Archaeology 20120304

July/August 2009 www.archaeology.
org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America March/April 2012

HMS Investigator : Diving an Arctic Shipwreck
The Source of
Romes Lost
Aqueduct
PLUS:
Pyramid of the Sun,
New Viking Ruler,
First Fish Hooks,
Sex Pistols Graffiti
Return
to the
Trail of Tears
Coronados
Deadly Siege
Designed to meet the demand for lifelong learning,
The Great Courses is a highly popular series of
audio and video lectures led by top professors
and experts. Each of our more than 350 courses
is an intellectually engaging experience that will
change how you think about the world. Since
1990, over 10 million courses have been sold.
Great Pharaohs of
Ancient Egypt
Taught by Professor Bob Brier
long island university
lecture titles
1. King NarmerThe Unication
of Egypt
2. SneferuThe Pyramid Builder
3. HatshepsutFemale Pharaoh
4. AkhenatenHeretic Pharaoh
5. TutankhamenThe Lost Pharaoh
6. TutankhamenA Murder Theory
7. Ramses the GreatThe Early Years
8. Ramses the GreatThe
Twilight Years
9. The Great NubiansEgypt Restored
10. Alexander the Great
Anatomy of a Legend
11. The First Ptolemies
Greek Greatness
12. CleopatraThe Last Pharaoh
Great Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt
Course no. 3588 | 12 lectures (30 minutes/lecture)
L
I
M
I
T
E
D
TIM
E
O
F
F
E
R
70%
off
O
R
D
E
R
BY M
A
Y

1
4
Meet Ancient Egypts
Greatest Rulers
Egyptian pharaohs were once exalted as gods, and they shaped more than
3,000 years of ancient history. Join acclaimed Egyptologist and award-
winning Professor Bob Brier as he brings these powerful gures down to
Earth with Great Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, an unforgettable 12-lecture
exploration of the lives and legacies of this civilizations iconic leaders.
Among the many captivating characters youll meet are Narmer, the rst
king of unied Egypt; Sneferu, who perfected the art of building pyramids;
Akhenaten, the rst person in recorded history to proclaim the existence
of a single god; and other famous gures including Ramses the Great,
Tutankhamen, and Cleopatra. By the time you nish the nal lecture, youll
have peered into almost every aspect of ancient Egyptian life, from magic and
mummication to hieroglyphs and art to farming and astronomy. And youll
nally discover what made ancient Egypt one of the greatest civilizations
human history.
Ofer expires 05/14/12
1-800-832-2412
www.thegreatcourses.com/3ar
DVD $199.95NOW $39.95
CD $134.95NOW $24.95
+$5 Shipping, Processing, and Lifetime Satisfaction Guarantee
Priority Code: 63595
SAVE UP TO $160
24 Saga of the
Northwest Passage
Discovering evidence of an
ill-fated mission in the frigid
waters of the Arctic
BY ALLAN WOODS
32 New Life for the Lion Man
Using recently uncovered
fragments, archaeologists may be
able to finally piece together one of
the worlds oldest works of art
BY JARRETT A. LOBELL
34 Romes Lost Aqueduct
Searching for the source of one of
the citys greatest engineering
achievements
BY RABUN TAYLOR
41 Coronados Deadly Siege
Hundreds of metal artifacts pinpoint
the possible site of a bloody battle
between conquistadores and a
Puebloan people
BY JULIAN SMITH
46 Te Pearl Trade
Archaeologists excavating on the
shores of the Persian Gulf search for
what may prove to be the source of
the worlds longest-lived economy
BY ANDREW LAWLER
CONTENTS
MARCH/APRIL 2012
VOLUME 65, NUMBER 2
features
24 Parks Canada archaeologists
examine the top-yard truss of HMS
Investigator, a polar vessel that sank
after becoming trapped in ice in 1853.
It is not known why this piece of the
ship was buried on shore.
1
Cover: The grotto of Santa Fiora,
where the Roman aqueduct Aqua Traiana
may have had its source.
COURTESY OF RABUN TAYLOR
departments
16
4 Editors Letter
6 From the President
8 Letters
Remembering a coal-mining past, alternate uses
for a fulacht adh, and is this a cave painting of a
rhinoceros or an elephant?
14
10
16
10
More from this Issue
Head to www.archaeology.org/investigator
to take a video tour of the shipwreck
and to see a slideshow of paintings of the
vessel done by a crewmember. To see footage
of archaeologists tracing the source of
Romes Aqua Traiana, go to
www.archaeology.org/aqueducts
Interactive Digs Read about
the latest discoveries at the Minoan site of
Zominthos in central Crete; at Johnsons
Island, a Civil War site in Ohio; and at
El Carrizal in Veracruz.
Archaeological News from around
the worldupdated by 1 p.m. ET every
weekday. And sign up for our e-Update so you
dont miss a thing.
Stay in Touch Visit Facebook to like
ARCHAEOLOGY or follow us on Twitter at
@archaeologymag.
9 From the Trenches
Archaeologists uncover artifacts from the
dedication of Teotihuacans Pyramid of the Sun, new
nds at Stonehenge, DNA veries the authenticity
of Paleolithic dappled horses, and the
Sex Pistols were here.
22 World Roundup
Infant remains tell how common breastfeeding
was in nineteenth-century England, a luxury Swiss
watchmaker is inspired by the Antikythera mechanism,
where diplomats visiting Japan once dined, and
drought reveals remains of space shuttle Columbia.
53 Letter from Tennessee
Excavations at the untouched site of a U.S. Army
fort are providing a rare look at the Trail of Tears,
along which thousands of Cherokee were forcibly
moved to Oklahoma.
68 Artifact
A coin from a more than 1,000-year-old Viking hoard
reveals the name of a previously unknown king.
on the web
www.archaeology.org
2012 Cfncc of thc Govcrnor, Economic Lcvclopmcnt and Tourism.

Follow your own path in
T
exas.
To plan your own Texas
adventure or to order your FREE Texas State Travel Guide,
Accommodations Guide and Texas Map,
visit Travel Tex.com.
Our Need to Know
O
ur need to know who we are pushes us to discover what weve been. Some answers
come to us from a variety of quarters and in a variety of ways in this issue.
In Saga of the Northwest Passage (page 24), reporter Allan Woods takes us
to Mercy Bay in the high Arctic, the locus of activity surrounding the excavation of HMS
Investigator. This vessel originally set out in 1850 to rescue other ships of the British Navy
that were looking for the Northwest Passage. Instead, Investigator became trapped in ice
and eventually sank. Now a Parks Canada underwater team is bringing her crews heroic
story back to life.
Human endeavor could be seen as operating
on an equally grand scale in the engineering
works of the Roman Empire. Archaeologist
Rabun Taylor, in Romes Lost Aqueduct (page
34), writes of his teams search for the sources
of the monumental Aqua Traiana far north
of Romeand offers an invaluable primer in
hydraulics in How a Roman Aqueduct Works.
By contrast, artifacts of the slightest, most
delicate sort are beginning to tell a tale in
the Persian Gulf. As archaeologists unearth
evidence of pearl diving and trade going back
some 7,000 years, contributing editor Andrew
Lawlers story, The Pearl Trade (page 46),
tells us that human fascination with pearls for
personal ornamentation may have been the
regions first economic driver long before
the age of oil.
In Letter From Tennessee: Return to the
Trail of Tears (page 53), writer Marion Black-
burn brings us word of excavations in the
Cherokee National Forest. There, archaeolo-
gists from two universities and the U.S. Forest Service are uncovering evidence of both the
trail itself and Fort Armistead, one of the many stops along the way for the 13,000 Cherokee
who were forcibly relocated out of the Appalachians in 1838. The work is instrumental in
keeping evidence of this chapter in United States history from being lost forever.
And, in New Life for the Lion Man (page 32), by executive editor Jarrett A. Lobell, we are
treated to what a more than 30,000-year-old work of art would have looked like as archaeolo-
gists endeavor to restore it. We arent ashamed to say that we fell in love with Lion Man.
Of course theres more from new evidence of a Viking king to the latest findings of
Coronados ignoble expedition, from new discoveries at Teotihuacan to the preservation
of punk rock graffiti.
ARCHAEOLOGY March/April 2012 4
EDITORS LETTER
Editor in Chief
Claudia Valentino
Executive Editor Deputy Editor
Jarrett A. Lobell Samir S. Patel
Senior Editors
Nikhil Swaminathan
Zach Zorich
Editorial Assistant Intern
Malin Grunberg Banyasz Jessica Woodard
Creative Director
Richard Bleiweiss
Contributing Editors
Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn, Bob Brier,
Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar, Brian Fagan,
David Freidel, Tom Gidwitz, Andrew Lawler
Stephen H. Lekson, Jerald T. Milanich,
Jennifer Pinkowski, Heather Pringle,
Angela M. H. Schuster, Neil Asher Silberman
Correspondents
Athens: Yannis N. Stavrakakis
Bangkok: Karen Coates
Islamabad: Massoud Ansari
Israel: Mati Milstein
Naples: Marco Merola
Paris: Bernadette Arnaud
Rome: Roberto Bartoloni,
Giovanni Lattanzi
Washington, D.C.: Sandra Scham
Publisher
Peter Herdrich
Associate Publisher
Kevin Quinlan
Director of Circulation and Fulllment
Kevin Mullen
Vice President of Sales and Marketing
Meegan Daly
Director of Integrated Sales
Gerry Moss
Inside Sales Representative
Karina Casines
West Coast Account Manager
Cynthia Lapporte
Oak Media Group
cynthia@oakmediagroup.com
323-493-2754
Circulation Consultant
Greg Wolfe, Circulation Specialists, Inc.
Newsstand Consultant
T.J. Montilli,
Publishers Newstand Outsource, LLC
Ofce Manager
Malin Grunberg Banyasz
For production questions,
contact production@archaeology.org
Editorial Advisory Board
James P. Delgado, Ellen Herscher,
Ronald Hicks, Jean-Jacques Hublin,
Mark Lehner, Roderick J. McIntosh,
Susan Pollock, Jeremy A. Sablo,
Kenneth B. Tankersley
Subscription questions and address
changes should be sent to Archaeology,
Subscription Services,
P.O. Box 433091 Palm Coast, FL 32164
toll free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782),
or subscriptions@archaeology.org
ARCHAEOLOGY MAGAZINE
36-36 33rd Street, Long Island City, NY 11106
tel 718-472-3050 fax 718-472-3051
Claudia Valentino
Editor in Chief
YES, I am replying within 14 days and claim my
free deluxe Oxford reference books which are mine
to keep whatever I decide.
Plus your FREE gift
(please tick box)
EMPIRES
of the
ANCIENT
WORLD
The denitive
7-volume collection
Yours for only
$19.95
(shipping is FREE)
The Maya The Aztecs The Incas The Hittites
The Babylonians The Egyptians The Persians
of our books are less than $50. Our books are
not available in bookstores.
The Folio Society, established in England in
1947, publishes books for dedicated readers
who wish to rediscover the pleasures of the ne
edition at an affordable price.
Why not start your collection today? Simply
ll out and return the coupon today to take
advantage of this special introductory offer or
call Toll Free (24 hours) on 1-800-353-0700.
T HE F OL I O S OC I E T Y
P.O. Box 8018, Aston, PA 19014
www.joinfolio.com
A
s your introduction to The Folio Society, we
are offering you this unique beautifully
bound set worth $398.80 for just $19.95.
Plus, reply within 14 days and you will receive a
deluxe set of The Compact Oxford Dictionary and
Thesaurus in bonded leather, worth $104
yours FREE just for replying.
Empires of the Ancient Near East is a
lavishly illustrated chronicle of the four major
civilizations the Hittites, the Babylonians,
the Egyptians and the Persians to emerge
between the end of the Stone Age and the
advent of Hellenistic Greece. It encompasses
the invention of the wheel to the rise of Persia
as the rst great superpower. Empires of Early
Latin America, meanwhile, charts the three
empires which dominated Central and South
America between the third and the sixteenth
centuries AD. As their art and architecture
indicates, the Maya, the Aztecs and the Incas
were bold and brilliant people, and these books
show how signicant they are to an under-
standing of how civilization developed outside
the Christian world.
The Folio Society does not send you
unsolicited books or choices of the month. In
return for this special offer all you need to do is
order four books from the catalogue, nothing more.
Our current publications include history
and eye-witness accounts, classic and modern
ction, short stories, notable biographies,
poetry, memoirs, childrens books, humour,
legend and authoritative books on the classical
world. Prices start as low as $37.95 and many
The Folio Society Promise
You will never be sent a book you have not ordered.
To: The Membership Secretary, The Folio Society,
P.O. Box 8018, Aston, PA 19014, Fax:1-610-532-9001
Please accept my application for FREE trial membership of The Folio Society and send me Empires of the Ancient
World, together with the Folio catalogue and my FREE set of Oxford reference books. If I agree to purchase at least
4 books from your catalogue I will be billed only $19.95 for Empires of the Ancient World (including shipping and
handling). If I am not satised for any reason I will return the introductory set within 21 days. My membership
will be cancelled and I will owe nothing. I understand that as a member of The Folio Society I have the right to return
any book if I am not completely satised. The Oxford reference books are mine to keep whatever I decide.
Title Name Date
Address
BLOCK CAPITALS PLEASE
City State Zipcode
Please allow 21 days for delivery. Applications subject to approval. Send no money now. Promo=KHCX11
The Compact
Oxford English
Dictionary and
The Oxford
Compact
Thesaurus
Two essential
reference books in
blue bonded leather
with gold blocking
Worth
$104
Save
$482.85
Reply Today and Save $482.85
ORDER TOLL FREE 1-800-353-0700
KHCX12
E
ACH YEAR AT ITS annual winter meeting, the Archaeologi-
cal Institute of America observes a moment of silence in
honor of members who have died during the prior year.
It stands as a moving tribute to individual achievement and as a
reminder of our collective identity as an organization devoted to
archaeology. I would like to remember just a few of these indi-
viduals here. As you will see, people come to archaeology from
many quarters and contribute to it in many ways.
William Lawrence Larry Lehman III (19502011), a longtime
member and president of the Dallas/Ft. Worth Society, exempli-
fied the volunteer spirit that infuses our AIA societies. He taught
history and logistics management at Richland College in Dallas, and in its Rome Study Abroad
program. Lehman, who was also a business consultant, first became interested in archaeology
when he enrolled in a summer course at the field school run by Greg Warden, at the Etruscan
site of Poggio Colla, near Florence. Thereafter, from 2002 to 2007, Lehman brought his
considerable talents to the position of operations manager for the site.
Frederick A. Cooper (19362011), a member of the Minneapolis Society, taught at the
University of Minnesota for most of his academic career. An inspiring professor beloved
by his many students, he was awarded the AIAs first Undergraduate Teaching Award in
1996. Although best known for his work on the Temple of Apollo at Bassae in Greece,
a study to which he devoted more than 20 years, he also wrote on such decidedly non-
Greek and nonarchitectural topics as Duccios iconic painting, the Maest. In his many
field projects in Greeceamong them the Bronze-Age Palace of Nestor at Pylos, and
the Heroon at MesseneCooper combined a broad knowledge of antiquity with deep
technical expertise in surveying.
The death of Lewis Binford (19312011) in April made national headlines. Father of
the new archaeology, Binford moved the discipline beyond a narrow focus on collecting
and cataloguing artifacts by applying the scientific method to the study of the human
past. He is also known for using anthropological theory to solve archaeological problems.
His pioneering study of caribou hunting among Alaskan Eskimos, and what it tells us
about ancient hunters, constituted a new approach, which we now call ethnoarchaeology.
In his later years, in order to understand how cultures might be shaped by factors such
as climate change, Binford constructed a database using information from more than
300 traditional cultures.
Dedication, passion, and innovation defined the lives of these different individuals. For
each of them, archaeology was a central concern, and each responded to the discipline in
his own way. Together, their lives exemplify the breadth of archaeology and the many ways
in which it touches peoples lives.
FROM THE PRESIDENT
Elizabeth Bartman
President, Archaeological Institute of America
Archaeological
Institute of America
Located at Boston University
OFFICERS
President
Elizabeth Bartman
First Vice President
Andrew Moore
Vice President for Outreach and Education
Pamela Russell
Vice President for Professional Responsibilities
Laetitia LaFollette
Vice President for Publications
John Younger
Vice President for Societies
Thomas Morton
Treasurer
Brian J. Heidtke
Chief Executive Officer
Peter Herdrich
Chief Operating Officer
Kevin Quinlan
GOVERNING BOARD
Susan Alcock
Michael Ambler
Carla Antonaccio
Cathleen Asch
Barbara Barletta
David Boochever
Julie Herzig Desnick
Michael Galaty
Greg Goggin
Ronald Greenberg
Michael Hoff
Jeffrey Lamia
Lynne Lancaster
Robert Littman
Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Heather McKillop
Shilpi Mehta
Naomi Norman, ex officio
Maria Papaioannou
Eleanor Powers
Paul Rissman
Glenn Schwartz
David Seigle
Chen Shen
Charles Steinmetz
Douglas Tilden
Claudia Valentino, ex officio
Shelley Wachsmann
Ashley White
John J. Yarmick
Past President
C. Brian Rose
Trustees Emeriti
Norma Kershaw
Charles S. LaFollette
Legal Counsel
Mitchell Eitel, Esq.
Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP
Archaeological Institute of America
656 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02215-2006
www.archaeological.org
Dedicated and True
LETTERS
Mining Memories of
West Virginia
As a native West Virginian, I trav-
eled U.S. 119 many times and crossed
Blair Mountain (Mountaintop Res-
cue, January/February 2012). Being the
granddaughter of two coal miners, I
have experienced life in coal camps or
company communities. I remember
miners, black from head to foot, and
widows struggling.
The mountains may be foreverthe
coal is not. Alternative and sustain-
able energy is possible and profitable
without destroying the environment
to reap profits from finite resources in
such a manner.
Beverly Henderson
Jackson, OH
Alternative Uses for
Fulachta Fia
I am a weaver, and the first thing that
came to mind when I saw the photo of
the fulacht fiadh (Mystery of the Fulacht
Fiadh, January/February 2012) was that
they might have been used as retting
(soaking) ponds for making flax into linen.
Kristine Franklin
Hibbing, MN
The Irish of the day were concerned
with cattle and hunting. One of the big
threats to large animals in boggy areas
is losing the animal in the bog. The ani-
mals, domestic or wild, try to go to open
water to drink but then get trapped. So
why not make a simple structure that
gathers water short of the dangerous
areas? These troughs would likely get
stale after a period of time and become
havens for all sorts of nasty parasites.
Why not drop in a few hot rocks and
purify the water?
Brian and Wendy Connolly
Pittsburgh, PA
ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from
readers. Please address your comments
to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,
Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
3051, or e-mail letters@arch a eology.org.
The editors reserve the right to edit
submitted material. Vol ume precludes
our acknowledging individual letters.
I would suggest that these constructions
were used for the tanning of leather.
Many of the site characteristics you
mentionlocal water source, soaking
tub, wood ashes, heated rocks, and local
botanicals, like peat or tree barkare all
important in tanning. Also, the isolation
from dwellings coincides with traditional
locations of tanneries because of the
stench of the process.
Kelvin Kreymborg
Denver, CO
Rhinoceros? Or Elephant?
In Drawing Paleolithic Romania (Janu-
ary/February 2012), we ran a photo from
Coliboaia Cave and wrote that it clearly
shows a rhinoceros. Many readers wrote us
to dispute our (and the researchers) inter-
pretation. Here are a few of the comments:
The drawing looks much more like
an elephant with its trunk raised. The
points that may look like rhinoceros
horns are probably tusks.
Cinda Glenn
Cincinnati, OH
Perhaps the rhinoceros is behind the
elephant.
John P. Taylor
West Plains, MO
Cave art expert Jean Clottes responds:
We always interpret images with what we
know best, which may be misleading when
out of context. In the Ice Age, there were no
elephants in Europe, only mammothsand
Paleolithic artists did not draw them like
that. In particular, they always showed the
big hump of the mammoths head in strong
relief. The Coliboaia rhino head is quite
typical of the way they rendered rhinos, with
their two horns and sketchy ears.
C
ROW
C
ANYON
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CENTER
Discover the Past, Share the Adventure
C
S
T

2
0
5
9
3
4
7
-
5
0
800.422.8975
www.crowcanyon.org/travel
Family
Archaeology
Week
Excavate alongside
professional
archaeologists & study
artifacts in the lab.
Sessions in June, July,
August, & October, 2012
Archaeology
Research
Program
Make your
family vacation
an archaeology
adventure! Fun,
hands-on activities.
Sessions
July 2228, 2012
Getting ahead
in archaeology
School of Archaeology and Ancient History
Distance Learning
Studying a distance learning programme means
you can achieve an academic qualication without
taking a career break. Were one of the top
on-campus archaeology schools in the UK with
the highest possible grade for teaching quality.
s New in 2012: BA Programmes
s MA in Archaeology & Heritage
s MA in The Classical Mediterranean
s MA in Historical Archaeology
s Postgraduate Certicates
s Research Degrees
Introductory courses also available.
Get ahead, get in touch
www.le.ac.uk/archaeology
+44 (0)116 252 2772/3360
archdl@le.ac.uk
LATE-BREAKING NEWS AND NOTES FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
A
rchaeologists working in a
tunnel beneath Teotihua-
cans Pyramid of the Sun
have unearthed two caches of arti-
facts that may have been meant to
consecrate the massive buildings
construction around A.D. 200. The
ancient city, which lies about 40
miles north of Mexico City, was
once a major spiritual center with
the Pyramid of the Sun as its largest
monument. The research team, led by Alejandro Sarabia of
Mexicos National Institute of Anthropology and History,
expanded a tunnel that was originally excavated in the 1930s
and dug additional tunnels out to the sides. The tunnels
revealed a small artifact cache near the center of the pyramid
and another larger cache about 125 feet away. The excavations
also uncovered four sacricial buri-
als, three of them holding children,
in dierent locations.
The cache at the center of the
pyramid contained a pyrite and slate disk with a human
gure made of obsidian placed on top of it. Projectile points
as well as seashells and a few stone blades surrounded the
gure. The larger cache comprised 11 clay pots dedicated
to a rain god, obsidian and stone blades, projectile points,
the bones of an eagle, and fragments of feline and canine
Under the Pyramid of the Sun
www.archaeology.org 9
A greenstone mask and projectile
points (above) were part of an
offering found in a tunnel at the
base of Teotihuacans Pyramid of the
Sun (left). The pyramid is one of the
largest monuments in Mesoamerica.

FROM THE TRENCHES
Around A.D. 630, in western El
Salvador, the volcano Loma
Caldera erupted, burying the
buildings, roads, and fields of a
Maya farming community in up
to 20 feet of ash. As with other
cities and villages that have
suffered this fate, this town,
today affectionately known as
Joya de Cern (the jewel of
Cern) is incredibly well
preserved. Though the site is in a
tropical environmenta setting
not conducive to the
preservation of organic
materialsarchaeologists have
discovered individual corn
kernels, food residue in pots,
two species of ants, and
thatched roofs with the remains
of mice in them, alongside
buildings and massive amounts
of pottery. The only thing
missing from the site are the
bodiesthe fates of the residents
of Joya de Cern remain a mystery.
Discovered in the mid-1970s, the
site has been excavated exclusively
by Payson D. Sheets of the
University of Colorado at Boulder.
According to Sheets, when tourists
ask Salvadorans what the biggest
tourist attraction in the country is,
they jokingly reply, Guatemala.
Sheets hopes that sites such as
Joya de Cern, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site since 1993, will take
their place alongside the Maya
hotspots of Mexico, Guatemala,
and Honduras.
The site
Joya de Cern dates to the Maya
Classic Period (A.D. 300900) and
differs from most well-known Maya
sites because it is predominantly a
nonelite sitea place where about
200 ordinary Maya lived, worked,
and prayed. According to Sheets,
the Maya of Joya de Cern lived
surprisingly well. So far, 11 buildings
have been found, including living
quarters, storehouses, workshops,
kitchens, religious buildings, and
a community sauna. A quarter
of the pottery found there is of
a multicolored variety imported
from the Copn Valley. Casts of
crops and fully stocked shelves
entombed by ash have been found,
conrming that people there grew
corn and manioc as staples. A big
surprise came this summer when
Sheets and his team discovered
a sacbe, a formal road that heads
south from the towns religious
complex. The site is easy for visitors
to navigate. There are walkways
and well-trained guides, as well
as a restaurant/caf, modern
bathrooms, a gift shop, and an air-
conditioned museum.
While youre there
Joya de Cern is just a 45-minute
taxi ride from the capital of San
Salvador, and your driver will be
happy to wait for you while you
tour the site. Three miles south is
the Maya site of San Andres, the
primary elite center in the Classic
period, with pyramids, an elevated
sacred plaza, and a modern visitors
center. Back in San Salvador, the
David J. Guzman National Museum
of Anthropology is a must-see. And
for adventurous types, the surng in
this part of El Salvador is considered
among the best in the world.
MALIN GRUNBERG BANYASZ
skeletons. Among the most intriguing
artifacts were three carved greenstone
gurines that depict human beings
and a greenstone mask similar to those
found in the tombs of some especially
wealthy Maya rulers. It was the rst
such mask to be found in a ritual set-
ting at the site and does not appear to
have been part of a grave.
The excavations also revealed that
other buildings had stood on the site
before the pyramid was built. The
team happened upon the walls of
three dierent buildings and another
wall that may have surrounded a plaza
or ceremonial space, providing some
information about the early phases of
construction at the site. Saburo Sugi-
yama of Arizona State University and
Aichi Prefectural University in Japan,
the archaeologist who directed the
excavations, expects even more intrigu-
ing nds will be discovered beneath the
pyramid. There is a good chance of
nding the tomb of a ruler in the next
year or two, he says.
ZACH ZORICH
Within a cache of artifacts, archae-
ologists discovered clay pots with
decorations dedicated to a rain god
similar to Tlaloc, the Aztec god of rain.
Greek God Invents
FREE Love
Inspired by a mythological romance, this stunning
170-carat amethyst bead necklace is yours for the taking!
S
he was Amethyst, a maiden devoted to virtue. He was Dionysus,
the notorious Greek god of intoxication and revelry. He loved her,
but she wanted to wait for someone more suitable. He was a god,
used to getting what he wanted. The chase was on. But once Diana
saw that Amethyst was serious about keeping her heart pure, the
goddess transformed her into a statue of perfect stone. Dionysus
stopped partying for a moment and wept. He spilled his wine and
infused the statue with the rich violet color we now know as
amethyst.
Its not what you would call a happy ending. Luckily we discov-
ered that something good came from their ill-fated romance.
Specifically, this spectacular 170-Carat Amethyst Maiden
Necklace. And the incredible price may just have you shedding
tears of joy. For a limited time, you can get 170 carats of polished
purple gems valued at $249...absolutely FREE (you pay only for
basic shipping and processing).
The luxury myth has been busted. Youre probably wondering why
any luxury jewelry company would give away a perfectly beautiful
genuine gemstone necklace. But I promise you that we have a rea-
son. The simple answer is that we want to get your attention. Once
you get a closer look at our quality and selection, were certain youll
be back for more. And if youre already a devoted Stauer client, this
is just another example of how we keep the incredible offers coming.
Drape yourself in purple perfection. This necklace is a knockout.
Each rounded bead retains its own unique shape and just
the right amount of translucence to let the light ignite the velvety,
violet hues. Each gem is hand set on double-knotted jewelers
thread. The entire length secures with a .925 sterling silver
lobster clasp layered in gold. The 18" necklace (with 2"
extender) hangs with the same weight and elegance
as similar strands that sell for hundreds more.
Extremely limited offer. The good news is
that right now, you can get the 170-Carat
Amethyst Maiden Necklace for FREE (you
pay only the standard $24.
95
shipping and
processing fee). Well also include a $20
Stauer Gift Coupon with your delivery,
good towards your very next purchase. If
youre interested in getting 170 carats of
genuine amethyst for nothing...we recom-
mend you reserve your necklace now. Because
as Dionysus knows all too well, the party cant
last forever. This offer is strictly limited to
one FREE necklace per shipping address.
JEWELRY SPECS:
- 170 ctw of genuine polished amethyst - .925 sterling silver clasp layered in gold
Stauer has a Better Business
Bureau Rating of A+
Amethyst Maiden Necklace (170 ctw)$249
Your CostFREE pay only $24.95 shipping & processing.
Call now to take advantage of this extremely limited offer.
1-800-386-5195
Promotional Code ABN198-02
Please mention this code when you call.
14101 Southcross Drive W.,
Dept. ABN198-02
Burnsville, Minnesota 55337
www.stauer.com Stauer
Smar t Luxur i esSur pr i si ng Pr i ces

B
u
y N
O
W
,
pay N
EV
ER
.
An Exclusive FREE
Jewelry Offer
from Stauer
F
R
E
E

A
m
e
t
h
y
s
t

N
e
c
k
l
a
c
e

L
i
m
i
t
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

F
i
r
s
t

1
5
0
0

R
e
s
p
o
n
d
e
r
s
!

A
t the beginning of the second
century A.D., the emperor
Trajan founded Plotinopolis
(Plotinas city) in honor of his wife,
Plotina. It soon became an impor-
tant Roman city in the eastern area
of Greece, known in antiquity as
Thrace. Like most Roman cities of
its day, Plotinopolis had a public bath
structure. Digging where he believes
the baths were located, archaeologist
Matthew Koutsoumanis has recently
unearthed the large and well-preserved
mosaic that once covered the bath
buildings oors. Thus far, 104 square
feet of mosaics have been uncovered,
which Koutsoumanis believes is about
one quarter of the entire oor surface.
He hopes to have the entire mosaic
exposed by spring 2012.
The mosaics, which date to the
second half of the second or the
early-third century A.D., show vari-
ous scenes from Greek mythology,
including the stories of Leda and
the swan and the labors of Hercules,
as well as a great variety of intricate
multicolored geometric patterns.
Finding these mosaics has been
really thrilling, says Koutsoumanis,
who has been digging at Plotinopolis
for more than 15 years. It feels like
totally new, exciting information is
there for us every day, just waiting
to be discovered.
NIKOS ROUPAS
Roman Bath Tiles
I
nside a kiln whose roof had collapsed,
archaeologists excavating at the site of
Villers-Carbonnel on the banks of the
Somme River in northern France, uncovered
a rare terracotta female gurine. According
to project archaeologist Franoise Bostyn,
the discovery is exceptional due to both
the completeness and rarity of this type
of female representation at Middle Neo-
lithic sites. Bostyn believes that the gurine,
which shows evidence of burning, broke
into pieces during ring. It is likely that her
team was able to recover all the fragments
because the object was never removed from
the kiln. The gurine, which measures just
over eight inches long, was created by the
Chassey culture, named for the site where
evidence of the culture was originally found.
The Chassey culture ourished in central
and southern France between 4200 and
3600 B.C. Similar gurines have been found
at other Chassey sites. According to Bostyn,
the stylistic unity of these female represen-
tations probably reects some sort of shared
ideology and can be considered a mark of
the cultural identity of the Chassey people.
JARRETT A. LOBELL
French Femme
FROM THE TRENCHES
Well, I nally did it. I nally decided to enter the digital age
and get a cell phone. My kids have been bugging me, my book
group made fun of me, and the last straw was when my car broke
down, and I was stuck by the highway for an hour before
someone stopped to help. But when I went to the cell
phone store, I almost changed my mind. Te phones are
so small I cant see the numbers, much less push the
right one. Tey all have cameras, computers and a
global-positioning something or other thats
supposed to spot me from space. Goodness, all I want
to do is to be able to talk to my grandkids! Te
people at the store werent much help. Tey couldnt
understand why someone wouldnt want a phone the
size of a postage stamp. And the rate plans! Tey were
complicated, confusing, and expensiveand the
contract lasted for two years! Id almost given up until
a friend told me about her new Jitterbug phone.
Now, I have the convenience and safety of being
able to stay in touchwith a phone I can actually
use.
Sometimes I think the people who designed this
phone and the rate plans had me in mind. Te
phone ts easily into my pocket, and ips
open to reach from my mouth to my ear.
Te display is large and backlit, so I can
actually see who is calling. With a push
of a button I can amplify the volume,
and if I dont know a number, I can
simply push 0 for a friendly, helpful
operator that will look it up and even
dial it for me. Te Jitterbug also reduces
background noise, making the sound
loud and clear. Teres even a dial tone,
so I know the phone is ready to use.
Aordable plans that I can understand and no contract to
sign! Unlike other cell phones, Jitterbug has plans that make sense.
Why should I pay for minutes Im never going to use? And if I do
talk more than I plan, I wont nd myself with no minutes
like my friend who has a prepaid phone. Best of all, there
is no contract to sign so Im not locked in for years at
a time or subject to termination fees. Te
U.S. Based customer service is second
to none, and the phone gets service
virtually anywhere in the country.
Call now and get a FREE gift
when you order. Try Jitterbug
for 30 days and if you don't love
it, just return it
1
. Why wait, the
Jitterbug comes ready to use right
out of the box. If you arent
as happy with it as I am, you can
return it for a refund of the
purchase price. Call now, the
Jitterbug product experts are ready
to answer your questions.
IMPORTANT CONSUMER INFORMATION: Jitterbug is owned by GreatCall, Inc.Your invoices will come from GreatCall.All rate plans and services require the purchase of a Jitterbug phone and a one-time set up fee of $35. Coverage and service is not available everywhere. Other charges
and restrictions may apply. Screen images simulated.There are no additional fees to call Jitterbugs 24-hour U.S. Based Customer Service. However, for calls to an Operator in which a service is completed, minutes will be deducted from your monthly balance equal to the length of the call
and any call connected by the Operator, plus an additional 5 minutes. Monthly rate plans do not include government taxes or assessment surcharges. Prices and fees subject to change.
1
We will refund the full price of the Jitterbug phone if it is returned within 30 days of purchase in
like-new condition. We will also refund your first monthly service charge if you have less than 30 minutes of usage. If you have more than 30 minutes of usage, a per minute charge of 35 cents will apply for each minute over 30 minutes. The activation fee and shipping charges are not
refundable. Jitterbug is a registered trademark of GreatCall, Inc. Samsung is a registered trademark of Samsung Electronics America, Inc. and/or its related entities. Copyright 2011 GreatCall, Inc. Copyright 2011 by firstSTREET for Boomers and Beyond, Inc. All rights reserved.
Monthly Rate
Operator Assistance
911 Access
Long Distance Calls
Voice Dial
Nationwide Coverage
Friendly Return Policy
$14.99
24/7
FREE
No addl charge
FREE
Yes
30 days
$19.99
24/7
FREE
No addl charge
FREE
Yes
30 days
50 100 Monthly Minutes
1
Finally, a cell phone
thats a phone
with rates as low as $3.75 per week!
We proudly accept the following credit cards.
4
7
5
1
7
Available in
Graphite and Red.
More minute plans available. Ask your Jitterbug expert for details.
Jitterbug Cell Phone
Call today to get your own Jitterbug phone.
Please mention promotional code 43662.
1-888-808-7523
www.jitterbugdirect.com
Call now and receive a FREE gift
just for ordering. Hurrythis is a
limited time offer. Call now!
N
o
C
o
n
t
r
a
c
t
E
a
s
y
t
o

U
s
e

FROM THE TRENCHES
S
tonehenge and its surrounding
area continue to oer new infor-
mation about how the prehistor-
ic site was used. A ground-penetrating
radar survey led by Vincent Ganey
of the University of Birmingham has
revealed evidence of two large pits that,
when viewed from the Heel Stone, a
small standing stone near the entrance
to the site, align with sunrise and sunset
on the summer solstice. The pits may
have held wooden posts or standing
stones, and the area between them and
the Heel Stone may have been used for
summer solstice rituals.
S
ome of the stones from the site
were the subject of a dierent
study, by geologists Rob Ixer
of the University of Leicester and
Richard Bevins of National Museum
Wales, to determine where they came
from. The researchers used a technique
called petrography, a common tool
for geologists for more than 100 years.
It involves looking at extremely thin
slices of rock under a microscope and
describing the way the minerals that
compose it blend with one another to
form a unique textureas distinctive
as a ngerprint. By comparing rock
fragments from some of the sites
bluestones (a generic term used to
describe stones outside the sites iconic
center) to samples from a rhyolite
outcropping at Preseli Hills in West
Wales (above), Ixer and Bevins were
able to narrow down the area where at
least one stone had been quarried to a
six-by-15-foot space. The information
could lead archaeologists directly to the
places where Neolithic people cut the
rock that was made into Stonehenge
up to 5,000 years ago. The geologists
have examined about 700 pieces of
rock from Stonehenge but have only
completed analysis on a few pieces
of rhyolite. Ive been at this for 20
years, says Ixer, but it is really just
the beginning.
ZACH ZORICH
New Discoveries at Stonehenge
Weaving with Dog Hair
T
he oral history of the Coast
Salish peoplea collection
of tribes that have inhabited
the Pacic Northwest and the west
coast of Canada for more than 10,000
yearsincludes mentions of a Pomer-
anian-like dog that was bred speci-
cally so its woolly hair could be used in
textiles. Analysis of protein fragments
from blankets more than 85 years old,
one of which was obtained in 1803 by
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark,
seems to support the stories.
Of nine Coast Salish blankets
examined, scientists found that dog
hair was used in ve. Goat hair, on the
other hand, was in all of them. In a
situation when the goat hair supply
was limited, the yarn was made to the
right thickness by adding dog hair,
allowing a larger supply of
yarn, explains Susan Heald,
coauthor of a study published
in Antiquity and a senior textile
conservator at the Smithson-
ians National Museum of the
American Indian, which sup-
plied three of the samples.
The dog hair seems to have
been incorporated into com-
mon nonceremonial blankets
and disappears from them not
long after contact with European
explorers, who arrived in the late-eigh-
teenth century with cheaper textiles.
NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
A
+
EXCLUSIVE LIMITED OFFER Dont miss out!
TRY THEM FREE* - PAY IN 30 DAYS
Take advantage of this exclusive offer at
www.GravityDefyer.com/MQ8CDG3 or by phone, dial
(800) 429-0039 and mention the promotional code below.
Promotional Code:
*Offer not available in stores. Shipping & Handling not included.
a $129.95 value
MEN (Shown above)
TB902MWBS
sizes 7 - 14
Med/Wide
WOMEN (White/Silver)
TB902FWBS
sizes 5 - 11
Med/Wide
MQ8 CDG3
ORDER ONLINE OR BY PHONE ORDER ONLINE OR BY PHONE
Gravity Defyer banned from
Athletic Competition?
They are considered an unfair ad-
vantage. Every scientic breakthrough
meets opposition, but if you want to
elevate your game to the next level,
you need to own one pair of Gravity
Defyers. Feel the drive, the inspiration,
the energy as you slip your feet into the
most exhilarating footwear in the world!
Go from the weekend warrior to the daily
champion at your gym and on the street.
Advanced Technology Footwear
by Impact Research Technology
Gravity Defyer is the only shoe company
that can offer the VersoShock Reverse
Trampoline sole. Its a special combination
of space age polymers and lightweight,
durable Smart Springs that form the
foundation of the rst biomechanical shoe.
Within your rst 10 days,
it will adjust to your activities, improving
your overall comfort by taking the hard
out of hard surfaces like concrete and tile.
They ease stress on your muscles, joints,
and back while walking, running, or
jumping. Youll feel like you are walking
on clouds.
Noninvasive Relief for Joint Pain!
You will notice immediate relief of com-
mon pain during exercise as the Ver-
soshock Trampoline sole absorbs the
impact of every step --instead of your
body. Give your whole body a break from
the stress of your high impact life and
experience breakthroughs in your athletic
lifestyle. Be in action. Be unstoppable. Be
comfortable and live pain free.
TRY THEM FREE IN THE COMFORT
OF YOUR HOME FOR 30 DAYS
Youve got nothing to lose but your pain
GUARANTEED.
Ease fooI, ankIe, knee and hip pain
oosI Energy
e more acIive
Appear IaIIer
Have insIanI comforI
CooI your feeI and reduce fooI odor
EIevaIe your performance
I recommend Gravity Defyer
shoes to my patients and friends.
They are such high quality shoes.
I even wear them myself!
Dr. Arnold Ross, DPM.
Private Practice, West Los Angeles, CA
National Lecturer and Board Certied
in Podiatric Biomechanics
Walk and run faster, jump higher, no fatigue and no more pain!
PROVE POSTURE ABSORB SHOCK APPEAR TALLER PROPEL FORWARD INSTANT COMFORT COOL
Imagine living pain free...
Imagine feeling younger and being lled with energy...
Now You Can Stop Imagining
Twin Stabi
mart Spring
aster Shock Absorber
emovable
omfort-Fit
sole
EVA Rocker Mi
Wide Toe Box
Designer Styles
and Colors ecure Heel
Counters
W
85%
AnkIe &
fooI Pain
Gone
90%
Exercise
20%
Longer
viIh NO
faIigue
87%
4 of 5
Purchase A
5econd Pair
WiIhin 3
MonIhs
97%
MosI
ComforIabIe
5hoe I Have
Ever Ovned
Gravity Defyer Customer Survey Results
G3
Verso
reverse trampoline technology
TM
REBOUND PROPELS
YOU FORWARD
Reduce fatigue.
Be more active.
ABSORB SHOCK
Eliminate pain from
every step.
OVER 500,000 SOLD WORLD-WIDE
ARCHAEOLOGY March/April 2012

FROM THE TRENCHES
16
T
wo 11-square-foot pits dug
in Jerimalai Cave on the east
end of East Timor, an island
nation o northwestern Australia, have
provided some of the earliest evidence
of shing technology. Though there
is little evidence of shing activity
beyond 10,000 years ago, fragments
of sh hooks found in the cave date
to between 16,000 and 23,000 years
ago, making them the oldest ever
recovered. A more complete
hook dating to 11,000 years ago
was also found at the site.
The inch-long hooks, all of
which were made of shells from
sea snails, would have been
used to catch shallow-water sh,
such as grou-
per and snap-
per, says Sue
O Connor,
an archaeolo-
gist at Austra-
lian National
University, who
coauthored a study
on the nds in Science. They would
have had a ber line attached to the
shank, and bait put on the hook, she
explains. Then, they would be cast
or lowered into the water and left
stationary.
Fish bones were also found in the
deposits. Oshore species, such as
tuna, account for nearly 50 percent
of the remains dating to earlier than
7000 B.C. After that, shallow-water
and reef species start to dominate,
likely due to warmer climate and the
proliferation of reef habitat. The vari-
ety of the bones depicts the humans of
the time as skilled seafarers capable of
shing many species in both shallow
and deep water.
NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
Reeling In
Evidence of
Early Fishing
hem the oldest ever
A more complete
o 11,000 years ago
d at the site.
long hooks, all of
made of shells from
would have been
shallow-water sh,
-
al
who
study
BORA ZKK / Cultural Folk Tours 34th year
For a free brochure & DVD CALL:
Website: www.culturalfolktours.com
1-800-935-8875
E-mail: tourinfo@boraozkok.com
We will visit the Worlds oldest city and Worlds oldest temple on our Turkey tours.
ALL TOURS WILL STAY AT BORAS CAPPADOCIA CAVE SUITES!
WWW.CAPPADOCIACAVESUITES.COM
CA Reg # 2011417-40
PLUS CENTRAL ASIA / SILK ROAD TOURS
Offering quality tours with great food, photo
opps., the best guides, excellent hotels, buses
and many people-to-people events.
Our focus is on culture, history, music,
folklore, architecture and archaeology.
TURKEY
A most unique, luxurious
boutique hotel in Turkey!
info@cappadociacavesuites.com
5 P L AT E I A S T A D I O U , AT H E N S , G R E E C E
A STUDY ABROAD
PROGRAM IN GREECE
Ancient Greek Studies,
Byzantine & Modern Greek
Studies, and European &
East Mediterranean Area
Studies
Extensive study travel within Greece
Classes in English
Distinguished American and European Faculty
Credit granted by pre-arrangement from
home institution
University Level Courses
North American Office, P.O. Box 390890, Cambridge, MA 02139
Tel. 617 868-8200 Fax. 617 868-8207
E-Mail: info@cyathens.org
S E M E S T E R I Y E A R I S U M M E R
www.cyathens.org
Save 20% on a combination ticket
to both museums.
An adventure of historic proportion is waiting for
youat two living-history museums that explore
Americas beginnings. Board replicas of colonial
ships. Grind corn in a Powhatan Indian village. Try
on English armor inside a palisaded fort. Then, join
Continental Army soldiers at their encampment
for a rsthand look at the Revolutions end. Dont
forget your camera. Because the history here is
life size. And your memories will be even bigger!
Make Room for the Memories.
WOWA Computer Designed For YOU,
Not Your Grandchildren!
N
E
W
Its easy to read. Its easy to see. Its even easier to understand and use!
Just plug it in!!!
NEW
Touch
Screen
Technology
Technology Simplified
designed for SENIORS
Big Bright Screen

One-touch zoom magnification
No bulky tower
Have you ever said to yourself Id love to
get a computer, if only I could figure out how
to use it. Well, youre not alone. Computers
were supposed to make our lives simpler, but
theyve gotten so complicated that they are not
worth the trouble. With all of the pointing
and clicking and dragging and dropping
youre lucky if you can figure out where
you are. Plus, you are constantly
worrying about viruses, spam
and freeze-ups. If this sounds
familiar, we have great news for
you. There is finally a computer
thats designed for simplicity
and ease of use. Its the WOW
Computer, and it was designed
with you in mind.
This computer is easy-to-use,
worry-free and literally puts the
world at your fingertips. From
the moment you open the box, youll realize
how different the WOW Computer is. The
components are all connected; all you do is
plug it into an outlet and your
high-speed Internet connection.
Then youll see the screen. This is
a completely new operating system, without
the cluttered look of the normal computer
screen. The buttons on the screen are easy to
see and easy to understand. All you do is touch
one of them, from the Web, Email, Calendar
to Games you name
it and a new screen
opens up. Its so easy to
use you wont have to
ask your children or
grandchildren for help.
Until now the very
people who could
benefit most from
Email, and the
Internet are the
ones that have had the
hardest time accessing it. Now, thanks to the
WOW Computer, countless older Americans
are discovering the wonderful world of the
Internet every day. Isnt it time you took part?
Call now, and a patient, knowledgeable
product expert will tell you how you can try it
in your home for 30 days. Call today.
8
0
1
9
9
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t

2
0
1
1

b
y

f
i
r
s
t
S
T
R
E
E
T

f
o
r

B
o
o
m
e
r
s

a
n
d

B
e
y
o
n
d
,

I
n
c
.

A
l
l

r
i
g
h
t
s

r
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.
Call now for our special
introductory price!
Please mention promotional code 43664.
1-877-805-0653
Simple
navigation,
so you never
get lost!
Simple
navigation,
so you never
get lost!
send and receive emails, and video chat
Keep up with family and friends.
surf the internet
Get current weather & news.
play games online
hundreds to choose from!
I just wanted to tell firstSTREET
that I am having a great time on
my WOW computer. I am learning
something new everyday. I am 79
years old and cannot believe that I
am typing and sending e-mails to all
my friends now. My daughter and
granddaughter are so excited now
that I have a computer. They use
computers on their jobs everyday,
but they cannot believe what
you can do on this computer. It is
wonderful... Thanks.
Johnnie E., Ellijay, Ga
P
etroglyphs found near the vil-
lage of Qurta in southern Egypt
have been conrmed as the
rst known Paleolithic artwork in
North Africa. They were dated using
a technique called optically stimulated
luminescence on sand that had piled up
against the rock face where the images
were carved. The team of archaeologists
from Belgium, Australia, and the United
States showed that the carvings are
at least 15,000 years old and possibly
much older. Before this research, the
idea that Egypt had any Paleolithic rock
art had been controversial.
The site consists of at least 179
gures deeply carved into sandstone.
Many depict animals in a more natu-
ralistic style than was used in later
petroglyphs at sites nearby. Some of the
most remarkable petroglyphs are less
naturalisticstylized images of people
with large buttocks,
similar to ones made
in Europe around
14,000 years ago.
According to Dirk
Huyge of Belgiums
Royal Museums of
Art and History,
these images could
be evidence of an
indirect link between
very distant cultures.
Since 2005, when
the team rst pub-
lished descriptions
of the art at Qurta,
four or ve other
sites with images made in a similar
style have been identied about 45
miles south of the site. One nd pro-
vokes another, says Huyge. Qurta
has opened up a whole new area of
Paleolithic art research.
ZACH ZORICH
D
enmark Street, in Londons
West End, contains a series
of terraced houses dating to
the late seventeenth century. In the
nineteenth century, the street was
notorious for poverty and prostitution,
and by the twentieth, it had become a
hub for musicians, music shops, and live
venues. The Rolling Stones and David
Bowie have histories there, and Steve
Jones, founding guitarist of the seminal
punk band The Sex Pistols, squatted
at 6 Denmark Street, once home to
a silversmith. Archaeolo-
gists interested in the his-
tory of antiestablishment,
working-class punk music
and culture have docu-
mented drawings on walls
there by Sex Pistols mem-
ber John Lydon (a.k.a.
Johnny Rotten) in the
1970sprofane graffiti
and caricatures of himself
(right), Jones, band man-
ager Malcolm McClaren
(left), bassist and singer
Sid Vicious, and others. The cartoons
and gra ti are representative of early
punk in their rude, rebellious themes and
could also represent a move by Rotten
to take control of the band, of which he
was not an original member. This very
archaeological record oers something
visceral and immediate, generating
unique insight, wrote
independent archaeologist
Paul Graves-Brown and
the University of Yorks
John Schoeld in their
paper about the site in
the journal Antiquity. We
could sense their pres-
ence as unruly ghosts,
lounging on the sofas
and writing on the walls,
though not all of them are
dead just yet.
SAMIR S. PATEL
FROM THE TRENCHES
Egypts Art Before the Pyramids
Rock Art Goes Rotten
G
enetic material from the bones
and teeth of wild horses, some
of which died more than
20,000 years ago, has answered a long-
standing debate about some Paleolithic
cave artists: Were these ancient painters
realists, depicting the natural world they
saw around them, or did they portray
more imaginative representations?
One of the paintings in question, The
Dappled Horses of Pech-Merle, in a cave in
southern France, is a nearly 25,000-year-
old depiction of horses with spotted
coats. While spots are seen in many
modern horses, they were believed to
be a product of later domestication
and thus would not have coexisted with
humans in the Paleolithic.
That belief turned out to be wrong.
Dappled
Horse
Paintings
Decoded by
DNA
An international team of scientists
examined ancient DNA from predo-
mesticated horse remains found in
Europe and Siberia. The team found
gene variants common to domesticated
spotted horses in more than 20 percent
of their samples. Though the nding
doesnt rule out some ancient creative
license, the artists could have seen spot-
ted horses in the wild. In Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, the
researchers report, At least for wild
horses, Paleolithic cave paintings were
closely rooted in the real-life appearance
of the animals.
NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
IRAN
With Dr. Jenny Rose
April 24 - May 10, 2012
BALI
With Professor Michael D. Coe
April 28 - May 13, 2012
sicily
With Dr. Claire Calcagno
May 12 - 26, 2012
greece
With Professor Jennifer Tobin
May 12 - 27, 2012
Jordan& Petra
With Professor Gary Rollefson
May 19 - 27, 2012
Bolivia
With Professor John Janusek
June 5 - 20, 2012
Cyprus & Malta
With Professor Brett Whalen
June 3 - 15, 2012
Egypt in england
With Professor Bob Brier
June 15 - 24, 2012
scotland
With Dr. James Bruhn
August 4 - 19, 2012
Hike the inka trail
With Professor Anita Cook
August 10 - 22, 2012
...And Much More!
India Cambodia & Laos Egypt
Mongolia Maya World Turkey
Costa Rica American Southwest
Easter Island Ethiopia Belize
JOURney into the heart of History
Peru
Caral, Chanquillo, ChanChan
With Dr. Bill Sapp
June 23 - July 8, 2012
CHINAS SILK Road
With Professor Dru Gladney
August 18 - September 3, 2012
F E A T U R E D J O U R N E Y S
1-800-552-4575 www.farhorizons.com
Since 1983, Far Horizons has been designing unique itineraries led
by renowned scholars for small groups of sophisticated travelers
who desire a deeper knowledge of both past and living cultures.

I
n a grisly discovery, Peruvian archaeologists have found the remains of at least
62 people who appear to have been ritually sacriced about 1,000 years ago.
Some were tied at their extremities, dismembered, or decapitated, while oth-
ers showed bone trauma, suggesting each had been thrown from a great height.
The burials lie beneath a wide plaza, stretching between mud-brick mounds in the
Batn Grande site near the city of Chiclayo. The location amid ancient ceremonial
mounds, as well as the deliberate ways in which people were butchered, may indi-
cate that the sacrice was part of a religious ritual, says archaeologist Carlos Elera,
director of El Museo Nacional de Sicn, who made the discovery in July 2011. They
were in very forced positions, suggesting sacrice, but for now, we can only guess
to what end, according to Elera. Numerous food oerings, such as shellsh, and
llama and dog bones, were found nearby. The bodies were arranged in two roughly
concentric circles, perhaps evidence of two separate mass burials, says Elera. The
plaza was a center of civic and religious life for the Sicn culture, which reached its
apogee from about A.D. 900 to 1150.
ROGER ATWOOD
A
transparent calcite crystal found
30 years ago on a ship that sank
in the English Channel in 1592
could help explain how Vikings were
able to sail from Norway to North
America 1,000 years ago without mag-
netic compasses.
The sailors likely relied on the sun
and the stars as their guides. Now
researchers from Frances University
of Rennes have demonstrated how a
crystal called an Iceland spar (found in
Iceland and Scandinavia, among other
places), which was recovered from the
shipwreck, could be usedeven on a
cloudy dayto ascertain the suns posi-
tion to within a few degrees.
When light passes through the crystal,
it is double refractedthe light is split in
two, creating an eect similar to a 3-D
movie viewed without light-polarizing
glasses. According to the authors, as a
person holds up the crystal to the sun
and rotates it, theres a particular angle
at which the two beams of light appear
equally bright. By holding the spar at the
same orientation and scanning a cloudy
sky for a point where the beams line up,
Vikings could locate the sun through
cloud cover. Vikings could have exploit-
ed the high sensitivity of the human eye
to small contrasts, the authors write in
Proceedings of the Royal Society A.
NIKHIL SWAMINATHAN
Mysterious Mass Sacrice
Te Vikings
Crystal
Compass?
FROM THE TRENCHES
W
hen miners found silver in
Virginia City in 1857, they
knew theyd struck the
mother lode. For the next twenty years,
silver flowed faster than water out of
the Nevada desert. It was a Wild West
bonanza. After years of frenzied mining,
the vein began to dry up and the town
slowly died with it. It seemed like there
was no more silver to be found in
those hills.
Until I got a call from a Wild
West friend.
He was sitting on a collection of silver
coins, minted just after silver was found
in Virginia City. With the silver market as
strong as it is, he decided that it was time
to sell off his collection. We had hit the
mother lode again.
A few bags become thirty!
To call my friend a coin collector is an
understatement. When he said he had a
few 1000-coin bags of silver coins I was
interested. When those silver coins turned
out to be New Orleans Mint Morgan
Silver Dollars from the 1880s I was
intrigued. And when those few bags
turned out to be thirty, I was astounded.
My buddy wasnt sitting on a collection,
he had a hoard!
For a man who loves only the best
things in life, I guess I shouldnt have
been so surprised.
One of the largest Silver Dollar
hoards in decades
For serious numismatists, hoards can
come around once in a lifetime. Silver
hoards are enormous collections of coins
that have been stored away, often secretly,
for safekeeping. With silver prices steadily
rising over the past few years, many silver
hoards have been sold off.
Most assumed that hoards of Morgan
Silver Dollars were a thing of the past
until now.
Morgan Dollars are some of the most
coveted coins on the market today. And
with the hot silver market, most dealers
cannot keep Morgan Dollars around for
long. Due to this heavy demand, especially
for the finest quality pieces, the price
of many Morgan dollars has gone up
dramatically in the last six months alone.
But because of the sheer scale of this
massive hoard, we have been able to
keep the price at a pre-frenzy level.
120-year-old Silver Dollars
for as little as $85!
Each of these silver dollars from the
McClaren Collection Hoard (named
for my friends beloved Mercedes
SLR McLaren Supercar) are Brilliant
Uncirculated Morgan dollars that look
as fresh as they did when they were struck
by the U.S. Mint in New Orleans over 120
years ago. The coins were submitted to
the Professional Coin Grading Service
(PCGS) for certification, grading and
encapsulation. Once inspected, they
were given a Choice Uncirculated
grade for their superior quality.
My Wild West friend worked for 25 years
to amass this huge collection. He scoured
the country looking for the finest Morgan
Silver Dollars. He did that work for you
and this hidden silver treasure is now
within your reach. These coins are over
100 years oldbut they can now be
yours for a little as $85!
These Morgan Dollars have been extraor-
dinary pieces of American history for
over 120 years. The remarkable McClaren
Hoard has added another chapter to their
amazing story. And now you can share
in that history. We all want the finest
things in life. Its time to start your
collection today.
Order Today Risk Free
While they last, reserve your McClaren
Hoard New Orleans Morgan Silver Dollar
MS62 for only $99.00 + S&H. Each coin
will bear the New Orleans mintmark and
be dated 1883-1888 (dates our choice.)
You must be 100% satisfied with your
order, or simply return it within 30 days
by insured mail for a prompt refund of
the purchase price.
McClaren Hoard New Orleans Morgan
Choice Uncirculated $99.00 plus s/h
Order more and SAVE!
Half Banker Roll (10 coins)
$95.00 ea. plus s/h SAVE $50
Full Banker Roll (20 coins)
$85.00 ea. plus s/h SAVE $280!
Toll-Free 24 hours a day
1-888-201-7071
Offer Code MCH144-02
14101 Southcross Drive W.
Dept. MCH144-02
www.GovMint.com
Prices and availability subject to change without notice. Past performance is not a predictor of future performance.
Note: GovMint.com is a private distributor of worldwide government coin issues and is not affiliated with the United States government.
Facts and figures were deemed accurate as of December 2011. GovMint.com, 2012
American Entrepreneur Sells off Silver Fortune
Actual size
is 38.1 mm
REVEALED: Massive Hoard
Makes Silver Dollar History
WORLD ROUNDUP
ALASKA: In a pit house
dating to around A.D. 1200,
archaeologists uncovered
a cast-bronze buckle that
appears to be East Asian
in origin and older than the
house in which it was found.
The oldest known cast bronze
in Alaska, the artifact may
have been part of a horse
fitting, perhaps traded in from
as far away as Manchuria. It
was probably used as a charm
or noisemaker by
a local Inupiat
shaman.
GRENADA: People on the tiny island
of Carriacou may have feasted on
animals imported from South America
over 1,000 years ago. Remains of
South American animals, including
piglike peccaries, armadillos, and
guinea pigsnone of which are native
to the island todaywere excavated
from prehistoric middens. The find
suggests regular contact between
natives and people on other islands
and the mainland, but because the
bones are scarce, archaeologists think
only a select, high-status few got to
eat these exotic treats.
ENGLAND: Using
stable isotope
analysis, researchers
examined remains of
infants from the crypt
at Christ Church in
Spitalfields, London,
to study breastfeeding
in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They
found that prolonged
breastfeeding was common in the 19th century
among this relatively well-off population,
which does not necessarily agree with the idea
that more women were entering the workforce
at the time as a result of industrialization. The
breastfeeding mothers of these infants may
have had the means to hire wet nursesor
they may have been homebound due to an
economic downturn.
semaker by
l Inupiat
an.
SWITZERLAND: High-end Swiss watchmaker
Hublot has created a wrist-mounted version of the
Antikythera Mechanism, the mysterious 2,000-year-
old astronomical machine recovered from a Greek
shipwreck in 1901. It contains 495
precision elements in a 3x4-centimeter
package. The manufacturers claim
that it is the first watch inspired by
an archaeological finding. Would a
wrist-mounted sundial count?
A
ered from a Greek
5
imeter
m
by
d a
PAKISTAN: Life in the
4,500-year-old Indus city of
Harappa is thought to have been
relatively peaceful. A new analysis
of human remains excavated
at the site found that while the
overall level of violence in the city
was on the low side for a state-
level society, it was not evenly
distributed. Some communities
endured much higher levels
of trauma, inflicted on women
in particular, suggesting a
potentially brutal social hierarchy.
TEXAS: The last issue
of ARCHAEOLOGY detailed
sites at risk (Top Ten
Discoveries of 2011),
including those exposed
by the drought in Texas.
In addition to wrecks and
human remains, receding
waterlines revealed
a mysterious 4-foot
aluminum sphere. NASA
officials confirmed that it
was a fuel-cell tank from
the space shuttle Columbia,
which was destroyed
during reentry in 2003.
Along with other remains
from the shuttle, it can
teach us something about
the effects of high-speed
atmospheric reentry.
23
By Samir S. Patel
www.archaeology.org
JAPAN: An excavation at a train yard
in Dazaifu has revealed the remains
of two large, prestigious buildings,
as well as expensive eating utensils
and pottery. The finds, including tin
and copper
alloy spoons,
Chinese and
Korean pots,
and Nara
tricolored
ware (the
finest
tableware in
Japan at the time), date to the 8th
and 9th centuries. The assemblage
appears to identify the site as a
diplomatic facility, mentioned in
ancient documents, that housed and
fed envoys from China and Korea.
OMAN: Its often
thought that
modern humans
emerged from
Africa through the
Arabian Peninsula
by hugging its
shores, which may
have protected
them from swings in
climate. However,
100,000-year-old
stone tools found
in the Dhofar
Mountains suggest
that some people
traveled over the
now aridthough
once wetinterior.
The find adds
another layer of
complexity and
understanding
to the path that
modern humans
took on their way
around the world.
CHINA: A cracked skull may be the
oldest known evidence of interpersonal
aggression among modern humans. A
CT scan of the skull, which is around
130,000 years old and known as Maba
Man, revealed evidence of severe blunt
force trauma, possibly from a clubbing.
Remodeling of the bone around the
injury, however, shows that he survived
the blow and possibly was well cared
for after his injury
for months or
even years.
s injury
s or
s.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA: The
seafaring Lapita, who
settled the South Pacific
more than 3,000 years ago,
were not thought to have
lived in Papua New Guinea.
Findings from a new dig there have overturned that idea.
The remains of several villages, including stone tools,
shell ornaments, and thousands of pottery fragments
have been discovered. The site is both unusually deep
including pre- and post-Lapita sequencesand perhaps
the largest Lapita landscape yet discovered. According
to researchers, the site opens a whole new chapter in
Pacific history.
PAP
se
se
mo
were
lived in
Findings from a new dig there
Unique itineraries
starting from $3,795 include:
SHORE EXCURSIONS
PRE/POST-CRUISE 4&5STAR HOTEL STAYS
LAND EXTENSIONS IN ASIA
WINE WITH DINNER ON BOARD
EXPERT LECTURE PROGRAM
ON-BOARD GRATUITIES
FREE TO LOW COST AIR & TRANSFERS
SPECIAL SINGLE PRICING
FROM THE CLASSICAL
CIVILIZATIONS OF
EUROPE...
TOTHE MYSTERIES
OF THE
ORIENT
Price is per person, double occupancy, cat N for Mediterranean. FREE to Low Cost
round-trip air add-ons (and transfers) applicable with cruise-tour purchase only and do
not include government taxes, fees and airline fuel surcharges ($500-$750) which may
change at any time.All offers are subject to availability, capacity controlled and may
be withdrawn at any time. Ships Registry: Malta.
FOR BROCHURE & RESERVATIONS CALL
1-877-398-1460
Call: 800-748-6262
Email: aia@studytours.org Website: aiatours.org
WINTER 2012- 2013
INDIA &
SOUTHEAST ASIA
SPRING - FALL 2012
MEDITERRANEAN,
AEGEAN, ADRIATIC
& BLACK SEAS
BOOK
EARLY &
SAVE!
VOYAGES
TO
ANTIQUITY
Visit www.voyagestoantiquity.com
Or contact your travel professional
Discovering evidence of an ill-fated
mission in the frigid waters of the Arctic
by Allan Woods
Saga of the
Northwest
Passage
I
t was well past midnight this past July and the round-
the-clock Arctic sun was shining on Mercy Bay.
Exhausted Parks Canada archaeologist Ryan Harris
was experiencing a rare moment of rest on the rocky
beach, looking out over the bays dark, ice-studded
water. Around him, a dozen red-and-yellow tents lined
the shorelinethe only signs of life. Every day for the previous
two weeks, work had started by mid-morning and continued
nonstop for 16 hours. Night and day had little relevance in the
murky, near-freezing waters. Along with Parks Canadas chief
of underwater archaeology, Marc-Andre Bernier, Harris has
overseen more than 100 dives at this remote inlet of Banks
Island in Aulavik National Park, exploring the wreck of HMS
Investigator, a British vessel that has sat on the bottom of the
bay for more than 160 years.
Harris and a small team of archaeologists had discovered
Investigator in 2010 and returned in 2011 with a larger team
to dive, study, and document the wreck, which holds a critical
place in the history of Arctic exploration. Twenty-ve feet
below the surface, Investigator sits upright, intact, and remark-
Archaeologists from Parks Canada set up
camp at remote Mercy Bay, in the high Arctic,
to explore the wreck of HMS Investigator, a
British polar vessel that became trapped in ice
in 1853 and later sank.
ably well preserved. Silt covers everything below the main
deck, entombing the o cers cabins, the ships galley, and a
full library. The archaeologists had intended to leave the wreck
and its artifacts where they had lain since the polar ship was
abandoned, trapped in ice, on June 3, 1853. Artifact recovery
was not part of their original plan, but that plan changed after
their rst few dives.
The team was instantly surprised by the number of artifacts
they sawmuskets, shoes, and hunks of copper sheathing
rested on Investigators upper deck, dangled o the hull, or lay
haphazardly on the sediment. Leaving these artifacts behind in
Mercy Bay would have made them vulnerable to the icebergs
that regularly scour the bays oor, including the ones the six-
man dive team had been dodging since their arrival.
Each piece shed from the water was a clue to life at sea
aboard a ship during a period of British fervor for Arctic
exploration. The captain of Investigator, Robert McClure, was
originally sent to nd and rescue two ships, HMS Erebus and
HMS Terror, that Sir John Franklin had led into the Arctic in
1845 to discover the long-sought Northwest Passage connect-
I
N JULY 2010, AFTER months of study to pinpoint Investiga-
tors resting place, the actual discovery of the wreck took
just a few minutes. Harris was in the bay in an inatable
boat testing sonar equipment when the wreck came into
range. The four hours of video gathered on that trip showed
that the ship was, in essence, frozen in time, protected by the
cold water and opaque, light-blocking ice cover. It would be
a year before they could return with cold-water diving equip-
ment to have a closer, more detailed look. Over that year, the
ing the Atlantic and Pacic oceans. Investigators voyage ended,
without sight or word of Franklins ships or crew, when it was
set upon by ice in Mercy Bay. After 39 months at sea, the list-
ing ship sat, slowly being crushed on all sides, for three frigid
yearswith no Inuit encounters, no British search parties,
and no relief. For much of that time, McClure and his crew
of 60 were desperate and under constant threat of starvation,
until a surprising rescue in the spring of 1853. Fifty-ve men
survived the ordeal.
A sonar image (top left) shows the intact, iceberg-scoured
wreck of Investigator. Archaeologists found much of the ships
protective copper sheathing (top right), including numerals to
indicate its load based on how low it sat in the water. Visible
sheathing was measured (right). Among the artifacts retrieved
was a long musket (above) that may have belonged to one of
the Royal Marines aboard the ship.
We had not really envisioned the number of artifacts that
were visible and exposed on the deck. So, basically, we had to
improvise, says Bernier.
Someone ripped the lid of a large black storage case o its
hinges to use as a cradle to lift a bent and corroded musket
from the frigid waters. A large food cooler was loaded with a
shredded, twisted, oxidized sample of the copper sheathing
used by the British navy to reinforce their Arctic eet for con-
tact with icebergs. To protect a fragile rectangle of encrusted
felta novel addition to Investigator that was intended to keep
the ship watertightHarris fashioned a cover out of absorbent
chamois, ripped up an old black T-shirt to place underneath it,
and sandwiched the artifact between oorboards taken from
the boat that had shuttled them between land and the wreck.
The artifacts then made a more than 4,000-mile journey, by
helicopter, Twin Otter plane, and commercial airliner, to the
Parks Canada conservation lab in Ottawa, where they are being
conserved and studied today.
I
MPROVISATION WAS ALSO CRITICAL for McClures Arctic
odyssey, according to diaries and other accounts written
by McClure and his crew. In January 1850, Investigator
and the o cers, sailors, and
marines on board set sail from Devonport, England. But the
ship lagged behind its traveling companion, HMS Enterprise,
which cleared out resupply ports along the way. In Honolulu,
McClure heard rumors that his mission would be called o if
he continued to fall behind. So he made a gamble, abandoning
the traditional 60-day route into the Arctic, and followed an
untested course due north through the gauntlet of the Aleutian
Islands. He trimmed a month from his journey.
Parks Canada team pored over photographs and examined
glowing gold ultrasound images that showed timber from
the wreck scattered across the upper deck like matchsticks.
They sought and received the blessing for a more intensive
exploration of the wreck site from the 136 residents of Sachs
Harbour, an Inuvialuit (Inuit from the western Arctic) com-
munity on the southwestern tip of Banks Island, the closest
permanent community, some 125 miles away. In addition to
the underwater work to document the wreck, archaeologist
Henry Cary led a land-based survey
and excavation team of Inuvialuit
archaeologists, conservation o -
cers, and park sta. It fell upon
Cary to shuttle the 8,820 pounds
of equipment up to the 74th parallel,
including tents, a three-week sup-
ply of food, two boats, diving gear,
compressors, recording equipment,
surveying tools, and 20 barrels for
collecting fresh drinking water.
The archaeologists came prepared
for delays, nasty weather, and polar bearsbut they werent
prepared for the number of artifacts that needed recovery.
Harris, Bernier, Cary, and their crews had packed cameras,
lasers, and measuring tapes to document the sites but fewer
items to help them retrieve, excavate, or transfer artifacts.
Recovering the wrecks nds quickly used up their small tool-
kit for stabilizing artifacts: foam padding, tongue depressors,
and gauze bandages.
On this map of the western
Canadian Arctic (above), the red
line follows Investigators path as
it sailed into Prince of Wales Strait
and then backtracked around
Banks Island to Mercy Bay. The
green line shows the crews course
out of the Arctic after rescue.
Investigator crewman Lieutenant
Samuel Gurney Cresswell painted
the ice-bound ship (right).
and the ocers, sailors, and
b d l l d
-
,
,
r
d
b b
assistance on Melville Island, but they found no provisions or
sign of rescue. They left a message in the hope that search par-
ties might visit there. Both health and spirits began to wane,
but there were a few reasons for optimism. As the ships supply
of venison was depleted, Sergeant John Woon (later decorated
for valor on the mission) felled two musk oxen647 pounds of
fresh meat. And as the symptoms of scurvy started to appear,
they discovered a stash of wild sorrel and prepared salads to
push back the disease.
This was a totally alien landscape to them and yet, at the
same time, men at least 10 or 15 years younger than me had
been to India, Australia. They had sailed all over the world. So
the idea of a new landscape was nothing unusual for them,
says Cary, who is 35. But I think being stuck there would have
played on their emotions.
McClure watched his men grow sicker and weaker. In
September 1852, losing hope, he devised a plan to send half
the crew away for a better chance at rescue, while he and
the remaining 30 would wait in Mercy Bay for another year
McClure pushed into the Prince of Wales Strait, which
separates Banks and Victoria islands, and then set o with a
six-man crew across the ice on a sled, hoping to nd a path
through to the Northwest Passage. After days of travel, on
October 26, 1850, his team spotted open water (now known as
McClure Strait), and well-known Melville Island beyond. This
was it: the Northwest Passage. But actually navigating the ship
there would prove much more di cult. After McClure and his
crew spent a winter stuck aboard Investigator in the Prince of
Wales Strait, on the southeast side of Banks Island, McClure
doubled back to circumnavigate the island in search of the
open water he had seen from the sled. By the end of the sum-
mer of 1851, McClure had sailed into the strait that now bears
his name and reached the Bay of Gods Mercy (now Mercy
Bay) on the north side of Banks Island, in the middle of the
Northwest Passage. In the bay, ice set in and did not give way.
Almost immediately, the men were put on two-thirds
rations, though they found deer and Arctic hare to hunt on
shore. In the spring of 1852, McClure sent a sled team to seek
An underwater
archaeologist floats beside
the Investigator wreck.
Cary was examining not only what materials McClures men
brought to the north and stashed, but also what items were
taken (or left behind) by Inuits who later mined the cache for
clothing, or materials for hunting and cooking.
The itemized list that McClure left at the site states there
were seven pairs of boots in the cache. Of those, the soles of
six pairs of those boots were left behind, unused by visiting
Inuits. This suggested to Cary that the soles were of no prac-
tical use to the Inuit. By contrast, cans appear to have been
coveted. Joe Kudlak, an Inuit patrolman with Parks Canada,
found a tin can believed to have originated with Investigator
a few miles south. An identical specimen was found at a kill
before abandoning the ship. At the same time, unbeknownst
to McClure, HMS Resolute, another British polar ship,
had arrived at Melville Island and had found the message
McClures crew left earlier that year, outlining Investigators
predicament and position. It was the rst word anyone had
received from McClure in years and reason enough to send
a search party to Mercy Bay.
On April 7, 1853, as McClure prepared to send his teams
out in search of help, the rst of Investigators crew suc-
cumbed to scurvy. McClure and his rst lieutenant walked
along the shores of Mercy Bay, trying to gure out how to dig
a proper grave in the permafrost for Boatswain John Doyle.
In the distance, they saw what McClure later described as an
image of one of his own men being pursued by a bear. As the
apparition approached, it took on the shape of Lieutenant
Bedford Pim of Resolute.
The heart was too full for the tongue to speak, McClure
later wrote.
I
N JULY 2011, HELICOPTER
malfunctions kept Bernier,
Harris, and the nal load of
equipment from reaching Mercy
Bay for three days. For Harris,
the logistical challenges were
frustrating. For Bernier, they
were agony. He had sat out the
2010 trip when Investigator was
rst discovered, so he was dying
for a look at the wreck. A second
aircraft was called in and nally
got everyone and everything
to camp. Harris and Jonathan
Moore, a British-born underwa-
ter archaeologist, slipped into the
water above Investigator for the
rst time at 10:22 p.m. to assess
the site, check for safety hazards,
and decide what could be done.
In 2010, the water had been crys-
tal clear, so the wreck was visible
from the surface. This time the
water was hazy and murky, per-
haps because of heavy runo from the melting snow and ice.
The two divers could see only 10 or 15 feet in front of them.
As we proceeded toward the hull, it gradually started to
loom out of the haze, Harris says. Its really an exceptional
shipwreck to behold, just sitting in this stately fashion, upright
on the sea oor. Its been heavily impacted by ice grinding
down on top of it over the years, but its held together impres-
sively well. Its quite majestic.
While the divers explored the wreck, Cary led the search
for remains of the McClure expedition on land. In 2010, his
team had found a depot of supplies, known as McClures cache,
which the crew left on the shore of Mercy Bay as an insurance
policy for waylaid sailors like themselves. In studying the cache,
Archaeologists documented and excavated terrestrial
sites, including McClures cache (top), where the crew
stashed supplies, and a stone cairn (above) that the
crew erected as a signal for passing ships.
I
N THE OTTAWA LABORATORY where the materials recov-
ered so far are being studied and analyzed, other rich
stories of McClures era and his adventures are emerging.
The bent, broken, and corroded musket, for example, likely
belonged to one of eight Royal Marines aboard the ship. The
iron, copper, and wood specimen is still soaking in a bath of
deionized water months after being recovered, but its in good
enough shape to see the markings on the butt plate.
1842, we believe, is the likely date of manufacture,
according to Harris.
Its kind of worn, says Parks Canada conservator Flora
Davidson, who runs the chemical baths used to remove the
saltwater from the artifacts and preserve the metals. Also
visible is the marking W&D, which the researchers believe
shows that the owner of the gun was posted to the Woolwich
Division of the Royal Marines, stationed at the Woolwich
Dockyards in London.
Possibly, the record might exist to attribute this particular
weapon to an individual, which makes it kind of exciting,
Harris says.
Each piece of copper sheathing a xed to the hull of
Investigator is marked not only with its place and date of
production, but also with a broad arrow, showing it to be
property of the British navy. The same arrow shows up on
fasteners, bolts, and the tiniest tacks, as well as on X-rays of
a wooden rope pulley that Bernier raised from the wreck.
Initially, the pulley was covered in mud, but after some
cleaning, the archaeologists noticed that it also contained
several strands of cord. The lab showed that the cord
contained not just hemp, which was the primary choice of
material for rope back then, but also woolRogues Wool,
to be precise. They believe the fabric, now a muddy brown
color, was originally red, identifying it as the o cial rope
of Londons Deptford Dockyard.
Also in the lab, in a shallow basin, is what Harris refers to
as a potentially one-of-a-kind artifact. Soaking in water in
the basin is the gray, rectangular sheet of thick, coarse felt,
stained with bright orange patches of rust and little bolt
site for musk oxen 15 minutes away by helicopter. Still others
have been found cut up and refashioned by Inuit into blades
and other cutting tools that incorporate bones, antlers, and
other more traditional Inuit materials.
Cary also used the writings of Johann Miertsching, a Mora-
vian missionary who had spent time with Inuit in Labrador and
was part of Investigators crew, to locate the whalebone rem-
nants of a Paleoeskimo camp site dating back 2,500 years. A
new translation of those writings, plus a magnetometer, which
measures magnetic elds, also helped the team in 2010 nd
the graves of the three crew members who died at Mercy Bay.
The bodies of John Eames, John Boyle, and John Kerr were
all found lying in a north-to-south line facing east, in keeping
with the Anglican tradition. Because of the permafrost, the
earth at the graves was still raised. The graves might have been
dug and lled in yesterday, Cary says, underlining for him the
power and permanence of the Investigator story.
It hasnt changed in 150 years. When youre standing at
McClures cache, the landscape that the men of Investigator
would have looked out at from the ship and from the shore is
exactly the same. Theres been absolutely no change whatso-
ever, he says. And when youre at the Paleoeskimo site, you
realize theres been no change for 2,500 years.
In the 2011 eld season, Cary and his crew strapped a
high-resolution digital camera to the bottom of a helicopter
and photographed the area with the goal of testing the accu-
racy of a topographic map made in 1853 by Stephen Court,
the second master aboard Investigator. They also collected
several terrestrial artifacts, including the head of a barrel
believed to have belonged to the British military and a quartz
knife made at the Paleoeskimo site.
It was just sitting there, Cary says of the discovery.
They also recovered a large bell-shaped iron truss, rst
located decades ago, that is believed to have supported Inves-
tigators topsail. It was found on the beach, buried under loose
rock on the shore. No one knows how it got there, but the
clamp section, once round, is now ovala testament to the
crushing power of Arctic sea ice.
Archaeologists retr ieved a double-sheave pulley from the ships rigging. An X-ray of the artifact reveals the British broad arrow
stamped onto the spokes of both of the pulleys brass sheaves.
T
HE IRONIES OF INVESTIGATORS tale are that what began
as a rescue mission required a rescue of its own, and that
the expedition eventually achieved the tasks that had
been set for Franklin and the now-lost HMS Erebus and HMS
Terror (for which Parks Canada is also searching). However,
Franklin and those earlier lost ships have long overshadowed
McClure, his crew, and their accomplishments. The 55 members
of Investigators crew who returned home to England received a
heros welcome and a 10,000 pound rewardhalf for McClure
and half distributed among the others. Despite their initial
acclaim, their eorts were largely forgotten. The Investigator
crew returned to a country that had largely tired of Arctic
exploration. It was felt that these expeditions had eaten up too
much time, too much money, and too many men. Perhaps a cold
death might have secured them more enduring fame.
McClure and his crew, however, understood their achieve-
ment. It is known that while stuck in the ice, they celebrated
every October 26 (when McClure rst saw the strait now
named after him) as the day that they had discovered the
Northwest Passage. Whats more, because they had entered
the Northwest Passage from the west and were rescued from
the east, those men were the rstby ship, foot, sled, and ship
againto make it all the way through the legendary northern
route between the oceans.
Our goal, Harris says, is to remove Investigator from the
margins of history.
Allan Woods is a writer and reporter at the Toronto Star. For
video of the Investigator wreck and a slideshow of paintings of
the ship, go to www.archaeology.org/investigator
holes. Harris black T-shirt, brought into service as a pro-
tective pad, peeks out from beneath it. The material is not
unlike todays felta pressed textilehowever, this sturdy
stu would have been used to waterproof ships. There are
stories of damaged vessels limping back to England only to
discover that their felt was all that had been keeping them
aoat. Drawings of Investigator show that the felt was placed
beneath the wood on the upper deck and all along the rein-
forced hull. This is a rare nd, as few similar samples from
the period have been discovered or preserved.
Under the microscope, the felt yields a particularly Cana-
dian surprise. It is woven from the guard hairs of beaver
peltsknown for their water resistant qualitiessuggest-
ing that at least one North American pelt had made a round
trip to England and back again. Now the team at the Parks
Canada lab is looking into how the textile was producedby
hand or machineand examining the properties that made
it so well suited to service in the Arctic.
Not too many of these have been found, so were, in a way,
breaking new ground and asking questions that have never
been asked before, says Bernier.
Yeah, Davidson interjects. You keep on bringing in
these strange things, and when I consult my colleagues, they
just say, Good luck with that.
Archaeologists from Parks Canada, on the shore of Mercy Bay,
examine the felt sheet recovered from the Investigator wreck
site. A rare artifact, the hearty fabric was applied along the
inside of Investigators hull and beneath her upper deck to
insulate the vessel and make her more watertight.
O
N AUGUST 25, 1939, archaeologists working
at a Paleolithic site called Stadelhole (stable
cave) at Hohlenstein (hollow rock) in
southern Germany, uncovered hundreds of
mammoth ivory fragments. Just one week
later, before they could complete their eld-
work and analyze the nds, World War II began. The team was
forced to quickly ll the excavation trenches using the same soil
in which they found the ivory pieces. For the next three decades,
the fragments sat in storage at the nearby City Museum of Ulm,
until archaeologist Joachim Hahn began an inventory. As Hahn
pieced together more than 200 fragments, an extraordinary
artifact dating to the Aurignacian period (more than 30,000
years ago) began to emerge. It was clearly
a gure with both human and animal
characteristics. However, only a small
part of the head and the left ear had
been found, so the type of creature it
represented remained a mystery.
Between 1972 and 1975, additional
fragments from excavation seasons
in the 1960s, which had been stored
elsewhere, and still others picked up
from the caves oor, were taken to the
museum. Yet it took until 1982 for pale-
ontologist Elizabeth Schmidt to put the
new pieces together with Hahns earlier
reconstruction. Schmidt not only cor-
rected several old errors, but also added
parts of the nose and mouth that made
it clear that the gurine had a cats head.
Although the artifact is often called
Lowenmensch (the lion man), the word mensch is not speci-
cally male in German, and neither the gender of the animal nor
of its human parts is discernible. Five years later, to conserve
the gurine, the glue that held it together was dissolved. It was
then carefully put back together, revealing that only about two
thirds of the original had actually been recovered.
This changed in 2008, when archaeologist Claus-Joachim
Kind returned to the site at Hohlenstein. Kind removed
the old backll from the hastily concluded excavation of
1939. Over the next three years, Kinds team found several
hundred more small mammoth ivory fragments. In 2009,
when we found the rst ones, it was a huge surprise, says
Kind. But this is exactly the spot where the fragments of
the gurine were originally found, so I
knew right away that some belonged to
the lion man. It had clearly been dam-
aged during the earlier excavations. Only
the larger pieces were collected and the
smaller ones left behind, he adds. Kind
was able to t several of the new pieces
to form part of the back and neck, and a
computer simulation of the lion man was
created, showing the placement of several
more previously unattached fragments.
At the end of the 2011 season, all the
backll will have been removed. There
will be no more pieces left, says Kind.
We hope that the lion man will nally
be complete.
Jarrett A. Lobell is executive editor at
ARCHAEOLOGY.
Using recently uncovered fragments,
archaeologists may be able to
nally piece together one of the
worlds oldest works of art
by Jarrett A. Lobell
New Life
for the
Lion Man
For more than 70 years, archaeologists
have been piecing together the lion
man out of mammoth ivory fragments
unearthed in a southern German cave.
The figurine (right) is currently on
display in the City Museum of Ulm, in
Germany. New p ieces are being fitted
onto the back of the figurine (left).
Digital images (bottom, left and right)
are helping archaeologists envision
the way the figure will look when it is
complete. Newly found fragments (red)
and ones found previously that have
never been placed (green) are shown
as they will be fitted during a complete
restoration this year.
F
EW MONUMENTS THAT survive from antiq-
uity better represent Roman pragmatism,
ingenuity, and the desire to impress than
the aqueducts built to fulll the Romans
seemingly unslakable need for water.
Around the turn of the second century
A.D., the emperor Trajan began construction on a new
aqueduct for the city of Rome. At the time, demands
on the citys water supply were enormous. In addition
to satisfying the utilitarian needs of Romes one million
inhabitants, as well as that of wealthy residents in their
rural and suburban villas, water fed impressive public
baths and monumental fountains throughout the city.
Although the system was already su cient, the desire
to build aqueducts was often more a matter of ideology
than absolute need.
Whether responding to genuine necessity or not, a
new aqueduct itself was a statement of a citys power,
grandeur, and inuence in an age when such things
mattered greatly. Its creation also gloried its sponsor.
Trajanprovoked, in part, by the unnished projects
of his grandiose predecessor, Domitianseized the
opportunity to build his own monumental legacy in the
capital: the Aqua Traiana (Aqueduct of Trajan in Latin).
The aqueduct further burnished the emperors image
by bringing a huge volume of water to two of his other
massive projectsthe Baths of Trajan, overlooking the
Colosseum, and the Naumachia of Trajan, a vast open
basin in the Vatican plain surrounded by spectator seat-
ing for staged naval battles.
Upon its completion, the Aqua Traiana was one of the
11 aqueducts that, by the end of the emperors reign, car-
ried hundreds of millions of gallons of water a day. It was
also one of the largest of the aqueducts that sustained
the ancient city between 312 B.C., when Rome received
its rst one, and A.D. 537, when the Goths besieged
the city and reportedly cut every conduit outside the
city walls. At the time of its dedication in A.D. 109, the
Aqua Traiana ran for more than 25 miles, beginning at
a cluster of springs on the northwestern side of Lake
Bracciano before heading southeast to Rome. How-
ever, for all the aqueducts importance to the city, its
sources and the architecture that marked them have
eluded archaeologists despite centuries of searching.
Now, thanks to an unusual set of circumstances that
preserved them, the Aqua Traianas sources are being
brought to light at last. And for the rst time, a well-
preserved, monumentalized aqueduct source associated
with a Roman aqueduct has been identied.
Searching for the source of
one of the citys greatest
engineering achievements
by Rabun Taylor
Archaeologist Katherine Rinne
stands beside a large ancient
Roman springhouse that may
belong to the lost Carestia
spring, one of the possible
sources of the Aqua Traiana.
Romes Lost
Aqueduct
aqueduct. These ancient remains were built in a style charac-
teristic of the second century A.D., with concrete walls faced
with either brickwork or opus reticulatumstone squares set
in a precise diagonal grid. Both above- and belowground, the
water channel was vaulted with plain concrete and lined below
the vault with opus signinum, a cement that
the Romans had used for centuries
to waterproof oors, cisterns, and
aqueducts. By contrast, the parts
of the Acqua Paola still ow-
ing today show no evidence of
ancient masonry. In fact, a coat-
ing of modern cement entirely
obscures what may lie in the walls
underneath. The best evidence for
the marriage of old and new is in the
dead sectors of the Acqua Paola, remote branches that no
longer contain water and have been mostly ignored by scholars
looking for evidence of the Aqua Traianas sources. In the nine-
teenth and early-twentieth centuries, the landscape around
Lake Bracciano consisted of more open pasturage than todays
dense thickets that cover ercely guarded private lands on the
lakes slopes. But even then, sustained searches yielded few
I
N 2008, DOCUMENTARY film-
makers Ted and Mike ONeill
began a project to reinves-
tigate Romes aqueducts. The
ONeills started to review the
existing scholarship on the aque-
ducts and their sources. To these
self-described archive rats, the results
werent at all satisfying. Scholars had repeatedly ignored or
misinterpreted valuable evidence from descriptive documents
dating from the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries
for example, Carlo Feas History of the Waters of Rome of 1832.
Soon, the Aqua Traiana became the focus of their research,
since they knew it had enjoyed an extensive revival centuries
after its construction. During the Middle Ages, the aqueduct
had fallen into ruin. In the early 1600s, Pope
Paul Van ambitious builder much like Tra-
jan some 1,500 years before himundertook
construction of a massive new aqueduct. At
that time, some standing remains of the Aqua
Traiana were probably still visible here and
there in the countryside. Many of the original
springs were still owing. And it may have
been possible to locate buried sections of the
aqueduct by following its path underground.
The pope tasked his engineers with locating
the still-owing springs, buying the land on
which they were located, and connecting them
to the planned aqueduct. Once again, waters
were brought to Rome from the slopes above
Lake Bracciano, this time under the name
Acqua Paola (Pauls Waters in Italian). Despite
the popes public assertion that he had relied on
the sources and remains of an ancient aqueduct
to build the Acqua Paola, nobody had ever been
able to verify this claim, much less associate
the remains of the Renaissance aqueduct with
those of any ancient aqueduct.
Several above- and belowground sections of
the Aqua Traiana are known today, but few of
them were directly incorporated into the popes
the vault
the R
to
aq
o
in
a
in
ob
unde
the mar
e-
ese
results
A team, including (from left to right), filmmakers Ted and Mike
ONeill, and archaeologists Rabun Taylor and Katherine Rinne,
is trying to pinpoint the Aqua Traianas source. The emperor
Trajan issued a bronze sestertius with his likeness (obverse)
to celebrate the aqueducts completion. The reclining god
(reverse) represents the aqueduct, and the arch suggests the
grottos at its sources.
Oriolo
Romano
TREVIGNANO
ROMANO
Hybrid Duct of
Traiana/Paola
Legend
Hydrologic Feature
Acqua Paola
Verified Aqua Traiana
Verified Acqua Paola/ Aqua Traiana
Unverified Aqua Traiana
MANZIANA
ANGUILLARA
SABAZIA
LAKE BRACCIANO
BRACCIANO
LAKE
MARTIGNANO
Roman Bath
Monte di Rocca
Romana
Hybrid Duct of Traiana/Paola
Aqua Traiana Bridge
Roman Cistern
Acqua Paola Bridge
Santa Fiora
Fosso
della Fiora
Fosso della
Calandrina
Trajanic Bricks
Fosso
dei Bagni
PISCIARELLI
Aqueduct
Continues to Rome
Fosso Bocca
di Lupo
!
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
Meters
.
Fosso
A project map shows a portion of the aqueducts infrastructure and path.
A
NCIENT AQUEDUCTS WERE essentially man-made
streams conducting water downhill from the natu-
ral sources to the destination. To tap water from a
river, often a dam and reservoir were constructed to create
an intake for the aqueduct that would not run dry during
periods of low water. To capture water from springs, catch
basins or springhouses could be built at the points where the
water issued from the ground or just below them, connected
by short feeder tunnels. Having owed or ltered into the
springhouse from uphill, the water then entered the aque-
duct conduit. Scattered springs would require several branch
conduits feeding into a main channel.
If water was brought in from some distance, then care
was taken in surveying the territory over which the aque-
duct would run to ensure that it would ow at an accept-
able gradient for the entire distance. If the water ran at too
steep an angle, it would damage the channel over time by
scouring action and possibly arrive too low at its destina-
tion. If it ran too shallow, then it would stagnate. Roman
aqueducts typically tapped springs in hilly regions to ensure
a su cient fall in elevation over the necessary distance. The
terrain and the decisions of the engineers determined this
distance. Generally, the conduit stayed close to the surface,
following the contours of the land, grading slightly downhill
along the way. At times, it may have traversed an obstacle,
such as a ridge or a valley. If it encountered a ridge, then
tunneling was required. If it hit a valley, a bridge would be
built, or sometimes a pressurized pipe system, known as an
inverted siphon, was installed. Along its path, the vault of the
conduit was pierced periodically by vertical manhole shafts
to facilitate construction and maintenance.
Upon arrival at the citys outskirts, the water reached a
large distribution tank called the main castellum. From here,
smaller branch conduits ran to various districts in the city,
where they met lower secondary castella. These branched
again, often with pipes rather than masonry channels, supply-
ing water under pressure to local features, such as fountains,
houses, and baths. R.T.
How a Roman Aqueduct Works
Unlike the Aqua Traiana, substantial remains
of the Aqua Claudia, begun by the emperor
Caligula in A.D. 38 and completed by Claudius
in A.D. 52, still stand outside of Rome. The
aqueduct traveled for more than 40 miles
from its source and provided the city with an
ample water supply.
the Madonna of the Flower. Although the church had a long,
well-documented history, it is almost unknown to scholars.
Church records appear in the archives of the Orsini family,
the local bishopric, and the hospital of Santo Spirito in Saxia
at Rome, which controlled the property from as early as 1238.
These documents contain a wealth of information about the
churchthat it was a hermitage, for example, and that it pos-
sessed a miracle-working portrait of the Virgin Mary. To judge
from ledges for lamps hacked into the walls, it would seem that
the hermits actually lived in the grotto itself.
traces of the older aqueduct. As recently as the
1970s, archaeologists from the British School
at Rome conducted an intensive survey of the
area. They were able to document previously
unknown fragments of the aqueduct, yet they
found no structures that could be identied
as marking a source.
A
FTER MONTHS OF SEARCHING through
archives, the ONeills realized that
scholars had been missing important
clues that could lead to sources of the Aqua
Traiana and perhaps even to some ancient
Roman architecture signaling their presence.
Although the post-Roman names of three
springsMatrice, Carestia, and Fiora, near the
town of Manziana, on the west side of Lake
Braccianoappear in reports written by the
Acqua Paolas engineers, it was always thought
that none of these springs had ever contrib-
uted to that aqueduct. The Santa Fiora spring
had been in constant use for decades by the
Orsini family, the dominant local landowners,
to power their protable lakeside mills. But the
ONeills wondered if any of the three had also
supplied the Aqua Traiana almost 1,500 years
earlier. A few antiquarians in the 1700s and
1800s had claimed as much, but they had said
little to help later scholars identify the sources.
While a spring named Matrice exists
today, it has clearly been in use since pre-
Roman times. The spring emerges from an
Etruscan irrigation tunnel called a cuniculus,
which dates to the sixth or fth century B.C.,
but it bears no visible evidence of Roman
remains. Because the name Carestia is
unknown in the region today, the ONeills
focused on the Fiora as the possible source
of the Aqua Traiana. They knew that Pope Pauls engineers,
Luigi Bernini and Carlo Fontana, had measured the ow of
the Fioras water in the seventeenth century, and it had been
the most copious of all the springs in the region at that time.
After a quick glance at some maps, including the most recent
ones, they noticed a spot labeled Santa Fiora. To the ONeills
surprise, however, they could not initally nd any detailed
description of this place anywhere, whether in modern or older
documents, so they resolved to nd it for themselves.
Late in 2008, with the assistance of local o cials, the
ONeills gained entrance to the site called Santa Fiora, which
lies on a small farm at Manziana. What they saw, hidden
within a dense stand of trees, astonished them. Under a huge
overhanging g tree, an almost perfectly preserved articial
grotto peered out from the hillside. Just up the hill, they saw
traces of a structure that had once stood directly over it.
Subsequent visits to the archives would reveal that this was
a thirteenth-century church called Santa Fiora, dedicated to
An arch leading to the right-hand chamber at the Santa Fiora
springhouse (top left) has been walled in, leaving only a
small entrance near the crown. The right-hand chamber or
springhouse (top right) connects directly to the conduit of the
Aqua Traiana. One corner where the conduit exits the chamber
is rounded to assist water flow. Farther downhill, the conduit
(above) shows the variety of brickwork, opus reticulatum, and
waterproof cement used by Roman engineers.
springhouse. The rooms concrete vault also preserves traces
of the original blue fresco, along with a cylindrical light shaft
at the center, creating an impressive space that could have
been seen from the central chamber. Some distance along the
downhill tunnel, the brickwork changes to opus reticulatum,
the Aqua Traianas signature diagonal grid pattern of masonry.
At this point, the thick waterproof opus signinum lining also
begins. At the juncture of these two points, a large vertical
manhole shaft, now blocked far above, penetrates the tun-
nels barrel vault. According to the landowners, this sector of
ancient aqueduct was still serving Manziana until 1984yet
it has remained eectively unknown to archaeologists.
A 1718 map in the state archives at Rome represents Santa
Fiora as a modest church with cropland, an orchard, a court-
yard, a well with a water-lifting device in an adjacent tree, and
a tiny hut near the access road. But not everything is quite as
it may seem on the map. The well, which is labeled well of
running water, must be the large manhole that penetrated
the aqueduct tunnel, with its water source being the aqueduct
itself. Today, the sturdy masonry hut, whose label reads hatch
for water going to Bracciano, is still in place near the road
fronting the property. Inside the hut, a stairway leads down
to the junction of the Aqua Traiana and a modern conduit,
perhaps dating to the eighteenth century, that was built for
the town of Bracciano. This conduit originates at another
nearby spring. For all his power, the pope could not convince
the Orisini family to hand over the Fiora.
Although only the central chamber opens to the exterior,
the grotto is divided into three side-by-side chambers of dif-
ferent sizes and shapes, each having its own vault and light
shaft. Originally, broad archways pierced the walls dividing the
chambers. With the exception of a neatly preserved stone arch
across the front of the grotto, almost the entire structure was
made of ancient Roman concrete, brick, and mortar. Traces
of the original sky-blue fresco also remained on the vaults. A
niche centered in the back wall of the middle chamber would
have once held a standing statue. It was the focal point of the
entire original space and was clearly intended to inspire rever-
ence in the visitor. Although the identity of the statue, which
does not survive, is unknown, the likeliest candidates are either
Trajan or the resident nymph representing the local waters.
On the wall directly above the niche is a Renaissance-era
stucco frame bearing the Orsini family symbol, a ve-petaled
ower. The correspondence to the name Santa Fiora may be
coincidental because the church predates the presence of the
Orsini in this area, but the family would have made the most
of it. In fact, this frame probably enclosed a frescoed image of
the Madonna della Fiora, the wonder-working portrait of the
Virgin mentioned in parish records. These records report that
the fresco was gradually destroyed by humidity.
A surprise also lay in the third right-hand chamber, which
can be entered through a small rectangular door just below
the crown of the right arch. On the other side of the door, the
oor falls away to its original level, revealing a pristine Roman
A 1718 map of the Santa Fiora church and its surroundings indicates several remains of the aqueducts hydraulic system.
more about their construction his-
tory than the living branches, as they
can be examined in cross-section.
The team can even crawl along the
channels to look for ancient masonry.
It has become clear that little of the
Acqua Paolas conduit in these areas
was built from scratch. Instead,
the aqueduct was a hybrid that sat
directly on the remains of the Aqua
Traiana wherever possible. In the
southernmost branch of the Acqua
Paola, on a farmstead at Pisciarelli
(the colorful appellation for regions
that piss forth water), the team
found indisputable evidence that the
Aqua Traiana had already been there
15 centuries earlier. The lower sec-
tions of the conduit, and the manhole
shaft piercing it, are built in precise
alternating bands of Roman brick-
work and opus reticulatum. Across
a remote ravine to the north, the
team also encountered two aqueduct
bridges. One, in the characteristic
style of the Acqua Paola, was intact
but dry. Yet just downstream, a mas-
sive riven chunk of the Aqua Traianas
bridge lay on its side, exposing its
opus signinum oor. Part of a Roman
arch teetered over the bank above.
Violent oods must have washed this bridge out long before
the popes engineers arrived, forcing them to build a stronger
bridge just upstream. About a hundred feet of undamaged
conduit along the bank revealed the same hybrid construction
as the Pisciarelli sectorthe oor, walls, and opus signinum
lining of the Aqua Traiana were reused wherever possible, and
new vaulting was applied where it was needed.
Despite the presence of the sources in the heart of Italy,
it is remarkable that they, and indeed many of the remains of
one of Romes greatest aqueducts, had eluded archaeologists
best eorts to nd them. Yet the surprising discoveries from
the past few years are beginning to uncover a piece of Roman
history that has been ignored, misunderstood, and even
completely unknown since the Middle Ages. One part of this
history arose from a popes desire to elevate his stature and
emulate one of antiquitys great builders, even reusing some of
Trajans earlier aqueduct in the process. Another is the small
church of Santa Fiora, which reects the desire to preserve
the holiness of the spring that once fed the Aqua Traiana. As
the ONeills search continues, there is no doubt even more
of this history will be revealed.
Rabun Taylor is associate professor of classics at the University
of Texas at Austin. For video of the Aqua Traiana project, go to
www.archaeology.org/aqueducts
I
N THE SUMMER OF 2010, the team focused on identify-
ing the lost source called Carestia, said to be near the
church of Santa Maria della Fiora. A 1716 map from the
Orsini Archives at the University of California, Los Angeles,
had provided an essential clue to its locationan isolated
aqueduct section, drawn northeast of the church, labeled
channel that captured the lost waters called the Carestia,
and that conducted them to the Fiora. Now knowing to
search in the dense forestland to the northeast, the team
soon identied another articial Roman grotto that is nearly
the Santa Fioras equal in size and architectural conception.
Here, the vaulted ceiling has split, its cylindrical light shaft
neatly sheared in half. The top of a central statue niche peeks
out above the forest oor.
Most recently, the teams objective has shifted to the dead
branches of the Acqua Paolathose that have fallen into disre-
pair because they are too remote to maintain. Since these dead
sections are dry and sometimes even broken, they can reveal
Little remains of a collapsed bridge of the Aqua Traiana (top)
in the ravine called the Fosso della Calandrina. A hybrid
sector (above right) of the Aqua Traiana has a 17th-century
vault and an ancient Roman floor and walls. The channel atop
a bridge of the aqueduct (above left ) has fallen into a creek,
revealing its opus signinum interior.
I
N A DIRT LOT FIVE miles from downtown Albuquer-
que, Matthew Schmader, the citys archaeologist,
kneels to examine a sharp ake of obsidian. This
could have been from a weapon one of the native
troops brought up from Mexico, he says, referring
to the sixteenth-century Spanish expedition led by
Francisco Vzquez de Coronado. Cars hum past on Coors
Boulevard, and a breeze ripples cottonwood leaves along the
Rio Grande River, half a mile east. If the weather is good,
and sometimes even if its not, chances are Schmader will
be hard at work in this city-owned property surrounded by
housing developments.
Hundreds of metal artifacts pinpoint the possible site of a bloody battle
between conquistadores and a Puebloan people
by Julian Smith
A rich assembly of metal artifacts from the site of Piedras
Marcadas in New Mexico reveals the location of a violent
episode during Francisco Coronados expedition.
Top row: piece of copper armor, belt or strap loop, the
tip of a belt or scabbard, piece of lead shot
Middle row: broken dagger tip, caret head nail, chain-
mail link, two crossbow bolt heads, ornate belt loop
Bottom row: needle, lead button
The site is pretty much the most important thing that has
happened in the past 20 years relative to our understanding of
Coronado, Schmader says. The ground is littered with pottery
fragments and hundreds of red marker tags staked in the dirt.
Each tag represents a metal artifactthe tip of a crossbow bolt, a
broken bucklefrom Coronados 1540 to 1542 expedition. The
rst major organized expedition into what is now the southwest
United States, it ended in ghting and failure, setting an ominous
example for future relations with the regions native inhabitants.
Schmader stands up, brushes his knees and smiles. It never
fails to amaze me every time Im here, he says. I feel like I
was handed a gift from the archaeology gods.
Coronados Deadly Siege
The expedition spent about 14 months living in the pueb-
los along the northern Rio Grande of New Mexico. At least
a dozen pueblos, collectively called Tiguex (TEE-wesh),
occupied the wide valley between the Sandia Mountains and
the volcanic escarpment across the Rio Grande, where the
cities of Albuquerque and Bernalillo are today. It was the
most fertile, prosperous, and densely populated region the
Coronado expedition had seen yet and had been occupied
for more than 500 years. Details of the inhabitants lives
were recorded in a letter sent back to Coronado by a group
of advance scouts.
The people seem excellent, more like farmers than warriors. They
have much food: corn, beans, melons, and [turkeys] in great abundance.
They dress in cotton, [bison] hides, and long robes made of [turkey]
feathers. They wear their hair trimmed short. It is the old men who
have most authority among them.
B
Y MOST STANDARDS, THE Coronado expedition was a
disaster. Conquistadores funded the venture themselves
for the modern equivalent of $30 million, hoping to nd
more native civilizations as wealthy as the Inca and the Aztecs
to trade with or conquer. Coronado put up his wifes Mexican
estates as collateral. It was a massive undertaking: 375 European
soldiers, along with their porters, African slaves, wives and chil-
dren, 1,200 to 2,000 Mexican soldiers, and more than 1,000
horses and 5,000 head of livestock.
In a little over two years, the expedition traveled from
Mexico City into southeast Arizona, across New Mexico, and
on to central Kansas before turning around, a round trip of
almost 4,000 miles. They encountered thriving native cul-
tures but found nothing like the fabled Seven Golden Cities
of Cibola, which were rumored to exist on the Great Plains.
Much of the expeditions exact route is still a mystery.
There are only ve major conrmed Coronado sites: four in
New Mexico, including Piedras Marcadas, and one in Texas.
The numerous written chronicles of the journey are often
contradictory or vague regarding names and descriptions, and
it can be hard to isolate artifacts from Coronados party among
centuries of later Spanish activity.
An archaeologist sifts dirt in search of artifacts at the site of
Piedras Marcadas. Most of the sites artifacts have been found
on the grounds surface.
three major sections of
room blocks surrounding
open plazas. Where the
signal is more muddled, he
explains, is where sections
with multiple stories col-
lapsed, leaving larger piles
of bricks.
The rst metal arti-
fact, a wrought iron nail,
turned up on the sur-
face in 2007. Schmader
immediately recognized
it as a sixteenth-century
artifact because of its
distinctive faceted caret
head. Richard and Shirley
Flint, who have written
or edited six books about
the expedition, conrmed
it as a probable Coro-
nado artifact. Schmaders
team scanned the site with
metal detectors, making
multiple sweeps to make
sure they found everything. What they discovered astonished
them: more than 1,000 sixteenth-century metal artifactsmore
than in all other Coronado sites put together.
Along with nails, wire fragments, and pieces of copper
sheeting, they found personal items, such as copper aglets
(tips to clothing laces), broken belt loops, a link of chain mail,
a copper awl, cast lead buttons, and a nely made purse hinge.
Almost all the items were found on the surface or buried less
than three inches deep, satisfying the current-day Puebloans
request for no excavation. Then there were the weapons: 32
lead balls, some mushroomed from impact; a steel dagger tip;
and 21 copper crossbow bolt heads, many bent or broken out
of their wooden shafts.
By the 1540s, crossbows were being phased out in favor of
the arquebus, an early musket. The Coronado expedition car-
ried both, but it was the only expedition known to use copper
bolt heads from metal mined in Mexico. (Spanish expeditions
from the 1550s to the 1580s used harder iron bolt heads, and by
the end of the 1500s, the arquebus had become the projectile
weapon of choice.) Isotopic analysis of the lead artifacts at Pie-
dras Marcadas came back virtually identical to ones found at the
Coronado site in Texas. Theres really no dispute [that] this was
a Coronado site, Schmader says, and so far nobody has argued.
R
ELATIONS WERE
friendly at rst. But
since the interlopers
had come from the tropics,
they were unprepared for
the Rocky Mountain winters,
and they soon wore out their
welcome with demands for
food, clothing, and shelter.
During the winter of 1540 to
1541, the expedition occupied
the pueblo of Alcanfor after
evicting its residents. Accusa-
tions of assaults on Puebloan
women were the nal straw,
and in January 1541, the tribes
rose up in what came to be called the Tiguex War.
After several one-sided skirmishes, according
to Spanish chroniclers, the Puebloans barricaded
themselves in the strongest pueblo, called Moho,
and abandoned the others. During a two-month
siege, Coronados soldiers tried numerous times to
take the village by force. The chronicler Pedro de
Castaeda de Njera, who was on the expedition,
wrote that they threw down such quantities
of rocks upon our men that many of them were
laid out, and they wounded nearly a hundred with
arrows, several of whom afterward died on account
of the bad treatment by an unskillful surgeon....
When Moho nally fell, all the Tiguex pueblos
were abandoned. They were resettled after the expedition left,
but diseases brought by subsequent Spanish immigrants rav-
aged the region. Coronado returned to Mexico City bankrupt
and badly injured after a fall from his horse and was o cially
denounced for the abuse of natives during his expedition. He
never embarked on another and died in 1554.
A
RCHAEOLOGISTS HAVE known about Piedras Marcadas
since the 1920s, but it was in private hands until the
city acquired the land in 1988. Still, tribal represen-
tatives from the nearby pueblos of Isleta and Sandia identi-
ed it as an ancestral site and requested that no large-scale
excavations take place.
As Schmader leads the way across the site, its impossible
not to step on pottery fragments, as dense as a mosaic in places.
We estimate therere about 500,000 fragments on the ground
in just an acre or two, he says. Wide, low mounds ripple the
surface, none more than a few feet high. To see if these were the
remnants of adobe walls, in 2002, Schmader and others started
to map the site using electrical resistivity (ER). This consisted
of sticking two metal probes into the ground 18 inches apart,
then measuring the speed and strength of an electrical current
sent between them. The technique works well for locating
collapsed or buried adobe walls because of the contrast in
resistivity between the clay bricks and sandy soil. Schmader
pulls out a map of the site made from the ER surveys, showing
A technique called
electrical resistivity has
been used to reveal the
outlines of the pueblo
walls without requiring
labor-intensive and
culturally sensitive
excavations.
says Glenn Foard, a battleeld archaeologist from the Univer-
sity of Hudderseld, who has visited the site. I can see how
important this and other sites of the Coronado expedition
will be to advancing our understanding of the way in which
European technology of war was actually applied in the Ameri-
cas. Charles Haecker of the National Park Services Heritage
Partnerships Program, who worked at the site in 2008, calls it
extremely signicant for the same reason. It shows physical
evidence of how the Spanish conducted their methods of war-
fare: You get your enemies into an enclosed space like a plaza,
control the entries and exits, and slaughter them.
During the siege, the Spanish also diverted the spring that
supplied Moho with water. As Njera wrote in his chronicle,
The lack of water was what troubled the Indians most. They
dug a very deep well inside the village but were not able to get
water, and while they were making it, it fell in and killed 30
persons. For Schmader, the strongest evidence that Piedras
Marcadas is Moho is a large crater at the western side of the
central roomblocks plaza. Surrounded by dirt on three sides, it
measures 55 feet by 75 feet across and four to six feet deep. The
ceramic artifacts found in the piles of dirt around the crater are
the same age as undisturbed artifacts on the surface, suggesting
the soil was removed over a short period of time toward the
end of the sites occupation, between 1540 and 1600.
T
HE OVERARCHING QUESTION becomes: Was Piedras
Marcadas the besieged pueblo called Moho? Accord-
ing to Schmader, it ts the description in several
key ways. It is the largest known Contact-period pueblo for
50 miles along the Rio Grande, two to three times as big
as the next largest village. He estimates that it had 1,000
ground-oor rooms and several hundred more second- and
third-story rooms, possibly 1,500 in all. The total population
could have been over 3,000.
Schmader thinks the wealth of artifacts at the site and
the way they are distributed suggests at least one large battle
took place. Many items are broken, including bullets and
bolt heads, implying they were used in combat. Since the
expedition was so far from home, its members had to carry
or make everything they needed. They didnt throw anything
away if they could help it, Schmader says. You walked 3,900
milesyou saved everything.
The artifacts appear to be concentrated outside the walls, as
if they were lost or broken during a struggle to enter. Schmader
walks to the south of what was the central roomblock and
points to a concentration of marker tags near the wall mound.
I think the Pueblo people barricaded themselves inside this
roomblock and fortied it. The Spanish attacked from south
to north, hurled themselves against the walls, but they couldnt
break through. Other apparent clusters of artifacts in the
southeastern corner of the central plaza and inside an above-
ground kiva may indicate other areas of ghting.
The evidencesuggests that there is meaningful patterning
in the distribution of bolt heads and indeed of other artifacts,
Archaeologist Matt Schmader sits at the bottom of an
excavation pit located inside what he believes may be a well
that collapsed, killing 30 peoplean incident mentioned in
Coronados expedition chronicles.
Dark clouds are gathering over the Sandia Mountains, and
a chill wind carries the rst snowakes of a late fall storm. It
looks like Schmader will have to wait until spring to nish the
last two pits. In the meantime, hes trying to secure funding
for more remote sensing and metal detector surveys. When
the artifact analysis is complete, the goal is to put the items
on display at the city museum. With any luck, the story they
tell will be deciphered by then. Its easy to map artifacts and
read documents, Schmader says. Its much harder to put it
all together in a way that makes sense.
Julian Smith is a contributing editor at ARCHAEOLOGY.
Other Coronado experts disagree with
Schmaders assessment. Richard Flint points
out that two chroniclers describe Moho as
being en un alto, or on a height, which made
it hard to subdue. And it was close enough to
the river that some of the besieged Puebloans
slipped out at night, ran a short distance to
the Rio Grande, and tried to swim across.
[T]here were few who escaped being killed
or wounded, Njera recorded. Piedras Mar-
cadas is half a mile from the river and barely
above the oodplain. Its some pueblo we
dont know from the documents is my guess,
Flint says, adding that the pit may have been
dug by ranchers or pothunters. In his opin-
ion, the most likely candidate for Moho may
be an unexcavated mesa-top site near San
Felipe Pueblo, 30 miles north, called Basalt
Point, a smaller, more defensible location
thats closer to the river.
The question of matching Piedras Mar-
cadas to a specic site mentioned in the
chronicles is important, says Clay Mathers
of The Coronado Institute, in Albuquerque,
who has helped interpret the sites artifacts.
Identifying one location makes it possible
to pinpoint others. For example, the pueblo
of Alcanfor, where the expedition spent ve
months, is described as being three or four
leagues (about 12 miles) from Moho. A site
called Santiago sits on a blu above the river
about 11 miles northeast of Piedras Marcadas.
If Piedras Marcadas is Moho, then Santiago
is probably Alcanfor, Mathers says. On the
other hand, excavations in the 1930s at San-
tiago didnt turn up any residential debris, as
youd expect in a place the expedition occu-
pied for so long. If Santiago isnt Alcanfor,
then thats one more argument that Piedras Marcadas isnt
Moho, Mathers says. Its kind of a domino eect.
The answer to the puzzle may lie at the bottom of the
mysterious crater. If it can be established as the collapsed
wellespecially if any bodies are unearthedthe argument
would be over. This summer, Schmader dug an eight-foot-
deep test pit in the crater, small enough to meet the current
Puebloans request for no large excavations. At the bottom, he
found an 18-inch-thick layer of adobe denitely derived from
the collapse of large adobe walls. Mixed in were pottery sherds
contemporary to the sites nal occupation, from around 1525
to 1600. Schmader is digging two more test pits that have
produced evidence indicating that the original hole was dug
inside a square structure with parts of two walls missing. Many
similar villages had square kivas in their plazas, Schmader says.
My best guess is that they dug the emergency well inside a kiva
to hide their eorts from the Spanish, and it collapsed when
they undermined a wall.
Pottery sherds (top) lay in dense clusters on the ground
surface at Piedras Marcadas, possibly indicating that a large
Puebloan population lived there. A researcher (above)
conducts an electrical resistivity survey in search of the
remains of adobe walls.
Archaeologists excavating
on the shores of the Persian Gulf
search for what may prove to
be the source of the worlds
longest-lived economy
by Andrew Lawler
F
OR AT LEAST 7,000 years, people have settled
along the shores of the Persian Gulf, in what
one scholar calls one of the most inhospitable
regions on the planet. Despite its lack of natural
resources, such as water or fertile soil, what the
Gulf region did have was the worlds most reli-
able source of ne pearls, until they began to be grown arti-
cially a century ago. The long history of pearls and pearling in
the Persian Gulf was, as a result, largely forgotten due to the
collapse of the natural pearl industry in the early 1900s. Soon,
the region came to be known only for exporting oil, despite
the fact that some of the cities lining the Gulfs coast actually
owe their early origins to pearls.
The luminescent gems have been prized as a symbol of
luxury since antiquity. The ever-increasing demand for the tiny
spheres not only attracted people to the Gulfs Arabian shores,
but also provided the raw material for an economy that may
have been one of the most enduring in the world. Nearly all
that was known about the ancient pearling industry came from
scattered mentions in texts that date only as far back as the
fourth century B.C. However, archaeologists working at sites
from Kuwait to Oman are now discovering evidence of ancient
pearls, pearling, and the pearl trade. Because of this, they are
beginning to understand the role the gem played in the region
at Neolithic villages, Bronze Age centers, and wealthy cities of
the eighteenth century. Says Robert Carter, an archaeologist at
the University College Londons new campus in Doha, Qatar,
The societies of the Gulf were shaped by the pearl oyster and
trade from the earliest days.
The Pearl
Trade
The once-thriving 18th- and 19th-century
pearling center of Zubarah sits on the
northeast coast of Qatar. At its peak around
1800, the city was surrounded by a 1.5-mile-
long wall with 21 still-visible round towers and
had a population in excess of 5,000.
pearlthe best odds on earth. While beds along the Indian
coast generally produced pearls only once every seven or eight
years, the Persian Gulf waters provided a more regular supply,
Bari notes, making these pearl oysters a more reliable resource.
The reason for this remains unclear but is likely linked to the
unusually warm, shallow, and highly saline nature of the Gulf.
Their rarity made pearls fabulously expensive in the ancient
world. The topmost rank of all things of price is held by pearls,
wrote the Roman historian Pliny the Elder in the rst century
A.D. Cleopatra invited Marc Antony to attend a mealthe
ancient worlds most expensive feastthat cost the fantastic
sum of 10 million sesterces. When he was seated, the Egyptian
queen ordered a goblet lled with vinegar. She took one ear-
ring o, and dropped the pearl in the vinegar, and when it was
wasted away, swallowed it, reported a horried Pliny. The
other earring is said to have been split and used as earrings on a
goddess statue in Romes Pantheon more than a century later.
The origin of pearls was a matter of mystery and conjecture
to ancient writers. Pliny claimed that pearls rose to the seas
surface and swallowed dew to achieve their luster and beauty,
while other authors suggested that lightning hitting an oyster
produced the gem. One of the rst clear references to the
pearl trade comes from Androsthenes, a Greek geographer,
who circumnavigated Arabia at Alexander the Greats behest
in the fourth century B.C. Androsthenes referred to an unusual
O
F COURSE, ONE DOES not have to go to the Persian Gulf
to nd pearls. They grow in cold or warm water, salty
or fresh, in a wide variety of mollusks, and come in an
array of sizes and colors. They are found in such disparate loca-
tions as Scandinavian fjords and the Mississippi River. Some
of the largest come from the Pacic Ocean, while a number of
the most extensive beds are o the coast of India. What always
gave the Persian Gulf the advantage over competitors such as
India was a fortunate combination of quality and quantity. The
perfectly round white pearls we expect today are extremely
rare in nature. Typically, only one in 10,000 oysters holds this
type of pearl, says Hubert Bari, a French gemologist who has
studied pearls extensively. But according to Bari, round white
pearls are found twice as often in the Gulf as elsewhere. And
one oyster in 400 there may contain at least some kind of
Persian Gulf pearling spans centuries: A more than
7,000-year-old pearl excavated at As-Sabiyah (left) is the
earliest pierced pearl ever discovered. And both mother-
ofpearl (far left) and pearls have been found in Zubarahs
19th-century marketplace.
Excavations at As-Sabiyah in Kuwait
have revealed a Neolithic center,
including a workshop where pearls
were strung.
4500 B.C., in which a womans pearls were found
strung on a necklace. She also had a single pierced
pearl on her chin bone. The pearls were probably
gathered locally from the oysters that were part
of the inhabitants diet, says Hans-Peter. Like
Carter, Uerpmann suspects that pearling may
already have started to become a sophisticated
venture at this early time, when the rst proto-
cities in Mesopotamia were forming. The tech-
nologies for diving, such as [seaworthy] boats and
the use of diving weights, were certainly known,
he says. Reed and wood degrade quickly in this climate,
however, and dating the few ancient stone weights found
along the Gulf is di cult since they were often reused and
typically are not found in dateable contexts. Both Uerpmann
and Carter say that there are not yet enough data to prove a
thriving pearl trade existed, although intriguing evidence to
support their claims is being discovered. Fishhooks begin to
appear in trenches from this period, as do objects made of
mother-of-pearl. Tbingens Philip Drechsler, who is digging
at a Neolithic site on the Saudi Arabian coast, says that 90
percent of the shells his team nds are from pearl oysters.
If pearls were, in fact, being systematically gathered at
this time, as Carter and Uerpmann both suspect, the gems
may be associated with the oldest long-distance maritime
trading network in the ancient world. As part of that net-
work, in exchange for pearls, Mesopotamian merchants
may have traded a type of pottery, rst found at the site of
Al-Ubaid in modern Iraq. Colorful Ubaid pottery is found
at sites dotted along the Arabian shores of the Gulf, includ-
type of shellsh that produces a stone which is
very expensive throughout Asia and is sold in
Persia and other inland regions for its weight in
gold. Isidorus of Charax, a geographer, who lived
around the beginning of the rst century A.D.,
described men on rafts bringing up shells from
the deep that produced large pearls.
E
XCAVATED ANCIENT PEARLS PREDATING the
Roman Empire are nearly as rare as early
references. In addition, as archaeological
artifacts, pearls present great challenges. Their
small size makes them easy for excavators to miss
without careful sieving. They are also fragile and
can degrade rapidly in the ground. Like many
gems, pearls are often passed down in jewelry, and
the stones are sometimes reused over generations,
making them di cult to date. Unlike mining or pottery mak-
ing, pearling leaves behind relatively few artifacts. As to the
historical record, the di cult job of gathering oysters from the
depths of the sea usually took place well out of sight of scribes
and all but the most adventurous ancient travelers. Apart from
a few tiny pearls found during excavations in Bahrain in the
1990s, there was almost no archeaological evidence of ancient
pearling in the area until recently.
That began to change a decade ago. Just north of Kuwait
City, on a at and uninviting stretch of coast called As-Sabiyah,
30 miles from the Iraqi border, a team co-led by Carter was
exploring the remains of a shell jewelry workshop in a Neo-
lithic village. Taking extra care to pick out all the beads and
worked stone, excavators uncovered a tiny pearl only one-fth
of an inch wide, with a delicate incision. It probably would
have been missed in a normal excavation, Carter recalls.
Radiocarbon dating of organic material found with the
pearl placed the workshop at 5300 B.C., making the gem the
oldest one yet found in a dated archaeological context. At the
same site, the team also uncovered the remains of a reed boat
covered in barnacles. The two discoveriesthe oldest-known
seafaring vessel and the oldest-known pierced pearloered
preliminary evidence that the people of the Persian Gulf
had found a way of life that formed the basis of the regions
economy until the early twentieth century.
Since the discovery at As-Sabiyah, archaeologists have dis-
covered a number of pearls at other ongoing excavations from
Kuwait to Oman. A Danish team uncovered two unpierced
pearls while working on the Kuwaiti island of Failaka, just o-
shore from As-Sabiyah, which likely date to around the second
millennium B.C. A pearl dating to about 5000 B.C. was found in
a grave in Umm al-Quwain in the United Arab Emirates, at the
eastern end of the Gulf. Farther east along the coast of Oman,
near the capital city of Muscat, three perforated pearls were
discovered still clasped in the hands of a recently excavated
fourth-millennium B.C. skeleton.
At Al-Buhais in Sharjah, a United Arab Emirate near Dubai,
Hans-Peter and Margarete Uerpmann, from Germanys Tbin-
gen University, found a remarkable tomb, dating to around
Pearls were very popular in the ancient Roman
world. A second-century A.D. funerary portrait from
the Egyptian city of Antinopolis shows a woman
wearing impressive pearl earrings and a gem and
pearl necklace.
Iran
Saudi
Arabia
Persian
Gulf
Oman
Kuwait
City
Riyadh
Manama
Doha
Abu
Dhabi
Muscat
Musandam
Peninsula
Strait of
Hormuz
Gulf of
Bahrain
Bandar Abbas
As-Sabiyah
Gulf of
Oman
Bahrain
Qatar
Kuwait
United
Arab
Emirates
Iraq
Zubarah
Al-Buhais
M
OST OF THE PEARL trade took place on boats and
in small villages and encampments. In Bahrain,
evidence has been swallowed up by rapid urban
development. Thus, lling in the later years of pearling is
di cult. One promising project is the University of Copen-
hagens excavation of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
city of Zubarah, on the at and arid northeast coast of Qatar.
There, Alan Walmsley and his deputy director Tobias Richter
lead 50 Western excavators and 60 South Asian and African
workers on a decade-long projectlavishly funded by the
oil-rich Qatari government, which plans to restore the site.
Since 2009, the team has been nding some of the rst solid
archaeological evidence for the pearl trade, beyond just the
gems themselves, in the form of a once-thriving city.
The sandy peninsula on which Zubarah sits divides the
upper and lower Gulf. Even today, it seems an unlikely place
to settle. Water is scarce and barely potable. (Zubarah means
bitter water.) There are no trees. In summer, temperatures
frequently soar above 120 degrees, while in winter, a strong,
cold wind blows across the sea. Yet, for a few brief decades
starting in the late eighteenth century, the city was the larg-
est, wealthiest, and most cosmopolitan settlement along the
Persian Gulf. Abandoned long ago, the ruined city is, today, a
vast eld of lumpy mounds of soft limestone and a local beach
rock that quickly crumbles. But it is also the most complete
and best-preserved pearling town in the Persian Gulf. The
crescent-shaped settlement encompasses 150 acres facing
a sandy beach, protected on the landward side by swamp
and a massive wall. Within the connes are the remains of
mosques, a fort and palace, stately homes of rich merchants,
and humble huts along the shore. This was the Gulf s most
important trading hub, says Richter. Zubarah oers an
unparalleled opportunity to study one of the most intense
periods in the pearling trade.
An Arab chieftain founded Zubarah in 1762 as the waning
Persian Safavid Empire lost control over the Gulf. Arab tribes
eagerly stepped into the power vacuum. Set up as a tax-free
port, Zubarah rapidly attracted both pearlers and merchants
from as far away as Basra in todays Iraq. Despite the citys
prosperity, there are only eeting mentions in historical
records and no known contemporary accounts of life in the
city. There is only a passing mention of an earlier Zubarah by
a 1638 chronicler, who writes of a sleepy port town with 150
houses and a motley assortment of 700 inhabitants.
Using satellite photos and on-site surveys, archaeologists
have identied more than 500 houses encircled by a stone
wall, which spans more than one-and-a-half miles, punctuated
by 21 round towersevidence of the city in its heyday in the
late- eighteenth century. A nearly 500-foot-square inland fort
was built to protect the citys only water source, and a wide
canal was dug to that site in order to load casks of water onto
small boats. Small date plantations nearby provided some
ing As-Sabiyah. It may have been a novelty item to Arabians,
who are not known to have made pots before that time. Until
more Iraqi sites are carefully excavated, it is too early to say
for certain how pearls may have functioned in this network.
Several Mesopotamian tablets dating to the third and second
millennia B.C. refer to a coveted stone called sh eyes, which
may be a reference to pearls, although scholars do not agree
on the translation of this phrase.
What is certain is that by the Roman and Byzantine peri-
ods, the Persian Gulf was famous for providing pearls to the
rich and powerful in Rome and Constantinople, and then, later,
to Islamic courts in Damascus, Baghdad, and Isfahan. Though
texts throughout this long era indicate that Arabians practiced
pearling, a dearth of Roman-era burials in the area, coupled
with the Muslim tradition of burying the dead without jewelry,
leave a gap in the archaeological history of pearling. According
to some brief texts, the Sassanian Empire, which collapsed
with the coming of Islam in the seventh century A.D., sought
to control the pearling trade and its prots from its heartland
in Iran. They also mention that pirates made occasional raids
on ships carrying the precious cargo. By the eleventh century
A.D., texts claim sultans from eastern Saudi Arabia took half
the pearls found by divers in Bahrain. A century later, travel-
ers of the time say Julfar, at the far eastern end of the Gulf,
was a major pearling center and that 300 pearl sheries were
scattered across the region. By the time Columbus sailed to
America, Bahrain had emerged, perhaps not for the rst time,
as the preeminent pearling center, with 1,000 boats at its
wharves and beaches.
One of the nine courtyards (left) that surrounds Zubarahs
large main palace, whose size and grandeur are an indication
of the citys power and wealth during its heyday.
Copenhagen team has also found postholes that likely mark
the huts and tents in which pearlers and shermen lived.
The poorer houses were close to the beach, notes Richter.
And photos [of Qatar] from the early twentieth century
show similar palm-leafed dwellings in which more modern
Bedouin pearlers may have lived. By contrast, Walmsley
and Richter have also found properties far from the beach,
where wealthy merchants inhabited large compounds with
private courtyards. The excavation also shows that Zubarahs
residents enjoyed services such as organized garbage removal.
They also used public spaces, including squares and a spacious
marketplace, to socialize and conduct business, making it a
city more modern than medieval.
Although by the early nineteenth century Zubarah ceased
to be a player in the industry, the demand for pearls continued
to escalate with a growing class of Western consumers. This
was the pearling heyday for the Persian Gulf. By 1835, one
British traveler estimated that the Gulfs pearl trade was worth
400,000 British pounds. By 1900, there were 5,000 pearling
boats plying the Gulf, employing 30,000 men, and the value
of pearls shipped from Bahrain alone nearly matched what the
entire Gulfs production had been in 1835. A survey conducted
shortly after the turn of the last century found that a quarter
of the entire population was engaged in pearling.
The massive demand for pearls eventually prompted
Japanese scientists to develop a way to grow them without
having to sh them out of the sea in huge numbers. By the
1920s, high-quality white cultured pearls ooded the market.
The Depression was a second blow, and by World War II, the
Persian Gulfs great pearling industry had dried up. Oil soon
provided an even more lucrative resource, drawing settlers
and merchants to the Gulf once again, and renewing the old
pearling centers, which had fallen on hard times. Meanwhile,
Carter, Walmsley, Richter, and others continue to search for
the hidden history of pearls in a region where some of its major
citiesAbu Dhabi, Dubai, and Kuwait Cityhave skyscraper-
lled skylines. The pearling centers are still there, says Carter.
But now they have become capitals.
Andrew Lawler is a contributing editor at ARCHAEOLOGY.
foodstus for inhabitants and passing shipsdozens of date
presses have been found in the city. At its peak, around 1800,
Richter estimates that as many as 6,000 people crowded
Zubarahs houses, streets, marketplace, and beach.
Zubarahs boom years, however, were limited. Ultimately,
given the shallow harbor and the lack of fresh water, the city
wasnt sustainable, says Richter. The ambitious canal project
was never completed. Wealth attracted jealous rivals. Accounts
say a 1782 attack by resurgent Persians was repulsed. The
sultan of Muscat burned the city in 1811, and a British captain
records the site as a ruin in 1824. Richter says that excavations
conrm that rapid decline. The settled town suddenly con-
tracted to one-fourth its size and population after the initial
swell. The site was eventually abandoned, but from the 1820s
until the 1990s, Qatar and neighboring Bahrain argued and
occasionally fought over who owned this stretch of coast. The
dispute left the site largely o-limits for archaeologists until
now. Only a few small excavations had been conducted there
until Richters project began.
Among the artifacts discovered so far is a pearlers boxa
wooden container holding smaller boxes to sort dierent
shapes and sizes of pearlsmore than a dozen stone diving
weights, and a number of massive boat anchors. Pearling
may have accounted for only a portion of Zubarahs trade,
but its location near some of the best pearling beds in the
region hints at the importance of the gem to the citys
economy. Carter notes that the demand for pearls emanat-
ing from places such as China and Europe began to mount
in the late eighteenth century, matching Zubarahs rise. The
h l
An excavator at Zubarah uncovers a rare
wooden pearling box used by merchants to sort
pearls by size, shape, and color.
Heavy weights, like these from Zubarah, were tied to pearl divers
to help them descend into the Persian Gulf to gather pearls.
Over the years, technology has
made the way we live easier,
safer and more convenient. In
many cases, its even made
many products more affordable
(remember how much the first
VCRs used to cost?). Unfortunately,
the cost of hearing aids never
seemed to come down. Now, a new
alternative has been invented its
called Perfect Choice HD.
Perfect Choice HD is NOT a
hearing aid. Hearing aids can
only be sold by
an audiologist. In
order to get a
hearing aid, you
had to go to the
doctors office for a
battery of tests and
numerous fitting
a ppoi nt me nt s .
Once they had you
tested and fitted,
you would have to pay as much as
$5000 for the product. Now,
thanks to the efforts of the doctor
who leads a renowned hearing
institute, there is Perfect Choice HD.
Its designed to accurately amplify
sounds and deliver them to your
ear. Because weve developed an
efficient production process, we
can make a great product at an
affordable price. The unit has
been designed to have an easily
accessible battery, but it is small
and lightweight enough to hide
behind your ear only youll know
you have it on. Its comfortable and
wont make you feel like you have
something stuck in your ear. It
provides high quality audio so
sounds and conversations will be
easier to hear and understand.
Try it for yourself with our
exclusive home trial. Some people
need hearing aids but many just
need the extra boost in volume that
a PSAP gives them. We want you to
be happy with Perfect Choice HD,
so we are offering to let you try it
for yourself. If you are not totally
satisfied with this product, simply
return it within 60 days for a refund
of the full product purchase price.
Dont wait dont miss out on
another conversation call now!
Are you or
a loved one frustrated
in these situations?
Restaurants Dinner parties
Outdoor conversations
Lectures Sermons
Meetings
and other times where you
need to turn up the volume
New Personal Sound Amplification Product
is an affordable alternative
The invention of the year
is great news for your ears
Perfect Choice HD is easy to use, hard
to see and costs far less than hearing aids
its like reading glasses for your ears!
Affordable, Simple to use,
Virtually impossible to see
Perfect Choice HD is not a hearing aid.
If you believe you need a hearing aid,
please consult a physician.
Call now for
the lowest price ever.
Please mention promotional code
43663.
1-888-628-1501
8
0
3
2
5
N
E
W
Perfect Choice HDvs Traditional Hearing Aids
Perfect Choice HD
YES
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
Traditional Hearing Aids
Some
Few
Few
Yes
as much as $5000
rarely
Lightweight and
Inconspicuous
Easy Toggle
Switch Adjustment
Intelligent Setting
Memory
Tests and Fittings
Required
Affordable
Friendly Return
Policy
Reading glasses for your ears
Long time we travel on way to new land.
People feel bad when they leave Old
Nation. Women cry and made sad wails.
Children cry and many men cry, and all
look sad like when friends die, but they say
nothing and just put heads down and keep
on go towards West. Many days pass and
people die very much.
A Cherokee account from The
Oklahoman, 1929, cited by John Ehle
in Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the
Cherokee Nation, 1988
I
ts easy to miss this subtle groove,
covered in pine straw and vines,
worn in the ground of eastern
Tennessee. In the summer of 1838,
about 13,000 Cherokee walked
this path from their homes in the
Appalachian Mountains to a new,
government-mandated homeland in
Oklahoma. They traveled over land
and water and were held in military
camps along the way. Unlike other
settlers heading west, who saw in
Americas open expanses the hope of
a new life, the Cherokee traveled with
a military escort. They left behind
highly coveted land that was, even as
they walked, being divided up among
white land speculators.
The Trail of Tears was a journey of
some 900 miles that took approxi-
mately nine months to complete.
After they were rounded up from
their villages and homes, the Chero-
kee were assembled in large intern-
ment camps, where some waited for
weeks before heading out in waves of
approximately 1,000, following dier-
ent paths, depending on the season.
Return to the Trail of Tears

Excavations at the untouched site of a U.S. Army fort are
providing a rare look at the path along which thousands of Cherokee
were forcibly moved to Oklahoma
by MARION BLACKBURN
LETTER FROM TENNESSEE
Forest litter conceals a shallow groove in
Cherokee National Forest in Tennessee
the Trail of Tears.
the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (UNC), the U.S. Forest
Service (USFS), and Lee University
in Cleveland, Tennessee, held the
fourth eld season at the site. The
same archaeologists also have been
conducting excavations about 35
miles east, across the North Carolina
border, at the sites of long-forgotten
homesteads where fugitive Cherokee
found refuge and community.
Any [Cherokee] who came from
North Carolina came through here,
says archaeologist Brett Riggs, an
adjunct associate professor at UNC,
of the Fort Armistead site. We have
an archaeological site and records
that speak directly to it.
S
pindly hardwoods and pines
surround the clearing. The
archaeologists began their
efforts in 2006 at the invitation of
USFS officials, who had just purchased
the property from private owners.
Artifacts have been found throughout
the immediate area, but the main digs
of the 2011 field season focused on a
space at the northern end about the
size of two city buses. Exposed cut
stones set in powdery soil, chimney
fading from collective memory, tak-
ing with it any chance to understand
the relationships between refugees
and soldiers, and cultural informa-
tion about the Cherokee them-
selveswhat they carried, how they
traveled, why they died.
That now stands to change. In
eastern Tennessee, archaeologists are
excavating the site of Fort Armistead,
a U.S. Army encampment that served
as a holding area and one of the rst
stops for North Carolina Cherokee
on their forced journey west. Hidden
deep in Cherokee National Forest,
the site has managed to escape the
damage or destruction that has visit-
ed nearly every other signicant trace
of the trail and camps.
Fort Armistead lodged as many as
3,000 Cherokee over several months
in 1838. Today, the site sits on about
four acres of a mountaintop clearing.
It consists of foundation blocks,
collapsed piles of chimney stones,
trash pits, and window glassplus
an enigmatic stone pipeall settled
gently into the ground, covered by
only a thin layer of dirt, leaves, straw,
and moss. For four weeks in the sum-
mer of 2011, archaeologists from
As many as 4,000 died along the
way from dehydration, tuberculosis,
whooping cough, and other hard-
shipsby some accounts, a dozen
or more were buried at each stop.
Some escaped along the way and were
caught and returned to the march like
criminals. Still others refused to leave,
hiding out in the mountains, joining
others on small farms where, stripped
of tribal connections and burdened
with unclear legal status, they faced
an uncertain future.
Despite all our historical knowl-
edge of the forced removal, there
has been little study of the archae-
ology of the trail, the internment
camps along the way, and the farms
that sheltered those who stayed
behind. The military forts that held
the Cherokee in crowded, unsani-
tary conditions have been largely
consumed by development or oth-
erwise lost. The homesteads back
East, where resistors lived under
constant threat of arrest, went
undocumented. Buildings, roads,
farms, and oods have claimed
almost all of these sites. In addi-
tion to a lack of material evidence,
there has long been an uneasy, even
contentious, relationship between
Native Americans and archaeolo-
gists. Through neglect and distrust,
this sad chapter has been at risk of
Archaeologists Lance Greene and Duane Esarey (top) discuss the excavation of
Fort Armistead. Archaeology student Joseph Gamble (above) uses a fine brush to
remove powdery soil from the foundation of the quartermasters house at the site.
A
s the mist clears, you press on toward
the mouth of the jungle. A vinetwisted
darkness lies ahead. But like the intrepid
explorers of old, who came to South
America in search of fortune and glory in
the form of precious green stones, you
cant help yourself. Youve heard tales of
a scintillating 50 carat emerald...
Entering the green depths of the forest,
you ask yourself, Is it worth it? But soon
enough you realize it is. After following
your guide past snakes and snares, you
catch a glimpse of the glorious green
treasure... and then you wake up. It was all
a dream. Except the emerald. That part was
real. The gigantic stone can be yours in our
Oval Emerald Pendant for only $129!
The largest emerald weve ever
offered. Although emeralds of this size
often land in museums, we think some-
thing so spectacular belongs around a
neck--not under glass. The impressive
50-carat faceted stone is a natural emerald
carefully enhanced by our jewelers to bring
out its finest color. And its exquisite, sterling
silver frame is ringed with meticulous
filigree and beadwork which has been
hand worked in Bali, demonstrating only
the most refined craftsmanship.
The stuff of legends. Here at Stauer, we
want legendary emeralds like this to be
available and affordable. But we also want
our legend to live on. So, were going to give
you 300 reasons to come back to Stauer.
Receive $300 in Stauer Gift Coupons
for FREE per order$25 to use every
month for 12 months, with NO MINIMUM
PURCHASE REQUIRED... ever. Basically,
were paying you to shop Stauer.
Were so sure youll consider our Oval
Emerald Pendant a masterpiece, we offer a
30-day money back guarantee. If youre
not mesmerized by its beauty, return it for
a full refund of the purchase price.
Sometimes even our best customers are
surprised by our prices, but with our
client-friendly approach weve earned a
rare A+ Rating from the Better Business
Bureau, so you can wear this genuine
50-carat emerald with confidence. Its time
to turn those green dreams into reality!
Oval Emerald Pendant
(50 carats)$249 $129
Oval Emerald Ring
(10 carats)$195 $129
Oval Emerald Earrings
(15 ctw)$195 $129
Oval Emerald Set
(Includes ring and earrings)
(25 ctw)$390 $199 Save $191
Bali Tulang Naga Chain$99
Call now to take advantage of this
extremely limited offer.
1-888-201-7125
Promotional Code OEP158-02
14101 Southcross Drive W.,
Dept. OEP158-02
JEWELRY SPECS:
- 50 carat genuine emerald pendant
- .925 sterling silver setting - Chain sold separately
Stauer has a Better Business
Bureau Rating of A+
Smar t Luxur i esSur pr i si ng Pr i ces
S
t
a
u
e
r
.
c
o
m
Own this genuine 50 carat emeraldthe largest ever offered by Stauerfor ONLY $129.00!
Stauer
50 carat genuine
emerald enlarged
to show details.
Do You Dream in Green?
Add the striking 10 carat ring
and 15 ctw earrings to
complete the set.
Emeralds are one of the most rare and valuable
of gemstones. The emerald is well deserving
of its placement among the big four which
includes diamond, sapphire and ruby.
Mineral Class _______________________
Color ______________________________
Hardness ___________________________
Cut ___________ Birthstone _________
Refractive Index _____________________
7.5 on the MOHs Scale
1.577-1.583
May
Beryl
Deep Green
Faceted
The Rich Verdant Color of Spring
Get $300
in Free
Stauer
Gift
Coupons!
See details left.
Thanks Stauer for making me
look like a hero to my wife!
STAUER CLIENT, Oklahoma City, OK
L
i
m
i
t
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

2
5
0
0

r
e
s
p
o
n
d
e
n
t
s
who would not be able to modernize.
It was also cast as a measure to pro-
tect Natives from more violent eorts
to claim the land on which they lived.
However, it clearly overlooked that
many tribes throughout the South-
east lived in villages and towns and
were adept pastoralists, farmers, and
entrepreneurs, with strong spiritual
ties to their lands. President Andrew
Jackson, a land speculator himself,
championed the controversial act and
stood to prot from it. In the ensuing
decades, the legislation stoked moral
outrage that also helped fuel the abo-
litionist movement.
The Cherokee fought eviction
through o cial channels, eventually
winning support for independent sta-
tus from the U.S. Supreme Courta
decision that prompted Jackson to
say, [Chief Justice] John Marshall has
made his decision; let him enforce it
now if he can. Harassment, uncer-
tainty, and eroding negotiating lever-
age ultimately fatigued the Cherokee.
In 1835, a minority Cherokee group
agreed to relocation, or removal,
under the terms of the Treaty of New
Echota. Deportation might then have
seemed a kind of escape. The treaty
included $5 million for the tribe,
along with compensation for the land
and possessions they abandoned.
The Cherokee, which white Amer-
icans called one of the Five Civilized
Tribes, considered themselves Ameri-
can and wanted to join the growing
country as participating members. In
1827, the Cherokee ratied a consti-
tution modeled after the American
one. They also assumed some aspects
of American culture, in an eort to
acculturate and escape the fate they
had seen befall other Southeastern
tribes, such as the Choctaw, the rst
tribe to move to the West in 1830, or
the Seminoles, who violently resisted
removal from Florida.
The fort was near a corridor that
already served as a major source of
cultural interaction, where dierent
tribes traded, especially the Cherokee
and the Creek (also known as the
Muscogee). Cattle and pig rustlers,
slave traders heading to South
Carolina, gold miners, trappers, and
hunters all came through along this
route, known as the Unicoi Turn-
pike. Indeed, soldiers stationed at
the fort often appropriated goods
(including whiskey) for themselves,
Riggs says. For the next several
years, the fort was irregularly staed
and maintained.
Prior to the Civil War, trade and
land speculation in the South often
put businessmen and speculators at
odds with Native Americans who
occupied the land they coveted. The
federal response to this problem
was the Indian Removal Act, which
passed by a narrow margin in 1830.
The law marked a monumental shift
for the young nation by o cially
claiming Native lands for its expand-
ing population and farming needs.
The act granted the Natives money
and land in the West if they left their
homes in the South. To sell the act to
the public, the federal government
asserted that Native Americans were
primitive migrantshunter-gatherers
blocks, and the remains of fire pits
compose what was once the barracks
area. Another foundation there prob-
ably supported the quartermasters
residence, and a pit across the site
likely served as a powder magazine.
You are right in the footsteps of the
Cherokee, says Quentin Bass, an
archaeologist with the USFS. [Fort
Armistead] is the only example of
a removal-era fort that essentially
hasnt been disturbed since the sol-
diers left. Its the dream for an
archaeologistto find an untouched
site to explore and preserve.
These undisturbed remains of
apparently substantial structures
suggest that the federal government
poured signicant sta and resources
into the fort during its military occu-
pation. Beyond the barrack founda-
tions, in a sunny opening in the tree
cover, is a key public place, the forts
parade ground. Wide dirt roads lead
right and left beyond that, and a gen-
tle slope leads down to a creek.
Fort Armistead was formally estab-
lished in 1832, ostensibly to protect
local Cherokee from gold prospectors.
It was the only U.S. outpost in the
Cherokee Nation, whose land at that
time extended from western North
Carolina and eastern Tennessee south
through Georgia and into Alabama.
The remains of Fort Armistead are
surprisingly undisturbed. Archaeologist
Bill Jurgelski is able to use an ordinary
vacuum to remove the fine layer of dirt
that covers much of the site.
The Cherokee were trying to play
by American rules, says archaeolo-
gist Lance Greene, who worked with
Riggs at UNC and now works at the
Fort Armistead dig. They were form-
ing their own national government.
A large part of the population had
converted to Christianity. They sang
Christian hymns as they were march-
ing. Theres still an image of savage
Indians living in tepees, but maybe
the Cherokee, more than anybody,
made an attempt [to acculturate]. But
ultimately it failed.
Despite the apparent Chero-
kee desire to join instead of ght,
the federal government began a
military buildup in preparation for
what it assumed would become a
long, bloody conict. As part of
this militarization, they reactivated
Fort Armistead in 1836 and occu-
pied it with soldiers who marched
there from Florida. By the summer
of 1838, more than 7,000 federal
and state troops were stationed
throughout the Cherokee Nationa
remarkably high concentration for
Americas nascent military.
What drove their idea of a pro-
tracted conict in North Carolina
was the unanimous opposition to the
Treaty of New Echota and strong
activism to prevent its ratication,
and then to have it annulled, Riggs
says. There were rumors afoot that
there would be a guerilla war in North
Carolina. The military was poised for
an eventuality that never happened.
There was no insurgency and little
resistance when the military began the
roundup of the Cherokee in June and
July 1838. Most of them gathered what
belongings they could and came togeth-
er in their town squares or waited for
a soldiers knock on the door (though
some did seek refuge in the mountains).
Coming together as they accepted their
fate became a nal act of preservation
for their families, communities, and val-
ues, Riggs says. They were trying to
promote the cohesion of their group,
he adds. They were making a politi-
cal statement, a moral statement.
They believed very strongly in the
ideals of this country and the moral
imperative to treat everybody fairly.
For Cherokee living in North
Carolina, Fort Armistead was the rst
stop outside their home state. It held
as many as 800 to 1,000 for stays of
two or three nights. These included
not only the Cherokee, but also those
traveling with them, including Creek
and African Americans, some of them
slaves. They continued on to a series
of other outposts (there were up to
These stones, surrounding the remains
of a tree that grew through the site
later, comprise a fire ring at the
soldiers barracks at Fort Armistead.
Discover the Past, Share the Adventure
C
S
T

2
0
5
9
3
4
7
-
5
0
May 1319, 2012
800.422.8975
www.crowcanyon.org/travel
Create your own work of beaded art.
Learn how history has shaped Ute
artistic expression.
Chaco &
the Hopi
Pueblo
World
Ute Culture &
Beading Workshop
With Rebecca Hammond
August 511, 2012
Explore Chaco-era
archaeological
sites and visit the
Hopi mesas.
;=D7<5-
BOYS/@16/3=:=5G
EWbVG]c
!f you are movinQ soon, compIete
the coupon beIow and maiI to:
ARCHAEOLOGY MaQazine
P.O. Box 549
Mt. Morris, !L 61D54-7559
/BB/16;/5/H7<3:/03:63@3
To chanQe address, attach your maQazine IabeI
above and print your new address beIow. 7[^]`bO\b(
We make our maiIinQ Iist avaiIabIe to carefuIIy
screened orQanizations. !f you prefer not to
receive promotionaI maiIinQs, pIease check here. Q
NAME
ADDRESS
C!TY STATE Z!P
COUNTRY
PLEASE ALLOW 6-7 WEEKS FOR DEL!VERY
these structures, suggesting a highly
organized and militarized approach
to the removal of the Cherokee. In
addition, the stone most likely was
brought from up to ve miles away,
indicating extensive manpower was
likely needed for the construction.
The structure was even more
substantial than we thought, Greene
says. Its almost a solid rock oor. If
you have something that heavy, then
youre almost building it as a founda-
tion for a cannon. But they didnt
have that repower at the camp.
They may have overbuilt some of the
structures to keep the soldiers occu-
pied. They must have had a stone-
mason who was skilled enough to do
for many archaeological sites in the
Southeast. Many of the anomalies
that we were seeing on the surface,
which I thought were small piles
pushed up by a bulldozer, were melted
chimneys and cellar pits that had been
lled in [by settling debris]. Riggs says
the site is in as nearly pristine condi-
tion as you nd in the East.
When you start, you are immedi-
ately within an archaeological feature.
You have to approach it with kid
gloves from the outset, he adds.
The 2011 dig season, which also
included Bass and students from
Lee University, focused on several
large architectural features, primar-
ily the quartermasters house and
the enlisted-mens quarters. The
foundation stones easily emerged
from the surrounding dirt, lying so
near the surface that in many cases
soil could be removed by vacuum.
The archaeologists discovered a sur-
prising solidity and permanence to
30 forts or stops along the trail) in
Tennessee, including Fort Cass, the
main holding site, near present-day
Charleston, which was known for its
especially unbearable conditions. In
summer 1838, when drought made
river levels so low that a planned river
route became impossibleand heat
made an overland course deadlythe
march was delayed until fall, leaving
thousands of Cherokee to languish
there to face disease and death.
O
nce the Cherokee were
moved and soldiers left in
1838, Fort Armistead was
abandoned. From the Civil War peri-
od through the turn of the century,
the site was privately owned, until it
was purchased by the USFS in 2005,
and archaeological exploration began
the next year.
We poked around and realized
that, in fact, the site had never been
plowed, Riggs says, a common fate
Archaeologist Lance Greene crouches
in the deep pit that once served as the
powder magazine for Fort Armistead.
A wooden floor, found at its bottom,
kept the explosive powder dry.
58
(continued on page 64)
What To Look For
in a Walk-In Tub:
Five major considerations to help
make an informed decision before
buying a Walk-In Tub:
Quality - A walk-in tub is a
major investment. You want to
find a quality tub that will last
for decades. Look for one
thats 100% leakproof,
mold-resistant, full metal
frame construction and one
thats American made.
Warranty - Ask for a lifetime
no leak guarantee The best
tubs offer a lifetime warranty
on both the tub and the
operating system.
Pain Relieving Therapy - Find a
tub that has both water and
air jet therapy to soak away
your aches and pains prefer-
ably with a perfectly balanced
water to air mix.
Comfort - Insist on ergonomic
design, easy-to-reach controls.
Endorsements - Only consider
tubs that are ETL or UL listed.
Also look for a tub tested to
IAPMO (Internatl Assoc. of
Plumbing and Mechanical
Officials) standards and thats
USPC (Universal Spa Plumbing
Code) Certified.
Technology Breakthrough Safe, comfortable bathing from Jacuzzi
Enjoy A Bath Again

Safely and Affordably
The Designed for Seniors
Walk-In tub
is luxurious, feature-packed and affordable
Low Threshold
Step
Jacuzzi
PointPro
TM
Jet System
8
0
4
0
1
Designed For Seniors
Walk-In Tub
For information call:
1-888-663-0773
Call now Toll-Free and mention your
special promotion code 42824.
Financing available with approved credit.
All rights reserved. 2011 firstSTREET
, Inc. For Boomers and Beyond
SEE THE DIFFERENCE

Laboratory tests clearly show how Jacuzzi

outperforms other manufacturers jet
systems, producing a deeper and wider
plume of revitalizing bubbles. Best of all,
it doesnt cost you a penny more!
T
here is nothing like the simple
pleasure of taking a warm bath.
The cares of the day seem to fade
away, along with the aches and pains of
everyday life. Unfortunately for many aging
Americans with mobility issues, slipping
into a bath can result in slipping onto the
floor. The fear of falling has made the simple
act of bathing and its therapeutic benefits a
thing of the past until now. firstSTREET,
the leader in products Designed for
Seniors has partnered with Jacuzzi, the
company that perfected hydrotherapy.
Together, theyve created a walk-in tub
that offers more than just safe bathing,
peace-of-mind and independence, it can
actually help you feel better.
Unlike traditional bathtubs, our Designed
for Seniors Walk-In Tub features a
leakproof door that allows you to simply step
into the tub rather than stepping precariously
over the side. It features a state-of-the-art
acrylic surface, a raised seat, and the controls
are within easy reach. No other Walk-In Tub
features the patented Jacuzzi
PointPro
TM
jet
system. These high-volume, low-pressure
pumps feature a perfectly balanced water to
air ratio to massage thoroughly yet gently.
Some swirl, some spiral, some deliver large
volumes of water and others target specific
pressure points. They are all arranged in
precise locations designed to deliver a
therapeutic massage, yet they are fully
adjustable so that your bathing experience
can be completely unique.
Why spend another day wishing you
could enjoy the luxury and pain-relieving
benefits of a safe, comfortable bath. Call
now and youll get an unsurpassed limited
lifetime warranty. Knowledgeable product
experts are standing by to help you learn
more about this product. Call Today!
N
e
w
!
Tourist Boards
1. The Great State of Texas Texas
vacations are filled with possibilities.
Explore them all with your FREE
Texas State Travel Guide.
www.TravelTex.com p.2 & 3
Travel and Tours
2. AIA Tours Join distinguished
lecturers at the greatest
archaeological sites with the
Archaeological Institute of
Americas Tour Program. Visit
www.archaeological.org for more
information. p.67

3. Caravan Tours Fully Escorted
Tours $995, Costa Rica, Mexico,
Guatemala, USA, and Canada. 60
years, since 1952. 800-Caravan,
www.CaravanTours.com p.62, 28
Page Color Brochure, Free
4. Cultural Cache Tours
Professional academic guides lead
archaeological tours for small and
private groups to the Ancient Near
East, including Turkey and Armenia.
www.culturalcache.com p.62,
Tour Itineraries, Exclusive Offers
5. Maya Research Program
Excavate Maya ruins in Blue Creek,
Belize with a professional team that
needs volunteer help. No experience
necessary. Please include your email
address for more information. p.62,
Brochure, Free
6. Jamestown Yorktown
Foundation Jamestown Settlement
and Yorktown Victory Center.
Explore Americas colonial
beginnings through museum gallery
exhibits and living history depicting
17th- and 18th-century Virginia.
p.16, Brochures, Free
7. Tara Tours Inc. Since 1980
selling quality tour programs to
Central & South America.
8. Voyages to Antiquity Voyages
to Antiquity cruises to classical
civilizations INCLUDE shore
excursions, gratuities, pre- and/
or post-cruise hotel stays. Far
East journeys also include land
extensions. For information and
reservations, call 877-398-1460.
9. Wilderness Travel Wilderness
Travel offers extraordinary cultural,
wildlife, and archaeological
adventures throughout the world.
Request a free catalog or Maya
program brochure. p.63, Catalog
and Program Brochure, Free
10. World Heritage Tours Small
group journeys concentrating
on culture, history and World
Heritage sites to over 85 countries
in Asia, Middle East, Eastern Europe
& Africa. Offering published and
customised tours. p.63,
Tour Itineraries, Free
Log on to www.archaeology.org and click on Free Info for products and services featured
by our advertisers. You can also get this information by filling out and mailing the attached card,
or by faxing the card to the number provided.
Free Information Service
ARCHAEOLOGY (ISSN 0003-8113) is published bimonthly for $23.95 by the
Archaeological Institute of America, 36-36 33rd Street, Long Island City, NY 11106.
Periodicals postage paid at Long Island City, NY, and additional mailing o ces.
POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Archaeology, P.O. 433091, Palm Coast,
FL 32164.
Subscriptions should be addressed to Archaeology, Subscription Services, P.O.
433091, Palm Coast, FL 32164, toll-free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782), subscrip-
tion@archaeology.org. $23.95 per volume. Single numbers, $4.99. Foreign and
Canadian subscriptions, $38.95; includes all government taxes (130277692-RT).
Canadian Publication Agreement #1373161. Allow six weeks for processing new
subscriptions. Send manuscripts and books for review to 36-36 33rd Street, Long
Island City, NY 11106 or editorial@archaeology.org. All manuscripts are reviewed
by experts. Advertisements should be sent to the Advertising Director, 36-36 33rd
Street, Long Island City, NY 11106, (718) 472-3050, advertising@archaeology.org.
We are not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts and photographs. For subscrip-
tion problems please call (877) 275-9782; AIA members with subscription problems
should call the membership o ce at (617) 353-8706. All rights reserved. Printed in
USA. Te views and opinions expressed do not necessarily reect the policy of the
AIA or Archaeology.
2012 Te Archaeological Institute of America
Publishing
11. Morris Publishing Publish
your book! Our free guide to self-
publishing gives you all the features
and prices up front. p.62, Guide to
Self-publishing, Free
Field School
12. College Year in Athens
Provides semester/year or summer
university-level courses focused
on Greece and the East
Mediterranean world. p.16,
Brochure or Catalog, Free
13. Crow Canyon Archaeological
Center Looking for a learning
vacation? Crow Canyon offers
archaeology, cultural, and adventure
travel programs in the Southwest and
beyond for adults, teens, and families.
p.8 & 57, Brochures, Catalogs,
Prospectuses, Free
14. University of Leicester A
leading university in the U.K. that
provides distance-learning courses
in archaeology at the post-graduate
level. p.8, Brochure, Free
AIA
15. Archaeological Institute of
America Join the oldest and
largest society devoted to the study
and preservation of the record
of the human past.
www.archaeological.org
BEST-SELLING PRODUCTS
f o r S e n i o r s i n 2 0 1 2
Thanks to its revolutionary design, the Talking Atomic Watch gives you accuracy to within
a billionth of a second. It gets its signal from the US Atomic Clock, the standard for time
keeping worldwide. Plus, all you have to do is push a button, and the watch will tell
you the time in a clear, easy-to-understand voice. It will even tell you the day and date.
Travelling? Touch a button to switch it to any time zone. Its lightweight and attractive
and its always accurate. The Talking Atomic Watch was . . . $89.95. Now $49.95 + S&H.
Call today. 1-888-854-8592 Please mention Promotional Code 43665.
The wristwatch you never
have to set or even see.
Ten-ten AM,
Thursday,
February 9th,
2012
Our Lighted Full-Page Magnifier
is hands-free and huge!
Our one-of-a-kind magnifying floor lamp combines powerful FULL-PAGE magnification with flexible
adjustability and clear, even Balanced Spectrum light. Twelve high-powered LEDs provide ample light
for close work and reading. The super-large lens provides 2.5X-plus variable magnification, to easily
cover an entire page without glare or hot spots. The ultra-flexible gooseneck positions the lens exactly
where you need it. And unlike that magnifier in the drawer, youll always know where this one is.
Magnifying lens dimensions are a whopping 7.375 x 10. AC operated. Lighted Full Page Magnifier
was . . . $99.95. Now $79.95 + S&HCall today. 1-888-759-2983 Please mention Promotional Code 43666
Are you in love with your home,
but afraid of your staircase?
If you or someone you love lives in a home with more than one floor, the staircase can be more than
an inconvenience, it can be a health threat. Whether it's due to mobility issues or cardiac concerns,
why risk your life climbing stairs when an easy solution is only a phone call away? Youll be surprised
how easy, simple, and affordable the Easy Climber
TM
is. It features a reliable, aircraft-grade cable drive
thats been tested over 30,000 cycles. Its also designed for basements and outdoors. Its simple enough
for most people to install on either side of the stairs, a snap to use, and comes with an exclusive
lifetime warranty on the drive train. Call our toll-free number now, and a friendly, knowledgeable
product expert can answer all of your questions and help you get on the road to independence and
safety in the home. Call today. 1-888-689-3050 Please mention Promotional Code 43668
A floor lamp that spreads
sunshine all over a room.
The Balanced Spectrums 27-watt compact bulb is brighter than a 100-watt ordinary light bulb. With
the lamps sharp visibility, you will see with more clarity and enjoyment in close tasks such as
reading, writing, sewing, and needlepoint. It is especially helpful for aging eyes.
Experience sunshine indoors at the touch of a switch. This amazing lamp is not only easy on the eyes,
it is easy on the hands as well, featuring a special soft-touch, flicker-free rocker switch that is easier
to use than traditional toggle or twist switches. And its flexible gooseneck design enables you to get
light exactly where you need it. The high-tech electronics, the user-friendly design, and a bulb that
lasts 10 times longer than an ordinary bulball these features make the Balanced Spectrum
floor lamp
a must-have. Balanced Spectrum
floor lamp Only $59.95 each + S&H or buy two lamps for $99 + S&H.
Call today. 1-877-513-8959 Please mention Promotional Code 43667
CLASSIFIEDS
BOOKS
THE RAVENS POOL. WHITE RAVEN.
RAVENSTONE. An archaeological trilogy
by Deborah Cannon. Petroglyphs,
pendants and a kings tomb. A wild ride
from the sea cliffs of British Columbia
to the steamy mysteries of Tonga. --
Barbara Kyle. Available from amazon.
com. Also on Kindle
FIELD SCHOOLS
Work side by side for a week with
professional archaeologists at a late
18th century slave quarter on President
Madisons home. Learn field and
lab techniques from Montpeliers
archaeology staff and live on the
historic property. www.montpelier.org/
archaeologyprograms
OF INTEREST TO ALL
The love of your life may be a member
of Science Connection, the singles group
for people into science/nature. Join us!
SciConnect.com
TRAVEL & TOURS
2012 Jaguar Tours OMG! Its the End of
the World! Be there! Tikal and Uaxactn
for December Winter Solstice, then
Seibal/Aguateca and Cancun. June
Summer Solstice sunrise at Uaxactn
observatory, Tikal and then Quirigu and
Copn. JaguarTours@nettally.com. 3007
Windy Hill Lane, Tallahassee, FL 32308.
(850) 385-4344.
AMAZING ARCHAEOLOGY, expert
guides, comfortable hotels, beautiful
scenery, relaxing, informative, wonderful
holidays: Orkney Islands, Scotland: www.
orkneyarchaeologytours.com;
info@orkneyarchaeologytours.com
ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOURS: Spring
2012: Yampa River Visit remote
archaeological sites on downriver
adventure. Northern Plains Explore
Double Ditch, Huff Indian Village, Fort
Union and more. Peru Visit Machu
Picchu, Moche tombs, Cuzco and more.
Fall 2012: French and Indian War Tour
Visit Ganondagan, Fort Ticonderoga and
more. Best of the Southwest: Explore
Acoma, Canyon de Chelly, Mesa Verde
and more. Oaxaca: Experience Day of the
Dead, visit Mitla, Motne Albn and more.
California Desert Rock Art: Explore
Grapevine Canyon, Corn Spring site and
more.
www.archaeologicalconservancy.org
Archaeological Conservancy,
Albuquerque, NM, (505) 266-1540,
tacmgt@nm.net
MACHU PICCHU & CUZCO: Explorations
since 1992! Inca archaeology, Spanish
colonial history, Quechua culture, Andean
ecology. Amazon, Nazca, Titikaka
extensions. (800)446-9660.
www.GoExploring.com
For a FREE Guide, call 800-650-7888, ext. ARC3
www.morrispublishing.com
We offer:
low prices and many options
production time of 20 days
low minimum of 100 books
assistance from start to finish
We print all kinds of books!
Join our 2012 MAYA
excavation team!
Belize Spring and Summer 2012 p g
Call 817-831-9011 or visit
SFTFBSDI!QSPHSBN
www.mayaresearchprogram.org
SFTFBSDI QSSPPHSBN
maya

Affordable Vacations
$995 - $1395 + tax & fees.
8 days U.S. National Parks
8 days Grand Canyon, Zion
8 days California & Yosemite
10 days Canada - Nova Scotia
9 days Canada - Rockies
10 days Guatemala
8 days Panama: Canal Cruise
Beaches, Panama City
T
M
Keel Billed
Toucans
are very
social
creatures
Costa Rica
10 DAYS
$
1095
+ tax, fees
Rainforests, Beaches,Volcanoes
Caravan makes it easy to travel.
Free 24 page brochure.
Caravan.com 1-800-CARAVAN
Caravan
com
Guided Vacations for 60 Years!

Easter IsIaod
kueIap
Machu Ficchu
iscover the ost aatiog sites oI
Latio Aerica. IocIudiog airIare
6aII. 1-800-321-0080
www.taratours.co
Discover the New
Armenia
www.culturalcache.com
Call: (773) 799-0880
Small Groups
Personal Service
Classified Ad Rates
$5.75 per word. $115, 20-word minimum.
Non-commissionable.
Copy/payment must be received by
space closing date. Artwork not accepted.
Display Classified Rates
1/24 Page: 2 1/4w x 1-1/8l
1X 3X 6X
B&W $500 $440 $410
2-Color $565 $500 $465
4-Color $605 $545 $510
1/12 page: 2 1/4w x 2 1/4l
1X 3X 6X
B&W $820 $735 $680
2-Color $925 $830 $770
4-Color $1000 $900 $845
1/6 PAGE: 2-1/4w x 4 -5/8l
1X 3X 6X
B&W $1,550 $1,425 $1,320
2-Color $1,740 $1,705 $1,500
4-Color $1,870 $1,700 $1,635
See mechanical requirements below.
No coupons, non-commissionable, non-
cancelable. Supplied advertising that
requires production or design work of
any kind may incur a non-commissionable
production charge of at least $25.
Mechanical Requirements:
Materials: Mac-based PDF or Illustrator
preferred. Tiff or InDesign files accepted.
Must include all fonts and art. Images
should be at least 300 dpi.
Files must be supplied via
e-mail or CD-ROM. No film, Microsoft
Word, or floppies accepted. A proof must
accompany all advertising material. Four-
color ads must include a four-color proof.
If a proof is not supplied, ARCHAEOLOGY
cannot be held responsible for errors
introduced in original materials submission.
Contact Info:
Karina Casines, Account Manager
karina@archaeology.org
(718) 472-3050 ext. 4905
Email materials to:
materials@archaeology.org
Materials for the May/June 2012 issue
are due March 6, 2012
ACT NOW!
DONT MISS THIS
SPECIAL OFFER
Give the gift of
ARCHAEOLOGY
Go to www.archaeology.org/gift/
FOR AS LITTLE AS $15!
Photo Credits
COVERCourtesy Rabun Taylor; 1
Courtesy Parks Canada; 2Courtesy Susan
OConnor, Wikimedia Commons, Courtesy
Payson D. Sheets, University of Colorado at
Boulder; 4Courtesy Parks Canada, Edward
Eastaugh; 8Courtesy Jean Clottes and
Chauvet Cave Project; 9Courtesy INAH,
iStockphoto; 10Courtesy INAH, Courtesy
Payson D. Sheets, University of Colorado at
Boulder; 12 Dominique Bossut, Inrap;
Courtesy Matthew Koutsoumanis; 14
Wikimedia Commons, Courtesy National
Museum of Wales, Courtesy Donald E.
Hurlbert; 16Courtesy Susan OConnor;
18Courtesy D. Huyge, RMAH Brussels (2),
Courtesy Paul Graves-Brown (2); 19bpk,
Berlin/Wolfgang Ruppert/Art Resource, NY,
iStockphoto; 20EPA/Landov, Wikimedia
Commons; 22(clockwise from top
left) Courtesy Jeremy Foin, University of
California, Davis, Wikimedia Commons,
Wikimedia Commons, Images of Asia ,
Courtesy Hublot, Courtesy Nacogdoches,
Texas, Police Department; 23(clockwise
from top left) Courtesy Institute of Vertebrate
Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese
Academy of Science; Courtesy Nobumasa
Inoue, Board of Education of Dazaifu,
Japan, Courtesy Jeffrey Rose, University
of Birmingham, Courtesy Steve Morton,
Monash University; 24-25Courtesy Parks
Canada, Edward Eastaugh; 26Courtesy
Parks Canada; Courtesy Parks Canada, Brett
Seymour, NPS; Courtesy Parks Canada, Brett
Seymour, NPS; Courtesy Parks Canada,
Brett Seymour, NPS; 27Courtesy Parks
Canada; Lieutenant Samuel Gurney Cresswell,
Courtesy Toronto Public Library; 28
Courtesy Parks Canada, Brett Seymour, NPS;
29Courtesy Parks Canada, John Lucas Jr.,
Courtesy Parks Canada, Edward Eastaugh;
30Courtesy Parks Canada, Brett Seymour,
NPS, Courtesy Parks Canada, Louis Barnes,
Courtesy Parks Canada; 31Courtesy Parks
Canada, John Lucas Jr.; 32Courtesy
Claus-Joachim Kind (2); 33 Lion-man
statuette, Inv. Ulmer Museum Pr Slg. Wetzel
Ho-St. 39/88.1, Photo Thomas Stephan,
Ulmer Museum; 34-35Courtesy Rabun
Taylor; 36Ted ONeill, The Trustees
of the British Museum, Courtesy Michael
McCullough; 37Wikimedia Commons;
38Courtesy Rabun Taylor (2), Courtesy Ted
ONeill; 39Courtesy of the State Archive,
Rome; 40Courtesy Rabun Taylor (3);
41-45All Courtesy Matt Schmader; 46-47
Courtesy University of Copenhagen; 48
Courtesy Rob Carter (top and pearl), Courtesy
University of Copenhagen (mother of pearl);
49Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at
Art Resource, NY; 50Courtesy University
of Copenhagen; 51Courtesy University
of Copenhagen (2); 53Courtesy Natalie
Jackson; 54Courtesy Marion Blackburn
(2); 56Courtesy Marion Blackburn; 57
Courtesy Natalie Jackson; 58Courtesy
Marion Blackburn; 64Courtesy Natalie
Jackson; 68 The Trustees of the British
Museum
comprising the United States second
largest tribal nation. But the small band
of Cherokee who stayed behind left
a smaller but still significant legacy in
southern Appalachia.
It is estimated that about 400
Cherokee remained in North Carolina
after the others were removed. They
hid in the mountains where, unable to
trade publicly, they found ways to sur-
vive by cooperating with one another.
They often lived together in home-
steads, and the Eastern Band of the
Cherokee, which today numbers about
10,000, descends from residents of
those homesteads.
In Andrews, North Carolina, just
over the border from his work at Fort
Armistead, Greene is excavating a farm
once owned by John Welch, a Chero-
kee, and his white wife, Elizabeth.
After removal, the state took over
their land. John avoided relocation to
Oklahoma because of his marriage, and
Elizabeth repurchased the farm, where
they further deed the Indian Removal
Act, Greene says. There, they sheltered
about a hundred Cherokee refugees. At
the homestead site, Greene has found
bones of rabbit, deer, and small game
animals, such as songbirds. Among
that work. The stone is cut to make
very tight joints. Theyve done some
ne stone work.
The seemingly grand military scale
of the fort was not necessary to control
the Cherokee, the demeanor of whom
has been described as subdued and
orderly. The fort grounds ordinarily
used for drills may instead have served
as a sleeping and cooking area for the
internees. Direct evidence of Cherokee
at the fortor anywhere along the Trail
of Tears for that matteris vanishingly
rare. Yet one nd at Fort Armistead
not only conrms the Cherokee pres-
ence in the area before their removal,
but also suggests what sort of artifacts
might be unearthed that could help
reveal how the Cherokee and the sol-
diers stationed there interacted.
The broken remains of a carved
stone Cherokee pipe were discovered
at the site of the soldiers barracks. The
pipe, which was probably discarded
before it was fully carved, was found in
a deposit with military regalia that date
it to a time before removal. So while it
says little about the experience of the
Cherokee as they were interned there,
it implies that before removal, you
had Cherokees coming in and hanging
around the fort, Riggs says.
To nd evidence of their presence
is amazing, Greene adds. [The sol-
diers and Cherokee] are dealing with
each other on a face-to-face basis. It
brings up those questions, makes you
think about what happened on the
ground. How could you explain this?
Other nds in 2011 include ceram-
ics, such as pearl ware, and glass dating
the site to the removal period. A fac-
eted blue glass bead, from the 1820s or
1830s, emerged from the foundation
stones (and may, in fact, be of Cherokee
origin). Also, more than 4,200 distinct
metal objects have been documented.
T
he excavation and study of the
site of Fort Armistead is begin-
ning to flesh out the story of
those who left. Now, the Cherokee,
whose capital is Tahlequah in eastern
Oklahoma, number some 300,000
the food traces, there is a notable lack
of long bones, which Cherokee often
cooked and cracked open for the mar-
row. Greene says this is a signicant
cultural markerthe family continued
many Cherokee practices. One of
the strongest signs of that is the food
remains, he says.
The Welch settlement and others,
perhaps hundreds yet undiscovered,
will help explain the dierent experi-
ences and separate paths of the two
groups of Cherokee split by the trauma
of removal. In a broad sense, for all
Cherokees, the removal is a watershed
event, Greene says. Its tied to the
broader tribal history of tragedy and
trauma. It divided the tribe, but also,
he suggests, forged the resilience and
character of the modern Cherokee.
I
n 1987, Congress designated the
Trail of Tears National Historic
Trail, about 2,200 miles across
nine states. Fort Armistead is on the
trail and is a remarkably fragile site.
Hidden cameras, motion monitors,
and a high-tech security system pro-
tect it from looters and unauthorized
visitors. Among the visitors allowed
at the site are Cherokee from Okla-
homa, whose ancestors surely passed
through the fort.
For archaeology student Beau
Carroll, a Cherokee who grew up in
western North Carolina, excavating
at the site of Fort Armistead allowed
him to experience a deeper connec-
tion with his past. He remembers his
late great-grandmother telling him
of being sent to boarding school, as
many Cherokee children were, where
she was instructed to follow white
American traditions. She cried when
she remembered it, he says. Working
at the site gave him an indescribable
feeling, a really sad feeling.
When Im working, the archaeolo-
gist in me gets really excited, says Car-
roll. I forget where I am. But then I
take a break and look at that trail, and
I cant believe what happened.

Marion Blackburn is a freelance writer
based in Greenville, NC.
64
High-tech security, including cameras
and motion detectors, has been
installed at the fragile and significant
site of Fort Armistead. The sites
location remains a secret.
(continued from page 58)
M
ore than , people
attended the 113th AIA/
APA Joint Annual Meeting
held in Philadelphia from January 5th
through the 8th, 2012, making it the
largest meeting in AIA history. Te
four-day conference brought together
archaeologists, classicists, epigraphers,
heritage specialists, and members of
the public interested in learning about
the latest archaeological research and
discoveries. Te program included
more than 60 sessions and symposia,
approximately 300 papers, and several
special events that dealt with a wide
variety of topics, including recent
eldwork in the Mediterranean and
Near East regions, ancient urbanism,
religion, architecture, and pottery.
Te meetings inaugural event was
an outstanding opening-night lecture
entitled Uncorking the Past: Ancient
Ales, Wines, and Extreme Beverages,
presented by Patrick McGovern,
scientic director of the Biomolecu-
lar Archaeology Laboratory at the
University of Pennsylvania Museum
of Archaeology and Anthropology.
McGoverns long involvement with
the archaeology of fermented bever-
ages has produced several publica-
tions on the manufacture and role of
spirits and other alcoholic beverages
in the ancient world. His preoc-
cupation has also resulted in col-
laborations with a national brewery
to produce ales inspired by ancient
brewing recipes. Te lecture and
ensuing reception were hosted by the
University of Pennsylvania Museum
of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Tere were special events, includ-
ing a plenary on death and burial
organized by AIA president Eliza-
beth Bartman. Te plenary, rst in a
series of programs that will examine
traditional archaeological topics
in light of new methodologies and
techniques, featured archaeologists
from across the globe and examined
death and burial in Hellenistic Etru-
ria, medieval Italy, Mesoamerica, the
American Midwest, and California.
Other sessions at the meeting
focused on cultural heritage and the
importance of protecting resources,
especially in areas aected by conict.
A special workshop, sponsored by the
Site Preservation Committee, initiat-
ed a new project that will dene best
practices and produce a document
that can be used as a primer for those
interested in undertaking preserva-
tion and conservation initiatives at
archaeological sites.
In addition to the sessions for pro-
fessionals, several programs, including
the 12th Annual Archaeology Fair,
were tailored specically for the gen-
eral public. Te AIA is committed to
public outreach and provides infor-
mation and opportunities for mem-
bers of the public to interact with
archaeologists and experience rst-
hand what archaeologists do through
programs like the fair. Te event
EXCAVATE, EDUCATE, ADVOCATE www.archaeological.org
Philadelphia Meeting Sets Attendance Record
65
Attendees of the opening-night lecture offered at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology and Anthropology gather at a reception given afterwards.
T
he Annual Meeting is only
one of the many programs orga-
nized and presented by the AIA.
Te second half of the 116th AIA
Lecture Season launched in Janu-
ary. Tis year, over 100 speakers will
present approximately 300 lectures
at 109 AIA Local Societies. One of
our featured lecturers, supported by
the Samuel H. Kress Foundation,
is Yannis Lolos of the University of
Tessaly. Lolos specializes in land-
scape archaeology, the archaeology of
the Hellenistic city, and Greek and
Roman architecture and topography.
He will travel to seven local AIA
societies and speak about his excit-
ing work at the ancient Greek city of
Sikyon, in the northern Peloponnese,
and on the Via Egnatia, the Roman
road that connected the eastern and
western parts of the Roman Empire.
While excavations at Sikyon
have typically focused on the citys
famous sculpture, painting, and major
architectural monuments, a 15-year
regional survey project led by Lolos
is documenting the rich and diverse
human presence and activity in the
city from the earliest times to the
modern era.
Te Via Egnatia was the rst
Roman highway built east of the
Adriatic Sea. Its construction was
initiated by the proconsul of the
Roman province of Macedonia,
probably in the mid-140s b.c. Te
almost 700-mile-long road crossed
many nations and important cities
in what are now modern Albania,
F.Y.R.O.M., Greece, and Turkey.
Tough large parts of this artery
have been destroyed, some sections
are still visible. In his lecture, Lolos
will follow the Via Egnatia from
west to east and track its history
through the centuries.
Visit www.archaeological.org/
lectures for a full listing of the
2011/2012 Lecture Program. Contact
your local AIA Society, or call 617-
358-4184 (lectures@aia.bu.edu) for
more information on events near you.
66
D
i
s
p
a
t
c
h
e
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

A
I
A

E
x
c
a
v
a
t
e
,

E
d
u
c
a
t
e
,

A
d
v
o
c
a
t
e

was held at the Franklin Institute
on January 7th and was attended by
an estimated 1,000 people. Fair par-
ticipants were able to visit with 10
dierent archaeological and cultural
organizations who let visitors try on
the armor of a Roman soldier, learn
about Maya mathematics, throw an
atlatl, make cordage and stone pen-
dantsand much, much more!
Te AIA/APA Joint Annual
Meeting provides a forum for mem-
bers of the archaeological commu-
nity to interact with one another
and with colleagues in other related
disciplines. Te meeting highlights
the latest research, initiates and pro-
vokes important discussions, allows
for the creation of new partnerships,
encourages scholarship, and generally
provides an invigorating environment
for people who are fascinated by the
ancient world and the discipline of
archaeology. We invite all of you to
join us in Seattle from January 3rd
through the 6th, 2013, for the 114th
AIA/APA Joint Annual Meeting!
AIA Award Winners
Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement: Lawrence Richardson Jr.
Pomerance Award for Scientific Contributions to Archaeology: David Peacock
Martha and Artemis Joukowsky Distinguished Service Award: Shelby Brown
Best Practices in Site Preservation Award: Donald Haggis and Margaret Mook
Conservation and Heritage Management Award: James McCredie
Outstanding Public Service Award: David Gill
Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching Award: Mary Hollinshead
James R. Wiseman Book Award: Michael Dietler
Felicia A. Holton Book Award: Jack Brink
Graduate Student Paper Award: Allison Emmerson, University of Cincinnati and
Margaret M. Andrews, University of Pennsylvania
A Glimpse into the Ancient Balkans
Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching Award winner, Mary Hollinshead, surrounded
by some of her students.
call: 800-748-6262 web site: www.aiatours.org email: aia@studytours.org
Fascinating itineraries with expert lecturers
KaiIash TempIe, EIIora, India
Experience, travel - these are as education in themselves.
~ Euripides, ca. 480 406 B.C.

ARTIFACT
68 ARCHAEOLOGY March/April 2012
P
art of a hoard of more than 200 silver artifacts, this coin tells a surprisingly
complete story about kingship at a time when Vikings from Scandinavia
vied with the resident Anglo-Saxons for control of northwest England. The
coins obverse (front) bears the inscription AIRDECONUT, which schol-
ars believe is an Anglo-Saxon translation of the Scandinavian name Harthacnut, a previ-
ously unknown Viking ruler. He is the rst new Viking monarch identied since 1840.
The reverse has the letters DNS, an abbreviation of the Latin word dominus (ruler), and
REX, Latin for king. The use of Latin and the words cross-like arrangement is evi-
dence that, by only a few decades after the Vikings began settling in Britain in the mid-
ninth century, they had converted to Christianity.
Despite the Viking rulers adoption of the Anglo-Saxons religion, the hoard
a collection of jewelry, ingots (molds for metal casting), and coins, all weighing more than
two pounds and constituting the fourth largest Viking hoard ever foundindicates that
territorial clashes had not ended. The collection, which would have been valuable enough
to buy a herd of cattle or sheep, was likely buried for safekeeping. It was not retrieved until
last year, when a metal detectorist discovered the hoard in a lead container lying slightly
more than one foot underground. He reported the nd to local archaeological authorities,
and the artifacts were taken to the British Museum to be cleaned, analyzed, and conserved.
WHAT IS IT
Coin
DATE
ca. A.D. 900
MATERIAL
Silver
DISCOVERED
Silverdale,
Lancashire, northwest
England, September
2011
SIZE
Roughly an inch in
diameter
Tunisia (17 days)
Join Prof. Pedar Foss, DePauw U., on our
in-depth Tunisian tour. We begin in Tunis
with Phoenician Carthage and the fabulous
mosaic collection at the Bardo Museum.
Tour highlights include the Roman city of
Dougga, the underground Numidian capital
at Bulla Regia, Roman Sbeitla, the Islamic
pilgrimage center of Kairouan and the
remote areas around Tataouine and
Matmata, unique for underground cities
and fortified granaries. Our journey takes
us to picturesque Berber villages, colorful
bazaars and lovely beaches.
Journey back in time with us. Weve been taking curious travelers on fascinating historical study tours for the
past 36 years. Each tour is led by a noted scholar whose knowledge and enthusiasm brings history to life and adds
a memorable perspective to your journey. Every one of our 37 tours features superb itineraries, unsurpassed service and
our time-tested commitment to excellence. No wonder so many of our clients choose to travel with us again and again.
For more information, please visit www.archaeologicaltrs.com, e-mail archtours@aol.com, call 212-986-3054,
toll-free 866-740-5130. Or write to Archaeological Tours, 271 Madison Avenue, Suite 904, New York, NY 10016.
And see history our way.
2012 tours: Malta, Sardinia & Corsica China: Sacred Landscapes Greece Oman Sicily & So. Italy Morocco Egypt
China: Silk Road Lebanon Israel Ethiopia Chile & Easter Island Gujarat India Sri Lanka Maritime Turkey...and more
Peru (17 days)
Discover the intriguing empires of
the Inca, Lambayeque, Mochica,
and Chim peoples with Prof.
Gregory Zaro, U. of Maine.
Touring includes visits to Limas
museums, the Moche tombs of
Sipn, Trujillo, Tcume, Chan Chan,
the largest adobe city in the world, as well
as Cuzco and the sacred Urubamba Valley.
Tour highlights include Cerro Sechn,
renowned for its unique stone carvings,
the early temple-fortress of Chankillo
and amazing Caral, the oldest city in the
Americas plus, two days at Machu Picchu.
Classical Provence (14 days)
Journey through the color-drenched
countryside of Provence with Prof. Ori Z.
Soltes, Georgetown U. As we travel from
Marseille to Arles, Avignon, Vaison-la-
Romaine and Lyon, we will visit some of the
best-preserved Roman monuments in the
world. Our tour also includes an opportunity
to walk in the footsteps of Van Gogh and
Gauguin. Fields of flowers, tile-roofed
villages and gourmet meals enhance this
wonderful experience.
Caves and Castles (17 days)
Explore the Paleolithic cave art of northern
Spain and southwestern France with Prof.
Roy Larick, Cleveland State U. Beginning in
Burgos, tour highlights include Atapuerca,
the caves of Tito Bustillo, El Castillo, Gargas,
Altamira II, Le Mas dAzil, Lascaux II, Pech
Merle and Bilbaos Guggenheim Museum.
During our five-day stay in Les Eyzies-de-
Tayac we will also visit the Dordogne
Valleys castles and medieval villages. By
good fortune, these sites are found in an
area renowned for fabulous food and wine.
archaeological tours
LED BY NOTED SCHOLARS
superb itineraries, unsurpassed service
Southern Spain (15 days)
Megaliths, Moors & Conquistadors
Spain evokes lovely white towns and the
scent of oranges, but it is also a treasury of
ancient remains including the cities left by
the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. As
we travel south from Madrid with
Prof. Ronald Messier, Middle
Tennessee State U., to historic
Toledo, Roman Mrida and into
Andalucia, we explore historical
monuments, Moorish architecture,
Crdobas great cathedral, the
splendor of the Alcazar in Seville
and end our tour in Granada with
the opulent Alhambra.
Archaeological Tours
led by noted scholars
Invites You to Journey Back in Time
April 26-29, 2012 Davidson, NC
at
the MAYA lago
sECOND annual
www.mayaatthelago.com
school
American Foreign
Academic Research

Archaeology 20120304

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Archaeology 20120304

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

July/August 2009 www.archaeology.

org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America March/April 2012

2012 Cfncc of thc Govcrnor, Economic Lcvclopmcnt and Tourism.

Smar t Luxur i esSur pr i si ng Pr i ces

Big Bright Screen

Enjoy A Bath Again

, Inc. For Boomers and Beyond

SEE THE DIFFERENCE

Guided Vacations for 60 Years!

You might also like