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Cardinal Clancy Centre for Research in the Spiritual, Moral, Religious and Pastoral Dimensions of Education

Spiritual, Moral and Religious Education is a key area of Research and Teaching in Australian Catholic University

The Spirituality of Today's Young People: Implications for Religious Education in Church-related Schools
(Also titled: Religious Education and the Secular Spirituality of Youth)

Marisa Crawford and Graham Rossiter


Published as M.L. Crawford and G.M. Rossiter, 1993, The Spirituality of Today's Young People: Implications for Religious Education in Church-related Schools, (also titled: Religious Education and the secular spirituality of youth) Religious Education Journal of Australia, 9, 2, 1-8. Abstract: Today's young people in most Western countries are at a high water mark of secularisation. They form their values and meaning in life in ways that are different from those of previous generations -- at least different enough to have significant implications for religious education in schools. The predominantly secular fashion in which their spirituality often develops needs to be understood and addressed if religious and values education in schools are to contribute meaningfully to their moral and spiritual development. In some instances in church schools, the presumed religious framework, content and language of the religion curriculum are not sufficiently congruent with the perspective that young people take on spirituality. In state religion studies courses, there is also a danger that the study may not be as relevant to youth as it might be -- in this instance because of an overemphasis on the descriptive and classificatory aspects of phenomenology. While the paper addresses the Australian context, the issues are relevant in other countries.
Introduction In a text on modern European thought, Franklin Boumer wrote about the process of secularisation in a chapter entitled, "The Eclipse of God". 1 He began with this quote from Dietrich Bonhoeffer: ... the secular movement which I think had begun in the 13th century has in our time reached a certain completion. People have learnt to cope with all the questions of importance without recourse to God as a working hypothesis. In questions concerning science, art and even ethics this has become an understood thing which one scarcely dares to tilt at anymore.2 This draws attention to a process with a long history that now has a contemporary prominence and universality in Western countries that make it important for reviewing the aims and practices of religious and values education. This article does not set out to analyse the process of secularisation itself. Rather it explores the way young people form their spirituality in a secularised, pluralist society, with comments on implications for religious education in schools, both government and church-related. Value judgments of secularisation (and related processes) will not be presumed; here we take secularisation as a given that needs to be addressed in religious education. An evaluation of its significance for religion is beyond the scope of the article. We would note, however, that taking too negative and defensive a view of secularisation can restrict relevant curriculum development in religious education, inhibiting its contribution to young people's spiritual development. We are looking for generalisations about the spirituality of young people that will be useful for teachers, even though we understand that these generalisations will not apply to all youth. While not neglecting those who are religious and who are active members of a parish (or synagogue, mosque etc.), we want to give special attention to the youth who are not interested in drawing much spiritually from their own religious tradition. Their school religious education still needs to be meaningful and practical. We are conscious of the differences that the context of religious education makes to purposes, content and practice -- in church or state schools. While we are unable to elaborate here on the relationships between religious education in these contexts, we would argue that there ought be more similarities than differences.3 This view influences our interpretation of implications; we will propose general implications together with some directed specifically to church schools.

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The Spirituality of Young People Spirituality is taken here to mean the ways in which people look for and perceive meaning, purpose and values as well as other personal aspects like beauty, appreciation of nature, fulfilment, happiness and community. Spirituality often, but not always, revolves around belief in God and the practice of religion. It includes abiding dispositions towards life and patterns of behaviour that are influenced by spiritual and/or religious beliefs. While spirituality may be regarded as the reflective and active expressions of religious beliefs, it is not limited to a necessary association with formal religion. Spirituality, like identity, always appears to be an important concept when education and religious development are being considered. However, they are notoriously difficult to define. We do not wish to restrict dialogue with religious people who see spirituality mainly as a core element of religion; neither do we wish to exclude from the conversation those who do not see their spirituality so defined in religious terms. We are concerned about a problem of communication that often exists between these two groups. 4 Whatever the stance that educators might take regarding their own spirituality, we consider that they will misunderstand the spirituality of many youth if they make the concepts 'spiritual' and 'religious' identical. As regards spirituality, today's young people tend to be different from older generations in the following ways:* * * * They are at a high water mark of secularisation; They tend to forge meaning and purpose in ways that are different from those used by older generations; the focus of their spirituality is different; They relate to traditions and traditional religion in different ways; They have a different approach to understanding and forming identity and religious identity in particular.

Is this focus on a distinctive youth spirituality suggesting that a new type of spiritual species is emerging? Are young people being influenced by a culture different from that experienced by adults? We propose that the answers are "No." However, there are significant differences in emphasis in the way today's young people form spirituality because they have grown up taking for granted, and not knowing anything different from, particular cultural elements like television and rapid social change -- elements to which the older generations have adjusted and accommodated. Secularisation Secularisation is the process which reduces the prominence of formal religion in social interaction. It needs to be distinguished from secularism which is an ideology that is antagonistic to religion. Today's young people in Western countries are growing up in a very secularised environment; it cannot be ignored even if some youth live in households and local communities that try to shield them from it. They see people thinking about life and forming their values more from their own initiative, with less dependence on traditional religious guidance. This has more to do with their experience of organised religion than with their fundamental belief in God. It has a number of consequences. For many youth in industrialised, urbanised countries, religions and Christian denominations no longer speak with a voice they wish to hear, or a voice that is believable. If they have concerns about the environment, human rights, personal relationships and sexuality, there are organisations in society, unaffiliated with religion, that seem to have a more authoritative and legitimate voice. Young people have nominated associations like Amnesty International and Greenpeace as action groups for which they have more affinity than church groups involved in similar work. Even when they recognise the contribution of church-related organisations to social causes, their perception is that these groups are not typical. The experience of teachers of religion confirms the above: that a high proportion of young people do not see religion, including their own particular tradition, as likely to have a prominent place in the way they work out their values and purpose in life. It can be said that this is not a new phenomenon because the description fits many nominally religious adults. However, today's youth, as well as inheriting a tradition of secularisation, are subject from birth to an 'electronically conditioned', 'global village' culture that colours their view of religion itself and offers alternative sources of meaning and values. While adults live exposed to this same culture that influences young people (but perhaps not so much to its specifically teenage aspects), they are not paying enough attention to the distinctive ways in which young people interpret experience and forge their spirituality. Religious and values education in schools that do not take this into account risk irrelevance and ineffectiveness. The secularisation of Western countries has been gradual, but there has been accelerated social change over the past 30 years through:- communications; technology; travel; education; the media; lifestyle; sense of freedom, individuality and relativism etc. Most of the older generations were brought up under a different cultural regime and have managed to adapt (or cope), more or less successfully, with rapid social change.

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Young people do not start life with such a relatively static cultural baseline; for them, the constant as regards education, lifestyle, employment, fashion and entertainment is change itself. In fact, change may have become more of a natural ingredient in the formation of personal identity. Hence, the same cultural realities can be experienced differently by the older and younger generations. There results different perceptions, understandings and values, and this in turn influences the way young people respond to the efforts of adults to hand on a religious tradition, identity and spirituality. But, the very idea of 'handing on' has become problematic. An example: an educator may express concern about how a particular denominational Christian identity can best be fostered through religious education at school; the response of many young people may be not so much to question the appropriateness of methods and content, but to wonder why there is any need to be concerned about a formal religious identity at all. Even the last five years seem to have been a critical period of change. Religion teachers in church schools are finding that what at least provoked an angry or argumentative response some years back is no longer provocative. The response, or rather lack of response, gives an impression of apathy and disinterest. That school students can dismiss questions about religion with no anger poses a problem. When there was an angry reaction, it was at least some evidence that they were considering the issues. The teachings of religion were serving as a recognised baseline in relation to which they formed their own views -- even if contrary. A cool response is more difficult for teachers to deal with. But the situation is more complex than this. Apathy and disinterest do not adequately describe their response. It is more like that of detached interest. As one educator described it: "They seem to look at what is happening in religious education with a clinical anthropological interest. 'You mean, some people still believe that?' was a typical comment when the teacher was talking about the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. For them it seemed an outmoded element in the belief structure of an older generation."5 What is being studied may appear to students as quaint or antiquarian, with little relevance for them or for today's society. They may see what their tradition is offering as just one of a number of potential spiritual contributions from different religious and non-religious sources. Bonhoeffer did not see the changes in emphasis flowing from secularisation as necessarily a bad sign for Christianity. He regarded it as a move from a cultural control of thought and behaviour to a more autonomous, personal Christian spirituality. While some have pointed out the dangers in a 'religion-less Christianity' -- a term which was used to encapsulate this trend in its quintessential form -- Bonhoeffer saw the development as a positive one, even though the movement for some might take them away from formal Christian belief of any sort. The big change was that God and religion were no longer formally at the centre of everything. Relativism A sense of relativism is strong in young people; many see no problem in trying out different churches and religions to see what they are like and if they meet felt needs. As sociologist Gregory Baum described it, people today are conscious that their society includes a type of religious/spiritual supermarket. Many young people are interested in buying, but they are discriminating; they feel that the product needs to be relevant and give them some sense of purpose and direction. Baum considered that: The relativism that dominates our culture is drawn from the market economy. There are no abiding values. People choose their values as they do their goods at the supermarket. Some people like this, others like that. It is all a matter of taste. There are no abiding standards beyond personal predilection, and hence there are no norms in terms of which we can judge society as a whole. Relativism of this kind is ultimately cynical. The final position is, "anything goes". Since we live in a market society, we are profoundly influenced by this sort of relativism. Political scientists speak of the 'commodification of values'. Everything becomes a commodity; everything has a price, including human relations and happiness. If we find it on the shelf and have the money, we can purchase it. In our culture, we have witnessed the commodification of sexuality. Sex has become merchandised. Sex in advertising enhances sales, and sex in the entertainment industry increases profits. We are also witnessing the commodification of religion. We turn to the spectrum of sects, cults and esoteric practices; choose our own religious style; pay for it with our own money; follow it as long as we like; and then move into another involvement. This market relativism is an ideology built into our mainstream culture. In my opinion, it is hostile to the great religious traditions. 6 One response of parents and educators is to try to shield young people from these comparisons and relativism by opposing the study of world religions in religious education. However, any such shielding at school is not likely to be effective if students still have access to transport, cities, television, radio, newspapers and magazines, and to their own

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friends. The classroom should be one place where it might be expected that students look at different religions with respect to become better informed. It is interesting to note that Gregory Baum argued that the world's great religions, with their long traditions of teachings and sacred writings, are a counter to religious relativism. The debate about 'mishmash' in religious education in the United Kingdom is another indicator of concerns about relativism.7 Indifferentism Webster's Dictionary defined it as "A state of indifference; a want of interest or earnestness, especially a systematic apathy regarding what is true or false in religion and philosophy." Cardinal Manning, noting that it was condemned earlier as a heresy, said that "Indifferentism equalises all religions and gives equal rights to truth and error". Indifferentism is more than just relativism. It denotes an apathy towards what religion has to say on issues. Indifferentism has been a problem that has concerned scholars in the Christian Church for a long period. But it seems to be much more widespread today -- especially with young people. For many, religion is important because it gives solace and meaning in relation to ultimate questions like death and after life; but they feel no need to have recourse to religion to solve the ordinary traumas that occur in their daily lives. So they see religion as important but peripheral in the sense that it does not make much contact with their daily living. The Privatisation of Beliefs One of the corollaries of secularisation is the privatisation of beliefs. As the social prominence of religions in pluralist societies decreases, so the tendency to regard religion as a matter of private beliefs increases. This is one way in which religion can be domesticated and its capacity for social action and justice limited. Religion can be treated as a matter of private, personal opinion -- where it may offer personal meaning and motivation without getting in the way of business and life in general. As noted in an earlier research study of the beliefs of British youth: Freedom and individualism are values that strongly influence the pattern of beliefs of young people. A consequence is the 'privatisation' of belief. This trend is part of a general acceptance of the atomisation of our culture. A person's life seems to be increasingly split up between various parts. . . There was a time when the Church claimed to be the unifying influence standing over everything else that happened in life. Now it is seen as one among many institutions competing for attention. 8 Privatisation of beliefs also diminishes the importance of the communal expression of faith in local church communities. Some consider that one of the psychological ills of contemporary societies is the alienation of individuals from shared belief systems. While not devaluing the need for a personalised faith, it may be expecting too much of individuals to construct meaning for life in isolation without reference to a community that can support and nourish personal beliefs and values. Privatisation of beliefs is linked with relativism, where the prevailing view devalues the distinctiveness of religion: "One religion is as good as another; it is just a matter of opinion; it is like another commodity on the supermarket shelf of value systems". The values and the dangers in relativism and the privatisation of beliefs need consideration in the classroom, together with the links to a prevailing market-oriented mentality that is strongly rooted in Western societies. One constructive educational response has been to make the issues of religious relativism and the privatisation of beliefs topics for open-ended study by senior students. This acknowledges the comparison of religions as a taken-for-granted aspect of modern culture; it has advantages and problems which can be identified and evaluated. Religion as an Option Young people can comfortably dissociate their search for a spirituality from the need to belong to any religion. They tend to locate formal religion in one corner of their lives and their search for a spirituality in another. But they do not see 'real' religion (that is, a personalised belief system) as divorced from life; any secular/religious dichotomy tends to have little meaning for them. They react against a division that in their view "straight-jackets religion into an exclusively Sunday morning affair", "stifles the spiritual dimension of ordinary life" and "allows people to take refuge from God in their local church." They know they have a real option as to whether their search for meaning will involve remaining in active contact with organised structures in their own religious tradition. It is also significant that they can do this without feeling any guilt at giving up their religion (older people who have given up their faith often have lingering guilt feelings). They may feel

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comfortable in wanting to dissociate themselves from any regular practice of religion by their parents. This is much more than reacting against the religious practices said to be important in their upbringing; they are choosing to seek out a spirituality more independent of their traditional religion. Implications for Religious Education in Schools 1. Understanding the Secularised Spirituality of Many Youth:

The relevance of religious education can be enhanced if teachers give serious consideration to the more secularised fashion in which young people's spirituality is formed. This involves teaching and content that are in tune with the ways they look at tradition, the world, their own experience and the future. This is often so different from what older people and religion curriculum developers are thinking is appropriate for them that there is a breakdown in communication. What is done to promote their spiritual development may miss the mark. And there is stress for teachers when they see what they regard as important being dismissed as of no consequence by students. An understanding of youth spirituality is particularly important for teachers in church schools. It can help them honour a dual commitment: to provide a religious education that does justice to the traditions of the sponsoring church while still fostering the spiritual development of their students, many of whom may not become practising members of the Church. Teachers need not be defensive in introducing secularisation as a topic for investigation by students; its meaning and significance need to be evaluated. The history of the concept, its pejorative connotation in church circles, its influence on thinking and behaviour, the potential gains and losses for spirituality all require some exploration and clarification. Bonhoeffer's suggestion that people were learning how to live life "without recourse to God" needs subtle interpretation. As well as referring to agnosticism and atheism, it could mean without recourse to a god who is made by religion into a restrictive, authoritarian parent; a god who is categorised, stereotyped and 'churchified'. Even the question "How secular was Jesus?" merits consideration. The values, both explicit and implicit, in secular organisations should be acknowledged. Often these are not all that different from religious values. This affirms that spirituality need not be drawn exclusively from formal religious sources. The term humanism should not be given over to those religious people who wish to use it as a pejorative label for what is perceived as a secular alternative to religion; nor to those who wish to dismiss the significance of religion in many people's search for values and a faith to live by. 2. Balanced Perspective on Religious Identity and Sense of Religious Belonging:

A classroom experience that often 'fazes' religion teachers in church schools is the calm and unruffled way in which students remain unmoved by the thought that traditional Christian doctrines may not be true. For example: some young Catholics appear to have little if any difficulty questioning (or even dismissing) the Assumption of Mary, the Immaculate Conception, the Virgin Birth, and so on to the divinity of Jesus. This does not necessarily mean that they are rejecting the faith or losing their identification with Catholicism. It may be a process in which they break away from images of Jesus and Mary to which they could not relate to in any case. For example, there are young people who cannot relate to 'Jesus meek and mild' as presented in some prayers and in older spirituality. Neither could they relate to Mary as a woman who felt no pain at childbirth! In their theological outlook, these young people tend to have a hard edge of reality. But teachers should not overlook the fact that this can go hand in hand with a sincere searching for their spiritual selves. The situation described above raises questions about religious identity. How much do young people need to believe in to retain a sense of distinctive denominational identity? Some of the older generation may have questioned teachings, but not to the same degree as young people today. This issue is not just a Christian concern. Members of the Jewish community and other non-Christian religions are concerned about what they call "the erosion of religious identity." It is interesting to note that it is also occurring with Quaker youth. The Quaker tradition does not require individuals to believe what they cannot accept rationally. However, they are finding that even with this provision, their youth seem to be distancing themselves to some extent from traditional teachings. The concern of church school religious educators cannot just be "How can we be more effective in communicating a sense of religious identity?" The problematic meaning of religious identity in a pluralist, secularised society needs to be explored by both teachers and students. While ensuring that there are enough elements in a religious education to provide students with adequate access to the traditions that support a religious identity, teachers need to make connections between the process of studying religion and the way young people themselves are dealing with questions of meaning and value, even if this does not appear to be a formally religious process. This means that in their methods of teaching religion, they need to show an implied acceptance that young people will be making rational choices about the elements in their tradition that might contribute to their spirituality. This does not mean continually telling the students

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that they have to choose. The classroom emphasis should be on challenging young people rationally -- to be well informed and able to think critically about spiritual issues. It is not inconsistent for some young people to want to disregard certain church teachings while remaining identified with their religious tradition and even part of a worshipping community -- the need to belong to a group that expresses spirituality is still strong. If church school religious educators would like young people to cultivate a sense of religious belonging, then they, and more importantly, the local churches (and correspondingly: synagogues and mosques), need to offer structures and experiences that will make belonging to the group more attractive and meaningful. Also, the sense of belonging needs to become alive in and be expressed through worship and prayer. Young people may see Christian liturgy as an expression of community, but they may not always see it as closely linked with beliefs. Evidence for this: some young people may be bordering on agnosticism or uncertainty about core Christian beliefs, but they still see value in the celebration of Eucharist. They can see it as an expression of the hopes of their community. 3. Access to Cultural Religious Identity:

While the aims for religious education in secular schools do not include the handing on of a particular religious tradition this should not mean that everything is done to avoid teaching that might unintentionally contribute to this purpose. If the broad aims of schools are to hand on the culture, then giving students access to their cultural religious heritage is a natural part of their education. Increasingly various countries are affirming the need to give indigenous peoples greater educational access to their cultural and spiritual traditions. However, the fear of infringing church-state separation often means that this same principle of educational access is not always applied equally to all of the religious and ethnic groups in the community. We argue that consideration needs to be given to the purpose of religious education in secular schools to help students become more familiar with their own religious tradition -- whether or not they are likely to become active members. While not elaborating on this argument here, we consider that it can highlight similarities in aims and practice with those for religious education in church schools. 4. Young People: Irreligious? Perhaps, but not Unspiritual

What has been said here does not imply that young people are not spiritual. In fact, many are asking questions about spiritual issues that were asked much later in life by the older generation. Young people are concerned about the values, ethics and politics of their world which is threatened by deterioration of the environment, rampant materialism and a business world with few ethics apart from what brings in the most profit. Religion teachers need to recognise that the spiritual situation of young people is very complex. While hesitant about organised religion, they may at the same time be seriously searching for spiritual values and ethics by which to live. Teachers need to show acceptance of this sincerity on the part of their students. In church schools, teachers need to avoid getting too anxious about confirming students in patterns of traditional beliefs. They can feel torn between a sensitivity to the outlook of their students and a commitment to present the formal teachings of the Church. These two aspects should not be thought of as incompatible. A methodology, and more importantly, a personal manner, of objectivity and sensitivity are needed so that a clear presentation/study of church teachings can go hand in hand with respect for students' freedom and space for their own spiritual searching. These teachers can be concerned when they think about where the Church might be going with the new generations of teenagers. But their job is to equip their students as best they can. Teachers need to come to terms with the possibility that the next generations may become much more ecumenical in their spirituality. Many of the distinctive differences between Christian denominations may become less prominent and perhaps may even disappear. Also, ecumenical here can mean going beyond the Christian churches and even beyond religions to draw from other sources of spirituality in the culture. 5. An Issue-oriented Religious Education:

Young people are unwilling to accept teaching as valuable simply because it is the view of religious authority. They will want to explore and evaluate its meaning. While there are dangers in a spiritual eclecticism, it is inevitable that they will build a spirituality in this fashion. If educators believe that their students can learn wisdom from their collective religious traditions, then these traditions need to be studied in ways that show how they have given meaning, purpose and

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value to the lives of believers. Students need to be able to explore the meaning function of their religion and of other religions. In church schools, teachers should be particularly careful about objectivity so that students see clearly that there is no hidden agenda to engineer their unquestioning acceptance. This does not mean apologising for, or watering down, Church traditions, but a commitment to presenting them in ways that have some relevance to the issues and spiritual questions with which young people are concerned. The research of Nipkow in Germany supports this view. For youth who are very secularised and are not interested in acquiring any formal religious identity, he suggests that their school religious education should follow what he calls a principle of 'elementarisation'; that is, the study of religion needs to focus on 'elementary' or fundamental spiritual issues that the youth see as relevant to their life and world, so that whatever their formal religious affiliation or lack of it, the study of religion will be valuable for them in learning how to address spiritual issues of the day.9 On the contrary, if religious education is perceived as almost exclusively committed to the maintenance of traditional church structures and teachings, it will have little credibility. 6. Avoiding Phenomenological Overkill: There is no doubt that phenomenological methods have been valuable in religious education. However, the political significance of this approach as something recognisably different from what might be perceived as nurturing faith seems to have inhibited educators from questioning its personal relevance for students. Grimmitt has argued that phenomenology is overly descriptive and not sufficiently evaluative. ... with the adoption of what is sometimes mistakenly and misleadingly called 'an objective approach' to the study of religion, religious education has become content-centred. The heavy concentration of Biblical content characteristic of Agreed Syllabuses in pre-Goldman times have often been replaced by equally heavy concentrations of content drawn form the world's religions.10 Too great a reliance on the phenomenological approach can lead to a religion curriculum dominated by descriptive and classificatory content. Grimmitt referred to this as too much 'antiseptic' content, resulting in a domestication of religions. The main problem? -- it is just boring. Most young people have little time for religion if it does not seem to them related to the big issues in life today. From a political point of view, descriptive content may seem educationally safe; but too much of it is educationally sterile. Some studies referred to in the endnotes which look at the way today's young people forge personal meaning and purpose in relation to the traditional religious sources of wisdom suggest that descriptive content unrelated to issues or questions of meaning is inevitably perceived by many youth as useless paraphernalia. 11 This reinforces their already strong sense of the irrelevance of most organised religion. A fear that religious education in public schools might be perceived as too 'churchy' has had the effect of eliminating some valuable contemporary content -- in favour of safer phenomenological material. Being objective, impartial and impersonal seemed to help dispel any suggestion that religious education might be evangelising. Suspicion of course content that is personal or contentious, or is too specifically related to one denomination, has prevented the development of more issue-oriented religion curricula. Objectivity and impartiality are essential elements in any critical, evaluative education. But in reacting to the danger of being labelled as denominational, those who have shaped state religious education courses in Australia have tended to make them too neutral, too impersonal, too descriptive, non-evaluative and dispassionate. This is out of phase with the developing curriculum theory for schooling which gives an increasing emphasis to a critical, personally relevant education that stresses the development of skills for informed decision-making. 12 Religious education, along with other subjects, needs to show how it relates to values and personal issues in contemporary society. All school subjects need to pass under the scrutiny of a curriculum theory that checks how closely related they are to accepted goals for education and how well they cover evaluative and personal development aspects.13 7. Will the Needs of the Committed Students be Neglected?

If school religious education is sensitive to the needs of disinterested secularised students, and if it takes into account their spiritual 'starting point', how will this affect the committed students? Will they be disadvantaged by not having an opportunity to study their own religion in depth? Will a general atmosphere of indifference stifle their interest in studying religion? Will their theological needs be neglected? Will a so-called critical approach threaten the faith of students with more traditional beliefs and practices? Even where a whole class may be made up of committed, church-going believers, an open inquiring study where material is presented objectively is the most appropriate approach to take. The same applies to the evaluative aspect where

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students attempt:- to compare and contrast beliefs; to make preliminary judgments of the strengths and weaknesses of arguments; to estimate influences on people's values and behaviour; and to speculate on further developments. In church schools the content of religious education should not neglect the traditions of the sponsoring church because, as noted before, all students should have access to their cultural religious heritage. Those who are active members of a local community of faith will be likely to derive more benefit from the study than those who have no interest in religion. The suggestion that the teaching (particularly for senior classes) should focus on issues that are perceived as relevant by students is no less important for church-going students. Whatever is done to make the classroom study of religion a more challenging activity for all students will benefit the whole class. Where disinterested students are antagonised or alienated further, the climate of the class deteriorates and none of the students benefit. While the situation needs more extensive research, there is no evidence at this stage that the approach suggested here is harmful for the committed students. In practice, this does not seem to be the problem that was anticipated by some teachers and parents. There is some evidence that critical inquiry has been challenging and even threatening to students where the study calls into question the religious interpretations they have been used to. For example: where students have retained a literal interpretation of Genesis; where students come from very conservative religious homes; and where parents have strong objections to any role for the school in educating students in relation to AIDS, contraception and homosexuality. Students with these backgrounds can still have their knowledge and understanding of their religion enhanced by a critical study. Anyone takes the risk of being challenged if they want to be educated. Also, such an approach has not always antagonised parents as much as might have been anticipated. There will always be a small proportion who are opposed to elements of the school's religious education and a stand needs to be taken by the school to support its teachers. They in turn need to be accountable to the program. 8. The Potential Influence of 'Quasi Spiritual' Movements: New Age, Sects and Cults, Heavy Metal and Rock Music, the Occult:

When considering the spirituality of young people, teachers ask questions about the relevance and influence of quasi spiritual movements such as the New Age and of phenomena like heavy metal music. To what extent young people pay attention to these movements is difficult to determine. Some evidence suggests that not a great number of youth are seriously interested in movements like the New Age or marginal sects and cults. Those who are tend to be involved out of particular psychological need -- wanting to experiment, wanting to be trendy.14 The relative numbers trying out new religious movements is often comparable to the numbers of young people who are distinctly conservative in religious outlook. The proportion of people like this in a denomination seems to have remained approximately the same for a long time, and this will probably continue to remain the case. Television programs and newspaper reports have linked some young people's spirituality with heavy metal music and exotic rock music. The role of contemporary music in the development of young people's spirituality is a significant issue that needs detailed treatment in itself -- this is beyond the scope of this article. However, we will signpost some of the issues that need consideration. Contemporary music provides a vivid universal language and medium for the expression of youth needs, interests and aspirations. It is like a pervading atmospheric presence that keeps many ideas and life expectations on a 'low simmer'. This is particularly the case for sexuality, relationships, and the ideas of freedom, individuality, pleasure, and what is 'cool'. In a Canadian study, music rated second only to friendships as the element which gave teenagers most enjoyment. The researchers considered that music was for young people "A major path to both happiness and freedom. . . Symbolising energy and release and freedom."15 The way in which young people all over the world share a common language and interests in pop music is not without its significance. It supports an international, trans-ethnic and trans-religions approach to forming an outlook on life -- this is a key part of spirituality. Music and lyrics can trigger emotions and strike resonance with young people's moods, concerns, hopes and anguish. Along with film and television, it provides the backdrop to young people's perception of the world; and as such it is probably influencing moral decision-making. We consider these aspects as more significant than the questions of identification with, and hero worship, of pop stars. As regards the links between heavy metal music, Satanism, teenage suicide etc. it would appear that such links are significant for very few, where it may be an indication of psychological problems which need to be addressed.

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Youth interest in questions about the occult may be part of the general public's interest in the bizarre and the exotic. Also, for young people an interest in seances and the occult may be a part of a process in which they are sorting out their ideas on the nature and extent of evil in the world. A valuable strategy for religion teachers is to make these questions and issues topics for research and study by students in religious education. This gives them an opportunity to look at matters such as:- why people join new spiritual movements and what needs are being met; how are people manipulated in such groups; why is there an interest in the occult; how does contemporary music contribute to the culture of youth; can this music influence life expectations and moral decision making. In some instances students may be able to take up questions like this for individual research and study projects. All of this work helps them to stand back and look critically at what is happening in their culture; and it enables them to look into the interpretations offered by psychologists, sociologists and religious authorities. 9. Evaluative Religious Education: Challenging Students' Religious Interpretations:

Teachers should never set out to make students feel uncomfortable by challenging their views and beliefs in a cynical or paternalistic way. They need to find ways of managing lessons where the study will inevitably be challenging to some without threatening them unduly. Occasionally this may also involve responding to parents who are similarly challenged. This is not going to happen every lesson, but teachers need to be prepared for the possibilities. As regards questioning in religious education, a number of parents have noted that the questions raised by young people about religion have often been questions that occurred to them too but which were pushed to the background of their consciousness for a long period of time. It is not easy for adults brought up in traditional religious ways to feel comfortable with modern critiques of religion. Parents have had to adjust to the ways in which their teenagers regard religion. While concerned about what might be cast aside, they are often able to identify with the questions raised by their children, Eg. that the homilies and conduct of the liturgy has often been poor -- poor enough to make it understandable that people would not want to go back to a particular parish. Where adults have pursued an interest in theology and adult religious education, there has been more dialogue with their children about changing interpretations of religion. There will always be a proportion of students from very strict conservative backgrounds. Teachers cannot let this presence dictate the curriculum or change significantly the type of presentation. On controversial issues, a range of views needs to presented, especially the authoritative ones. This has to be done with care and respect. Different views should not be presented in competition, nor should an attempt be made by the teacher to sway the students to agree with a particular point of view. Nevertheless, the natural difficulty in looking at alternative views on controversial issues has to be acknowledged. One of the current challenges for religious education is to develop ways of studying controversial content in a critical but respectful way; the teacher needs to be able to model responsible critical evaluation; looking at issues critically is not incompatible with being committed. Not making provision for an evaluative study of religion in the classroom does not solve the problem. This would be irresponsible because it leaves students with just the criticisms available in the media, peer groups and elsewhere. They are going to be exposed to much criticism of religion whether or not they have religious education at school. However, if there is one place where rational inquiry and criticism should be encouraged it is in the classroom. What Will be the Dominant Style of Spirituality for Youth? It is forseeable that many young people will develop a spirituality that is more individualistic, eclectic and personal rather than communal in its expression. This does not mean that they no longer need any link with organised religion as a reference group. But it suggests that in our type of society, most of the youth who seek religious affiliation will look for a community that supports spirituality that is personal and eclectic and which focuses on both local and world issues. Some young people who want nothing to do with the Church while they are teenagers may be more interested when they are marrying, Baptising children or seeking a religious school for their children. There is some anecdotal and statistical evidence of this tendency to return to the Church.16 However, it appears that when they do come back, they want something different from the old version. They are likely to be interested in the following emphases:- personal, communal, participatory involvement, shared power and decision-making. They also want a greater say in the arrangement of programs designed to foster their spiritual development. It is not that they would like a new Church but a different style in which the Church operates. If they leave a second time, it is unlikely they will ever return. For young people who are religious and who retain active membership of the Church, these too are likely to want to bring about change. Surveys of young people in Ireland verify this.17 While most of the Year 12 students surveyed were very critical of the Church, particularly the clergy, they had a strong sense of religious identification. They were angry

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because they had little or no say in the way the Church operated. It was the only organisation in which they participated that did not seem to take them seriously as adults or to value what ideas and suggestions they had to make. The criticisms of the young people were not of Church teachings, but of Church administration and of its lack of consultation with 'shareholders'. Much of the difficulty teachers have in interesting students in the study of religion is related to their negative perceptions of the Church or religion. They do not see that the Church is on the cutting edge in speaking out about contemporary social and environmental issues. Where they are aware of Church statements, they often feel that these are spoiled by the way in which they are presented, or by a narrow mentality. A Spiritual Profile of Today's Young People We conclude the article with a summary of some aspects of the spirituality of young people When trying to keep in mind the way youth perceive religion and religious education, teachers can make use of a composite profile like this.

Ten Prominent Elements in the Spirituality of Young People: 1 2 Ideals. As regards the direction of their living, young people look for a clear statement of ideas and ideals about life and its management. Varied sources of Spirituality. In forming beliefs and values, they are willing to draw from various sources. These can be:- family, friends, personal mentors, their own religion, other religions, secular movements. Ideas and ideals can be drawn from prominent people, heroes/heroines and pop stars. They can absorb ways of valuing and thinking about life from magazines, film, television and music. They would like a Personalised Religion. They do not want it to be too prescriptive in the areas of beliefs and morality. They want to explore this personalised religion within a community of worshippers. It is not inconsistent for them to want to dismiss many of the beliefs, dogmas and regulations of their religion, while at the same time wanting to be part of a community. The need to belong is very important. Young people do not see any so-called division between the secular and the religious. They see a spiritual dimension woven through life. Inspiration from Secular sources. Rather than join religious groups, they are more likely these days to be involved in some form of social comment or activity concerned with issues in the environment, prison reform, Amnesty International, employment, international relations etc.-- all the issues that are related to improvement of the quality of life. There are however, a significant number of young people who do want to be part of a religious group; at universities, those in the religious groups tend to have a conservative theological outlook and are active in evangelising activities. (This has prompted the question: Why is it that fundamentalists and conservative Christians are much more committed than those with a liberal outlook?) Social Morality. The concerns of young people about values have been exacerbated by what has happened in Australia and other countries during the 'greedy' 80s. They are conscious of the negative effects of what they see as irresponsible economic activity on the part of the corporate 'high-fliers'. Questioning the Myths of Economic Rationalism. Young people are increasingly questioning the economic values and principles that inform many aspects of politics and culture. They are calling into question whether economic progress -- presuming there must be economic growth and so on -- is really necessary for meaningful and happy human lives, and they are conscious of the damage this causes to the economically marginalised. Pressures of Recession and Employment Uncertainty. There is more questioning and agitation about values in times of social stress, such as in the present economic recession where there is so much uncertainty about future employment and future education. By contrast, in the 1960s there seemed to be a more naive view that individuals could take time off to work out ideas on what society should be like and that these could naturally flow into action. The difficulties in the economic recession result in people being are more cynical and realistic about what can be done to bring about constructive change. Questioning Authority. There is a greater tendency to challenge authorities directly. Young people see others from all walks of life being more vocal and critical of current situations, and more ready to confront the status quo.

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10 Anxiety about a Violent Society. They are more conscious of the violence in society that apparently increases during difficult economic times. They are concerned about the complex of:- escalating unrest; increasing repression; heavier police presence; more racism - especially with reference to blacks; tighter immigration controls; more people in prison; more sophisticated surveillance; harsher hostility to intellectual critics and activists; more ready acceptance of authoritarian regimes.
Endnotes

. F.L. Boumer, 1977, Modern European Thought: Continuity and Change in Ideas, 1600-1950, Macmillan, New York, 1977, p.439. . D. Bonhoeffer, 1966, Letters and Papers from Prison, (Edehard Bethge Ed.), Macmillan, New York, pp. 194-5. . We have offered preliminary ideas on the relationships between religious education in secular and church school contexts in:- G. M. Rossiter, 1981, Religious Education in Australian Schools, Curriculum Development Centre, Canberra, chapters 1-4; G.M. Rossiter, 1987, Studying Religion in Australian Schools, in R.B. Crotty, (Ed.), The Charles Strong Lectures: 1972-1984, E.J. Brill, Leiden; M.L. Crawford and G.M. Rossiter, 1990, The Prospect of a New Syllabus in Studies in Religion in New South Wales Schools: Implications for Religious Education in Catholic Schools, Sydney, Catholic College of Education Sydney; M.L. Crawford and G.M. Rossiter, 1990, Religion Studies Courses: Their Relationship with Students' Overall Religious Education in Their Own Tradition, Sydney, Catholic College of Education Sydney; M.L. Crawford and G.M. Rossiter, 1992, Some Key Issues for Australian Research in School Religious Education, Religious Education Journal of Australia, 8, 2, 8-12. . We do not agree with the judgment of some religious educators who want spirituality defined more or less exclusively in religious terms. They tend to look disparagingly at broader definitions that include aspects like appreciation of nature and human relationships, claiming that these are too vague and all inclusive. On the other hand, a reading of the special issue of the Holistic Education Review on education and spirituality (Spring 1992) shows up the other side of the problem; it is too vague and it gives the impression that the most useful concept of spirituality for educators should avoid any reference to religion. While it is true that aspects of religions may be antithetic to spirituality, it seems culturally myopic to ignore the traditional linkage between religions and spirituality. This problem appears to be a manifestation of the long term difficulty in the United States where the constitutional emphasis on separation of Church and state has severely hampered debate about the role of religion in education; see for example, G. Moran, What Now? What Next? in P. O'Hare (Ed.) Foundations of Religious Education, Paulist Press, New York, p. . Dr. M Horan, Iona College, NY., personal communication, 1991. . G. Baum, 1987, from a keynote address on Pluralism and Religious Identity given at the Annual Conference of the Religious Education Association of the United States and Canada. . For example the editorial by John Hull in British Journal of Religious Education, 1990, 12, 3, 121-125; the issues are discussed in more detail in J.M. Hull, 1989, The Act Unpacked: The Meaning of the 1988 Education Reform Act for Religious Education, Birmingham Papers in RE, No. 1, CEM and the University of Birmingham; J.M. Hull, 1991, Recent Changes in Religious Education in England and Wales, Journal of Christian Education, Papers 101, 5-16. . M. Hare Duke and W. Whitton, 1977, A Kind of Believing? General Synod Board of Education, London, p.19, quoted in G.M. Rossiter, 1981, Religious Education in Australian Schools, Curriculum Development Centre, p.214.

. K.E. Nipkow, 1991, Pre-conditions for Ecumenical and Interreligious Learning: Observations and Reflections from a German Perspective, Australian Catholic University Project for Research and Development in Religious and Moral Education, Sydney. . M. H. Grimmitt, 1983, World Religions and Personal Development, in G.M.Castles and G.M.Rossiter (Eds) Curriculum Theory and Religious Education, Australian Association for Religious Education, Sydney, p. 26. For a more detailed evaluation of the phenomenological approach see M. H.Grimmitt, 1987, Religious Education and Human Development: The Relationship Between Studying Religions and Personal Social and Moral Education, McCrimmons, Great Wakering. . K E Nipkow, 1991, Pre-conditions for Ecumenical and Interreligious Learning: Observations and Reflections from a German Perspective, Australian Catholic University Curriculum Research and Development Project in religious education, Sydney. G. Malizia and Z. Trenti, 1991, Una Disciplina in Cammino: Rapporto sull'Insegnamento della Religione Cattolica nell'Italia Degli Anni 1990. Societa Editrice Internazionale, Torino. (English translation An Evolving Enterprise: Report on the Teaching of Religion in Catholic Schools in Italy in 1990). G.M Rossiter, 1992, The Religious Education Needs of Catholic Children in Government Schools, Part B: The Research Background, Moral and Religious Education Project, Australian Catholic University, Sydney. . A summary of this trend in education is given in M Crawford and G Rossiter, 1992, Teaching Wisdom: Religious Education and the Spiritual and Moral Development of Young People, Journal of Christian Education, Papers 101, 47-62. . The role of curriculum theory as a lens for analysing and evaluating the approach to Religious Education is discussed in a number of articles in G.M. Castles and G.M. Rossiter (Eds), 1983, Curriculum Theory and Religious Education, Australian Association for Religious Education, Sydney. . See L Pastva, 1986, Sects and Cults in Great Religions of the World, St Mary's Press, Winona Minnesota, pp. 227-239. Pastva quotes a psychological profile of those most likely to join a sect or new religious movement. Saul Levine, a U.S. psychologist, has researched the passage of young people through such movements; he concludes that:psychological needs are a principal factor; most youth eventually leave the groups without suffering too much long term psychological damage. See S.V. Levine, 1984, Radical Departures: Desperate Detours to Growing Up, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, and an article, Radical Departures in Psychology Today, August 1984. . R.W. Bibby and D.C. Posterski, 1985, The Emerging Generation: An Inside Look at Canada's Teenagers, Irwin Publishing, Toronto, pp. 32-38. . See for example A. Greeley, 1990, "The Touchstone: Catholic Schools" Chapter 9 in The Catholic Myth: The Behaviour and Beliefs of American Catholics, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, pp.162-181. . The survey of Senior School students in Catholic schools in Ireland, 1988, was conducted by John McMahon for the Irish Catechetical Association.

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