztecs, Written in Stone
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    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012

    FROM THE TRENCHES
    18
    P
    eter Astrups annual family
    beach vacation led to a spec-
    tacular archaeological discovery,
    and a new career. In the shallow water
    at Horsens Fjord in Denmark, Astrup
    has been nding artifacts made of int
    since 1995. The artifacts turned out to
    be from a now-submerged village of
    the Erteblle people, who lived 7,300
    to 5,900 years ago. In 2007, erosion
    began to expose surprising nds at
    the underwater site: intact artifacts
    made of wood and antler. That year
    Astrup, who is now an archaeology
    doctoral candidate at the University of
    Aarhus, teamed up with researchers at
    the Moesgrd and Horsens museums
    to conserve the fragile artifacts and
    excavate the site using dive equipment.
    But erosion has done some excavating
    of its own, exposing artifacts such as
    a painted wooden paddle that Astrup
    only had to lift o the seabed. It is
    really amazing when you are diving and
    then suddenly, at the bottom, you have
    a perfect, well-preserved artifact lying
    totally exposed, he says.
    ZACH ZORICH
    Beachcombing
    in the
    Mesolithic
    Ax head with shaft
    Wooden paddle
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    8
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 20
    T
    he Royal Navy dive team care-
    fully excavated the muck from
    around the lowest section of
    a V-2 rocketGerman terror of the
    British skies in World War IIin the
    mudats of the River Stour. Once
    they determined that there was no
    warhead attached, it was safe to lift the
    four-foot segment and turn it over to a
    local sailing club. Such nds are rare, as
    there was usually nothing left of a V-2:
    The ballistic missiles struck the ground
    at twice the speed of sound.
    SAMIR S. PATEL
    FROM THE TRENCHES
    V-2 Rocket
    from the
    Muck
    Preacher-Swordsman-Turncoat
    A
    rchaeologists working at Chur
    Cathedral in eastern Switzer-
    land are trying to conrm that
    they have the remains of Jrg Jenatsch,
    a seventeenth-century preacher-turned-
    traitor. During the Thirty Years War,
    Jenatsch was a Protestant political leader
    and ghter who later switched to the
    Catholic side, after which he was mur-
    dered during Carnival in 1639, suppos-
    edly by a man dressed as a bear. The
    remains thought to be his were rst
    exhumed and examined in 1959. At
    the time, it was found that they bore
    the mark of the ax blow thought to
    have killed Jenatsch, as well as clothing
    consistent with a seventeenth-century
    nobleman. Now the skull will be scanned
    for facial reconstruction and DNA from
    the teeth will be compared with that of
    descendants of Jenatschs cousin.
    SAMIR S. PATEL
    How Do You Say Comb in West Germanic?
    R
    unes scratched onto a
    decorated comb are the
    oldest evidence of writ-
    ten West Germanic, the lan-
    guage that gave birth to English,
    German, Dutch, and a variety
    of other modern tongues. Dis-
    covered near the eastern Ger-
    man town of Frienstedt during
    a highway construction project
    at least a decade ago, the deer-
    antler comb is more than 1,700
    years old. It was found together
    with animal skulls, gold rings,
    brooches, and Roman coins, and
    was probably part of an oer-
    ing or sacrice. The runes,
    an alphabet used before the
    Latin alphabet became wide-
    spread, were only noticed when
    conservators finally pieced
    together the combs fragments
    this year. The letters spell out
    KABA, which would have
    been pronounced kamba, the
    Germanic word for comb. A
    lab in Copenhagen is studying
    the antler to see if its possible
    to determine where the deer
    lived and where the ancient
    comb was made.
    ANDREW CURRY
    www.archaeology.org 21
    E
    xcavations at sites in the Near
    East indicate people rst domes-
    ticated wild oxen roughly 10,500
    years ago. Now a team of European sci-
    entists has used DNA evidence to deter-
    mine whether that domestication was a
    region-wide phenomenon or a special-
    ized pursuit practiced by a small number
    of breeders. They found that all taurine
    cattle (the breeds commonly found in
    Europe, the Americas, and northern and
    eastern Asia) are descended from a herd
    of about 80 animals.
    The researchers compared DNA
    extracted from the bones of 15 domes-
    tic cattle found at sites in Iran dating
    to between 8,000 and 1,900 years ago
    to that of modern animals. Specically,
    they homed in on a fragment of genetic
    material where mutations tend to take
    place frequently over time. They then
    ran computer simulations that began
    with the genetic diversity seen in cattle
    today and extrapolated backward to nd
    the initial conditions that would have
    given rise to the modern animals.
    Te Origins
    of Domestic
    Cattle
    The computer can vary param-
    eters, such as herd size. We kept only
    those simulations that led to the data
    we observed in the ancient samples,
    says Ruth Bollongino, a postdoctoral
    researcher at the University of Mainz
    in Germany. They all showed 80 cows
    at the beginning. The relatively small
    herd size derived from the simulations
    indicates that cattle domestication was
    not practiced widely in the Neolithic
    Near East. Rather, sustained breeding
    of wild oxen was likely a di cult task
    carried out in only a few villages during
    that time period.
    NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
    Chinas silk road
    With Professor Dru Gladney
    August 18 - September 3, 2012
    EASTERN TURKEY
    With Professor John France
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    November 1 - 17, 2012
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    With Professor Barry Kemp
    December 1 - 14, 2012
    Four Days on Traditional Yacht
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    January 29 - February 9, 2013
    CENTRAL ASIA
    With Dr. Jenny Rose
    April 13 - May 3, 2013
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    August 2013
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    WORLD ROUNDUP
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 22
    GREENLAND: The rst migrants
    to the western portion of the
    massive, ice-covered island
    arrived around 4,500 years ago.
    Wood fragments excavated
    from two of their early settle-
    ments, Qeqertasussuk and Qajaa, have been identied as piec-
    es of the rims from booming hoop drums, two to three feet in
    diameter. The age of the nds pushes back the known origins
    of Arctic drum and shaman culture, which traveled with them
    across Alaska and Canada, by at least 2,000 years.
    ICELAND: House mice are living artifacts of human expansion.
    By comparing modern mouse DNA with ancient samples found
    at Viking settlements, evolutionary biologists found that the
    mice spread across the North Atlantic with the Vikingsfrom
    the Faroe Islands to Iceland to Greenland. In Iceland, the mouse
    population even mirrors the human one geneticallyboth show
    low levels of genetic diversity, a result of small founding popu-
    lations and little new inward migration.
    WALES:
    Recent
    excavations
    at Nevern
    Castle,
    an earthen and stone fortica-
    tion built and rebuilt throughout
    the 12th century, have revealed a
    series of slates buried under the
    southern gateway. Incised with
    symbols ranging from prehistoric
    shapes to letters associated with
    Christianity, the stonessome
    older and some inscribed just
    before burial (based on wear pat-
    terns)were likely deposited to
    protect the castle from the entry
    of evil forces.
    W
    R
    e
    a
    C
    an earthen and stone fo
    PERU: Some pre-
    Columbian South
    Americans lived in
    groups called allya
    and buried their
    dead together in
    monuments called
    chullpas. At the site
    of Tompullo 2, scientists gathered genetic mate-
    rial from six chullpas to determine how the peo-
    ple in each were related. Results show that the
    ancient Andeans are closely related to modern
    ones, and that chullpas were family graves based
    around a male lineage, suggesting allya were
    structured the same way. But not necessarily
    one grave contained the remains of three related
    men with different paternal lineages.
    ST. HELENA: On this remote island in the South Atlantic, archaeolo-
    gists have excavated a massive burial ground for slaves who died dur-
    ing the brutal Middle Passage from Africa to the Americas. More than
    300 of an estimated 5,000 graves were uncovered, containing mostly
    children, teenagers, and young adults. Though they would have been
    stripped of their possessions, some of those buried managed to save
    beads, pieces of ribbon, and even bracelets. Also found were several
    metal identication tags.
    ETHIOPIA: Dat-
    ing to around
    3.4 million
    years ago, foot
    bones show that
    Australopithe-
    cus afarensisLucy and her kinhad
    company. The new foot appears to be
    substantially different from an A. afaren-
    sis foot. Where Lucy had feet adapted
    to more-or-less humanlike walking, this
    new hominin would have been adept at
    climbing trees. Until now, A. afarensis
    was thought to be the only hominin in
    the region at the time.
    23
    By Samir S. Patel
    www.archaeology.org
    ENGLAND: Sports scientists are examin-
    ing the remains of sailors aboard Mary
    Rose, a warship that sank in 1545 and
    was raised in 1982. In particular, they
    want to identify elite medieval archers,
    trained from a very early age to use
    longbows that required some 200
    pounds of force to draw, by looking for
    skeletal changes asso-
    ciated with long-term
    use. In one case, the
    right elbow joint of a
    soldier was 50 percent
    larger than the left
    one, demonstrating
    not only that he was
    an archer, but also that
    he was left-handed.
    IRAQ: Understanding the climate of
    the past often helps with interpreta-
    tion of archaeological discoveries. A
    review of ancient documents written
    between A.D. 816 and 1009 reveals
    a pattern of unusual weather occur-
    rences in Baghdad, particularly cold-
    weather events such as hailstorms,
    frozen rivers, and snow during a
    certain period of the 10th century.
    Although it
    snowed in
    Baghdad in
    2008, such
    cold snaps are
    rarer today.
    AUSTRALIA: Big insights often come from the humblest
    placesin this case a fungus from the dung of now-extinct mar-
    supial herbivores, such as the giant kangaroo and rhinoceros
    wombat. Using sediment cores from a swamp, biologists
    examined the timing of declines in the fungus with
    changes in the environment to conclude that
    neither climate change nor habitat change was
    responsible for the extinction of many of these
    large species around 40,000 years ago. Blame
    appears to lie with the recently arrived
    humans.
    TAIWAN: Most people in Taiwan are of
    Chinese ancestry, but the island also
    has an indigenous population who are
    more likely to share common ances-
    try with those who migrated into the
    Pacic and populated its islands, from
    the Marianas to Rapa Nui. A recently
    uncovered 8,000-year-old burial site on
    tiny Liang Island could help researchers
    understand the genetics and culture of
    these early Austronesians before they
    departed for distant islands.
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    S
    UMMER 2012, and the worlds greatest athletes
    are gathering in London for the Olympics. In
    advance of the Games, a square mile of semi-
    derelict land in East Londons Lower Lea Valley
    has been turned into a fully equipped Olympic
    Park. This has transformed a run-down industrial
    district into a leafy urban park containing modern amenities
    including an athletes village, basketball arena, and the Olympic
    stadium. British law decrees that archaeological assessments
    must be undertaken before such developments, so between
    2007 and 2009, the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA)
    archaeologists set to work, digging into Londons past.
    They excavated no fewer than 121 trenches, recovered more
    than 10,000 artifacts, and revealed evidence of at least 6,000
    years of human activityfrom the areas rst prehistoric hunters
    and farmers to World War II defense structures. In addition,
    they recorded all of the sites still-standing historic buildings.
    Alongside this work, thousands of boreholes were sunk deep
    into the earth, revealing an environmental and geoarchaeological
    picture of the area over the past 12,000 years.
    Completing the task was herculean. Though lying only three
    miles northeast of the glitz and glamor of central London, just
    ve years ago this was still a neglected and largely unoccupied
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 24
    by Nadia Durrani
    area. The archaeologists were faced with dilapidated build-
    ings, general construction waste, and a deep accumulation of
    eighteenth- and nineteenth-century domestic garbage. Much
    of this garbage had been imported from nearby areas by people
    wishing to substantially raise the ground in order to settle on
    what was then low-lying and marshy land. Added to this, an
    1844 act ruled that dangerous and so-called dirty noxious
    industries, such as printing works or chemical manufacturers,
    had to be moved out of central London. Many relocated here,
    an area already known for its industry. For the archaeologists,
    this meant that the ground was often chemically contami-
    nated, waterlogged, or indeed both.
    Handheld trowels and shovels would not su ce. Simply
    to break through the layers of city detritus, heavy construc-
    tion equipment operators removed several hundred tons of
    soil for each trench, often to a depth of around 15 feet, and
    in one location, almost 30 feet. Only after the operators got
    past this recent debris could the team begin to explore the
    earlier archaeology. This was a mighty task. To avoid any risk
    of collapse under the weight of the surrounding land, the
    trenches had to be stepped down, with large trenches at the
    top narrowing to relatively small areas at the base. Where
    trenches were particularly deep, we often had to further
    LONDON 2012
    Archaeology and the Olympics
    The Olympic Park in East Londons
    Lower Lea Valley
    were certainly no exception. However, the
    results have been worth it. The archaeology
    covered a huge swath of time and geography,
    says project director Nick Bateman of Museum
    of London Archaeology. We now have the
    rst long-term, large-scale picture of life in
    this part of East London, an area rst settled
    in prehistory, and in more recent times, one
    that became so signicant to the development
    of the modern city. Had it not been for the
    Olympic Parks construction, this formerly
    impoverished, waterlogged, outlying part of historic London
    simply would not have been explored on this scale.
    According to Simon Wright, head of venues and infra-
    structure at the ODA, Not only have we transformed the
    Olympic Park into the largest urban park to be created in
    the United Kingdom for more than 100 years, but we have
    uncovered its past in the process.
    Some of the excavation trenches were so
    deep that archaeologists ensured they didnt
    collapse by creating a series of steps to
    distribute the weight of the soil around them.
    secure their sides using steel supports, explains Gary Brown,
    eldwork project manager of Pre-Construct Archaeology.
    Once the sites were safe, the diggers were kitted up with
    protective equipment, including disposable overalls, gloves,
    rubber boots, protective glasses, and even face masks.
    Digging in London, with its long and complex history, is
    always di cult and time-consuming, and these excavations
    www.archaeology.org 25
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 26

    10,000 B.C.
    End of the Ice Age;
    ood plain of the
    Lower Lea valley
    formed.
    4000 to 3000 B.C.
    People begin large-
    scale land clearance.
    Neolithic ax ritually
    deposited?
    1400 B.C.
    Field system
    established.
    A.D. 50
    Roman road from
    London to
    Colchester crossed
    marshes; exact
    route unknown.
    1135
    Cistercian Abbey
    exploited Lea
    waterpower.
    Late 12th century
    Knights Templar
    water mills
    established at
    Temple Mills.
    Olympic Park timeline
    0 500m
    186200 5
    3
    8
    5
    0
    0
    Archaeological trenching Built heritage recording
    Parking
    Training
    Broadcast
    Centre
    Velodrome
    Stratford
    City
    Olympic
    Village
    Aquatics
    Centre
    Main
    Stadium
    Accreditation
    Checking
    Spectator
    Transport
    and Fencing
    Basketball
    Area

    Prehistoric lives
    G
    reat transformations took place in the Olympic Park dur-
    ing the Middle Bronze Age, starting around 1400 B.C. It
    seems that, over the course of only a few hundred years, people
    divided up areas of potentially productive agricultural land into
    rectangular elds, each surrounded by ditches, and possibly
    lined with hedges. This transformation is vividly illustrated by
    the largest trench, dug at the site of the Aquatics Centre, where
    the archaeologists revealed a clear pattern of eld-boundary
    ditches. A bigger picture of prehistoric life emerged with the
    further discovery of
    eight roundhouses,
    one dated to the
    Bronze Age, and
    seven to the Iron
    Age (700 B.C.A.D.
    43). There were also several burials, including two Late Bronze
    Age cremations, both radiocarbon dated to around 1000 B.C.,
    an inhumation burial dated to between 110 B.C. and A.D. 60, and
    three inhumations of uncertain dates, possibly spanning the
    time from the Bronze Age to the early Roman era. For millen-
    nia, it seems that the people in this area lived and died near
    their land. Unfortunately, periodic ooding appears to have
    made their waterside settlement too wet for habitation, leading
    to its abandonment in the Late Iron Age.
    The Romans: lost and found
    T
    he Olympic Park lies three miles northeast of
    Londinium (London), the capital of the Roman
    province of Britannia Superior. During the Roman
    era (A.D. 43ca. 410), the area was crossed by a
    major road connecting Londinium with the town
    of Camulodunum (modern Colchester). The road,
    together with the river, would have been a crucial
    route into Londinium, not least to supply it with agricultural pro-
    duce. The team dug numerous evaluation trenches, many in dense
    overlapping arrangements, over the full likely range of the roads
    course across the valley. But no trace of the road was found, and its
    precise line across the valley remains an unsolved mystery.
    Neolithic rituals
    A
    t the end of the last great Ice Age, some
    12,000 years ago, glacial meltwaters surged
    through an unspoiled wilderness, forming the ood plain
    of the River Lea. However, the oldest evidence from the
    Olympic Park comes from the Neolithic period (40002200
    B.C.), when people began fairly extensive woodland-clearing for agri-
    culture, aided by int axes. The team discovered one such ax, dated
    to between 4000 and 3000 B.C., at the edge of a river channel, but
    there was no evidence the ax had been used in antiquity. According
    to Andrew Powell of Wessex Archaeology, the team working on the
    post-excavation analysis of the Parks nds, its pristine condition and
    riverside location hint at a possible ritual explanation. Had it been
    deliberately placed in the water as an offering or votive deposit? If
    this is the case, we think it highlights the deep signicance of the
    river, and its valley, to prehistoric people drawn by the rich resources
    of this watery environment, says Powell.

    t the
    12,0
    through an unsp
    of the River Lea. Ho
    Olympic Park comes fr

    The story of archaeology of the Olympic Park, Renewing the Past: Unearthing the
    History of the Olympic Park Site, will be available soon. For further details of the
    excavations, visit learninglegacy.london2012.com
    www.archaeology.org 27

    17th to 18th century


    UKs rst porcelain
    factory built here.
    1858
    Following an out-
    break of cholera and
    typhoid called the
    Big Stink, Northern
    Outfall Sewer built.
    1860
    Plastic invented in
    the Lea Valley.
    1892
    UKs rst petrol
    factory built here.
    1904
    UKs famous William
    Yardley cosmetics,
    soap, and lavender
    factory established
    on the site.
    2012
    London Olympic
    Games.
    An early industrial estate
    P
    art of the story of the areas rise to become Londons industrial heart is told by the
    Olympic Parks deepest excavation, at Temple Mills, an area named after the Knights
    Templar, who owned two water mills there in the twelfth century. The mills were still in
    use at the end of the sixteenth century, when they were joined by a leather mill, a gun-
    powder mill (until it blew up), and mills for grinding corn and rapeseed, plus calico print-
    ers, ock-makers, and dye houses. From the mid-nineteenth century, industrialization in
    the Lea Valley intensied. More and more industries developed farther down the valley
    at Stratford, including paper, tar, and printing works, and chemical manufacturing, all of
    which had been
    forced out of cen-
    tral London under
    new cleaner-living
    legislation. Digging
    at Temple Mills was
    hard goingthis
    part of the site was
    particularly water-
    logged, contami-
    nated by industrial
    waste, and deeply buried under almost 30 feet of recent landll. However, the nds were
    plentiful, and included the frontage of an entire terrace of six workers cottages that
    were occupied in the late eighteenth and through the nineteenth centuries. Just as in the
    Bronze Age (see Box 2), it seems the locals, some of whom are named in extant census
    records, still chose to live near where they worked.
    Londons battleeld
    D
    uring the Second World War,
    the East End of London
    was heavily defendedand indeed
    heavily bombed. This was often the
    rst part of London to be crossed
    by enemy aircraft ying west from
    Nazi Germany, and there is copi-
    ous evidence of that difcult era at
    the Olympic Park. Among the items
    recorded and excavated is an antiaircraft battery near Temple Mills, with four gun
    platforms, a room possibly used for storing cordite, a munitions magazine, and a
    command center. These structures date back to 1938, a time when Britains military
    watched and waited for war. Between 1941 and 1943, during the war years, a radar
    station was built on the site, together with a number of other installations, includ-
    ing a pillbox and tank blocks. Taken together, this evidence represents critical data
    for those involved in modern conict studies.
    A 19th-century speed boat
    W
    ith the discovery of a nineteenth-century
    row boat, preserved at almost 15 feet in
    length, archaeologists have found something that
    might just appeal to an Olympic athlete. Uncov-
    ered in the silty deposits beside a windmill near
    the head of Pudding Mill River, the boat was built
    to be light, slender, and swift, rather than strong.
    It was probably designed as a kind of water taxi,
    perhaps for ferrying crew and goods to a larger
    ship. It is of clinker-built construction, a method
    using overlapping planks that dates back to the
    Saxon period (A.D. ca. 4101066). Only a few
    other vessels using this building technique have
    survived, making it a rare and important example.
    The boat appears to have been converted into a
    pleasure boat, and then possibly used for wild-
    fowling (lead bird shot was found in a locker
    added sometime later to the boat), only to be
    abandoned in the mid- to late nineteenth century,
    taking its riverine stories with it.
    However, archaeologists did nd evidence
    of the Romans exploiting the river landscape, in
    the form of light timber structures at two loca-
    tions along its channels, one of which may be a
    small jetty. Their Roman date is now certain,
    reveals post-excavation manager Pippa Bradley
    of Wessex Archaeology. The wood from both
    structures has just been radiocarbon dated to
    that era, she adds. Roman artifacts were also
    found, including amphorae and ceramic building
    material made between A.D. 50 and 160, plus a
    worn coin of Constantine II (ruled A.D. 337340).
    Nadia Durrani is an archaeological editor and writer based in London.
    O
    N JANUARY 25, 2011, tens of thousands of
    protestors ooded Cairos Tahrir Square,
    demanding the end of President Hosni
    Mubaraks regime. As the day of revolt
    lled the streets of Cairo and other cities
    with tear gas and ying stones, a team of
    archaeologists led by Susanne Bickel of the University of Basel
    in Switzerland was about to make one of the most signicant
    discoveries in the Valley of the Kings in almost a century.
    The valley lies on the west bank of the Nile, opposite what was
    once Egypts spiritual centerthe city of Thebes, now known as
    Luxor. The valley was the nal resting place of the pharaohs and
    aristocracy beginning in the New Kingdom period (15391069
    B.C.), when Egyptian wealth and power were at a high point. Dozens
    of tombs were cut into the valleys walls, but most of them were
    eventually looted. It was in this place that the Basel team came
    across what they initially believed to be an unremarkable nd.
    A wooden coffin holding
    the remains of a temple
    singer sat inside a tomb
    undisturbed for nearly
    3,000 years. It is the first
    unlooted burial to be
    found in the Valley of the
    Kings since 1922.
    At the southeastern end of the valley they discovered
    three sides of a man-made stone rim surrounding an area
    of about three-and-a-half by ve feet. The archaeologists
    suspected that it was just the top of an abandoned shaft.
    But, because of the uncertainty created by Egypts political
    revolution, they covered the stone rim with an iron door
    while they informed the authorities and applied for an
    o cial permit to excavate.
    A year later, just before the rst anniversary of the revolu-
    tion, Bickel returned with a team of two dozen people, includ-
    ing eld director Elina Paulin-Grothe of the University of
    Basel, Egyptian inspector Ali Reda, and local workmen. They
    started clearing the sand and gravel out of the shaft. Eight feet
    down, they came upon the upper edge of a door blocked by
    large stones. At the bottom of the shaft they found fragments
    of pottery made from Nile silt, and pieces of plaster, a material
    commonly used to seal tomb entrances. Those plaster pieces,
    A newly discovered burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings provides
    a rare glimpse into the life of an ancient Egyptian singer
    by Julian Smith
    Tomb of the
    Chantress
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 30
    of the original Eighteenth Dynasty burial, she adds, including
    pottery, wood fragments, and parts of the unwrapped and dis-
    membered mummy who rst occupied the tomb. It also must
    be noted that before the discovery of Nehemes-Bastets, the
    last unlooted tomb found in the valley was the famous burial of
    Tutankhamun, discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter.
    People have been claiming there was nothing new left to
    nd in the Valley of the Kings for almost as long as they have
    been digging there. The Venetian antiquarian Giovanni Belzoni
    believed he had emptied the last of the valleys tombs during
    his 1817 expedition. Theodore Davis, who excavated there a
    century later, came to a similar conclusionright before Tut-
    ankhamuns burial was found. Of course, other discoveries have
    been made in the valley. In 1995, a team led by Donald Ryan
    of Pacic Lutheran University in Tacoma, Washington, was
    investigating a tomb used by the family of Pharaoh Rameses
    II. They found previously unknown corridors, leading to the
    resting place of Rameses IIs sons, which extended to more
    than 121 rooms. Unfortunately, the rooms had been looted in
    antiquity and damaged by ash oods. In 2005, a team led
    by Otto Schaden of the Amenmesse Project discovered an
    unlooted chamber, which held seven co ns and 28 jars con-
    taining mummication materials. The chamber, contained no
    bodies, so it is unlikely that it was a tomb.
    B
    EFORE BICKELS TEAM COULD take Nehemes-Bastets co n
    out of the burial chamber for further study, they had to open
    it to make sure that nothing inside would be damaged when
    it was moved. It took a professional restorer a day to remove the
    nails that held the lid closed. Inspector Ali Reda and Mohammed
    el-Bialy, chief inspector of antiquities of Upper Egypt, joined Bickel
    and Paulin-Grothe for the opening. Inside they found a carefully
    wrapped female mummy, about ve feet tall. It was blackened
    all overand stuck to the bottom of the co nby a sticky
    fruit-based syrup used in the mummication process.
    together with the age of other nearby sites, were the rst sign
    that the shaft might actually be a tomb dating to between 1539
    and 1292 B.C., Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty. The large stones
    appeared to have been added later.
    Although stones blocked the entrance, there was a hole just
    large enough to admit a small digital camera. Bickel, Paulin-
    Grothe, and the chief of the Egyptian workmen each took
    turns lying on the ground, head pressed against the shaft wall,
    one arm through the hole, snapping pictures. The surprising
    images revealed a small rock-cut chamber measuring 13 by 8.5
    feet, lled to within three feet of the ceiling with debris, leaving
    little doubt they had found a tomb. On top of the debris rested
    a dusty black co n carved from sycamore wood and decorated
    with large yellow hieroglyphs on its sides and top. Ive never
    found a co n in as good condition before, Bickel says.
    The hieroglyphs describe the tombs occupant, named
    Nehemes-Bastet, as a lady of the upper class and chantress
    [shemayet] of Amun, whose father was a priest in the temple
    complex of Karnak in Thebes. The co ns color and hieroglyphs
    match a style that dates to between 945 and 715 B.C., at least
    350 years after the tomb was built. The co n shows that the
    burial chamber had been reused, a common practice at the time.
    The only other artifact dating to the same period as the co n
    was a wooden stele, slightly smaller than an iPad, painted with
    a prayer to provide for her in the afterlife, and an image that
    is believed to be of Nehemes-Bastet in front of the seated sun
    god Amun. The white, green, yellow, and red paints hadnt faded
    a bit. Bickel says, It could have been taken from a storeroom
    yesterday. The rubble that lled the chamber held the remnants
    The University of Basel team discovered the entrance to the
    singers tomb while they were clearing debris from another
    unexplored site in the valleys southeasternmost branch (left).
    About eight feet below the surface (right) the team found the
    top of the tombs doorway.
    www.archaeology.org 31
    nonetheless, it lacked the elaborate inner
    co ns found in similar burials.
    More details on Nehemes-Bastets daily
    life can be drawn from a wealth of paintings,
    texts, and reliefs carved on statues and stelae
    of the time, says Teeter. As a chantress, or
    singer, in the temple of Amun, she probably
    lived in the 250-acre Karnak temple complex
    located in Thebes. Her name, translated as
    may Bastet save her, indicates that she was
    under the protection of the feline goddess
    and divine mother Bastet, the protector of
    Lower Egypt. Nehemes-Bastets occupation,
    however, was to worship Amun, the king of
    ancient Egyptian gods.
    Music was a key ingredient in Egyptian religion. Teeter
    explains that it was believed to soothe the gods and encourage
    them to provide for their worshippers. Nehemes-Bastet was one
    of many priestess-musicians who performed inside the sanctuaries
    and in the courts of the temples. The hypothesis is that these
    women would sing, act, and take part in festivities and big ritual
    processions that were held several times a year, Bickel says. The
    musical instruments that chantresses typically used were the
    menat, a multi-strand beaded necklace they would shake, and the
    sistrum, a handheld rattle whose sound was said to evoke wind rus-
    tling through papyrus reeds. Other musicians would have played
    drums, harps, and lutes during religious processions.
    For years people have debated what kind of music it
    was, says Teeter. But theres no musical notation left, and
    were not sure how they tuned the instruments or whether
    they sang or chanted. Some scholars have suggested it may
    have sounded like an ancient ancestor of rap, she adds. The
    emphasis was denitely on percussion. Images often show
    people stamping their feet and clapping. Examples of song
    lyrics are recorded on temple walls. This one from Luxor
    Even in the short time since its discovery, the tomb is
    already providing intriguing insights into the life of the
    woman who was buried there. The time of Nehemes-Bastets
    burial (sometime between 945 and 715 B.C.) was long after
    Egypt had reached the peak of its power and inuence.
    The Great Pyramid was more than 1,500 years old, and the
    prosperous days of the New Kingdom were gone. Nehemes-
    Bastet lived during the Third Intermediate Period, a time
    when Egypt was split by intermittent wars between the pha-
    raohs in Tanis and the high priests of Amun in Thebes, who
    rivaled the traditional rulers in wealth and power. It must
    have been a pretty unsettling period, says Emily Teeter, an
    Egyptologist and research assistant at the Oriental Institute
    of the University of Chicago. There was ghting, explains
    Teeter, among these factions around her time.
    Bickel says, Its interesting that in this period even a
    wealthy girl was buried with quite simple things, compar-
    ing Nehemes-Bastets co n and stele with the elaborate
    pottery, furniture, and food found in earlier tombs. Her
    wooden co n was certainly quite expensive, she says, but
    The coffin (left) was carved from sycamore
    wood and decorated with hieroglyphs. An
    inscription (below) states the name and title
    of the coffins occupantNehemes-Bastet,
    Chantress of Amun.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 32
    to move the mummy to their lab. After reinforcing the co n
    and securing the mummy, Bickels team carefully removed
    them from the burial chamber and transported them across the
    Nile to Luxor, where they are being fully restored. The team
    has emptied and sealed the tomb, but plans to return to com-
    plete an architectural analysis so they can learn more about its
    construction. The bodies from both of the tombs burials will
    be examined in detail. Bickel hopes to nd the name or at least
    the title of the tombs original Eighteenth Dynasty occupant.
    In addition, a CT scan of Nehemes-Bastet is planned for later
    this year or early 2013. Preliminary reports will be published
    by the end of 2012, she says, but nal analyses of the tomb and
    its artifacts will probably take four to ve years.
    As surprising as nding Nehemes-Bastets tomb was, archae-
    ologists believe it probably isnt the last major discovery that will
    be made in the Valley of the Kings. The valley has many nooks
    and crannies, says Otto Schaden, so it is still premature to set
    any limits on the possibility of nding more tombs.
    Julian Smith is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
    refers to the Festival of Opet, when the cult images of the
    gods Amun, Mut, and Khonsu were brought by boat down
    the Nile to renew the pharoahs divine essence.
    Hail Amun-Re, the primeval one of the two lands, foremost
    one of Karnak, in your glorious appearance amidst your
    [river] eet, in your beautiful Festival of Opet, may you be
    pleased with it.
    The title Chantress of Amun belonged to women of the
    upper classes, Teeter says. Genealogies show multiple genera-
    tions of women held the title, with mothers probably teaching
    the profession to their daughters. It was a very honorable
    profession, says Teeter. These women were well respected
    in society, which is why [Nehemes-Bastet] was buried in the
    Valley of the Kings. As was the case with the priests, temple
    singers were paid from the income generated by the huge
    tracts of land that Amun owned across Egypt. Some priests
    and priestesses served in the temples only a few months out
    of the year before returning home. Theres little information
    about what women like Nehemes-Bastet would have done
    while at home, Teeter says, but it probably wasnt too dierent
    from other womens traditional duties of the time: running the
    household, raising children, and supporting their husbands.
    To learn more about Nehemes-Bastet, Bickels team needed
    The University of Basel team had to open the coffin to
    prepare it to be removed from the tomb. Now it resides in a
    lab, where it is being restored. The coffin and mummy
    will also receive a CT scan.
    www.archaeology.org 33
    P
    YLOS, IN GREECES southwestern Peloponnese, is
    known for its miles of soft sandy beaches, rocky
    islets soaring out of the water marking the edges
    of the Bay of Navarino, and the mountains that
    cut it o from the rest of Greece. The surround-
    ing region, known as Messenia, is also home
    to dozens of archaeological sites. Since the nineteenth cen-
    tury, Messenia has attracted archaeologists hoping to uncover
    At the site of Iklaina,
    excavations are revealing
    new evidence of how the
    Mycenaean state functioned
    by Amanda Summer
    An aerial view of the site of
    Iklaina near Pylos, Greece.
    remains of Greeces Mycenaean age, the period from approxi-
    mately 1650 to 1100B.C., famous for such mythical sagas as the
    Trojan War. Among them have been Heinrich Schliemann, who
    came from Germany to search the area in vain to locate a royal
    settlement, and American Carl Blegen, who excavated the Palace
    of Nestor in Pylos in 1939. Fifteen years later, in 1954, Blegens
    colleague, Greek archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, went hiking
    in the hills above Pylos. There, near the small modern town of
    The Birth of
    Bureaucracy
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 34
    sort of bottom-up approach. Scholars know that the state of
    Pylos had a four-tiered administrative system: the palace at
    the top, followed by the district capitals (the second-order
    settlements), then followed by small villages, and at the bottom
    by farmsteads. At Iklaina, Cosmopoulos wanted to see how
    ordinary people lived outside the palaces, in the towns and
    villages of the lower tiers, how their society changed over time,
    and how government operated there. Kinship systems and
    elite groups are thought to have propelled power chiefdoms
    to statehood, Cosmopoulos explains. If such groups existed
    at a second-order center such as Iklaina, we would expect
    appropriate architectural remains.
    It was, however, not just the promise of archaeological
    remains that drew Cosmopoulos to this plateau, which rises
    525 feet above the Messenian plain. There were also clues from
    clay tablets discovered at the Palace of Nestor that date to
    around 1200 B.C. Inscribed in the ancient Greek script known
    as Linear B (see sidebar), these tablets suggest that Iklaina
    may have been one of the district capitals of the Mycenaean
    kingdom of Pylos.
    The more than 1,000 tablets found at the Palace of Nestor
    are not works of literature, but rather are records of a bureau-
    cratic system, primarily economic in nature, with lists of animals,
    people, and manufactured items. The tablets also give us
    valuable information about the administration of the state of
    Pylos. They tell us that it was divided into two provinces: the
    Hither and the Further provinces, and that each province
    was divided into districtsthe Hither into nine and the Fur-
    ther into seven. Archaeologists believe that Iklaina may have
    been one of the nine districts of the Hither Province, whose
    name may have been pronounced something like alphy, aphy,
    or asphy. Interestingly, a corrupt form of this name may have
    survived in Homers Iliad as Aipy. As Cosmopoulos explains,
    We have here a rare circumstance where archaeology con-
    verges with textual evidence and possibly mythology.
    A
    S SOON AS COSMOPOULOS received his permit from
    the Athens Archaeological Society, he and his team
    prepared to excavatebut not before receiving the
    blessing of the local priest who had instructed him where to
    begin digging. Within four inches we started nding walls and
    pots, he says. We joked about divine intervention helping us
    out. Cosmopoulos began digging test trenches in 2006, and a
    full-scale excavation got under way in 2008. At that time, says
    Cosmopoulos, the dominant feature of the site was a mound,
    overgrown with a jungle of bushes and trees and thickets of
    grass. Visible on the surface around the mound were segments
    of ancient walls, which he anticipated might be hiding a large
    tomb. It took four workmen working full time for four weeks
    to remove the thick vegetation, Cosmopoulos remembers.
    Once the overgrowth was cleared and the team was able to
    start excavating the mound, instead of a tomb, they found a
    giant Cyclopean wall, typical of Mycenaean architecture. This
    type of construction, named Cyclopean because later Greeks
    thought that only the mythical giant known as the Cyclops could
    have built such huge walls, is made of massive blocks of roughly
    Iklaina, he came upon the remains of a structure with massive
    walls, surrounded by large deposits of pottery. The Iklaina site
    was overgrown with olive groves and the terrain was di cult to
    traverse, but a brief trial excavation suggested the existence of
    an important site. However, other work beckoned Marinatos
    and it would remain buried for decades.
    W
    HEN ARCHAEOLOGIST Michael Cosmopoulos of the
    University of MissouriSt. Louis arrived in Iklaina
    in 1998 he had an ambitious plan. Cosmopoulos
    had previously directed archaeological projects at Oropos, an
    ancient city-state near Athens, and at Eleusis, the Sanctuary of
    Demeter and home of the famous Eleusinian Mysteries. After
    learning from his colleague George Korres of the University
    of Athens about the promising site in the hills above Pylos,
    he jumped at the opportunity to pick up where Marinatos
    had left o. Soon he had organized a team of students and
    volunteers whose eld survey eventually investigated more
    than eight square miles. Cosmopoulos combined his results
    with a survey done previously by the University of Cincin-
    natithe Pylos Regional Archaeological Projectwhich had
    mapped the region around the Palace of Nestor in the early
    1990s. Cosmopoulos also conducted an exhaustive geophysi-
    cal survey, using magnetometry, electrical resistivity, and soil
    phosphate analysis. It took 400 students, volunteers, and sta
    eight years to determine that Iklaina was the largest site in the
    region outside the Palace of Nestor.
    From Cosmopoulos standpoint, excavating at Iklaina pro-
    vided an important opportunity to take an in-depth look at
    the evidence from a whole district and to examine Mycenaean
    society and government not from the point of view of the main
    palace, as had been done in the past, but from its districtsa
    Iklaina excavation director Michael Cosmopoulos
    excavating in one of the settlements houses with the
    assistance of some of the students and volunteers who have
    worked with the project for more than a decade.
    www.archaeology.org 35
    I
    N 1899, PIONEERING British archaeologist Arthur Evans
    purchased a parcel of land on the Greek island of Crete.
    Evans had been drawn to the island by a collection of
    ancient carved gems he believed originated there . He would
    soon uncover the Bronze Age Palace of Knossos, one of the
    most important archaeological nds in history. Among his
    discoveries during three decades spent excavating the palace
    were several thousand clay tablets containing strange markings
    and pictographs. Despite being unable to read them, Evans
    theorized that the tablets were an ancient writing system,
    which he dubbed Linear B, after the scripts use of small line
    formations. (What is known as Linear A had also been found
    at Knossos, and is believed to be an earlier writing system.)
    As a result of Evans discovery, scholars recognized that
    tablets from sites on the Greek mainland, including Pylos,
    Thebes, and Mycenae, were also inscribed in Linear B, indicat-
    ing that the peculiar writing style was more widespread than
    initially thought. Until the recent discovery of Linear B at the
    site of Iklaina, near Pylos, all the previously known tablets,
    which date to between 1500 and 1200 B.C., were found at
    large palatial centers typical of the Mycenaean period. When
    these palaces burned down, the tablets, which had been kept
    Deciphering Linear B
    in storerooms, were red, hardening the clay and acciden-
    tally preserving them. In 1953 came the announcement that
    Linear Bs cryptic markings had been deciphered, and that
    it was actually an early form of ancient Greek. The tablets
    contain a type of syllabic script. Most of the individual
    signs represent certain syllable combinations (vowel and
    consonant). There are also ideograms, in which a sign actu-
    ally represents the object it resemblesa picture of a jar for
    the word jar, for example. Overall, Linear B has as many
    as 200 dierent signs.
    Once Linear B could be read, it became clear that almost
    all of the known tablets contained similar contentarchival
    information about the large central palaces in which they
    were found. Scribes had used them to keep an inventory of
    the everyday goods belonging to the palaces and to docu-
    ment economic transactions.
    The Linear B tablet from Iklaina is unique in that it was
    not found amid the remains of a palatial center. Accord-
    ing to Cynthia Shelmerdine, the projects ceramics expert,
    the Iklaina tablet opens up the whole question of how
    widespread Mycenaean literacy was, and how far down the
    administrative system written records extended.
    cut rectangular stones laid in horizontal courses. Iklainas walls
    are similar to architectural features found at important Myce-
    naean palace sites in Greece, including Tiryns, Pylos, Mycenae,
    and Gla. It was exhilarating and unexpected to nd this,
    Cosmopoulos exclaims, recalling the day, particularly because
    the dating of the Cyclopean Terrace is early. On the basis of
    pottery from the foundations of the Terrace and the walls of
    the surrounding rooms, Cosmopoulos dated the structure to
    between 1500 and 1350 B.C., the rst of the two major phases of
    the site. While typical of Mycenaean construction style, the wall
    is unusual in that it represents an early stage in the development
    of Cyclopean architecture, he says.
    Steven Clarkes 3-D rendering (above) of what
    the Cyclopean Terrace Building may have looked like.
    A detail of the Cyclopean Terrace wall (right),
    which dates to between 1500 and 1350 B.C.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 36
    The excavation has uncovered many artifacts from daily
    life as well, including amulets, gurines, rings, cooking vessels,
    bone tools, and clay and stone spindle whorls used in weaving.
    On the basis of plant remains recovered by the projects bota-
    nists, Susan Allen and China Shelton, it seems the inhabitants
    diet consisted of olives, fruits, nuts, wheat, and barley. The
    bones of sh, pigs, sheep, goat, and cattle also have been found
    among the remains, demonstrating not only the variety of the
    inhabitants diet, but also their diverse economy. According to
    Deborah Ruscillo, the projects zooarchaeologist, the inhab-
    itants also relied on hunting, mostly wild boar and deer, for
    food. Intriguingly, a large percentage of wild boar bones bear
    the gnaw marks of dogs, perhaps the same hounds that hunted
    the boars as depicted in Mycenaean frescoes.
    To the north of the Cyclopean Terrace, Cosmopoulos has
    identied a large town consisting of multiple small dwellings.
    There is evidence that these dwellings, along with the Cyclo-
    pean Terrace Building, were destroyed by enemy action around
    1350 B.C. In a display of superiority as they established their
    authority, the towns new rulers never rebuilt the monumental
    building on the Cyclopean Terrace and constructed their own
    The purpose of this massive terrace was to support a monu-
    mental building (dubbed the Cyclopean Terrace Building),
    which would have served as the administrative center for the
    area, suggesting that Iklaina at that time was the capital of
    an independent chiefdom. According to excavation architect
    Michael Nelson, the terrace was substantial enough to sup-
    port two or three stories. The section of the building that
    once stood on top of the terrace is gone forever, but other
    parts of this building complex survive. These include rooms
    to the south, southwest, and southeast, and possibly a central
    open space that was a garden or courtyard. An enormous wall,
    the edge of which was uncovered in the last days of the 2011
    season, may have served as a fortication wall.
    The building has all the elements one would expect to
    nd in a Mycenaean administrative center. In addition to its
    monumental size, unusual for this early period, it contained
    multiple storage rooms for foodstus, oering tables, and a
    rich assemblage of pottery. The walls of some of the rooms
    were decorated with elaborate gural frescoes painted in blue,
    white, and red. The buildings upper levels had collapsed into
    its lower storage rooms, in which Cosmopoulos team has
    found more than 1,000 fresco fragments to date. After sev-
    eral seasons of study, two major themes have been identied
    on the frescoesnaval imagery, which is stylistically similar
    to Minoan frescoes found on the islands of Thera and Keos,
    and another theme depicting females, possibly in procession,
    with long black hair and arms covered in bracelets.
    Th i h d if f d
    Project conservator
    Stefania Veldemiris
    reconstruction of
    the fresco fragments
    from the Cyclopean
    Terrace Building
    (above left and right),
    and (right) one of
    the actual fragments,
    showing a female
    figure bringing her
    hand to her chest.

    ,
    of
    s,
    le
    er
    est.
    A fragment of a spindle whorl (below
    left), dozens of which were found,
    is evidence of textile manufacture
    at the site. Ceramic figurines (right)
    were found in most buildings on
    the site. Zooarchaeologist Deborah
    Ruscillo studies the animal bone
    evidence, such as this pig radius
    (bottom) to discover more
    about the Mycenaean diet.
    www.archaeology.org 37
    houses directly on top of the houses of the previous phase,
    but with a dierent orientation. Cosmopoulos believes this
    is evidence that the new rulers made an eort to erase the
    memories of the previous authority and that these new rulers
    were those of the Palace of Nestor, now the major power in
    the area. One of the dwellings representing the second phase
    in the sites history, from 1350 to about 1200 B.C., included a
    megaron, a great hall central to a Mycenaean house, containing
    a hearth surrounded by four pillars. Cosmopoulos is not certain
    if the megaron was used for administrative purposes, or simply
    indicated that this had been a wealthy house. He hopes further
    excavation in the area will establish its function.
    In the past several seasons the team has uncovered addi-
    tional nds that oer more clues about the sites signicance
    and changing role over time, and reveal new information about
    the settlements industrial, religious, and political practices.
    These include an intriguing network of drains, a possible open-
    air shrine, and a tiny inscribed tablet that may put Iklaina on
    the map as the oldest state bureaucracy in Europe.
    A
    T 6:30 A.M. on a hot July day, halfway through the 2011
    season, students and volunteers straggle in to the site.
    Theyve been dropped o by the bus a quarter mile
    away, as the areas remoteness makes it di cult for anything
    larger than a car to make its way along the narrow dirt road.
    Early morning light is starting to evaporate dew that has col-
    A plan of part of the site shows the original megaron, an
    architectural unit central to many Mycenaean houses. At
    some point in the buildings life the main room was divided
    into smaller spaces (green), and industrial and storage
    rooms were added (also green). A system of drains (yel-
    low) was built to drain the industrial rooms. The walls
    (black and white) belong to the sites earliest period.
    Team members set a new trench (above) near the
    Cyclopean Terrace wall and the ancient drain, which is
    visible at the lower left.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 38
    may have supported up to an astonishing 225 smiths. Numer-
    ous metal objects including bronze nails, saws, and rings
    were found at the site, as was a unique head of a bronze male
    gurine with no known parallels.
    In the last weeks of the 2011 season, the team uncovered
    another signicant building, aligned along one side with an
    upright rectangular stone known as a stele. At some Myce-
    naean sites such markers indicate a sacred space. However,
    in this case, Cosmopoulos believes the building may have
    been unnished and that the post was a construction marker.
    Neither I nor any of my colleagues have seen anything like
    this before, Cosmopoulos explains. Although no artifacts
    were found in the buildings interior, he believes that the
    structures size and construction suggest a special function.
    At almost 50 feet long, with ashlar masonry, carefully chis-
    eled blocks of stone known as orthostates, and a large paved
    lected on plastic tarps covering the trenches. A group of
    students selects hand axes and other tools stored overnight
    in buckets and heads o to work with a team from the lab.
    Todays job is to remove a large section of plaster surrounding
    an ancient drainage system that runs throughout the site. Head
    conservator StefaniaVeldemiri has fashioned a large metal tray
    to slide underneath the plaster, in hopes of removing it intact.
    Once the metal sheet is lifted, the team moves in unison, carry-
    ing the plaster and surrounding soil like a litter to a waiting van
    that will take it back to the lab in downtown Pylos, some nine
    miles to the east. The job of gingerly transporting the plaster
    seems not unlike moving a very large wedding cake.
    The presence of this extensive drainage system and clay
    pipes, originating from a series of rooms that were most
    likely used as industrial installations, points to a great need
    for running water. With a large amount of axseed found in
    those rooms, its probable that the industry of the sites new
    inhabitants was ax production. The building had a cement
    oor and a system of ve drains feeding into a main drain in
    what Cosmopoulos believes was the industrial center of Iklaina
    during the second period in the sites occupation.
    Another possible industry Iklaina supported was metal-
    working. The Linear B tablets from Pylos mention the Iklaina
    site as a metallurgical center. According to John Chadwick,
    the English linguist who helped decipher Linear B, the site
    Remains uncovered in a pit may be evidence of the earliest Mycenaean open-airshrine, dating to between 1450 and 1300 B.C.
    Many metal artifacts were found
    at Iklaina, including this
    bronze nail and ring,
    suggesting the presence
    of a substantial metal-
    lurgical production
    center at the site.
    may hav
    ous me
    were fou
    b.
    ding
    Head
    tray
    tact.
    arry-
    van
    nine
    aster
    Many metal a
    at Ik
    br
    su
    o
    lur
    cen
    www.archaeology.org 39
    of commodities. In addition, most tablets are dated to around
    1200 B.C., and one from Mycenae dates to the late fourteenth
    century B.C. But the Iklaina tablet dates to between 1450 and
    1350 B.C., making it the earliest known bureaucratic record
    found on the Greek mainland.
    Because Linear B tablets were, as far as we know, used
    exclusively as state records, the discovery of the Iklaina tablet
    implies state structure and state bureaucracy. Its early date
    indicates that bureaucracy and literacy in Greece appeared
    earlier and were more widespread than we had thought until
    now, says Cosmopoulos. He is condent the tablet will oer
    insight into an area of history that is still little understood.
    The discovery of the tablet is important because, according
    to what we had known until now, records were not kept in
    second-order settlements and all known tablets from the
    Greek mainland are dated later. This may change the way
    scholars understand how Mycenaean bureaucracy developed
    over time. Cosmopoulos adds with obvious excitement, In
    the grand scheme of things, Iklaina may shed new light on
    how Mycenaean states were formed.
    The nds at Iklaina will keep Cosmopoulos and his team
    busy for years to come. He is working to purchase and exca-
    vate the land adjacent to the site in future seasons where
    there is one Linear B tablet, there is always the hope of
    nding more. In the meantime, Iklainas uniquely stratied
    settlement makes it the ideal laboratory, and Cosmopoulos
    is eager for the opportunity it oers not only to learn about
    life in the palaces and in the surrounding farmlands, but also
    to investigate for the rst time in one site how Mycenaean
    society developed on all levels in between.
    Amanda Summer is an archaeologist and writer who lives in
    St. Louis, Missouri.
    courtyard, this may have been an administrative building
    used in the second period of Iklainas occupation, according
    to Cosmopoulos. It may also have been the residence of the
    mayor who is mentioned in the Linear B tablets from the
    Palace of Nestor archive.
    The 2011 season also marked the discovery of a pit that
    may be the rst known Mycenaean open-air shrine. These
    types of shrines are known from artistic representations, but
    none has been excavated to date. At Iklaina, the area contained
    evidence of re, including burned soil and ashes, along with
    oering tables made of plaster, fragments of frescoes, numer-
    ous animal bones, and drinking vessels, as well as a rare sheet
    of lead. It is still being excavated, but if the area turns out to be
    an open-air shrine, this will provide new avenues for the study
    of Mycenaean religion. Further excavation in conjunction with
    analysis of the bones may determine the rituals practiced here.
    In references to the Iklaina site in the Linear B tablets from
    Pylos, there is mention of temple servants and temple bronze,
    suggesting the existence of a religious structure there. One tab-
    let also mentions a man, Pythias, who is possibly named after
    a god, indicating some sort of religious belief and, indirectly,
    worship associated with the shrine.
    Perhaps the most remarkable and important nd at the
    site to date is also one of the smallest. In 2010, archae-
    ologists found a suspicious artifact encrusted in soil inside a
    3,400-year-old refuse pit. They then bagged it and sent it to
    the museum for study. Noticing what appeared to be inscrip-
    tions, the student who washed the artifact brought it to the
    attention of the projects chief ceramicist and Linear B expert,
    Cynthia Shelmerdine of the University of Texas at Austin. She
    instantly recognized the markings of Linear B. Shelmerdine,
    who was the rst to read the fragment, believes it is part of a
    personnel record. On one side is what is likely a list of male
    names and numbers, and the other preserves part of the head-
    ing for what might have been a list of manufactured products.
    Until now, tablets found in stratied contexts had been
    known only from a handful of major palaces, such as Pylos,
    Mycenae, Tiryns, Knossos, and Thebes, says Cosmopoulos.
    Finding a tablet is evidence that the site at Iklaina had the
    scribes necessary to sustain a bureaucracy. It also suggests a
    high level of political organization and a need to keep track
    The Linear B tablet found at Iklaina is believed to be the
    earliest known example of a bureaucratic record in Europe.
    Side A (left) shows the ending of the participle of a verb
    which may mean manufactured or assembled. The top
    line of Side B (right) shows a male name followed by the
    number 1 and the second line preserves part of what
    appears to be a second male name.
    S
    ince the early twentieth century, archaeologists
    have relied on aerial photography as a technique
    to locate possible sites without having to physi-
    cally survey vast areas. Signs of human habita-
    tion in aerial photos derive from the presence
    of habitation mounds and from changes in soil
    color tied to the presence of anthrosolssoil that has been
    modied by human activity.
    While inarguably useful for nding sites, this type of remote
    sensing analysis is time-consuming and tedious, requiring
    researchers to pore over hundreds of images to identify poten-
    tial candidate sites for excavation. Further, only large mounds
    are discernible in aerial photos. Thus, smaller sites are tough to
    detect, the relationships between dierent settlements are hard to
    decipher, and the expanse of a civilization is di cult to determine.
    In order to ll in the blanks, archaeologist Jason Ur of
    Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    computer scientist Bjoern Menze have now turned the job of
    image analysis over to computers. Their method uses images
    taken by ASTER, the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission
    and Reection Radiometer instrument aboard NASAs Terra
    satellite, originally launched in 1999 to observe changes in the
    Earths climate. This approach takes advantage of the fact that
    anthrosols and the soil around them reect light dierently.
    As a starting point, Ur and Menze focused on ASTER images
    of the Early Bronze Age city of Hamoukar in northeastern Syria,
    which Ur had surveyed intensively from 2000 to 2001. The
    researchers identied and dierentiated between sites and
    non-sites in the ASTER images of the area. Thanks to the pres-
    ence of anthrosols in what had once been inhabited areas, sites
    in the images had a dierent spectral signature than non-sites.
    Ur and Menze then developed a computer program that
    was able to distinguish between sites and non-sites. Every
    pixel in any given satellite image, says Ur, is compared to the
    two possible signatures and assigned to one of the classes. In
    addition, the spectral signature of a site is the same regardless
    of the elevation of the terrain, allowing Ur and Menze to pick
    up small mounds as well as large ones.
    This computer analysis results in faster and more objective
    assessment of terrain than can be done with the human eye.
    When given images of an area of 8,500 square miles in north-
    eastern Syria to analyze, a cluster of 50 computers required
    only a single day to classify each pixel. The analysis uncovered
    more than 14,000 potential sites; only 1,000 sites in the region
    were previously known to archaeologists.
    Computational analysis of satellite images detects new evidence of
    previously overlooked human settlements
    by Aldo Foe
    So far, this approach has been used to recognize seden-
    tary agricultural settlements that incorporated mudbrick
    architecture in the kind of semiarid oodplains found in
    Mesopotamia, where Ur conducts his research. Nicola
    Masini, a senior researcher at Italys Institute for Archaeo-
    logical and Monumental Heritage and coauthor of the book
    Satellite Remote Sensing: A New Tool for Archaeology, believes
    its application could easily be expanded to areas such as
    the mounds built by pre-Inca civilizations in parts of Peru.
    Ur agrees, noting that many of the centers of early world
    civilizations share the arid environments and archaeological
    features that would allow his and Menzes method to reveal
    sites within them.
    Aldo Foe is an intern at Archaeology.
    Researchers Jason Ur and
    Bjoern Menze used computers
    to analyze an ASTER image (far
    left) of the Bronze Age city of
    Hamoukar (ca. 2600 to 2000
    B.C.), located in northeastern
    Syrias Khabur Basin, to find
    areas of human occupation
    (middle, indicated by orange
    clusters). Their method allows
    them to find smaller sites, in
    addition to ones that form large
    mounds. By locating a greater
    variety of sites, Ur and Menze
    were able to chart possible
    networks (left) of interactions
    between each of the sites in the
    Khabur Basin over an 8,000-year
    period, both before and after
    Hamoukar was established.
    T
    HE WARSHIP SURVIVED the rst blast of wind
    it encountered on its maiden voyage in Stock-
    holm Harbor. But the second gust did it in.
    The sinking of Vasa, on August 10, 1628, took
    place nowhere near an enemy. In fact, it sank
    in full view of a horried public, assembled to
    see o their navysand Europesmost ambitious warship to
    date. The 220-foot, triple-deck, 64-gun leviathan, elaborately
    adorned, had been rush-ordered for King Gustav Adolfs war
    against Poland. But before it faced an opposing ship or red a
    single shot, Vasa slipped beneath the waves.
    Gustav angrily demanded an inquest into why his expensive
    new agship lay at the bottom of the harbor. At the time,
    investigators found several clues. Compared with previous
    ships, Vasa had a thicker deck and held more and larger guns
    on its upper deck, making it top-heavy. When it embarked,
    Vasa carried almost none of the cargo and ballast that keep
    ships low in the water and help them resist listing. And when
    Vasa did list, open gun bays allowed the sea to rush in. The
    inquest blamed the ships proportions for the sinking, but
    without modern blueprints or measuring techniques, investiga-
    tors oered few details. Still, Swedish shipbuilders appeared
    to have learned from the experience: Vasas subsequent sister
    ships sailed without problems.
    The cold, oxygen-poor water of the Baltic Sea protected
    Vasa from the bacteria and worms that usually digest wooden
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 42
    As their focus shifts from
    preservation to documentation,
    researchers are learning new
    lessons from the majestic Vasaa
    warship monumental in its
    ambition, its failure, and its role in
    maritime archaeology
    by Lucas Laursen
    The wreck of Vasa, a 17th-century Swedish warship,
    now resides in a custom-built museum in Stockholm. Laser
    surveys and digital models are helping determine why
    the ship sank on its maiden voyage in 1628.
    VASAS
    Curious Imbalance
    www.archaeology.org 43
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 44
    T
    oday VASA rests in an updated cradle in a
    vast space in the temperature- and humidity-
    controlled museum in Djurgrden, a leafy
    island in central Stockholm. The ships dark brown
    timbers and intricate carvings glisten in low light as
    tourists move around it. Everybody wants to know
    why the ship sank, Hocker says, but to me thats not
    the most interesting question. Instead, Id ask, How
    did the human process of building the ship fail?
    Hocker recruited colleagues, including Batchvarov
    and a survey team from East Carolina University in
    Greenville, North Carolina, to create a detailed digi-
    tal model of the ship using laser-surveying methods.
    They hope to use it to untangle the choices made by
    the ships builders and apply modern mathematical
    analysis to calculate Vasas structural behavior and
    handling characteristics.
    During four visits, the archaeological team used
    tripod-mounted survey devices to measure the dis-
    tance from the devices to points along the edges and
    corners of the ships timbers. Hocker then integrated
    their data points80,000 in allinto his digital model, and wrecks. Perhaps 95 percent of Vasas wood
    was intact when Sweden nally raised the wreck in 1961. The
    ships waterlogged wood could not support its own weight,
    so experts crafted a steel cradle to hold the ship, rst in a
    temporary structure and then in a custom-built museum.
    Despite the cradle, Vasa began a slow-motion collapse, and
    preservationists scrambled to improve the cradle. They also
    strengthened Vasas wood by spraying it with polyethylene
    glycol continuously for 17 years, followed by nine years of
    drying. These challenges meant that, for decades, preser-
    vation took precedence over archaeological investigations
    into why the ship sank so suddenly. Archaeologists had
    their hands on the ship only in the initial excavation phase:
    two months, for a 1,200-ton ship, says Kroum Batchvarov,
    a marine archaeologist from the University of Connecticut
    Avery Point, and a former student of Fred Hocker, who has
    led the Vasa Museums study of the ship since 2003.
    During the initial excavation in the 1960s, Vasa Museum
    curator Eva Marie Stolt found clues that the ship had an
    asymmetric structure that contributed to its instability. But
    archaeological recording methods are more suited to right
    angles than to Vasas curves, and the museum only budgeted
    time to record one side of the ship, despite her suspicions.
    Stolt was perfectly aware that she was not getting the right
    sort of information. Its clear from her notes, Batchvarov
    says. Among the 45,000 artifacts removed from the ship
    was another suggestion of an uneven construction process:
    Both Swedish and Dutch carpenters rulers, which employed
    dierent feet, were found aboard. Perhaps cultural barriers
    between the men under the direction of master builder Henrik
    Hybertsson (a Dutch-born Swede) were responsible for Vasas
    potentially crippling imbalance. Hockers new research at the
    museum, built around precise measurement and the interac-
    tion of dierent shipbuilding methodologies, might nally
    address Gustavs demand for answers.
    isla
    tim
    tou
    wh
    th
    di
    an
    G
    ta
    T
    th
    a
    h
    t
    t
    c
    their data wrecks. Perhaps 95 percent of Vasas wood
    The waterlogged Vasa emerged from Stockholm Harbor in
    1961 (above left). Decades of preservation work have slowed
    the deterioration of its detailed carvings (below). Digital
    modeling of the ship will help with this ongoing effort.
    www.archaeology.org 45
    Theres a lot to be learned from a detailed analysis of how all
    the pieces of wood that constitute Vasa have been put together
    and how two cultures of shipbuilding interacted with each other,
    says marine archaeologist Thijs J. Maarleveld of Southern Den-
    mark University in Esbjerg, who is not involved in the Vasa study.
    With such information, together with estimates of the
    density of each timber, engineers at the nearby Royal Insti-
    tute of Technology in Stockholm should be able to calculate
    the ships center of gravity and how its weight is distributed.
    The former will help to quantify the degree of Vasas imbal-
    ance before the ship put to sea, and determine if the captain
    could have corrected for the asymmetry, using ballast, intu-
    ition, and experience. The latter will help the museum design
    a new cradle for the ships uneven shape. The more precise
    the cradle can be made, the longer Vasa will endure intact.
    We started the documentation for archaeological reasons
    and then realized that this was exactly the same data we were
    going to need for preservation, Hocker says.
    Maintaining Vasas remarkable and rare state of preservation
    will allow Hocker and others to learn things about northern
    European shipbuilding that are impossible to ascertain from
    other, less complete, wrecks. And all the lessons from the
    preservation and digital modeling of Vasa will be useful on
    other wrecks, which raise similar questions about construction
    techniques and preservation. Understanding the process is
    interesting because it gives us a better insight into the overall
    technology, on the solutions that were arrived at, and provides
    material for comparison to other wrecks, Maarleveld says.
    Armed with a detailed understanding of not just Vasas nal
    shape, but how it blended shipbuilding philosophies, how the
    building process evolved, and what its critical aws were, Hocker
    and colleagues might be able to answer both the engineering
    question of whether Vasa could have been made seaworthy and,
    more importantly, the human question of why it was not.
    Lucas Laursen is a science and technology journalist based in
    Madrid, Spain.
    connected the points so that each beam had a digital counterpart.
    That resulting wireframe model reveals not just the shape of the
    ship, but how each of its individual components ts together.
    With this rst detailed digital model of the ship, which was
    completed earlier this year, Hocker and others are conrming
    some theories about Vasas construction and debunking others.
    Were nding virtually no evidence of change during construc-
    tion, Batchvarov says, for example, contradicting old theories that
    the king had meddled with the design. What the team is nding
    are clues that at least two kinds of construction coexisted on Vasa.
    At the time of Vasas construction, several shipbuilding
    philosophies existed in Europe. The Dutch, for example,
    worked from the bottom up, without detailed formal plans.
    Their method allowed shipbuilders to work quickly, plunking
    in timbers wherever they t, saving both lumber and the time
    it took for carpenters to hew timbers with precision. English
    and Mediterranean shipbuilders, on the other hand, built much
    more tidy, symmetrical structures based around frames with
    well-dened mathematical relationships.
    The model showed that Vasas lower framing and beams were
    constructed in the Dutch style, reecting the builder Hyberts-
    sons Dutch origin. But Hocker and Kelby Rose, a graduate stu-
    dent at Texas A&M University, were surprised to discover precise
    mathematical relationships between the keel and timbers in the
    upper hull, Hocker says, a characteristic archaeologists associate
    with Mediterranean shipbuilders. Perhaps Hybertsson grafted
    Mediterranean or English techniques onto a Dutch foundation
    and in his ambition lost a sense of the resulting center of gravity.
    Or the imbalance could have a more mundane cause: Hocker is
    analyzing the model to see if the beams on one side of the ship
    are consistently longer or wider than those on the other, perhaps
    because dierent construction gangs were working on dierent
    sides. It may be that one side of the ship is much heavier than
    the other side, which would have created challenges in ballasting
    the ship, and predisposed it to being more stable heeling to one
    side than the other, says Hocker.
    The wireframe model of Vasa based on laser surveys shows
    how individual timbers fit together, and might reveal whether
    cultural differences among work crews contributed to the
    ships catastrophic instability in the water.
    Several carpenters rulers
    were found aboard Vasa. The top three rulers employ the
    Swedish foot, with 12 inches, while the last one is based on the
    Dutch 11-inch foot. Measurement differences might have resulted
    in one side of the ship weighing much more than the other.
    W
    EDGED BETWEEN A ROAD and decay-
    ing old houses perched on a hill,
    sits a massive excavation site. A
    century ago, this was the location of
    an American school and, after that,
    until a decade ago, was simply a
    vacant lot. But Lebanese archaeologist Claude Doumet-Serhal
    and her multinational team have transformed this apparently
    unremarkable spot into a window on the rich ancient history
    of the port city of Sidon. In this little piece of land we have
    everything, a slice of civilization, she says. Its very exciting.
    The reason for Doumet-Serhals enthusiasm is easy to
    see. In the shade of nearby bushes are piles of Roman bases,
    columns, and capitals. Crumbling houses sit atop the remains
    of a medieval wall within view of a ruined Crusader-era
    castle. Just beyond lies another thirteenth-century castle,
    overlooking the rocky shore of the Mediterranean Sea along
    Lebanons coast. Sidon is so old that, according to the Book
    of Genesis, it was named after the great-grandson of Noah.
    In antiquity, the city attracted an impressive array of visitors,
    both welcome and unwelcome, including the rst-century
    B.C. king of Judea, Herod the Great; Jesus and St. Paul; the
    armies of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C.; the
    twelfth-century A.D. Norwegian king Sigurd; and the Mongols
    of Central Asia a century later.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 46
    For the rst time, archaeologists are
    revealing the 4,000-year history of one
    of ancient Lebanons oldest ports
    by Andrew Lawler
    Several other ancient Lebanese coastal ports such as Tyre
    and Byblos were excavated long ago, but this modern-day
    sleepy shing town completely covers ancient Sidon, mak-
    ing it largely inaccessible to archaeologists. All that has been
    known of the city comes from occasional mentions in ancient
    Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, and biblical textsit is named 38
    times in the Old Testament alone. These documents suggest
    that Sidon was the earliest home of the ancient Phoeni-
    ciansboth the Bible and Homer refer to Phoenicians as
    Sidonians. Beginning around 1500 B.C., these seafaring
    people spread out from the region, establishing wealthy, inde-
    pendent city-states across the southern coast of the Medi-
    terranean and in Sicily, and dominating the region for more
    than a thousand years. They were famed in particular for
    their expertise in extracting precious and valuable purple dye
    from murex snail shells. The very term Phoenician appears
    to be from the classical Greek word for purple. They did not
    call themselves Phoenicians, however, sometimes identifying
    themselves in contemporary texts as Canaanites.
    The fth-century B.C. Greek historian Herodotus com-
    ments in his Histories that the Phoenicians were known to
    adventure on long voyages, freighting their vessels with the
    wares of Egypt and Assyria. This mercantile people carried
    hunting dogs, glass, wine, and textiles from Spain to Somalia,
    according to other texts. Their great impact on civilization,
    Uncovering
    Sidons
    Long Life
    Although the modern town of Sidon sits directly
    on top of the ancient one, a multinational team has
    been working for more than a decade to uncover the
    many layers of the citys rich history.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 48
    region in an eort to control
    Jerusalem and the surrounding
    Holy Land. Just below and to the east
    are the remains of a low curved stone wall that may be part of
    a long-lost theater dating to the early centuries A.D., possibly
    a remnant of Roman rule of the city.
    A few steps to the north, archaeologists are looking for
    artifacts and architecture dating to Sidons Phoenician hey-
    day, between the twelfth and fourth centuries B.C., but so far
    Doumet-Serhal has found only potsherds. Although the pot-
    tery does conrm that Sidon was indeed a Phoenician city,
    denitive archaeological evidence of its centrality to Phoeni-
    cian life has yet to come to light. So much has been added
    and destroyed, Doumet-Serhal notes.
    The team has, however, found clear evidence supporting
    the biblical implication that Sidon is a city of great
    antiquity. A few yards farther north, they have
    discovered the remains of a large stone temple
    dating to about 1300 B.C., along with pottery
    made in Mycenae, one of the most powerful
    Greek cities at the time. Nearby, the excavators
    also uncovered several Egyptian imports, including
    pottery, scarabs, and a jar incised with the name of
    Queen Twosret, who briey ruled Egypt around
    1190 B.C. as the last pharaoh of the Nineteenth
    Dynasty. They also found the remains of a sistrum,
    a bronze musical instrument often associated with
    worship of the Egyptian goddess Hathor, who is
    depicted on the handle. As Hathor is often seen
    as the personication of love, joy, and dance, the
    sistrum, says Doumet-Serhal, indicates that the
    temple was a place of feasting and celebration.
    And the connections with faraway Greece and
    Egypt attest to the cosmopolitan nature of Sidon
    in particular, and the land of Canaan in general, in
    the Late Bronze Age.
    Close by is an even older portion of the complex
    dating to about 1750 B.C., centered on a large win-
    dowless room with 500 scattered pottery lamps,
    numerous plates, and the knucklebones of animals,
    possibly evidence of an ancient game or ritual.
    Another important nd from this era is a Minoan-
    style cup, which Doumet-Serhal says comes from
    however, was the development of a phonetic alphabet. Along
    with their wares, they spread this writing system across the
    Mediterranean, where it was assimilated and adapted by other
    cultures, including the Greeks.
    Starting in the sixth century B.C., attacks on Phoenician
    settlements by Persians and Alexander the Great in the Near
    East and Greeks in Sicily eventually put the Phoenicians
    on the defensive and began their long decline. The Roman
    destruction of the colony of Carthage in modern Tunisia in
    146 B.C. may have been the nal blow. By the rst century
    A.D., mentions of the Phoenicians almost cease, although
    the rst-century A.D. Roman geographer Strabo reports that
    they continued to gather tin from Britain and copper from
    Cyprus to produce ne bronze. By then, Sidon was a Roman-
    controlled port with only limited regional reach.
    Though much is known about the Phoenicians in their
    heyday, the archaeological evidence of their origins, how
    they lived, and the critical role of Sidon in that story has
    been sorely lacking. Beyond a few mentions in old texts, says
    Doumet-Serhal, we knew zilch.
    Now in their fourteenth year, her excavations, sponsored
    by the British Museum and contributions from Lebanese
    banks and foundations, are beginning to ll in that
    gap. During the rst season, we found noth-
    ing, and I thought it was the end of the project,
    Doumet-Serhal recalls. But in the last days they came
    across a few sherds of pottery dating to the third
    millennium B.C., and that discovery inspired her to
    keep going. Her tenacity proved to be a smart move,
    and the excavation has since uncovered remains that
    range from Sidons bloody days of the Crusades to its
    origin as a port when the rst civilizations were taking
    root almost 5,000 years ago.
    I
    N THE SOUTHERN, SHALLOWER END of the
    100-yard-long trench, Sidons story takes
    place in the days of the Crusades. The British
    Museums Sarah Collins care-
    fully examines the skeleton
    of a thirteenth-century
    man who was beheaded
    and chopped to pieces.
    The bones are part of
    one or possibly two
    mass graves containing
    the remains of nearly
    two dozen young adults.
    There archaeologists
    also found an Italian
    coin dating to 1245
    and a belt buckle that
    may have been made
    in medieval England,
    all evidence of a Euro-
    pean presence at a time
    when soldiers ocked to the
    The team has uncovered impressive evidence
    of Sidons Roman period, including a marble
    torso of the god Hermes (far left) and a
    statuette of the goddess Aphrodite found
    in the fill of a well (left).
    A Minoan cup dating to around
    1900 B.C., from the island of Crete,
    was found in the excavations
    Middle Bronze Age layers. It is
    the earliest known import from
    the Aegean world to Lebanon.
    The team h
    the bib
    antiq
    dis
    d
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    Queen
    1190
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    ains that
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    Jer
    Holy L
    A Minoan
    1900 B.
    was
    Mid
    the
    the
    mortars and pestles, as well as evidence for
    res made beside graves for funeral gather-
    ings. The nds were puzzling at rst. It
    took years for us to understand that they
    were feasting on lentils, chickpeas, barley,
    and meat, says Doumet-Serhal. These
    funeral feasts are a common feature of
    later Phoenician culture and religion.
    Perhaps most intriguing, however, is
    what lay below the clean white layer of
    sand at the digs northern end. Here the
    team found exciting evidence that Sidons
    history predates the Phoenicians rise, and
    that it was a thriving port town at the same
    time that the rst cities appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran,
    and the Indus Valley. These lowest levels provide some of the
    best and earliest evidence of Early Bronze Age life in the Levant.
    They contain not only sherds from modest bowls, plates, and
    cups, but also large containers used for transporting wine, oil, or
    perhaps other commodities meant for trade. Bronze shhooks
    and the bones of deep-water tuna found at the site testify to the
    Sidonians familiarity with the open sea.
    As early as 2800 B.C., they had also built a large structure
    with as many as ten rooms, a great number for this early date,
    and two centuries later a sturdy oak and olive wood roof was
    added. There is no evidence for use of the famed cedars of
    www.archaeology.org 49
    Phaistos on Crete and dates to about 1900B.C. It is the earliest
    known import from the Aegean world to Lebanon, and the rst
    tangible connection between Sidon and the Minoan civiliza-
    tion on Crete and the coast of the Mediterranean.
    A
    LONG WITH THE TEMPLE COMPLEX, the team has found
    more than 100 burials: some male warriors with weap-
    ons, some women buried with their ne jewelry, and a
    number of childrens graves. The cemeterys rst use dates to the
    Middle Bronze Age, just after 2000 B.C., when Sidonians cov-
    ered the area with a thick layer of ne sand. Scattered around are
    large ovens, piles of butchered animal bones, food remains, and
    Thus far archaeologists have excavated
    more than 100 graves dating from the
    second millennium B.C. These include
    the remains of a child who was buried in
    a large pottery jar (top left), as well as
    several belonging to warriors buried with
    their weapons (middle left). A spearhead
    shows traces of the twine that once
    bound it to the shaft (bottom left), and
    an ax head (above) was found near a
    warriors shoulder.
    i h h i Ph i C d d b 1900 I i h li
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 50
    Sidon. For the upcoming season, she wants to probe the
    extent of the early-third-millennium B.C. building, further
    excavate the second-millennium B.C. temple, and look for
    more clues in the funerary courtyard. But she has already
    demonstrated conclusively that Sidon led a very long life of
    nearly continuous occupation from its early origins, and that
    its existence was deeply intertwined with the entire history
    of the eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. We can now
    show the evolution of Sidons people and traditions, she
    adds. This place is a gift.
    Andrew Lawler is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
    Lebanon, which Doumet-Serhal says may have been reserved for
    export to Egypt and Mesopotamia, where they are frequently
    mentioned in contemporary texts. Inside the buildings ancient
    storerooms, built of stone and not the usual mudbrick, the team
    uncovered a cache of more than 350 pounds of burnt barley as
    well as a quantity of burnt emmer, one of the oldest domesti-
    cated types of wheat, rst found in Syria as early as the Neolithic
    period. Why and how they were burned remains unclear.
    In addition to grain, the diet of the ancient Sidonians
    included sheep and goat, which was typical for the region. The
    team also uncovered a surprising amount of evidence for the
    consumption of wild game, including bones from lions, bears,
    deer, wild boar, hippopotamus, and wild cattle. Since this wild
    diet is quite dierent from whats known from that of other
    towns on the coast, Doumet-Serhal suspects that hunting here
    may have been an elite activity, hinting at the possible presence
    of a king and court in these early days. By the middle of the
    third millennium B.C., however, Sidon appears to have been
    abandoned, although the reasons for this are uncertain and
    there are, as yet, no signs of violent destruction.
    Though they have reached what may be some of the
    oldest layers, Doumet-Serhals team is far from done with
    In the third millennium B.C., the Sidonians built a large
    structure with many storerooms (below). One of these rooms
    contained a great deal of burned barley and burned wheat (far
    right). Another room contained a small gypsum figurine of a
    worshipper or deity wearing a long dress (right).
    A
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    A
    s the young daughter of
    an archaeologist in the
    late 1990s, I was raised to
    understand that Indiana Jones is no
    more real than Luke Skywalker. I
    had been on digs and spent hours in
    my fathers lab where I concluded
    that, no matter what my classmates
    thought, my father was just another
    boring scientist, even if he did wear
    cowboy boots and skipped the lab
    coat. Adolescent that I was, I was
    similarly unimpressed with his work
    south of the U.S. border in northern
    Mexico. I knew nothing of the law-
    less Mexico that people saw on tele-
    vision because my own visits were
    graced with warm tortillas, birthday
    piatas, kind faces, and Coca-Cola
    in tiny glass bottles. It was at the
    Thanksgiving table, then, when I was
    14, that I first discovered my fathers
    job might actually be dangerous.
    During the holiday season, my
    family always hosted the many
    archaeology graduate students from
    Binghamton University in upstate
    New York, where my father, Randall
    McGuire, was and still is a professor.
    After the dinner of turkey with all
    the trimmings was cleared, my father
    would go to the liquor cabinet and
    produce a bottle of fine tequila. Then
    he and his students would share sto-
    ries from the field long into the night.
    This particular evening, in 1997,
    they were enthusiastically recounting
    the story of my fathers Mexican col-
    league Elisa Villalpandos confronta-
    tion with a drug lord from the Sinalo-
    an cartel, Mexicos largest organized
    crime operation. Villalpando is an
    archaeologist with Mexicos National
    Institute of Anthropology and His-
    tory (INAH) who has co-led several
    excavations with my father at the
    Cerro de Trincheras site in the north-
    west Mexican state of Sonora since
    the 1980s. According to the story, the
    narco (drug trafficker) had planned
    to level a section of a site called La
    Playa, located six miles north of
    Cerro de Trincheras, to grow buffel
    grass for a cattle ranch. Villalpando
    had sent word to the narco through
    one of his workers that he needed to
    leave the site alone, in short, to pro-
    Archaeology, Interrupted
    An archaeologists daughter surveys the rich cultural heritage of northern
    Mexicoand the impact of violence on researchers working there
    by Kathleen McGuire
    LETTER FROM MEXICO
    www.archaeology.org 53
    Paquim (also called Casas Grandes) is one of
    northern Mexicos largest and most well-studied sites.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 54
    american culture area, which extends
    from central Mexico to Costa Ricas
    Pacific coast. El Norte de Mxico, as
    Mexican archaeologists sometimes
    call it, extends from Mesoamericas
    northern fringe to the U.S. border,
    encompassing the northern reaches
    of Sinaloa and Durango, and almost
    the entirety of Chihuahua and
    Sonora. While located in Mexico,
    archaeological sites in these states
    are considered part of the Southwest
    culture area, which also includes
    New Mexico, Arizona, southeast
    Utah, southwest Colorado, and Texas
    west of the Pecos River.
    Paul Minnis, an archaeologist from
    the University of Oklahoma, who has
    been working for 25 years in Chihua-
    hua (which borders New Mexico and
    trans-Pecos Texas), says the disparity
    between researchers in the American
    sections of the Southwest culture area
    and those in the northern Mexican
    states is stark. In Chihuahua, you can
    usually count all the project directors
    on one hand. In New Mexico and Ari-
    zona, there are hundreds of archae-
    ologists. In the state of Durango,
    which is a large state directly south
    of Chihuahua, there are exactly two
    Ph.D. archaeologists working.
    El Norte de Mxicos inclusion
    in the Southwest may be partly to
    blame for its lack of study. Mexi-
    can archaeologists tend to focus
    on Mesoamerica, as its civiliza-
    tions and massive monuments are
    dramatically more central to the
    countrys cultural identity. The sites
    in northern Mexico, by contrast,
    are less grand and were inhabited
    primarily by bands of foragers, some
    of which developed into 10 loosely
    connected agricultural communities
    and cultural groups. According to
    Villalpando, In northern Mexico,
    evidence of past societies is subtle.
    In general, Mesoamerican archae-
    ologists dont analyze plain ceramics
    or lithic debris, which are abso-
    lutely essential in our study area. It
    is hard to recognize a campsite or
    even a village if your training is with
    mounds or planned settlements.
    years following as the
    drug trade heated up. In
    December 2006, upon
    assuming the presidency
    of Mexico, Felipe Calde-
    rn declared war on the
    drug cartels operating
    within and across his
    countrys borders. As
    cartels jockeyed for con-
    trol of Mexicos borders
    with U.S. states, the
    Mexican army struggled
    to maintain order. Con-
    sequences of the combat included
    an escalation of violence among drug
    traffickers, who joined up to form
    factions, such as the Zetas. Since
    then, American news coverage of the
    region has been replete with images
    of dead bodies and men in ski masks.
    Reports of executions, kidnapping,
    and extortion surface daily. According
    to a June 2011 report by the United
    States Senate Caucus on International
    Narcotics Control, nearly 35,000
    people have been killed by organized
    crime since Caldern took office,
    with more than 15,000 deaths in
    2010. The Mexican government esti-
    mated that roughly 1,400 lives were
    taken each month from January to
    September 2011, as reported by the
    private intelligence company Stratfor.
    Researchers have not been
    expressly targeted in outbreaks of
    violence, but the environment is a
    perilous one. Many find themselves in
    proximity to danger, fearful of being
    caught in the crossfire. Despite this
    situation, a few archaeologists are
    continuing with the projects they
    began decades ago. They have, how-
    ever, had to adapt to the new rules
    of their surroundings. The violence
    is having an impact on the archaeol-
    ogy of a part of North America that
    already has a history of being ignored.
    N
    orthern Mexico remains
    largely unstudied despite
    being situated between two
    of the most intensively researched
    areas in North Americathe south-
    western United States and the Meso-
    tect Mexicos heritage. Days later, the
    narco showed up with a gunman at
    Villalpandos dig house in the town of
    Trincheras, roughly 100 miles south
    of the Arizona border. His message
    was simplehe would do what he
    wanted with the land.
    La Playa is the site of one of the
    earliest agricultural communities in
    the southwestern United States and
    northern Mexico. It covers roughly
    half a square mile and dates back
    4,000 years to the Archaic period,
    when people first made the transi-
    tion from hunting and gathering to
    agriculture. In Mexico, archaeologi-
    cal sites are owned by the federal
    government. The students said Vil-
    lalpando informed the narco of this
    fact and also appealed to the Mexi-
    can courts to issue an injunction.
    In addition, she cleverly courted
    media attention from both Mexican
    and American outlets, which helped
    ensure the safety of her and her
    team. After a legal process that took
    more than six months, La Playa
    became the first archaeological site
    in Mexico without the presence of
    pyramids or large monuments to
    receive federally enforced protec-
    tion. My father recalled the drug
    lord going on television to mag-
    nanimously turn the land over to
    the Mexican people.
    Archaeologists working in north-
    ern Mexico have always maintained
    an uneasy truce with the narcos, a
    reality I only became aware of that
    Thanksgiving in 1997. The situa-
    tion deteriorated markedly in the
    The authors father, Randall McGuire (above, right),
    and Elisa Villalpando chat at Cerro de Trincheras, a site
    where they have worked since the 1980s.
    www.archaeology.org 55
    people of the
    so-called Chi-
    huahua culture
    (also referred
    to as Casas
    Grandes cul-
    ture), including
    elites, artisans,
    and farmers.
    Di Pesos team
    made several
    finds that are
    typical to Meso-
    america, includ-
    ing I-shaped
    ball courtsthe
    only ones of
    their kind found
    in Chihuahua
    cultureand
    evidence of the breeding of scarlet
    macaws, which are native to Meso-
    america. Further, small quantities of
    copper bells, which were produced in
    Mesoamerica, and several ceramics
    featuring Mesoamerican iconography
    were also found.
    Paquim peaked during the Medio
    period, which ran from 1250 to 1450
    and was characterized by the con-
    struction of continuous, multistory
    adobe apartments and the manufac-
    ture of pottery with black and red
    paint on off-white to brown back-
    grounds. But later research disputes
    Di Pesos claim that it was the epicen-
    ter of Chihuahua culture. While no
    one doubts that
    Paquim eventu-
    ally became a
    powerful center,
    it seems to have
    done this only
    after most of
    the region had
    already adopted
    cultural elements
    emblematic of
    the Medio peri-
    od, says Jerimy
    Cunningham,
    an archaeologist
    from the Uni-
    versity of Leth-
    bridge in Alberta,
    The evidence in the area, however,
    along with the remains in Mesoamer-
    ica, is important to the pre-Hispanic
    history of Mexico, Villalpando adds.
    The research she and others conduct
    in northern Mexico offers the public
    a better understanding of the diver-
    sity that existed in the countrys past,
    as well as in its present. My father
    adds, Our attempts to understand
    prehistoric developments on a con-
    tinental scale and the relationships
    between the Southwest and Meso-
    america are severely compromised by
    this lack of research.
    M
    uch of what is known
    stems from work begin-
    ning in the late 1950s by
    archaeologist Charles C. Di Peso of
    the Amerind Foundation, a private,
    nonprofit museum dedicated to pre-
    serving Native American cultures and
    history. He characterized northern
    Mexicos largest site, Paquim (also
    called Casas Grandes), as an indis-
    putable link between the Southwest
    and Mesoamerica. Located in north-
    western Chihuahua, it was one of
    the areas preeminent pre-Hispanic
    towns. Di Peso believed it had been
    established by Mesoamericans who
    had traveled northward.
    Paquims Puebloan-style apart-
    ments typified sites found in the
    American Southwest and are believed
    to have housed several thousand
    Canada. Evidence of polychrome
    pottery in the region surrounding
    Paquim prior to the height of its
    power, for instance, suggests that the
    site may not have been the Meso-
    american trading post Di Peso had
    thought, but rather a product of the
    culture that surrounded it.
    Jane Kelley, an archaeologist from
    the University of Calgary, began the
    Chihuahua Archaeology Project
    (PAC) 20 years ago, digging at sites
    due south of Paquim, between the
    Santa Maria River Valley to the west
    and the Santa Clara River Valley to
    the east. Her work suggests there was
    widespread occupation in the area
    prior to the citys ascendance. Using
    ground-penetrating radar at various
    sites in the region, she and her team
    revealed the presence of numerous
    pithouses dating back to the Viejo
    period (600 to 1250), which imme-
    diately preceded the Medio. Further,
    Kelley reports that her work found
    little evidence of Mesoamerican
    goods at larger sites in west central
    Chihuahua, which casts doubt on
    speculated trade routes from Meso-
    america to Paquim and into the
    American Southwest. A copper bell
    found at the Rancho San Juan site in
    the Babcora Basin, approximately 75
    miles south of Paquim, is one of only
    three reportedly found in the area.
    SONORA
    SINALOA
    Cerro de
    Trincheras Paquim
    (Casas
    Grandes)
    DURANGO
    CHIHUAHUA
    SOUTHWEST CULTURE AREA
    M
    E
    S
    O
    A
    M
    E
    R
    I
    C
    A
    C
    U
    L
    T
    U
    R
    E

    A
    R
    E
    A

    El Norte de Mxico, as Mexican archaeologists sometimes call


    it, comprises the southern section of the Southwest culture
    area and includes almost all of Sonora and Chihuahua, and the
    northernmost points of Sinaloa and Durango.
    The site of Cerro de Trincheras, in Sonora, consists of 900
    terraces built into a hill of black basaltic rock. It once was
    inhabited by up to 2,000 people.
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 56
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    2012 Te Archaeological Institute of America
    O
    ver the
    course of
    three decades
    working at Cerro de
    Trincheras, my father
    and Villalpando have
    attempted to determine
    how the Trincheras and
    Hohokam people coex-
    isted during the so-called El Cerro
    phase of Trincheras culture, from
    1300 to 1450, when the site was first
    constructed. Cerro de Trincheras
    consists of more than 900 terraces
    built on the face of an isolated hill
    of black basaltic rock overlooking
    the small, dusty, modern-day town of
    Trincheras. Spanish military captain
    Juan Mateo Manje named the site,
    which means fortified hill, when he
    visited it in 1694.
    Cerro de Trincheras was likely
    continuously occupied by 1,000 to
    2,000 people over those 150 years.
    My father and Villalpandos excava-
    tions have turned up more than 3
    million artifacts, including ceramic
    sherds and pieces of shell. Remains of
    corn, corn pollen, squash and cotton
    seeds, charred beans, and agave rem-
    nants indicate the inhabitants were
    irrigation agriculturalists who dug
    canals three to four feet deep from
    the Magdalena River about a half-
    mile to the north in order to sustain
    their crops. The Trincheras people
    were major suppliers of shell jewelry
    in the Southwest culture area as evi-
    denced by finds such as ground and
    chipped stone that was used to cut,
    polish, and shape shells. They prob-
    ably traveled more than 60 miles to
    collect 20 or more types of marine
    shell from the Gulf of California.
    In 2006, my father and Villal-
    pando used geographic information
    systems (GIS) technology to conduct
    might have been constructed
    as defensive housing rather
    than for continuous
    domestic occupation.
    The unpredictable
    nature of the violence
    in 2010 caused Chi-
    ykowski to reconsider
    her thesis subject. That
    summer there was a shooting
    on the main street of Namiq-
    uipa, about 15 miles north
    of Oscar Soto Maynez. The
    police forces in two nearby
    towns had disbanded and
    fled. I realized that if I went
    forward, I was really committed,
    she says. I didnt want to risk making
    bad safety decisions because I had left
    myself no other options. She decided
    to start her thesis work from scratch
    and soon shifted her focus 350 miles
    west to the site of Cerro de Trinch-
    eras in Sonora, where my father and
    Elisa Villalpando have worked for
    more than 20 years.
    Chiykowski is now unraveling
    a mystery involving two types of
    simple, everyday-use pottery found
    by my father and Villalpando during
    their excavations. In the late 1200s,
    a community of Hohokam, who lived
    primarily in what is now southern
    Arizona, moved into the neighbor-
    ing Altar Valley, just northwest of
    the site, tripling the population of
    the region. The ceramics were made
    using two distinctive techniques,
    from both the local Trincheras cul-
    ture and the immigrant Hohokam.
    Interestingly, there is a complete
    absence of Trincheras tradition
    ceramics in the Altar Valley after the
    Hohokam occupation in the late
    1200s, which indicates that these
    two communities were not trading
    with each other. Chiykowskis new
    research aims to determine if the
    Hohokam pottery found at Cerro
    de Trincheras was actually made
    by female captives, by examining
    whether the Hohokam-style ceram-
    ics were made with clay composed of
    Trincheras soil. If so, it is likely the
    Hohokam potters were prisoners.
    K
    elley speculates that there
    may have been an alter-
    nate trade route along or
    through the Sierra Madre Occi-
    dental mountain range that edges
    Chihuahuas western border with
    Sonora and Sinaloa. The escalating
    violence in Chihuahua, however, is
    limiting archaeologists access to
    sites and thus a way for Kelley to
    confirm her hypothesis.
    In many ways, I think were on
    the verge of a really productive period
    in Chihuahua archaeology, but its
    being stifled by the violence, says
    Cunningham, who has worked in the
    PAC region since 1992. He originally
    wanted to study the highlands west
    of the Santa Maria River Valley, but
    he settled on focusing his research
    on the comparatively safer Santa
    Clara River Valley where, he explains,
    up until 2010, there hadnt been a
    north-south road, so it was relatively
    untouched by trafficking.
    Kelley, however, pressed on in the
    Santa Maria River Valley, keeping her
    in relative proximity to danger. Upon
    arriving in the town of Oscar Soto
    Maynez, 120 miles south of Paquim,
    for the 2010 dig season, her crew
    discovered that several houses had
    been firebombed, reportedly by two
    cartels vying for control of the town.
    Soon after, Kelley was warned by
    locals that sicarios, or hit men often in
    the employ of the narcos, would be in
    town for municipal elections looking
    for women both willing or unwill-
    ing. She chose to send her female
    crewmembers to Cunninghams camp
    in the Santa Clara River Valley.
    O
    ne of the crewmembers in
    the field with Kelley that
    season was Tanya Chiykows-
    ki, one of my fathers current gradu-
    ate students at Binghamton Univer-
    sity. Violence in the region caused
    her to alter her Ph.D. dissertation
    plans to investigate a series of three
    hilltop settlements in the Santa Maria
    River Valley. When surveying the
    area indicated there were markedly
    few artifacts, she theorized the sites
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 58
    Chihuahua pottery (left) is
    identified by its tricolor motif
    of red and black on an off-
    white or brown background.
    Trincheras ceramics (below)
    are relatively plain.
    wo
    T
    an
    at
    how
    Hoho
    ucted
    her
    oting
    amiq-
    th
    The
    rby
    d
    went
    mmitted,
    Chihuahu
    identified
    of red an
    white o
    Trinch
    are re
    ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012 60
    undisturbed sites that archaeologists
    have identified for excavation. So
    archaeologists take precautions to
    avoid being caught in the crossfire
    between narcos and the military:
    Field seasons are often planned for
    the winter months, when the mari-
    juana harvest is over and drug activity
    is minimal. In Chihuahua, research-
    ers such as Kelley and Cunningham
    drive small Toyota trucks that wont
    be easily mistaken for the American-
    made white SUVs that narcos favor.
    In Sonora, archaeologists frequently
    place magnetic signs with the INAH
    logo on the roofs of their trucks so
    that military helicopters circling
    above them can easily identify them
    as nonthreatening civilians.
    Whereas foreign archaeologists
    lament the difficulties that impact
    their work, they ultimately have a
    choice as to whether to conduct their
    projects in northern Mexico or else-
    where. Their Mexican counterparts
    and the community members who
    help with their excavations, however,
    do not have that luxury. Theyre
    the real victims of the violence,
    says Cunningham. Theyre the ones
    whose family members are caught
    in the crossfire and who perpetually
    have to live in fear of not just the nar-
    cos, but also the measures taken by
    the Mexican and American govern-
    ments to counteract them.
    Archaeology at its best fosters the
    inclusion of the community that lives
    around sites where work is ongoing.
    The economy, especially the tour-
    ist economy, is just dead, says Paul
    Minnis, depriving the people who
    live in the area of an economic life-
    line and often pushing them into the
    drug trade. Excavations offer another
    option. We cant stop doing the
    things that need to be done because
    of the drug dealersthat will make
    it a more difficult situation for the
    whole of Mexico, Villalpando says.
    If we stop doing archaeology, we let
    them take control of everything.

    Kathleen McGuire is a freelance writer
    based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
    a survey of Cerro de Trincheras.
    They found that the terraces and
    walls were placed in a way that would
    have funneled attackers, possibly
    the newly arrived Hohokam, into a
    few routes blocked with defensive
    walls. We have no direct evidence of
    violence, my father says. This is in
    part because the Trincheras people
    cremated their dead, so we would not
    find evidence of it on the bones. In
    order to fully understand the relation-
    ship of the people of Cerro de Trin-
    cheras and the Hohokam culture, fur-
    ther research needs to be conducted
    in the Altar Valley.
    Unfortunately, in January 2009,
    the valley became impassible dur-
    ing a standoff between the Sinaloa
    and Beltrn-Leyva cartels that lasted
    until around February 2011, when the
    Mexican army was able to regain con-
    trol. Only recently have my fathers
    longtime friends who live in the area
    told him that he will now be able to
    visit with relative safety. However,
    while the area continues to improve,
    it is still too unstable for him to be
    able to begin a dig season.
    T
    he violence does not inun-
    date the whole of northern
    Mexico; rather, it ebbs and
    flows through the region over time.
    Cartels primarily assert their domi-
    nance in urban areas. The actual busi-
    ness of producing and transporting
    drugs largely takes place on back
    roads where military checkpoints
    are less likely to be located. These
    remote areas, however, often host
    Archaeologists drive trucks bearing
    Mexicos National Institute of
    Anthropology and History decals so
    they can be easily identified.
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    Photo Credits
    COVERCourtesy University of Basel
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    M.Chazan, Courtesy Sebastiano Tusa, Courtesy
    Historic Scotland Crown Copyright; 14
    Courtesy Xristos Kontoxristos, Courtesy Jose
    Yravedra, Universidad Complutense de Madrid;
    Courtesy Brian Redmond, Cleveland Museum
    of Natural History; Courtesy F. Latreille/
    Mammuthus/MCE; 16Courtesy INAH/
    CONACULTA (3), South Tyrol Museum
    of Archaeology/Eurac/Samadelli/Staschitz;
    18Courtesy Peter Astrup; 20Courtesy
    Manuel Janosa and Archologischer Dienst
    Graubnden;Crown Copyright/MOD 2012,
    Photo:Petty Officer Airman Gaz Armes, Hendrik
    Schmidt/DPA/Landov; 21iStockphoto; 22
    Shutterstock,Courtesy Bjarne Grnnow, National
    Museum of Denmark; Courtesy Christopher Caple,
    University of Durham;Courtesy Mateusz Baca,
    Instytut Genetyki i Biotechnologii, University of
    Warsaw;Courtesy Andrew Pearson, University
    of Bristol;Courtesy Yohannes Haile-Selassie,
    Cleveland Museum of Natural History; 23
    Courtesy Nick Owen, Swansea University;
    CourtesyJonas Chun-yu Chen,Academia
    Sinica, Shutterstock, Copyright Natural History
    Museum, London; 24-25Courtesy Olympic
    Delivery Authority; 26Courtesy The Museum
    of London and Pre-Construct Archaeology
    (2), map Courtesy Gary Brown; 27Courtesy
    The Museum of London and Pre-Construct
    Archaeology; 28-32All Courtesy University
    of Basel Kings Valley Project; 33-38All
    Courtesy of the Iklaina Project; 39Courtesy
    National Geographic Society; 40-41 All Courtesy
    Jason Ur, Harvard University, and Bjorn Menze,
    Massachusetts Institute of Technology (4);
    42-43Courtesy Fred Hocker,Swedish National
    Maritime Museums; 44Courtesy Swedish
    National Maritime Museums, Archive;Swedish
    National Maritime Museums, Photo:Karolina
    Kristensson; CourtesySwedish National Maritime
    Museums, Photo:Photo Anneli Karlsson; 45
    Courtesy Fred Hocker,Swedish National Maritime
    Museums;CourtesySwedish National Maritime
    Museums, Photo:Photo Anneli Karlsson; 47
    Courtesy Mahan Kalpa Khalsa; 48-50Courtesy
    Claude Doumet-Serhal; 53Courtesy Randall
    McGuire, Binghamton University; 54Courtesy
    Randall McGuire, Binghamton University; 55
    Adriel Heisey; 58Courtesy Randall McGuire,
    Binghamton University; 60Courtesy Randall
    McGuire, Binghamton University; 68Courtesy
    University of Cambridge
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    F
    rom November 1862 to June
    1863, Staord County, Virginia,
    was home to over 130,000 Union
    soldiers housed in military encamp-
    ments that occupied thousands of
    acres of the Virginia countryside.
    Te soldiers spent their time in the
    encampments recovering from injuries
    and sickness; building roads, fortica-
    tions, and winter huts; digging latrines;
    collecting rewood; and drilling in
    preparation for future battles. Most of
    the soldiers (more than 3,500 troops
    died in these camps) left for Gettys-
    burg in 1863, after which the Union
    Army abandoned Staord County.
    Today the sites of many of these
    encampments lie within the bound-
    ary of a regional landll that is jointly
    owned by Staord County and the
    City of Fredericksburg. In 2006,
    the Friends of Staord Civil War
    Sites (FSCWS), in response to the
    encroaching landll, began work-
    ing with local o cials to preserve
    the sites through the creation of a
    publicly accessible park with roads
    and trails linking the historic features
    contained within. In the years that
    followed, archaeological studies to
    determine the extent of the historic
    sites were conducted, some prelimi-
    nary engineering work was under-
    taken, materials were secured, and the
    all-important process of raising funds
    for the project was initiated. In July
    2011 construction of the park began
    with the help of a federally approved
    Innovative Readiness Training Exer-
    cise proposed by the FSCWS to
    the Virginia Army National Guards
    276th Engineer Battalion.
    EXCAVATE, EDUCATE, ADVOCATE www.archaeological.org
    Site Preservation grant benets Civil War sites
    in Stafford, Virginia
    64
    AIA fourth annual Spring Gala a huge success;
    celebrates Turkish archaeology and culture
    T
    he Archaeological Insti-
    tute of America held its
    fourth Spring Gala at Capitale
    in New York City on April 25, 2012.
    Te event, hosted by National Pub-
    lic Radios Brooke Gladstone and
    attended by nearly 300 friends of the
    AIA, celebrated Turkish archaeol-
    ogy and culture. Te highlight of the
    evening was the presentation of the
    In March 2012, the Archaeological
    Institute of America (AIA) Site Pres-
    ervation Program awarded FSCWS
    a grant to assist with the preservation
    of these sites and the creation of the
    park. Te AIA grant will be used to
    protect the site from development,
    as well as to educate local residents
    and visitors on the rich history of the
    area. As a part of this process, eight
    interpretive signs will be installed at
    strategic points around the park to
    inform visitors about the sites and the
    history of the area.
    Te Staord Civil War Park Site
    includes visible remains of the win-
    ter encampments and huts, three
    large Union artillery batteries, ruins
    of a preCivil War bridge, an old
    sandstone quarry, and roads built by
    soldiers of the Unions 11th Corps,
    Army of the Potomac. By opening
    the park during the Civil War Ses-
    quicentennial celebrations, FSCWS
    plans to remind visitors about an
    important chapter in United States
    history and shed light on the lives of
    the more than 130,000 Union sol-
    diers who spent a winter and spring
    in Staord County during the Civil
    War. To learn more about the AIA
    Site Preservation Program and to
    read about the other projects that we
    support, please visit
    www.archaeological.org/
    sitepreservation
    events. Trough table and ticket
    sales, silent and live auctions, and
    targeted pledge drives, the AIA uses
    the Galas to raise funds for its vari-
    ous outreach programs. At this years
    event, a special pledge drive was held
    to raise funds for the AIA Site Pres-
    ervation Program. A portion of the
    money raised will be used to support
    a project that is working to conserve
    the wreck of Queen Annes Revenge
    agship of the notorious pirate Black-
    beard. Queen Annes Revenge now
    rests o the coast of North Carolina
    in an area that is threatened by fre-
    quent hurricanes and severe storms.
    Te funds will be used to assist with
    the conservation of the thousands of
    artifacts recovered from the wreck
    and to create educational programs
    that will inform the public about the
    site and shipwreck.
    To read more about the 2012 Gala,
    please visit www.archaeological.org/gala
    65
    D
    i
    s
    p
    a
    t
    c
    h
    e
    s

    f
    r
    o
    m

    t
    h
    e

    A
    I
    A









    E
    x
    c
    a
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    a
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    e
    ,

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    ,

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    a
    t
    e

    Bandelier Award for Public Service
    to Archaeology to renowned archae-
    ologist Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr.,
    for his exemplary work at the site of
    Sardis in Turkey. Greenewalt, one
    of the worlds leading authorities on
    the archaeology of Asia Minor, was
    eld director of the Sardis project for
    more than 30 years. He joins previous
    Bandelier Award recipients George F.
    Bass, Martha Sharp Joukowsky, and
    Harrison Ford.
    Te Turkish theme was highlight-
    ed in the decor and through an exqui-
    site dinner created by Capitales chefs
    in collaboration with archaeologists
    familiar with the cuisines of ancient
    Lydia, the Ottoman Empire, and
    present-day Turkey. Te unique dish-
    es created for the Gala incorporated
    traditional Turkish ingredients, both
    ancient and modern, and were paired
    with Turkish wines and rakian
    unsweetened, anise-avored liqueur
    popular as an aperitif in Turkey.
    While the Galas are opportunities
    to celebrate archaeology, archaeolo-
    gists, and ancient cultures, they are
    also the Institutes largest fund-raising
    AIA President, Elizabeth Bartman and
    AIA CEO, Peter Herdrich.
    Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr., given Bandelier
    Award for outstanding work at Sardis, Turkey
    S
    ardis was the capital of
    ancient Lydia and home to King
    Croesus. For more than half a
    century, Crawford H. Greenewalt,
    Jr., worked on the Archaeologi-
    cal Exploration of Sardis, a project
    cosponsored by Harvard University
    Art Museums and Cornell Univer-
    sity. Greenewalt started at Sardis in
    1959 as the sites rst o cial photog-
    rapher and eventually became its eld
    directora position he held for over
    30 years, from 1976 to 2008. Trough
    his tenure at Sardis and other sites in
    Turkey, Greenewalt, or Greenie, as his
    many friends and colleagues came to
    know him, became one of the worlds
    leading authorities on Lydian culture.
    At the 2012 AIA Spring Gala, the
    Institute honored Greenewalt with the
    Bandelier Award for Public Service to
    Archaeology for his exemplary work
    at Sardis. His exceptional scholarship,
    mentoring abilities, and generosity have
    The AIAs Spring Gala featured Turkish-
    themed food (left). Guests mingled at New
    Yorks Capitale, site of the festivities.
    made him an ideal recipient for this
    honor. Tree distinguished AIA mem-
    bers, who worked and studied with
    Greenewalt, oered words of tribute at
    the award presentation. Following are
    some excerpts from their remarks.
    C. Brian Rose, AIA Past President
    and James B. Pritchard Professor
    of Archaeology at the University of
    Pennsylvania: I rst met Greenie
    when I was a very young graduate
    student. But Greenie, to my surprise,
    treated me as a senior scholar in the
    eld. It is this unusual altruism that
    has marked Greenies career at Sardis,
    as well as his contributions to archae-
    ology in Turkey he was willing
    to use the enormous breadth of his
    knowledge and vision to bring our
    scholarship to a level that it would
    otherwise not have reached. And he
    would often put aside his own work
    in order to do it.
    George F. Bass, 2011 Bande-
    lier Award Winner and Professor
    Emeritus at Texas A&M: In spite
    of his accomplishments, he remains
    unassuming and modest. He has the
    special gift of making you feel that
    you are the one person he is most
    delighted to see at that moment.
    Fikret Yegul, member of the Sardis
    Archaeological Expedition and Profes-
    sor in the Department of Art History
    at the University of California, Santa
    Barbara: Greenies connection to Ana-
    tolian archaeology was not limited by
    his obvious contributions to Lydian
    art and culture as the primary excava-
    tor of Sardis. Rather, it was shaped
    by his deep and genuine interest in
    and appreciation of Turkish/Anato-
    lian culture as a totalityits history,
    literature, music, its simple everyday
    sensibilities and humorarchaeology
    representing only a part of his broad,
    humanistic contextual perspective.
    It is with great sadness that we must
    report that Professor Greenewalt
    passed away just days after this trib-
    ute to his work and career. Te AIA
    extends its condolences to his family,
    friends, and colleagues.
    66
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    E
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    e

    AIA partnerships and collaborationsSAA and EAA
    P
    lans for the second National
    Archaeology Day (October 20, 2012)
    are well under way, and interest in
    the event is growing. More than 30 orga-
    nizations have signed on as Collaborating
    Organizationsa signicant increase from
    the 14 that joined last year. Once again, col-
    laborators range from large national orga-
    nizations to smaller regional museums and
    local archaeological organizations. A major
    participant in this years event is the National
    Park Service, which is encouraging its almost
    400 facilities to mark the day with public
    programming. Overall, planners expect the
    2012 event to be signicantly larger than last
    years inau-
    gural events,
    with many
    more oppor-
    tunities for
    people to
    participate in
    archaeologi-
    cal activities
    and events.
    We have also
    increased National Archaeology Days digital
    presence. You can now like us on Facebook
    and follow us on Twitter and Pinterest. You
    can read more about National Archaeology
    Day at www.nationalarchaeologyday.org
    NATI ONAL
    ARCHAEOLOGY
    DAY
    OCTOBE R 2 0 , 2 0 1 2
    Archaeological Institute of America
    www. nati onal archaeol ogyday. org
    T
    he AIA is prioritizing the creation of partnerships and col-
    laborations with other like-minded organizations, and in the
    past few years the Institute has increased cooperative actions
    and eorts with groups such as the Society for American Archaeol-
    ogy (SAA), the American Anthropological Association (AAA),
    the European Association of Archaeologists (EAA), and the World
    Archaeological Congress (WAC).
    In April, representatives from the AIA attended the 77th Annual
    Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology (April 811,
    2012) in Memphis, Tennessee. Ben Tomas, AIA Director of Pro-
    grams, and Meredith Anderson Langlitz, AIA Senior Programs
    Coordinator, presented papers titled, National Archaeology Day
    and Public Outreach and Sustainable Preservation: Te Future
    of Saving the Past. Te paper on National Archaeology Day was
    presented in a symposium called Public Archaeology in the 21st
    Century and focused on using large-scale events like National
    Archaeology Day to raise public awareness of archaeology. Te site
    preservation paper was presented in a session called, Papers about
    Heritage and Management of Cultural Property and discussed the
    compilation of best practices in site preservation based on the nd-
    ings of the AIA Site Preservation Program. AIA representatives
    serve on several SAA committees and the Institute has a presence in
    the Annual Meetings exhibit hall.
    From August 30 to September 1, 2012, AIA representatives
    will attend the 18th Annual Meeting of the European Association
    of Archaeologists in Helsinki, Finland. At last years meeting in
    Oslo, Norway, AIA and EAA representatives met to discuss greater
    cooperation between the two groups. Subsequently, eorts have
    been made to cross-promote events and encourage members of each
    organization to participate in the others events. In Helsinki, AIA
    representatives will present academic papers and will have an exhibit
    in the book room. We encourage all AIA members to participate in
    the 18th Annual Meeting of the EAA in Helsinki.
    Second National
    Archaeology Day is
    October 20, 2012
    call: 800-748-6262 web site: www.aiatours.org email: aia@studytours.org
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    ARTIFACT
    68 ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2012
    A
    t a time when Christianity was rst starting to take root in England, a
    teenage girl was buried still wearing the stunning gold and jeweled cross
    she had sewn to her clothing during her short life. She was laid to rest on
    an ornamental bed covered with a straw mattress, where she remained
    for more than 1,300 years, preserving evidence not only of the extremely unusual practice
    of bed burial, but also of her high status and her faith. In fact, the girls grave is one of
    the earliest Anglo-Saxon Christian burial
    sites in Britain. It dates from a brief
    perioda century at mostwhen particular
    traditions of pagan religion, such as the bed
    burial and the inclusion of
    grave goods, coexisted
    with the Christian belief
    in the continuation of
    the soul, but not the
    body, after death.
    According to Alison
    Dickens of Cambridge University,
    who led the excavation, to nd a bed
    burial is remarkableonly 15 have been
    uncovered in the United Kingdombut to nd one
    in combination with a gold pectoral cross, of which
    there are only ve known, is extraordinary. We think
    theres only been one other such burial, which was
    found in nearby Suolk, explains Dickens, but it was
    uncovered in the nineteenth century and the records are
    very unclear. With the application of modern scientic
    techniques, archaeologists hope to tell more of the girls story.
    The mysteries of who she was, why she was here, and why her
    grave merited such lavish treatment, says Dickens, have certainly
    captured our imagination!
    WHAT IS IT?
    Pectoral in the shape
    of a cross
    DATE
    7th century A.D.
    MATERIAL
    Gold and garnet
    FOUND
    Trumpington
    Meadows,
    Cambridgeshire,
    England
    DIMENSIONS
    1.4 inches in diameter
    Christian burial
    om a brief
    twhen particular
    on, such as the bed
    f
    niversity,
    o nd a bed
    y 15 have been
    e

    s story.
    why her
    ve certainly
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