A THC

a thc l mt trong nhng khi nim trung tm ca ton hc. Trong chng trnh
ph thng, chng ta lm quen vi khi nim a thc t bc trung hc c s, t
nhng php cng, tr, nhn a thc n phn tch a thc ra tha s, dng s
Horner chia a thc, gii cc phng trnh i s.
Bi ging ny s h thng ho li nhng kin thc c bn nht v a thc 1 bin,
cc dng ton thng gp v a thc. cui bi s cp 1 cch s lc nht v a
thc nhiu bin.
1. a thc v cc php ton trn a thc
1.1. nh ngha. a thc trn trng s thc l biu thc c dng
P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
, trong a
i
R v a
n
0.
a
i
c gi l cc h s ca a thc, trong a
n
c gi l h s cao nht v a
0
c gi l h s t do.
n c gi l bc ca a thc v k kiu l n = deg(P). Ta quy c bc ca
a thc hng P(x) = a
0
vi mi x l bng 0 nu a
0
0 v bng nu a
0
= 0.
tin li cho vic vit cc cng thc, ta quy c vi a thc P(x) bc n th vn c
cc h s a
k
vi k > n, nhng chng u bng 0.
Tp hp tt c cc a thc 1 bin trn trng cc s thc c k hiu l R[x]. Nu
cc h s c ly trn tp hp cc s hu t, cc s nguyn th ta c khi nim a
thc vi h s hu t, a thc vi h s nguyn v tng ng l cc tp hp Q[x],
Z[x].
1.2. a thc bng nhau
Hai a thc



n
k
k
k
m
k
k
k
x b x Q x a x P
0 0
) ( , ) (
bng nhau khi v ch khi m = n v a
k
= b
k
vi mi k=0, 1, 2, , m.
1.3. Php cng, tr a thc.
Cho hai a thc



n
k
k
k
m
k
k
k
x b x Q x a x P
0 0
) ( , ) (
. Khi php cng v tr hai
a thc P(x) v Q(x) c thc hin theo tng h s ca x
k
, tc l

t t
} , max{
0
) ( ) ( ) (
n m
k
k
k k
x b a x Q x P
V d: (x
3
+ 3x
2
x + 2) + (x
2
+ x 1) = x
3
+ 4x
2
+ 1.
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1.4. Php nhn a thc.
Cho hai a thc



n
k
k
k
m
k
k
k
x b x Q x a x P
0 0
) ( , ) (
. Khi P(x).Q(x) l mt a
thc c bc m+n v c cc h s c xc nh bi

k
i
i k i k
b a c
0
.
V d: (x
3
+ x
2
+ 3x + 2)(x
2
+3x+1) = (1.1)x
5
+ (1.3 + 1.1)x
4
+ (1.1 + 1.3 + 3.1)x
3
+
(1.1 + 3.3 + 2.1)x
2
+ (3.1 + 2.3)x + (2.1) = x
5
+ 4x
4
+ 7x
3
+ 12x
2
+ 9x + 1.
1.5. Bc ca tng, hiu v tch ca cc a thc
T cc nh ngha trn y, d dng suy ra cc tnh cht sau y
nh l 1. Cho P(x), Q(x) l cc a thc bc m, n tng ng. Khi
a) deg(Pt Q) max{m, n} trong nu deg(P) deg(Q) th du bng xy
ra. Trong trng hp m = n th deg(Pt Q) c th nhn bt c gi tr no m.
b) deg(P.Q) = m + n.
1.6. Php chia c d.
nh l 2. Vi hai a thc P(x) v Q(x) bt k, trong deg(Q) 1, tn ti duy
nht cc a thc S(x) v R(x) tho mn ng thi cc iu kin:
i) P(x) = Q(x).S(x) + R(x)
ii) deg(R) < deg(Q)
Chng minh. Tn ti. Ta chng minh bng quy np theo m = deg(P). Nu deg(P) <
deg(Q) th ta c th chn S(x) 0 v R(x) = P(x) tho mn ng thi cc iu kin
i) v ii). Gi s m n v nh l c chng minh vi cc a thc c bc nh
hn m. Ta chng minh nh l ng vi cc a thc bc m. Gi s



n
k
k
k
m
k
k
k
x b x Q x a x P
0 0
) ( , ) (
Xt a thc
...
) ... ( ) ... (
) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
1
0 0 1
1
1
+

,
_

+ + + + + +

m
n
n m
m
n
n
n m
n
m m
m
m
m
n m
n
m
x
b
b a
a
b x b x
b
a
a x a x a x a
x Q x
b
a
x P x H
Do h s ca x
m
hai a thc b trit tiu nn bc ca H(x) khng vt qu m-1.
Theo gi thit quy np, tn ti cc a thc S*(x), R*(x) sao cho
H(x) = S*(x).Q(x) + R*(x)
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Nhng khi
) ( * )) ( * ( ) ( ) ( ) ( x R x S x
b
a
x Q x
b
a
x H x P
n m
n
m n m
n
m
+ + +

Vy t S(x) = (a
m
/b
n
)x
m-n
+ S*(x) v R(x) = R*(x) ta c biu din cn tm cho
P(x).
Duy nht. Gi s ta c hai biu din P(x) = S(x).Q(x) + R(x) v P(x) = S*(x).Q(x) +
R*(x) tho mn iu kin ii). Khi Q(x).(S(x)-S*(x)) = R*(x) R(x). Ta c, theo
iu kin ii) v nh l 1 th ded(R*(x) R(x)) < deg(Q). Mt khc, nu S(x)
S*(x) khng ng nht bng 0 th deg(Q(x).(S(x)-S*(x))) = deg(Q(x)) + deg(S(x)-
S*(x)) deg(Q). Mu thun v hai v bng nhau.
Theo k hiu ca nh l th S(x) c gi l thng s v R(x) c gi l d s
trong php chia P(x) cho Q(x).
Php chng minh ni trn cng cho chng ta thut ton tm thng s v d s ca
php chia hai a thc, gi l php chia di (long division) hay s Horner.
V d: Thc hin php chia 3x
3
2x
2
+ 4x + 7 cho x
2
+ 2x
3x
3
2x
2
+ 4x + 7 | x
2
+ 2x
3x
3
+ 6x
2
| 3x - 8
- 8x
2
+ 4x + 7
- 8x
2
+ 16
20x + 7
Vy ta c 3x
3
2x
2
+ 4x + 7 chia x
2
+ 2x c 3x 8, d 20x + 7.
1.7. S chia ht. c v bi.
Trong php chia P(x) cho Q(x), nu d s R(x) ng nht bng 0 th ta ni
rng a thc P(x) chia ht cho a thc Q(x). Nh vy, P(x) chia ht cho Q(x) nu
tn ti a thc S(x) sao cho P(x) = Q(x).S(x). Trong trng hp ny ta cng ni
Q(x) chia ht P(x), Q(x) l c ca P(x) hoc P(x) l bi ca Q(x). K hiu tng
ng l Q(x) | P(x) v
). ( ) ( x Q x P
Cho P(x) v Q(x) l cc a thc khc 0. c chung ln nht ca P(x) v Q(x) l a
thc D(x) tho mn ng thi cc iu kin sau:
i) D(x) l a thc n khi, tc l c h s cao nht bng 1
ii) D(x) l c chung ca P(x) v Q(x), tc l D(x) | P(x) v D(x) | Q(x)
iii) Nu D(x) cng l c chung ca P(x) v Q(x) th D(x) cng l c
ca D(x).
Tng t, ta c khi nim bi chung nh nht ca hai a thc.
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Cho P(x) v Q(x) l cc a thc khc 0. Bi chung ln nht ca P(x) v Q(x) l a
thc M(x) tho mn ng thi cc iu kin sau:
iv) M(x) l a thc n khi, tc l c h s cao nht bng 1
v) M(x) l bi chung ca P(x) v Q(x), tc l P(x) | M(x) v Q(x) | M(x)
vi) Nu M(x) cng l bi chung ca P(x) v Q(x) th M(x) cng l bi
ca M(x).
K hiu UCLN v BCNN ca hai a thc P(x), Q(x) l GCD(P(x), Q(x)),
LCM(P(x), Q(x)) hay n gin hn l (P(x), Q(x)), [P(x), Q(x)].
Hai a thc P(x), Q(x) c gi l nguyn t cng nhau nu (P(x), Q(x)) = 1.
1.8. Thut ton Euclide
tm c chung ln nht ca hai a thc P(x), Q(x), ta s dng thut ton Euclide
sau y:
nh l 3. Gi s c hai a thc P(x), Q(x), trong deg(P) degQ. Thc hin
php chia P(x) cho Q(x) c thng s l S(x) v d s l R(x). Khi
Nu R(x) = 0 th (P(x), Q(x)) = q*
-1
Q(x), trong q* l h s cao nht ca a
thc Q(x)
Nu R(x) 0 th (P(x), Q(x)) = (Q(x), R(x))
Chng minh. Nu R(x) = 0 th P(x) = Q(x).S(x). Khi a thc q*
-1
Q(x) r rng
tho mn tt c cc iu kin ca UCLN.
Nu R(x) 0, t D(x) = (P(x), Q(x)), D(x) = (Q(x), R(x)). Ta c D(x) | P(x)
Q(x).S(x) = R(x), suy ra D(x) l c chung ca Q(x), R(x), theo nh ngha ca
D(x), ta c D(x) l c ca D(x). Mt khc D(x) | Q(x)S(x) + R(x) = P(x), suy ra
D(x) l c chung ca P(x), Q(x), theo nh ngha ca D(x), ta c D(x) l c ca
D(x). T y, do D v D u l cc a thc n khi, ta suy ra D = D.
nh l trn gii thch cho thut ton Euclide tm UCLN ca hai a thc theo
nh v d di y:
V d: Tm c chung ln nht ca hai a thc x
5
5x + 4 v x
3
3x
2
+ 2.
Ta ln lt thc hin cc php chia
x
5
5x + 4 cho x
3
3x
2
+ 2 c x
2
+ 3x + 9 d 25x
2
11x 14
x
3
3x
2
+ 2 cho 25x
2
11x 14 c (25x 64)/625, d (354/625)(x-1)
25x
2
11x 14 cho x-1 c 25x + 14 d 0
Vy (x
5
5x + 4, x
3
3x
2
+ 2) = x 1.
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Lu , trong qu trnh thc hin, ta c th nhn cc a thc vi cc hng s khc 0.
V d trong php chia cui cng, thay v chia 25x
2
11x 14 cho (354/625)(x-1) ta
chia cho x 1.

1.9. Tnh cht ca php chia ht
Nhc li, hai a thc P(x), Q(x) c gi l nguyn t cng nhau nu (P(x), Q(x)) =
1. Ta c nh l th v v c nhiu ng dng sau v cc a thc nguyn t cng
nhau:
nh l 4. (Bezout) Hai a thc P(x) v Q(x) nguyn t cng nhau khi v ch khi
tn ti cc a thc U(x), V(x) sao cho P(x).U(x) + Q(x).V(x) = 1.
Chng minh. Gi s tn ti cc a thc U(x) v V(x) tho mn iu kin P(x).U(x)
+ Q(x).V(x) = 1. t D(x) = (P(x), Q(x)) th D(x) | P(x), D(x) | Q(x) suy ra D(x) | 1
= P(x).U(x) + Q(x).V(x). Suy ra D(x) = 1.
Ngc li, gi s (P(x), Q(x)) = 1. Ta chng minh tn ti cc a thc U(x) v V(x)
sao cho P(x).U(x) + Q(x).V(x) = 1. Ta chng minh bng quy np theo m =
min{deg(P), deg(Q)}.
Nu m = 0 th iu cn chng minh l hin nhin. Chng hn nu deg(Q) = 0 th Q
= q l hng s v ta ch cn chn U(x) = 0, V(x) = q
-1
th ta c P(x).U(x) +
Q(x).V(x) = 1.
Gi s ta chng minh nh l ng n m. Xt hai a thc P(x), Q(x) c
min{deg(P), deg(Q)} = m+1. Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s m+1 = deg(Q). Thc
hin php chia P(x) cho Q(x) c thng l S(x) v d l R(x). Khng th xy ra
trng hp R(x) = 0 v khi 1 = (P(x), Q(x)) = q*
-1
Q(x). V vy, ta c
1 = (P(x), Q(x)) = (Q(x), R(x))
Lc ny, do min(deg(Q), deg(R)) = deg(R) < m +1 nn theo gi thit quy np, tn
ti cc a thc U*(x), V*(x) sao cho Q(x)V*(x) + R(x)U*(x) = 1. Thay R(x) =
P(x) Q(x).S(x), ta c
Q(x)V*(x) + (P(x) Q(x)S(x))U*(x) = 1
Hay
P(x)U*(x) + Q(x)(V*(x) S(x)U*(x)) = 1
t U(x) = U*(x), V(x) = V*(x) S(x)U*(x) ta c pcm.
Tnh cht ca php chia ht
i) Q | P, Q | R suy ra Q | P + R hay tng qut hn Q | P.U + R.V vi U, V l cc a
thc bt k.
ii) Q | P, P | R suy ra Q | R (tnh bc cu)
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iii) Q | P, P | Q suy ra tn ti s thc khc 0 a sao cho Q = aP (ta gi P v Q l cc
a thc ng dng)
iv) Nu Q
1
| P
1
v Q
2
| P
2
th Q
1
.Q
2
| P
1
.P
2
.
v) Nu Q | P.R v (P, Q) = 1 th Q | R.
vi) Nu Q | P, R | P v (Q, R) = 1 th Q.R | P
Chng minh. Cc tnh cht i-iv) l hin nhin xut pht t nh ngha Q | P tn
ti S sao cho P = Q.S.
chng minh cc tnh cht v) v vi), ta s p dng nh Bezout.
v) T gi thit Q | P.R v (P,Q) = 1 suy ra tn ti S sao cho P.R = Q.S v U, V sao
cho P.U + Q.V = 1
Khi R = (P.U+Q.V).R = (P.R)U + Q.V.R = Q.S.U + Q.V.R = Q.(SU+VR) suy ra
Q | R.
vii) T gi thit Q | P, R | P v (Q, R) = 1 suy ra P = Q.S. V P = Q.S chia ht cho
R, m (Q, R) = 1 nn theo v) suy ra S chia ht cho R, tc l S = R.S
1
. Vy P = Q.S =
(Q.R).S
1
suy ra P chia ht cho Q.R.
1.10. Cc v d c li gii
Bi ton 1. Tm tt c cc cp s a, b sao cho x
4
+ 4x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + 1 l bnh
phng ca mt a thc.
Gii: Nu x
4
+ 4x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + 1 l bnh phng ca mt a thc th a thc
phi c bc 2. Gi s
x
4
+ 4x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + 1 = (Ax
2
+ Bx + C)
2

x
4
+ 4x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + 1 = A
2
x
4
+ 2ABx
3
+ (2AC + B
2
)x
2
+ 2BCx + C
2
ng nht h s hai v, ta c
A
2
= 1, 2AB = 4, 2AC + B
2
= a, 2BC = b, C
2
= 1.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, c th gi s A = 1, suy ra B = 2. C c th bng 1 hoc
-1. Nu C = 1 th a = 6, b = 4. Nu C = -1 th a = 2, b = -4.
Vy c hai cp s (a, b) tho mn yu cu bi ton l (6, 4) v (2, -4).
Bi ton 2. Cho a thc P(x) v hai s a, b phn bit. Bit rng P(x) chia cho x-a d
A, P(x) chia cho x-b d B. Hy tm d ca php chia P(x) cho (x-a)(x-b).
Gii: Gi s P(x) = (x-a)(x-b)Q(x) + Cx + D. Ln lt thay x = a, b, ta c
A = Ca + D, B = Cb + D
T suy ra C = (A-B)/(a-b), D = A (A-B)a/(a-b) = (aB bA)/(a-b).
Bi ton 3. Tm d trong php chia x
100
cho (x 1)
2
.
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Gii: Gi s x
100
= (x-1)
2
Q(x) + Ax + B. Thay x = 1, ta c
1 = A + B.
Ly o hm hai v ri cho x = 1, ta c
100 = A
T suy ra d l 100x 99.
Bi ton 4. Tm a, b, c bit rng a thc P(x) = x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + c chia ht cho x-2 v
chia x
2
1 d 2x.
Gii: T cc iu kin bi suy ra P(2) = 0, P(1) = 2 v P(-1) = -2, tc l
8 + 4a + 2b + c = 0
1 + a + b + c = 2
1 + a b + c = -2
T suy ra b = 1, a = -10/3, c = 10/3. T P(x) = x
3
(10/3)x
2
+ x + 10/3.
Bi ton 5. Chng minh rng vi mi gi tr ca n, a thc (x+1)
2n+1
+ x
n+2
chia ht
cho a thc x
2
+ x + 1.
Gii:
Cch 1. (Quy np theo n) Vi n = 0, iu phi chng minh l hin nhin. Gi s ta
c (x+1)
2n+1
+ x
n+2
chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1. Khi
(x+1)
2n+3
+ x
n+3
= (x
2
+2x+1)(x+1)
2n+1
+ x
n+3

x(x+1)
2n+1
+ x
n+3
= x((x+1)
2n+1
+ x
n+2
) 0 (mod (x
2
+x+1)
Cch 2. (Dng s phc) a thc x
2
+ x + 1 c hai nghim l
2
3 1 i t
.
chng minh P(x) chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1 ta ch cn chng minh P() = 0. iu ny
tng ng vi vic chng minh
. 0
2
3 1
2
3 1
2 1 2

,
_

+
+

,
_

+
+ + n n
i i
Chuyn cc s phc sang dng lng gic ri dng cng thc Moivre, ta c iu
ny tng ng vi
0
3
2 ) 2 (
sin
3
2 ) 2 (
cos
3
) 1 2 (
sin
3
) 1 2 (
cos
,
_

+
+
,
_

+
+
,
_

+
+
,
_

+ n
i
n n
i
n
.
iu ny ng v (2n+1)/3 - (n+2)2/3 = .

Bi ton 6. Tm tt c cc gi tr n sao cho x
2n
+ x
n
+ 1 chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1.
Gii:
Cch 1: Ta nhn thy x
3
1 mod x
2
+ x + 1. Do
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x
2(n+3)
+ x
n+3
+ 1 x
2n
+ x
n
+ 1 (mod x
2
+ x + 1)
Do ta ch cn xt vi n = 0, 1, 2. R rng
Vi n = 0, 3 khng chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1
Vi n = 1, x
2
+ x + 1 chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1
Vi n = 2, x
4
+ x
2
+ 1 x + x
2
+ 1 chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1
T suy ra x
2n
+ x
n
+ 1 chia ht cho x
2
+ x + 1 khi v ch khi n c dng 3k+1 hoc
3k+2.
Cch 2: (S phc) Tng t nh bi 5, ta c P(x) = x
2n
+ x
n
+ 1 chia ht cho x
2
+ x +
1 khi v ch khi P() = 0. p dng cng thc Moivre, ta c iu ny tng ng
vi
0 1
3
2
sin
3
2
cos
3
4
sin
3
4
cos +
,
_

+
,
_

+
,
_

+
,
_

n
i
n n
i
n
iu ny xy ra khi n khng chia ht cho 3.
Bi ton 7. Chng minh rng (x
m
1, x
n
1) = x
(m,n)
1.
Gii: Gi s d = (m, n) th r rng x
m
1 = (x
d
)
m
1 chia ht cho x
d
1 v tng t
x
n
1 chia ht cho x
d
. Suy ra x
d
1 l c chung ca x
m
- 1, x
n
1. Gi s D(x) l
mt c chung ca x
m
- 1, x
n
1. V d = (m, n) nn tn ti cc s nguyn dng u, v
sao cho d = mu nv. Khi D(x) l c ca (x
mu
1) (x
nv
-1) = x
nv
(x
d
-1). V (x
m
-1,
x
nv
) = 1 nn (D(x), x
nv
) = 1, suy ra D(x) l c ca x
d
1, suy ra xd 1 l c chung
ln nht ca x
m
1 v x
n
1.
1.11. Bi tp
1. Chng minh rng mi a thc n khi bc 2n u c th vit di dng q
2
+ r
vi q, r l cc a thc v deg(r) < n.
2. Tm d trong php chia x
100
2x
51
+ 1 cho x
2
1.
3. Tm a, b sao cho (x-1)
2
| ax
4
+ bx
3
+ 1.
4. Cho P(x) l a thc vi h s nguyn. Chng minh rng khng tn ti cc s
nguyn phn bit a, b, c sao cho P(a) = b, P(b) = c, P(c) = a.
5. Cho P(x) l a thc vi h s nguyn. Bit rng P(2) chia ht cho 5 v P(5) chia
ht cho 2. Chng minh rng P(7) chia ht cho 10.
6. (Rumani 1962) Cho l s thc tho mn iu kin sin() 0. Chng minh rng
vi mi gi tr n 2, a thc
P(x) = x
n
sin() xsin(n) + sin(n-1)
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chia ht cho a thc Q(x) = x
2
2xcos() + 1.
7. (M 1976) Gi s P(x), Q(x), R(x) v S(x) tho mn ng nht thc
P(x
5
) + xQ(x
5
) + x
2
R(x
5
) = (x
4
+x
3
+x
2
+x+1)S(x)
Chng minh rng a thc P(x) chia ht cho a thc x-1.
8. Vi nhng gi tr no ca n ta c
a) x
2
+ x + 1 | (x-1)
n
x
n
1 b) x
2
+ x + 1 | (x+1)
n
+ x
n
+ 1
2. a thc v nghim
Nghim ca a thc ng mt vai tr quan trng trong vic nghin cu cc tnh cht
ca a thc. Nhiu tnh cht ca a thc c th hin qua nghim ca chng.
Ngc li, vic nghin cu tnh cht cc nghim ca a thc cng cng l mt trong
cc vn trung tm ca i s.
2.1. V d m u
Xt xem s
3
3 3 3 + +
l hu t hay v t.
Ta c th gii bi ton ny bng cch chng minh ln lt cc mnh sau:
1) Nu a v t th a v t
2) Nu a v t th
3
a v t
3) 3 v t
Nhng ta cng c th c mt cch tip cn khc nh sau:
1) Tm a thc vi h s nguyn nhn lm nghim
2) Chng minh rng a thc ny khng c nghim hu t
Vic tm a thc vi h s nguyn nhn lm nghim c tin hnh nh sau
(*). 0 33 72 48 12
3 ) 3 ) 3 (( 3 3 ) 3 ( 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 6 9 12
2 2 3 2 3 3 3
+ +
+ + + + +
x x

Vn cn li l chng minh (*) khng c nghim hu t. Vic ny s c thc
hin cui bi.
2.2. Nghim ca a thc, nh l Bezout.
nh ngha. S thc a (trong mt s trng hp, ta xt c cc s phc) c gi l
nghim ca a thc P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
nu P(a) = 0, tc l
a
n
a
n
+ a
n-1
a
n-1
+ + a
1
a + a
0
= 0.
Ta c nh l n gin nhng rt c nhiu ng dng sau y v nghim ca a thc:
nh l 5. a l nghim ca a thc P(x) khi v ch khi P(x) chia ht cho x a.
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nh l ny l h qu ca nh l sau:
nh l 6. S d trong php chia a thc P(x) cho x a l P(a).
C nh l 5 v nh l 6 u c gi l nh l Bezout. chng minh nh l 6,
ta ch cn chng minh P(x) P(a) chia ht cho x a. Nhng iu ny l hin nhin
v
P(x) P(a) = a
n
(x
n
-a
n
) + a
n-1
(x
n-1
-a
n-1
) + + a
1
(x-a)
v
x
k
a
k
= (x-a)(x
k-1
+ x
k-2
a + + a
k-1
)
T nh l 5, ta c th c mt nh ngha khc cho nghim ca a thc nh sau: a l
nghim ca a thc P(x) nu P(x) = (x-a)Q(x) vi Q(x) l mt a thc no . Vi
nh ngha ny, ta c th pht trin thnh nh ngha v nghim bi.
nh ngha. a c gi l nghim bi r ca a thc P(x) nu P(x) = (x-a)
r
Q(x) vi
Q(a) 0.
2.3. nh l Vieta
nh l 7. Xt a thc P(x) R[x]. Nu x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
l cc nghim phn bit ca
P(x) vi cc bi r
1
, r
2
, , r
k
tng ng th P(x) chia ht cho (x-x
1
)
r1
(x-x
2
)
r2
(x-x
k
)
rk
.
Chng minh: iu ny l hin nhin theo nh ngha v do cc a thc (x-x
i
)
ri
i
mt nguyn t cng nhau.
H qu:
a) Mt a thc bc n vi h s thc c khng qu n nghim thc.
b) Nu hai a thc P(x) v Q(x) c bc nh hn hay bng n bng nhau ti n+1
im th hai a thc ny bng nhau.
nh l 8. Xt a thc P(x) R[x] bc n. Gi s x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
l cc nghim phn
bit ca P(x) vi cc bi r
1
, r
2
, , r
k
tng ng. Nu r
1
+ r
2
+ + r
k
= n th
P(x) = a
n
(x-x
1
)
r1
(x-x
2
)
r2
(x-x
k
)
rk
.
Chng minh: Dng nh l 9, ta suy ra P(x) chia ht cho (x-x
1
)
r1
(x-x
2
)
r2
(x-x
k
)
rk
,
suy ra P(x) = (x-x
1
)
r1
(x-x
2
)
r2
(x-x
k
)
rk
Q(x). So snh bc v h s cao nht, ta suy ra
Q(x) = a
n
.
nh l 9. (nh l Vieta) Gi s a thc P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ a
n-2
x
n-2
+ + a
1
x +
a
0
c n nghim (trong c th c cc nghim bi) l x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
th
P(x) = a
n
(x-x
1
)(x-x
2
)(x-x
n
)
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v nh h qu, ta c
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= -a
n-1
/a
n
;
x
1
x
2
+ x
1
x
3
+ + x
1
x
n
+ x
2
x
3
+ + x
2
x
n
+ +x
n-1
x
n
= a
n-2
/a
n
;

x
1
x
2
x
n
= (-1)na
0
/a
n
.
nh l 10. (nh l Vieta o)
a) Nu x + y = S, x.y = P th x, y l 2 nghim ca phng trnh
X
2
SX + P = 0
b) Nu x + y + z = S, xy + yz + zx = T, xyz = P th x, y, z l 2 nghim ca
phng trnh
X
3
SX
2
+ TX P = 0
T nh l 8 ta suy ra hai h qu n gin nhng rt hiu qu trong gii ton sau:
H qu 1. Mt a thc bc n c khng qu n nghim.
H qu 2. Nu P(x) v Q(x) l cc a thc bc khng qu n, trng nhau ti n+1
im phn bit th hai a thc ny trng nhau.
2.4. Bi tp c li gii
Bi 1. Cho a, b, c l ba nghim ca phng trnh x
3
3x + 1 = 0. Lp phng trnh
bc ba c nghim l
a) a
2
, b
2
, c
2
;
c
c
b
b
a
a
b
+

1
1
,
1
1
,
1
1
)
Li gii.
Theo nh l Vieta, ta c
a + b + c = 0, ab + bc + ca = -3, abc = -1.
T ta tnh c
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
= (a+b+c)
2
2(ab+bc+ca) = 0
2
-2(-3) = 6.
a
2
b
2
+b
2
c
2
+ c
2
a
2
= (ab+bc+ca) 2abc(a+b+c) = (-3)
2
2.(-1).0 = 9
a
2
b
2
c
2
= (abc)
2
= 1
p dng nh l Vieta o, suy ra a
2
, b
2
, c
2
l ba nghim ca phng trnh
x
3
6x
2
+ 9x 1 = 0.
Tng t, ta tnh c
. 3
3
9
1
3 ) ( 3
) 1 )( 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 (
1
1
1
1
1
1

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +

+ + +
+ + + + + + + +

+
+

+
+

abc ca bc ab c b a
abc ca bc ab c b a
c b a
c b a c b a c b a
c
c
b
b
a
a
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. 1
3
3
1
3 ) ( ) ( 3
1
) 1 )( 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 (
1
1
.
1
1
1
1
.
1
1
1
1
.
1
1

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +

+
+

+
+

abc ca bc ab c b a
abc ca bc ab c b a
abc ca bc ab c b a
c b a c b a c b a
a
a
c
c
c
c
b
b
b
b
a
a
.
3
1
3
1
) ( 1
) ( ) ( 1
1
1
.
1
1
.
1
1

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +

abc ca bc ab c b a
abc ca bc ab c b a
c
c
b
b
a
a
T suy ra
c
c
b
b
a
a
+

1
1
,
1
1
,
1
1
l 3 nghim ca phng trnh
x
3
+ 3x
2
x 1/3 = 0.
Bi 2. Rt gn biu thc
) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
2 2 2
b c a c
c
a b c b
b
c a b a
a
A

+

+

Li gii.
Xt a thc
2
2 2 2
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) ( x
b c a c
b x a x c
a b c b
a x c x b
c a b a
c x b x a
x F


+


+

Ta c F(a) = F(b) = F(c) = 0. Nhng F(x) l a thc bc nh hn hay bng 2. Do
F(x) phi ng nht 0.
T suy ra h s ca x
2
ca F(x) bng 0. H s ny bng
. 1
) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
2 2 2

+

+
b c a c
c
a b c b
b
c a b a
a
Suy ra A = 1.
Bi 3. Tm tt c cc a thc P(x) tho mn ng nht thc xP(x-1) = (x-26)P(x).
Li gii. Thay x = 0 vo ng nht thc, ta suy ra P(0) = 0. Suy ra P(x) chia ht cho
x, tc l P(x) = xP
1
(x). Thay vo ng nht thc, ta c
x(x-1)P
1
(x-1) = (x-26)xP
1
(x)
suy ra
(x-1)P
1
(x-1) = (x-26)P
1
(x) (*)
Li thay x = 1, ta c P
1
(1) = 0, suy ra P
1
(x) chia ht cho x-1, tc l P
1
(x) = (x-
1)P
2
(x), thay vo (*), ta c
(x-1)(x-2)P
2
(x-1) = (x-26)(x-1)P
2
(x)
Suy ra
(x-2)P
2
(x-1) = (x-26)P
2
(x)
C tip tc l lun nh th, ta i n
P(x) = x(x-1)(x-25)Q(x)
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V Q(x-1) = Q(x).
t Q(0) = a th ta c Q(x) = a vi x = 1, 2, 3, suy ra Q(x) = a vi mi x.
Vy P(x) = ax(x-1)(x-25) l tt c cc nghim ca bi ton.
Bi 4. Xt phng trnh x
2
a
n-1
x
n-1
a
n-2
x
n-2
- - a
1
x a
0
= 0 vi a
i
l cc s thc
dng. Chng minh rng phng trnh ny c khng qu 1 nghim dng.
Li gii. Vit phng trnh cho di dng
. ... 1
0
2
2 1
n
n n
x
a
x
a
x
a
+ + +

V tri l mt hm s gim trn (0, + ) nn phng trnh trn c khng qu 1
nghim dng.
Bi 5. Vi gi tr no ca A v B th a thc P(x) = Ax
n+1
+ Bx
n
+ 1 c x = 1 l
nghim bi t nht l bc 2?
Li gii. Trc ht ta phi c P(1) = 0, tc l A + B + 1 = 0, suy ra B = A 1.
Khi P(x) = Ax
n
(x-1) x
n
+ 1 = (x-1)(Ax
n
x
n-1
x
n-2
- - 1) = (x-1)Q(x). 1
l nghim bi t nht l bc 2 th Q(x) chia ht cho x-1, tc l Q(1) = 0, suy ra A =
n. Vy a = n, b = -(n+1).
2.5. Bi tp t gii
Bi 1. Bit rng cc nghim ca phng trnh x
2
+ ax + b = 0 v x
2
+ cx + d = 0 u
thuc (-1, 1). Chng minh rng cc nghim ca phng trnh 2x
2
+ (a+c)x + (b+d) =
0 cng thuc (-1, 1).
Bi 2. Chng minh rng a thc P(x) = 1 + x + x
2
/2! + + x
n
/n! khng c nghim
bi.
Bi 3. Rt gn cc biu thc sau
) )( )( ( ) )( )( ( ) )( )( ( ) )( )( (
2 2 2 2
c d b d a d
d
d c b c a c
c
a b d b c b
b
d a c a b a
a
A

+

+

+

) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
3 3 3
b c a c
c
a b c b
b
c a b a
a
B

+

+

Bi 4. Cho a < b < c l ba nghim ca phng trnh x

3
3x + 1 = 0. Chng minh
rng
a
2
c = b
2
a = c
2
b = 2.
Bi 5. Gii h phng trnh
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'

+ +
+ +
+ +
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
a z y x
a z y x
a z y x
Bi 6. Tm mi lin h gia cc h s ca phng trnh ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d = 0 bit
rng tch ca hai nghim ca phng trnh ny bng tng ca chng.
Bi 7. Chng minh cc khng nh di y
(a) nh l v nghim nguyn. Cho f(x) = x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
vi a
n-1
,
, a
1
, a
0
l cc s nguyn v f(p) = 0 vi p nguyn. Khi a
0
chia ht cho p.
(b) nh l v nghim hu t. Cho f(x) = x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
vi a
n-1
, ,
a
1
, a
0
l cc s nguyn v f(p/q) = 0 vi p/q l phn s ti gin. Khi a
0
chia
ht cho p v a
n
chia ht cho q.
(c) Trong cc k hiu ca cu (b), vi mi s nguyn k s f(k) chia ht cho p
kq.
Bi 8. Cho P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
R[x]. t
M = max{|a
n-1
/a
n
|, |a
n-2
/a
n
|, , |a
1
/a
n
|, |a
0
/a
n
|}
Khi mi nghim ca P(x) tho mn bt ng thc || < M + 1. Hy chng
minh.
3. a thc bt kh quy
3.1. a thc vi h s nguyn
a thc vi h s nguyn l a thc c dng P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
vi ai l
cc s nguyn. Ta k hiu tp hp tt c cc a thc vi h s nguyn l Z[x].
Ta c cc kt qu c bn sau y v a thc vi h s nguyn.
(1) Nu P(x) c nghim nguyn x = a th phn tch c P(x) = (x-a)Q(x) vi Q(x) l a
thc vi h s nguyn.
(2) Nu a, b nguyn v a b th P(a) P(b) chia ht cho a b.
(3) Nu x = p/q l mt nghim ca P(x) (vi (p, q) = 1) th p l c ca a
0
v q l c ca
a
n
. c bit nu a
n
= t 1 th nghim hu t l nghim nguyn.
(4) Nu x = m + n l nghim ca P(x) vi m, n nguyn, n khng chnh phng th x = m
- n cng l nghim ca P(x).
(5) Nu x = m + n vi m, n nguyn, n khng chnh phng th P(x) = M + N n vi
M, N nguyn.
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a thc vi h s nguyn s nhn gi tr nguyn vi mi gi tr x nguyn. iu ngc li
khng ng, c nhng a thc nhn gi tr nguyn vi mi x nguyn nhng cc h s ca
n khng nguyn.
V d. Cc a thc (x
2
-x)/2, (x
3
-x)/6 nhn gi tr nguyn vi mi x nguyn.
a thc vi h s hu t nhng nhn gi tr nguyn vi mi x nguyn c gi l a thc
nguyn.
Mt a thc vi h s hu t P(x) bt k c th biu din di dng
) (x Q
b
a
vi a, b l cc s nguyn v Q(x) l a thc vi h s nguyn.
3.2. a thc bt kh quy
nh ngha. Cho P(x) l a thc vi h s nguyn. Ta gi P(x) l bt kh quy trn Z[x]
nu P(x) khng phn tch c thnh tch hai a thc thuc Z[x] vi bc ln hn hay bng
1.
Tng t nh ngha a thc bt kh quy trn Q[x].
nh l 3.1 (Tiu chun Eisenstein)
Cho P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ +a
1
x + a
0
. Nu tn ti s nguyn t p sao cho
i) an khng chia ht cho p
ii) a
0
, a
1
, , a
n-1
chia ht cho p
iii) a
0
khng chia ht cho p
2
th a thc P(x) bt kh quy.
nh l 3.2 (Quan h bt kh quy trn Z[x] v Q[x])
Nu a thc P(x) Z[x] bt kh quy trn Z[x] th cng bt kh quy trn Q[x].
B Gauss. Ta gi a thc P Z[x] l nguyn bn nu cc h s ca n nguyn t cng
nhau. Ta c b Gauss: Tch ca hai a thc nguyn bn l nguyn bn.
Chng minh b . Cho hai a thc nguyn bn
P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
Q(x) = b
m
x
m
+ b
m-1
x
m-1
+ + b
1
x + b
0
th
P(x).Q(x) = c
m+n
x
m+n
+ c
m+n-1
x
m+n-1
+ +c
1
x + c
0

Gi s tch trn khng nguyn bn th tn ti mt s nguyn t p l c chung ca cc h
s c
0
, c
1
, , c
m+n
. V P nguyn bn nn gi i l s nh nht m ai khng chia ht cho p v j
l s nh nht sao cho bj khng chia ht cho p. Khi xt x
i+j
ta thy h s tng ng
khng chia ht cho p, v l. Vy tch trn nguyn bn.
Chng minh nh l. Cho P(x) bt kh quy trn Z[x]. Gi s P(x) kh quy trn Q[x]: P(x)
= P
1
(x).P
2
(x) vi P
1
, P
2
l cc a thc bc nh hn bc ca P v c h s hu t.
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t
) ( ) ( ), ( ) (
2
2
2
2 1
1
1
1
x Q
b
a
x P x Q
b
a
x P
vi (a
i
, b
i
) = 1 v Q
i
nguyn bn (i=1, 2).
Khi
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
x Q x Q
q
p
x Q x Q
b b
a a
x P
vi (p, q) = 1. Do P(x) Z[x] nn t
y suy ra cc h s ca Q
1
(x)Q
2
(x) u chia ht cho q, suy ra Q
1
(x)Q
2
(x) khng nguyn
bn, tri vi b Gauss. Mu thun. Vy P(x) bt kh quy trn Q[x].

3.3. Mt s tnh cht ca a thc bt kh quy
3.4. Mt s bi tp c li gii
Bi 1. Cho tam thc bc hai P(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c vi a, b, c l cc s hu t. Chng minh
rng P(x) nguyn vi mi x nguyn khi v ch khi c, a + b v 2a nguyn.
Bi 2. a) Tm tt c cc s nguyn a sao cho (x-a)(x-10) + 1 c th phn tch c thnh
tch dng (x+b)(x+c) vi b, c l cc s nguyn.
b) Tm tt c cc s nguyn khc 0 v i mt khc nhau a, b, c sao cho a thc
x(x-a)(x-b)(x-c) + 1
c th biu din di dng tch ca hai a thc vi h s nguyn.
Bi 3. Chng minh cc a thc sau l bt kh quy
a) x
3
+ 5x
2
+ 35
b) x
4
x
3
+ 2x + 1
Bi 4. Cho p l s nguyn t. Chng minh rng a thc x
p-1
+ x
p-2
+ + x + 1 bt kh quy.
Bi 5. Cho n s a
i
thuc Z. Chng minh
a) (x-a
1
)(x-a
2
)(x-a
n
) 1 bt kh quy
b) (x-a
1
)
2
(x-a
2
)
2
(x-a
n
)
2
+ 1 bt kh quy
3.4. Bi tp
Bi 1. a thc P(x) bc n c h s hu t l a thc nguyn khi v ch khi n nhn gi tr
nguyn ti n+1 im nguyn lin tip. Chng minh.
Bi 2. Tm tt c cc gi tr n sao cho tn ti n s nguyn phn bit a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
(x-a
1
)(x-
a
2
)(x-a
n
) + 1 kh quy.
Bi 3. (Tiu chun Eisenstein m rng) Cho a thc P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
.
Gi s tn ti s nguyn t p sao cho
i) a
n
khng chia ht cho p
ii) a
0
khng chia ht cho p
2
iii) a
0
, a
1
, , a
n-k
chia ht cho p
Khi nu P(x) = H(x).G(x) th mt trong hai a thc H(x), G(x) c bc nh hn k.
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Bi 4. Tm tt c cc gi tr n nguyn dng sao cho a thc x
n
+ 4 kh quy trn Z[x].
Bi 5. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, a thc x
n
+ 5x
n-1
+ 3 bt kh quy.
Bi 6. Tm h s t do ca a thc P(x) vi h s nguyn, bit rng tr tuyt i ca n nh
hn 1000 v P(19) = P(94) = 1994.
4. Cng thc ni suy Lagrange
4.1. Cc v d m u
V d 1. Tm tt c cc a thc P(x) tho mn iu kin: P(1) = 1, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 4.
Li gii. R rng nu P v Q l hai a thc tho mn iu kin bi th P(x) Q(x) s
bng 0 ti cc im 1, 2, 3 v t , ta c P(x) Q(x) = (x-1)(x-2)(x-3)H(x). Ngc li,
nu P(x) l a thc tho mn iu kin bi th cc a thc Q(x) = P(x) + (x-1)(x-2)(x-
3)H(x) cng tho mn iu kin bi vi mi H(x). T c th thy rng c v s cc
a thc tho mn iu kin bi.
Ta t ra cu hi: Trong cc a thc tho mn iu kin bi, hy tm a thc c bc nh
nht. R rng a thc ny khng th l hng s, cng khng th l bc nht. Ta th tm bc
tip theo l bc 2.
Gi s P(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c l a thc tho mn iu kin bi. Khi
P(1) = 1 suy ra a + b + c = 1
P(2) = 2 suy ra 4a + 2b + c = 2
P(3) = 3 suy ra 9a + 3b + c = 4
Gii h ny ra, ta c nghim duy nht (a, b, c) = (1/2, -1/2, 1), ta c P(x) = (1/2)x
2

(1/2)x + 1 l a thc bc nh nht tho mn iu kin. V theo nh l lun trn, mi
nghim ca bi ton s c dng
Q(x) = P(x) + (x-1)(x-2)(x-3)H(x) vi H(x) l mt a thc tu .
V d 2. Tm a thc bc nh nht tho mn iu kin P(-2) = 0, P(-1) = 1, P(0) = 1, P(1) =
2, P(2) = 3.
Li gii. T tng phng php h s bt nh v h phng trnh bc nht trn. Ta
thy rng chn chn s tn ti a thc bc khng qu 4 tho mn iu kin bi. Xt P(x)
= ax
4
+ bx
3
+ cx
2
+ dx + e. T iu kin bi suy ra h
16a 8b + 4c 2d + e = 0
a b + c d + e = 1
e = 1
a + b + c + d + e = 2
16a + 8b + 4c + 2d + e = 3
Gii h ny ta c a = -1/8, b = 1/12, c = 5/8, d = 5/12, e = 1.
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4.2. Cng thc ni suy Lagrange
T cc v d c th nu trn, ta c th d on rng vi mi cc b n+1 s phn bit (a
0
, a
1
,
..., a
n
) v b n+1 s bt k b
0
, b
1
, ..., b
n
s tn ti mt a thc P(x) bc khng vt qu n
tho mn iu kin
P(a
i
) = b
i
vi mi i=0, 1, 2, ..., n. (*)
Ngoi ra, do tt c cc a thc Q(x) tho mn (*) s phi c dng Q(x) = P(x) + (x-a
0
)(x-
a
1
)...(x-a
n
)H(x) vi H(x) l mt a thc no nn cc nghim khc ca (*) u c bc
n+1.
V th ta c th xut nh l sau:
nh l. Cho b n+1 s thc phn bit (a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
) v b n+1 s bt k (b
0
, b
1
, ..., b
n
). Khi
tn ti duy nht mt a thc P(x) c bc khng vt qu n tho mn iu kin P(a
i
) = b
i
vi mi i=0, 1, 2, ..., n.
S duy nht c chng minh kh d dng theo nh l lun trn. Tuy nhin, vic chng
minh tn ti cho trng hp tng qut l khng n gin, v iu ny tng ng vi vic
chng minh mt h phng trnh n+1 phng trnh, n+1 n s c nghim (duy nht). Rt
th v l ta tm c cch chng minh nh l ny mt cch xy dng, tc l tm ra c
biu thc tng minh ca a thc P(x) m khng cn phi gii h phng trnh h s bt
nh nu trn.
tng chng minh ny nh sau. Ta i tm cc a thc P
0
(x), P
1
(x) , P
n
(x) bn n tho
mn iu kin sau
P
i
(a
j
) =
ij
,
Trong

'

j i
j i
ij
0
1

Khi a thc

n
i
i i
x P b x P
0
) ( ) (
s tho mn iu kin v



n
i
j ij i
n
i
j i i j
b b a P b a P
0 0
. ) ( ) (
Vn cn li l i tm cc a thc P
i
(x). V P
i
(a
j
) = 0 vi mi j i nn
P
i
(x) = C
i
(x-a
0
)(x-a
i-1
)(x-a
i+1
)(x-a
n
)
V P
i
(a
i
) = 1 nn
) )...( )( )...( (
1
1 1 0 n i i i i i i
i
a a a a a a a a
C

+
Nh th ta tm c
(**)
) )...( )( )...( (
) )...( )( )...( (
) (
1 1 0
1 1 0
n i i i i i i
n i i
i
a a a a a a a a
a x a x a x a x
x P

+
+
l cc a thc tho mn h iu kin P
i
(a
j
) =
ij
.
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Cng thc ni suy Lagrange. Cho b n+1 s thc phn bit (a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
) v b n+1 s
bt k (b
0
, b
1
, ..., b
n
). Khi a thc

n
i
i i
x P b x P
0
) ( ) (
l a thc duy nht c bc khng vt qu n tho mn iu kin P(a
i
) = b
i
vi mi i=0, 1,
2, ..., n. Cc a thc P
i
(x) l cc a thc bc n c nh ngha bi (**).
4.3. ng dng ca cng thc ni suy Langrange
Bi ton ni suy l mt trong cc bi ton c bn ca ton l thuyt v ton ng dng.
Trong thc t, chng ta khng th o c gi tr ca mt hm s ti mi im, m ch o
c ti mt s im. Cc cng thc ni suy cho php chng ta, bng php o ti mt s
im, dng li mt a thc xp x cho hm s thc t. Cng thc ni suy Lagrange, v
th c nhiu ng dng trong vt l, trc a, kinh t hc, kh tng thu vn, d on d
bo Tuy nhin, ta s khng i su v cc vn ny. Di y ta xem xt mt s ng
dng ca cng thc ni suy Lagrange trong cc bi ton ph thng.
4.4. Cc bi tp c li gii
Bi 1. Rt gn biu thc
) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
2 2 2
b c a c
c
a b c b
b
c a b a
a
A

+

+

Li gii. p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange cho hm s P(x) = x

2
vi cc im a, b, c v
gi tr tng ng l a
2
, b
2
, c
2
ta c
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) )( (
) (
2 2 2
b c a c
b x a x c
c b a b
c x a x b
c a b a
c x b x a
x P


+


+

So snh h s ca x
2
hai v, ta c A = 1.
Bi 2. Cho a thc P(x) bc n tho mn iu kin P(k) = k/(k+1) vi mi k=0, 1, 2, , n.
Hy tm P(n+1).
Li gii. Theo cng thc ni suy Lagrange th

+
+

n
k
n k k k
n x k x k x x x
k
k
x P
0
) )...( 1 .( 1 )... 1 (
) )...( 1 )( 1 )...( 1 (
.
1
) (
T

+
+

+ +
+

+
+ + +
+

+ +
+

n
k
k
n
k n
n
k
k n
n
k
n
k
kC
n
k n k
n
k
k n n k k k
k n k n k n n
k
k
n k k k
k n k n n
k
k
x P
0
1
2
0 0
0
) 1 (
2
1
)! 1 ( )! 1 (
)! 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 )( )...( 1 .( 1 )... 1 (
) 1 )...( )( 1 )( 2 )...( 1 (
.
1
) )...( 1 .( 1 )... 1 (
) 1 )...( )( 2 )...( 1 (
.
1
) (
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Cch 2. Xt a thc (x+1)P(x) x c bc n v c n+1 nghim x = 0, 1, 2, , n. Do , ta
c
(x+1)P(x) x = ax(x-1)(x-2)(x-n)
vi a l 1 hng s.
Thay x = - 1, ta c 1 = a.(-1)(-2)(-n-1) = a(-1)
n+1
(n+1)!
Suy ra a = (-1)
n+1
/(n+1)!.
T (n+2)P(n+1) (n+1) = n!(-1)
n+1
/(n+1)! = (-1)
n+1
/(n+1)
Suy ra P(n+1) = ((n+1)
2
+ (-1)
n+1
)/(n+2).
Bi 3. Cho tam thc bc 2 P(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c tho mn iu kin |P(x)| 1 vi mi | x |
1. Chng minh rng |a| + |b| + |c| 3.
Li gii. Thc hin php ni suy ti 3 im -1, 0, 1, ta c
) 1 1 )( 0 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 0 )( 1 0 (
) 1 )( 1 (
) 0 (
) 1 1 )( 0 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 ( ) (
+ +
+
+
+
+
+

x x
P
x x
P
x x
P x P
Suy ra
) 0 (
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
) 0 ( 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
) (
2
P x
P P
x
P P P
x P +

+
+

T
) 0 ( ,
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
,
2
) 0 ( 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
P c
P P
b
P P P
a

Suy ra
|
. 3 | ) 0 ( | 2 |} ) 1 ( | |, ) 1 ( max{| | ) 0 ( | 2
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
| ) 0 ( |
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
) 0 ( 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
| | | | | |
+ +

+
+

+

+
+
+ +
P P P P
P P P P
P
P P P P P
c b a
4.5. Bi tp t gii
Bi 1. Rt gn biu thc
) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
4 4 4
b c a c
c
c b a b
b
c a b a
a
A

+

+

Bi 2. Cho M(y) l mt a thc bc n sao cho M(y) = 2

y
vi y = 1, 2, , n+1. Hy tm
M(n+2).
Bi 3. Cho a thc P(x) = x
10
+ a
9
x
9
+ + a
1
x + a
0
. Bit rng P(-1) = P(1), P(-2) = P(2),
, P(-5) = P(5). Chng minh rng P(-x) = P(x) vi mi x thuc R.
Bi 4. Cho x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< < x
n
l cc s nguyn v P(x) l a thc bc n c h s cao nht
bng 1. Chng minh rng tn ti i {0, 1, , n} sao cho |P(x
i
)| n!/2
n
.
Bi 5. Mt chic tu vi vn tc khng i i ngang qua mt hn o. Thuyn trng c
mi gi li o khong cch t tu n o. Vo lc 12, 14 v 15 gi tu cch o cc
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khong cch tng ng l 7, 5 v 11 km. Hi vo lc 13 gi tu cch o bao nhiu km.
V lc 16 gi, tu s cch o bao nhiu km?
Bi 6. Trn mt phng cho 100 im. Bit rng vi bn im bt k trong chng u c
mt parabol bc 2 i qua. Chng minh rng tt c cc im cho u nm trn mt
parabol bc 2.
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