Chapter

Electrical fundamentals

5
5.1 Introduction In todays world, electricity is something that we all take for granted. So, before we get started, it is worth thinking about what electricity means to you and, more importantly, how it affects your life. Think, for a moment, about where and how electricity is used in your home, car, workplace or college. You will quickly conclude that electricity is a means of providing heat, light, motion and sound. You should also conclude that electricity is invisible we only know that it is there by looking at what it does! Now let us turn to the world of aircraft and ight. Although it may not be obvious at rst sight, it is fair to say that an aircraft just could not y without electricity. Not only is electricity used to provide a means of ignition for the engines, but it also supplies the lighting and instruments within an aircraft as well as the navigational aids and radio equipment essential for safe ight in a modern aircraft. Electricity is used to heat windows, pump fuel, operate brakes, open and shut valves, and to control numerous other systems within the aircraft. In fact, aircraft that use modern y-by-wire controls could not even get off the ground without
Table 5.1 Unit Ampere Coulomb Farad Henry Hertz Abbreviation A C F H Hz Symbol I Q C L f Notes Unit of electric current (a current of 1 A ows in a conductor when a charge of 1 C is transported in a time interval of 1 s) Unit of electric charge or quantity of electricity (a fundamental unit) Unit of capacitance (a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 F when a charge of 1 C results in a potential difference (p.d.) of 1 V across its plates) Unit of inductance (an inductor has an inductance of 1 H when an applied current changing uniformly at a rate of 1 A/s produces a p.d. of 1 V across its terminals) Unit of frequency (a signal has a frequency of 1 Hz if one complete cycle occurs in a time interval of 1 s)
(continued)

the electrical systems and supplies that make them work! In this chapter we will explain electricity in terms of electric charge, current, voltage and resistance. We will begin by introducing you to some important concepts, including the Bohr model of the atom and the fundamental nature of electric charge and conduction in solids, liquids and gases. Next we will look briey at static electricity before moving on to explain some of the terminology that we use with electric circuits and measurements. We also describe some of the most common types of electrical and electronic component including resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, generators and motors. 5.1.1 Electrical units and symbols You will nd that a number of units and symbols are commonly encountered in electrical circuits so let us get started by introducing some of them. In fact, it is important to get to know these units and also to be able to recognize their abbreviations and symbols before you actually need to use them. Later we will explain how these units work in much greater detail but for now we will simply list them (Table 5.1) so that at least you can begin to get to know something about them.

312 Table 5.1 (continued) Unit Joule Ohm Second Siemen Tesla Volt Watt Weber Abbreviation J s S T V W Wb Symbol W, J R t G B V, E P Notes

Aircraft engineering principles

Unit of energy (a fundamental unit) Unit of resistance (a fundamental unit) Unit of time (a fundamental unit) Unit of conductance (the reciprocal of resistance) Unit of magnetic ux density (a ux density of 1 T is produced when a ux of 1 Wb is present over an area of 1 m2 ) Unit of electric potential (we sometimes refer to this as electromotive force (e.m.f .) or p.d. Unit of power (equal to 1 J of energy consumed in a time of 1 s) Unit of magnetic ux (a fundamental unit)

Key point
Symbols used for electrical and other quantities are normally shown in italic font whilst units are shown in normal (non-italic) font. Thus V and I are symbols whilst V and A are units.

Solution To convert A to mA, we apply a multiplier of 103 or 1000. Thus to convert 0.15 A to mA we multiply 0.15 by 1000 as follows: 0.15 A = 0.15 1000 = 150 mA Key point
Multiplying by 1000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point three places to the right whilst dividing by 1000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point three places to the left. Similarly, multiplying by 1,000,000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point six places to the right whilst dividing by 1,000,000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point six places to the left.

5.1.2 Multiples and sub-multiples Unfortunately, because the numbers can be very large or very small, many of the electrical units can be cumbersome for everyday use. For example, the voltage present at the antenna input of a very high frequency (VHF) radio could be as little as 0.0000015 V. At the same time, the resistance present in an amplier stage could be as high as 10,000,000 ! Clearly we need to make life a little easier. We can do this by using a standard range of multiples and submultiples. These use a prex letter in order to add a multiplier to the quoted value, as follows:
Prex Tera Giga Mega Kilo (None) Centi Milli Micro Nano Pico Abbrev. Multiplier T G M k (None) c m n p 1012 (=1,000,000,000,000) 109 (=1,000,000,000) 106 (=1,000,000) 103 (=1000) 100 (=1) 102 (=0.01) 103 (=0.001) 106 (=0.000,001) 109 (=0.000,000,001) 1012 (=0.000,000,000,001)

Example 5.2 An insulation tester produces a voltage of 2750 V. Express this in kV. Solution To convert V to kV we apply a multiplier of 103 or 0.001. Thus we can convert 2750 V to kV as follows: 2750 V = 2750 0.001 = 2.75 kV Here, multiplying by 0.001 is equivalent to moving the decimal point three places to the left. Example 5.3 A capacitor has a value of 27,000 pF. Express this in F. Solution There are 1,000,000 pF in 1 F. Thus, to express the value in 27,000 pF in F we need to multiply

Example 5.1 An indicator lamp requires a current of 0.15 A. Express this in mA.

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by 0.000,001. The easiest way of doing this is simply to move the decimal point six places to the left. Hence 27,000 pF is equivalent to 0.027 F (note that we have had to introduce an extra zero before 2 and after the decimal point). Test your understanding 5.1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. State the units for electric current. State the units for frequency. State the symbol used for capacitance. State the symbol used for conductance. A pulse has a duration of 0.0075 s. Express this time in ms. A generator produces a voltage of 440 V. Express this in kV. A signal has a frequency of 15.62 MHz. Express this in kHz. A current of 570 A ows in a resistor. Express this current in mA. A capacitor has a value of 0.22 F. Express this capacitance in nF. A resistor has a value of 470 k . Express this resistance in M .

Figure 5.1 The Bohr model of the atom.

5.2 Electron theory Syllabus Structure and distribution of electrical charges within atoms, molecules, ions and compounds; Molecular structure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Knowledge level key
A 1 B1 1 B2 1

To understand what electricity is we need to take a look inside the atoms that make up all forms of matter. Since we cannot actually do this with a real atom we will have to use a model. Fortunately, understanding how this model works is not too difcult just remember that what we are talking about is very, very small! 5.2.1 Atomic structure As you already know, all matter is made up of atoms or groups of atoms (molecules) bonded together in a particular way. In order to understand something about the nature of electrical

charge we need to consider a simple model of the atom. This model known as the Bohr model (see Figure 5.1) shows a single atom consisting of a central nucleus with orbiting electrons. Within the nucleus there are protons which are positively charged and neutrons which, as their name implies, are electrical neutral and have no charge. Orbiting the nucleus are electrons that have a negative charge, equal in magnitude (size) to the charge on the proton. These electrons are approximately 2000 times lighter than the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. In a stable atom the number of protons and electrons are equal, so that overall, the atom is neutral and has no charge. However, if we rub two particular materials together, electrons may be transferred from one to another. This alters the stability of the atom, leaving it with a net positive or negative charge. When an atom within a material looses electrons it becomes positively charged and is known as a positive ion, when an atom gains an electron it has a surplus negative charge and so is known as a negative ion. These differences in charge can cause electrostatic effects. For example, combing your hair with a nylon comb may result in a difference in charge between your hair and the rest of your body, resulting in your hair standing on end when your hand or some other differently charged body is brought close to it. The number of electrons occupying a given orbit within an atom is predictable and is based on the position of the element within the periodic table. The electrons in all atoms sit in a particular position (shell) dependent on their energy level. Each of these shells within the atom is lled by electrons from the nucleus outwards, as shown in Figure 5.2. The rst, inner most, of these shells can have up to two electrons; the

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second shell can have up to eight and the third up to 18. 5.2.2 Conductors and insulators A material which has many free electrons available to act as charge carriers and thus allows current to ow freely is known as a conductor. Examples of good conductors include aluminium, copper, gold and iron. Figure 5.2 shows a material with one outer electron that can become easily detached from the parent atom. It requires a small amount of external energy to overcome the attraction of the nucleus. Sources of such energy may include heat, light or electrostatic elds. The atom once detached

from the atom is able to move freely around the structure of the material and is called a free electron. It is these free electrons that become the charge carriers, within a material. Materials that have large numbers of free electrons make good conductors of electrical energy and heat. In a material containing free electrons their direction of motion is random, as shown in Figure 5.3(a), but if an external force is applied that causes the free electrons to move in a uniform manner (Figure 5.3(b)) an electric current is said to ow. Metals are the best conductors, since they have a very large number of free electrons available to act as charge carriers. Materials that do not conduct charge are called insulators, their electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of their atoms. Examples of insulators include plastics, glass, rubber and ceramic materials. The effects of electric current ow can be detected by the presence of one or more of the following effects: light, heat, magnetism, chemical, pressure and friction. For example, if a piezoelectric crystal is subject to an electrical current it can change its shape and exert pressure. Heat is another, more obvious effect from electric heating elements. Key point

Figure 5.2 A material with a loosely bound electron in its outer shell.

Metals, like copper and silver, are good conductors of electricity and they readily support the ow of current. Plastics, rubber and ceramic materials are insulators and do not support the ow of current.

5.2.3 Semiconductors Some materials combine some of the electrical characteristics of conductors with those of insulators. They are known as semiconductors. In these materials there may be a number of free electrons sufcient to allow a small current to ow. It is possible to add foreign atoms (called impurity atoms) to the semiconductor material that modify the properties of the semiconductor. Varying combinations of these additional atoms are used to produce various electrical devices, such as diodes and transistors. Common types of semiconductor materials are silicon, germanium, selenium and gallium.

Figure 5.3 Free electrons and the application of an external force: (a) electrons in random motion and (b) current ow.

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Key point
Semiconductors are pure insulating materials with a small amount of an impurity element present. Typical examples are silicon and germanium.

5.2.4 Temperature effects As stated earlier, all materials offer some resistance to current ow. In conductors the free electrons, rather than passing unobstructed through the material, collide with the relatively large and solid nuclei of the atoms. As the temperature increases, the nuclei vibrate more energetically further obstructing the path of the free electrons, causing more frequent collisions. The result is that the resistance of conductors increases with temperature. Due to the nature of the bonding in insulators, there are no free electrons, except that when thermal energy increases as a result of a temperature increase, a few outer electrons manage to break free from their xed positions and act as charge carriers. The result is that the resistance of insulators decreases as temperature increases. Semiconductors behave in a similar manner to insulators. At absolute zero (273 C) both the types of material act as perfect insulators. However, unlike the insulator, as temperature increases in a semiconductor large numbers of electrons break free to act as charge carriers.

Therefore, as temperature increases, the resistance of a semiconductor decreases rapidly. By producing special alloys, such as eureka and manganin that combine the effects of insulators and conductors, it is possible to produce a material where the resistance remains constant with increase in temperature. Figure 5.4 shows how the resistance of insulators, semiconductors and conductors change with temperature. Test your understanding 5.2
1. In a stable neutral atom the number of _______ and _______ are equal and there is no overall charge. 2. When an atom within a material losses electrons it becomes ________ charged and is known as a ______________. 3. When an atom gains an electron it has a surplus _________ charge and so known as a _______ _______. 4. The electrical properties of a material are determined by the number of ______________ present. 5. Materials that do not conduct electric charge are called _______. 6. Name two materials that act as good electrical conductors. 7. Name two materials that act as good electrical insulators. 8. Name two semiconductor materials. 9. Explain briey how the resistance of a metallic conductor varies with temperature. 10. Explain briey how the resistance of an insulator varies with temperature.

5.3 Static electricity and conduction Syllabus Static electricity and distribution of electrostatic charges; Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion; Units of charge, Coulombs law; Conduction of electricity in solids, liquids, gases and a vacuum. Knowledge level key
A 1 B1 2 B2 2

Figure 5.4 Variation of resistance with temperature for various materials.

Electric charge is all around us. Indeed, many of the everyday items that we use in the home and at work rely for their operation on the existence of electric charge and the ability to make

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that charge do something useful. Electric charge is also present in the natural world and anyone who has experienced an electric storm cannot fail to have been awed by its effects. In this section we begin by explaining what electric charge is and how it can be used to produce conduction in solids, liquids and gases. 5.3.1 Static electricity We have already found that, if a conductor has a decit of electrons, it will exhibit a net positive charge. On the other hand, if it has a surplus of electrons, it will exhibit a net negative charge. An imbalance in charge can be produced by friction (removing or depositing electrons using materials, such as silk and fur, respectively) or induction (by attracting or repelling electrons using a second body which is, respectively, positively or negatively charged). 5.3.2 Force between charges Consider two small charged bodies of negligible weight are suspended as shown in Figure 5.5. If the two bodies have charges with the same polarity (i.e. either both positively or both negatively charged) the two bodies will move apart, indicating that a force of repulsion exists between them. On the other hand, if the charges

on the two bodies are unlike (i.e. one positively charged and one negatively charged), the two bodies will move together indicating that a force of attraction exists between them. From this we can conclude that like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Key point
Charges with the same polarity repel one another whilst charges with opposite polarity will attract one another.

5.3.3 Coulombs law Coulombs law states that if charged bodies exist at two points, the force of attraction (if the charges are of opposite charge) or repulsion (if of like charge) will be proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges divided by the square of their distance apart. Thus: kQ1 Q2 d2 where Q1 and Q2 are the charges present at the two points (in C), d the distance separating the two points (in m), F the force (in N) and k is a constant depending upon the medium in which the charges exist. In vacuum or free space 1 k= 40 where 0 is the permittivity of free space (8.854 1012 C/Nm2 ). Combining the two previous equations gives: Q1 Q2 F= 40 d 2 or Q1 Q 2 F= N 4 8.854 1012 d 2 If this formula looks complex there are only a couple of things that you need to remember. The denominator simply consists of a constant (4 8.854 1012 ) multiplied by the square of the distance, d. Thus we can re-write the formula as: Q1 Q2 F d2 where the symbol denotes proportionality. F=

Figure 5.5 Force between charged bodies: (a) charges with same polarity and (b) charges with opposite polarity.

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5.3.4 Electric elds The force exerted on a charged particle is a manifestation of the existence of an electric eld. The electric eld denes the direction and magnitude of a force on a charged object. The eld itself is invisible to the human eye but can be drawn by constructing lines which indicate the motion of a free positive charge within the eld; the number of eld lines in a particular region being used to indicate the relative strength of the eld at the point in question. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show the electric elds between isolated unlike and like charges whilst

Figure 5.8 shows the eld which exists between the two charged parallel metal plates (note the fringing which occurs at the edges of the plates). 5.3.5 Electric eld strength The strength of an electric eld (E) is proportional to the applied p.d. and inversely proportional to the distance between the two conductors (see Figure 5.9). The electric eld strength is given by: E= V d

Figure 5.6 Electric eld between two isolated unlike charges.

Figure 5.8 Electric eld between two charged parallel metal plates.

Figure 5.7 Electric eld between two isolated like charges.

Figure 5.9 Electric eld strength.

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where E is the electric eld strength (in V/m), V is the applied p.d. (in V) and d is the distance (in m).

where F = 0.1 N, d = 0.01 m and Q1 = Q2 = Q, thus: 0.1 = QQ 4 8.854 1012 (0.01)2

Example 5.4 Two charged particles are separated by a distance of 25 mm. Calculate the force between the two charges if one has a positive charge of 0.25 C and the other has a negative charge of 0.4 C. What will the relative direction of the force be? Solution Now F= Q 1 Q2 4 8.854 1012 d 2

Re-arranging the formula to make Q the subject gives: Q2 = 0.1 4 8.854 1012 (0.01)2 or Q= = = thus Q= 11.1263 1016 = 3.336 108 C 0.1 4 8.854 1012 (0.01)2 4 8.854 1017 111.263 1017 = 11.1263 1016

where Q1 = 0.25 C = 0.25 106 C, Q2 = 0.4 C = 0.4 106 C, and d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 103 m, thus: F= = or F= 0.1 4 8.854 6.25 106 0.25 106 0.4 106 4 8.854 1012 (2.5 103 )2 0.1 1012 4 8.854 1012 6.25 106

= 0.03336 C Example 5.6 Two parallel conductors are separated by a distance of 25 mm. Determine the electric eld strength if they are fed from a 600 V direct current (DC) supply. Solution The electric eld strength will be given by: E= V d

0.1 = = 1.438 102 695.39 106 Hence F = 1.438 102 N = 143.8 N Example 5.5 Two charged particles have the same positive charge and are separated by a distance of 10 mm. If the force between them is 0.1 N, determine the charge present. Solution Now F = Q 1 Q2 4 8.854 1012 d 2

where V = 600 V and d = 25 mm = 0.025 m, thus: E= 600 = 24,000 V/m = 24 kV/m 0.025

Example 5.7 The eld strength between the two parallel plates in a cathode ray tube is 18 kV/m. If the plates are separated by a distance of 21 mm, determine the p.d. that exists between the plates.

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Solution The electric eld strength will be given by: E= V d

Test your understanding 5.3

1. If a body has a shortage of electrons it will exhibit a ___________ charge. 2. Isolated charges having the same polarity will ___________ one another. 3. List the factors that determine the force that exists between two charges. 4. Two charges are separated by a distance of 1 mm. If the distance increases to 2 mm whilst the charges remain unchanged, by how much will the force between them change? 5. Two plates are separated by a distance of 100 mm. If the p.d. between the plates is 200 V where what will the electric eld strength be? 6. The electric eld between two parallel plates is 2 kV/m. If the plates are separated by a distance of 4 mm, determine the p.d. between the plates. 7. Two charged particles have the same positive charge and are separated by a distance of 2 mm. If the force between them is 0.4 N, determine the charge present. 8. In liquids and gases electric current is carried by ___________. 9. An electric current can be made to pass through a vacuum by means of a stream of ___________ charged ___________. 10. Explain why salt water conducts electricity whilst pure distilled water does not.

Re-arranging this formula to make V the subject gives: V =Ed Now E = 18 kV/m = 18,000 V/m 21 mm = 0.021 m, thus: and d=

V = 18,000 0.021 = 378 V 5.3.6 Conduction of electricity in solids, liquids, gases and a vacuum In order to conduct an electric current a material must contain charged particles. In solids (such as copper, lead, aluminium and carbon) it is the negatively charged electrons that are in motion. In liquids and gases, the current is carried by the part of a molecule that has acquired an electric charge. These are called ions and they can possess either a positive or a negative charge. Examples include hydrogen ions (H+ ), copper ions (Cu++ ) and hydroxyl ions (OH ). It is worth noting that pure distilled water contains no ions and is thus a poor conductor of electricity whereas salt water contains ions and is therefore a relatively good conductor of electricity. Finally, you might be surprised to learn that an electric current can pass through a vacuum. It does this in the form of a stream of electrons liberated from a hot metal surface that can be made to travel from a point that has a negative potential (known as a cathode) towards another point which has a high positive potential (known as an anode). This is the principle of the cathode ray tube that you nd in your television set or computer display! Key point
Current ow in liquids and gases is made possible by means of positively or negatively charged molecules called ions. In a vacuum, current ow is made possible by means of a moving stream of negatively charged electrons, as in the cathode ray tube.

5.4 Electrical terminology Syllabus The following terms, their units and factors affecting them; p.d., e.m.f., voltage, current, resistance, conductance, charge, conventional current ow and electron ow. Knowledge level key
A 1 B1 2 B2 2

This section will introduce you to some of the terminology that we use in electric circuits. In addition to the syllabus topics listed above we have also included two other important terms, power and energy. 5.4.1 Charge All electrons and protons have an electrostatic charge, its value is so small that a more

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convenient unit of charge is needed for practical use, which we call the coulomb. One coulomb C is the total charge Q of 6.21 1018 electrons. Thus a single electron has a charge of 1.61 1019 C. 5.4.2 Current Current, I, is dened as the rate of ow of charge and its unit is the ampere, A. One ampere is equal to one coulomb per second, or: Q One ampere of current, I = t where t is time in seconds. So, for example, if a steady current of 3 A ows for 2 min, then the amount of charge transferred will be: Q = I t = 3 A 120 s = 360 C Key point
Current is the rate of ow of charge. Thus, if more charge moves in a given time, more current will be owing. If no charge moves then no current is owing.

5.4.4 Potential difference (voltage) The force that creates the ow of current (or rate of ow of charge carriers) in a circuit is known as the e.m.f . and it is measured in volts (V). The p.d. is the voltage difference or voltage drop between two points. One volt is the p.d. between two points if one joule of energy is required to move one coulomb of charge between them. Hence: V= W Q

where W is the energy and Q is the charge, as before. Energy is dened later in Section 5.4.8. 5.4.5 Resistance All materials at normal temperatures oppose the movement of electric charge through them, this opposition to the ow of the charge carriers is known as the resistance R of the material. This resistance is due to collisions between the charge carriers (electrons) and the atoms of the material. The unit of resistance is the ohm, with symbol . Note that 1 V is the e.m.f. required to move 6.21 1018 electrons (1 C) through a resistance of 1 in 1 s. Hence: V= Q t R

5.4.3 Conventional current and electron ow In Section 5.2.2 we described electric current in terms of the organized movement of electrons in a metal conductor. Owing to their negative charge, electrons will ow from a negative potential to a more positive potential (recall that like-charges attract and unlike-charges repel). However, when we indicate the direction of current in a circuit we show it as moving from a point that has the greatest positive potential to a point that has the most negative potential. We call this conventional current and, although it may seem to be odd, you just need to remember that it ows in the opposite direction to that of the motion of electrons! Key point
Electrons move from negative to positive whilst conventional current is assumed to ow from positive to negative.

where Q is the charge, t is the time and R is the resistance. Re-arranging this equation to make R the subject gives: R= V t Q

We shall be looking at the important relationship between voltage, V, current, I and resistance, R, later on in Sections 5.7.1 and 5.7.2. 5.4.6 Conductance Conductance is the inverse of resistance. In other words, as the resistance of a conductor increases its conductance reduces, and vice versa. A material that has a low value of conductance will not conduct electricity as well as a material that has a